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was made. In this the lower curve represents the average annual growth of 25 trees and the upper curve is the precipitation 12 miles distant. The latter is taken from November 1 to November 1 in order to carry the snowfall into the following season of growth. This study suggested the investigation of the time of year to begin annual means of rainfall, which has already been presented in Chapter II. Figure 4 gives a comparison between Flagstaff rain and the two Flagstaff groups, and also shows how the best time of beginning the year was determined. It proved to be November 1 at Flagstaff and September 1 at Prescott, where the nature of the ground gives more chance of conserving moisture. The great difference between individual trees in response to rain is also shown in figure 5. It is evident that quick-growing trees serve as better indicators.

Five subgroups, numbering in all 67 trees, were obtained from different points in the vicinity of Prescott. These all cross-identified among themselves with entire success, both as individuals and as groups. The group curves are shown in figures 6 and 7, but in comparison with the Prescott rainfall they differed greatly, the group nearest the city showing much the best accordance. Accordingly this group is plotted by itself in figures 7 and 15 with the rainfall curve. On the whole there is much agreement, as may be seen by comparing the crests and troughs of one with those of the other. The most conspicuous discrepancy is in 1886, where the rainfall decreases and the growth of the trees increases. In 1873 the growth seems to have responded to the decrease in rainfall, but to a greatly diminished degree. The tree maximum of 1875, one year behind the extreme maximum of 1874 in the rainfall, is entirely reasonable, since the ground may become so saturated that the effects last until the following year. On the whole, the curves shown in figure 7 support the idea of a proportional relation between annual rainfall and annual growth.

Accuracy.—The accuracy with which the pine trees near Prescott represent the rainfall recorded in that city for 43 years is, without correction, about 70 per cent. By a provisional correction for conservation of moisture by the soil this accuracy rises to about 82 per cent. The nature of this conservation correction is very simple; it makes use of the "accumulated moisture" of the meteorologist. It signifies that the rings in these dry-climate trees vary not merely in proportion to the rainfall of the year, but also in proportion to the sum


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V. CORRELATION WITH RAINFALL. Result of study of curves. — On completing numerous curves of tree-growth in the manner already described, three characteristics were observed: (1) in arid-climate groups the annual rings are approximately proportional to rainfall; (2) in moist-climate groups they vary with the changes of solar activity; (3) in each they are subject to certain cycles or periodic variation. The first of these is the subject of the present chapter.

Early tests of rainfall correlation. — The earliest comparison with rainfall in this investigation was made between the first Flagstaff subgroup of 6 trees and 43 years of precipitation records at Prescott, 67 miles distant. It was not expected that agreement in individual years would be found; accordingly smoothed curves were used, consisting of overlapping means of 9-year groups. This produced curves of gentle variation, but similarity in the curves was evident. These early curves are presented in figure 13. The best agreement was found

by placing each mean of 9 years of rainfall at the end of the 9 years as in this figure instead of in its center. This lag of four years seemed inconsistent with the later results of yearly agreement without lag, and in fact for years it has been accepted with some hesitation by the writer. Yet in the present consideration of the subject it appears to have a special significance. This existence of the lag in long periods agrees in principle with the "accumulated moisture" effects observed in the Prescott trees and with the idea of a tree exhibiting a reserve power or vitality which may run low or be built up by varying environment. The principle will be referred to again below; it is sufficient now to state that it seems quite reasonable to find no lag in yearly correlation with rainfall and at the same time a very considerable lag in the slower variations.

The comparison in figure 13 was made with Prescott records because there were not at that time enough Flagstaff records to be of service. But later, when a Weather Bureau station had been established in Flagstaff for several years, the striking comparison shown in figure 14

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So many curves have been made in connection with this study that a practically uniform system throughout has been adopted. The paper used is a cross-section paper with the smallest divisions 2 mm. in extent and with heavy lines at every centimeter. The smallest divisions are uniformly used for one year unless in some special study. For the illustrations, these plots are traced and drawings made from which the engravings are reproduced. For use in the periodograph, the plot is made on the same scale and continued in length to any amount up to about 40 inches. The space between the base-line and the curve has then been cut through with a sharp knife, usually a razor blade, and the curves have been mounted in long strips some 4 inches wide and 50 inches long, and the backs painted with opaque paint. In this way they are mounted for analysis. A mirror behind reflects light of the sky overhead through the curve and supplies the necessary illumination for photography.

Problems in plotting. — In connection with the plotting of the curves used in this study, certain problems have arisen which seem worthy of consideration. The ordinary plot and the ordinary averaging seem extremely good and appropriate when the variations are small in comparison with the mean values, but when the variations are large in comparison with the mean values it does not seem to the writer certain that the usual plotting conveys an accurate idea or gives a suitable basis for further work. This may be illustrated by the plotting of rainfall. If the rainfall doubles in some unusual year, it produces an immensely greater change in the area of the curve than when it goes to one-half of the mean. Doubling the mean produces the same changes as going down to zero, though in proportion the latter is infinitely greater.

The enormous exaggeration, therefore, of excessive rain values was felt to introduce misleading material in the ordinary form of a plot. In order to overcome this at least one experiment has been made with what is called a bilateral plot. In this the quantities from 0 to 100 per cent of the mean are plotted as before, but the quantities over 100 per cent of the mean are inverted in percentage and plotted above the mean line on an inverted scale. It is recognized that this is not the perfect way of making a plot of this sort, for by this plan the mean value of the new curve will not be at the same point as before, but will be somewhat below it. However, the matter is only in the experimental stage and it has not been thought necessary to work out a correct procedure.


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Rh seen that this cuts off each corner of the high column of any maximum year and contributes those corners to the adjacent lower column, so that the ordinary bent line of the rainfall record has thus been twice smoothed—once in the yearly sum and once in the method of plotting.

In speaking of the above records, I have in mind the smoothing in time intervals, but I would like to note also that whenever a district is averaged as a whole the average thereof is a smoothing in space. The temperature at any one time in a city station is a single definite record; but if the mean temperature in a valley or a State, for example, is tabulated, there is at once a spacial smoothing. In the minds of many students of solar variation and weather, the reason why a large group of meteorologists fail to get evidence of the relationship is because they take the average of the whole earth at once in their test of temperature changes or of rainfall. It is evident, therefore, that the reason they do not get results is because they do too much smoothing of the curves. Studies in connection with the present investigation have given some indication that small districts balance each other in their reaction to solar stimuli.

The fundamental data tabulated in the appendix are the means of the actual measures of the various groups. They, therefore, contain the effects of the two chief arboreal constants, which are (1) the nearly universal big growth at the center of the tree and (2) the increased size in some entire trees due to specially favorable environment. In producing a perfectly normal record of tree-growth over long periods, one desires to have it expressed throughout in terms of the normal adult growth of an average tree. This is the kind of record most suitable for analytical study. In the present study, in which so much time has been spent in finding how the work should be done, on account of the great labor involved no attempt has been made to apply these corrections to individual trees; but in comparing groups with one another it has seemed worth while to apply both corrections in a simple manner. Each group supplies an approximate curve of its decreasing growth with age. So, after plotting the means, a long average line as nearly straight as possible is drawn through them. This gives the factor by which individual rings may be reduced to the standard adult growth; at the same time this line enables us to reduce the different groups to a common standard of size. Both corrections are done at once by calculating for each year the percentage departure of the plotted mean from this line. In actual tabulation this works out very easily, for under each mean is placed the reading of this line, and below that the quotient obtained by dividing the former by the latter. The line of quotients then becomes the desired group curve corrected for age and for mixed sizes. This process is the standardizing process referred to in previous descriptions.


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 overlapping periods is applied to the mean of the 4, producing a probable value of the fifth between the years 1720 and 1820. This probable value is inserted in parenthesis in the table and all 5 values added up for an average. As a rule, groups are carried back only far enough to make assumed values of this kind a minimum in number.

There is one other problem in this immediate connection, namely, that of "gross rings." By gross rings I mean certain regions in a section where the average size of the rings becomes 2 to 5 times as great as normal. This is a problem by itself, both as to cause and as to method of treatment. Some study of its prevalence in different trees has been made, and it is usually safe to say that where an epoch is shown to have gross rings in one tree, the chances are at least even that the same years will have gross rings in the next tree. Since gross rings may not come oftener than once in several hundred years and last only 10 to 15 years, it is evident that we are dealing with something more than mere accident. The phenomenon probably has a climatic character. Yet, gross rings are not universal at any one time, and while one epoch may show gross rings in half the trees of a group it does not show it in the other half, judging by the groups examined. It is considered best to allow the ring values to enter the curves just as they are found, for while the gross rings disturb very greatly the size of a series of 10 to 20 rings, they do not seriously disturb the relation in size between a ring and its immediate neighbors. They therefore, as a rule, do not render the rings unidentifiable. It is likely, therefore, that they should be included in the means, and if some better way of handling them is discovered later it will not be difficult to apply it. SMOOTHING. In general the smoothing of a curve means removing some of the minor variations, so that the larger variations may be perceived. In the early part of the work the use of overlapping means was adopted. At the very start, overlapping means of a considerable number, such as 11 or 9, were used. This was quickly changed to overlapping means of 3. These overlapping means were done by the calculating machine (Brunswiga). On this machine three were added and then contin- uously the one next in sequence was added, while one at the other end of the three was dropped. However, this was changed to Harm's formula, because his formula is normally easier to apply and it gives a little more individuality to each observation. The method of applying Hann's formula consisted in adding to a table two columns consisting of, respectively, first and second intermediate values. This can be done rapidly and without taking too much space. To express the differences between overlapping means and Hann's formula graphically, we only need to say that if we take successive groups of three in any curve, forming a triangle, the center of gravity of the triangle is the value


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 that line. When it is desired to make longer tables, the pages are pasted together side by side or end to end, and then given a zigzag fold, so that two pages are open at once. In the case of the sequoias, with their 2,000 to 3,000 rings, no attempt has been made to paste the pages together, but enough loose sheets are used to cover the entire series at the rate of 20 years to a page. This gives sufficient vertical space to include all the necessary trees in a group and to use subgroups which may be summarized and averaged by themselves. An attempt has been made to check the addition of these numbers throughout. AVERAGING. In simple averaging the sums are placed in ink on the table and divided by the number of trees, using the slide rule for the process. There are several questions in connection with this subject. The first is whether straight averages of trees of widely different size give the best report of the evidence of the trees. It is evident that in taking averages of trees of mixed sizes the larger trees will carry more weight and their variations will be more pronounced in the result. But it is often the case that the smaller trees are the ones which show the greatest relative variations in the rings. This can be so much the case that the omission of a ring becomes a gross exaggeration. It is possible to use the relative values by taking the logarithm of each ring measure, averaging the logarithms, and then coming back to the number. This could be called a geometrical averaging, since it would be the equivalent of multiplying all the values together and then extracting the root equal to the number of values. In this way the small trees of the series would receive more importance. However, this plan is so long that it has not been used in practice.

One of the most common and puzzling problems is the proper method of handling the decrease in the number of trees in a group as the center is approached. A group of 5 may be selected, for example, and perhaps a century from the average center of the trees some one tree whose rings differ from the average may come to its end. It means that for 100 years near the center only 4 trees supply the data and at the point where the 5 change to 4 there is a discontinuity in the curve. In actual practice this lacking tree has usually been supplied by an extrapolation from its subsequent curve. That is, the variations assumed in the non-existent part of the tree follow precisely the variations in the remaining trees, altered to the average size of the missing tree by means of a constant factor, determined by overlapping periods. Thus, if 5 trees carried easily back to 1820, but only 4 of them extended to 1720, and it was desired to carry the full group to 1720, the period from 1820 to 1840 would be taken both for the 4 and for the 1 alone and the ratio between them determined. Now, averages for the 4 are carried back to 1720, and then the factor found in


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 horizontally on the table at a distance of about 33 inches. The cathetometer telescope has a lens of such a focus that 1 mm. on the wood section becomes 0.25 mm. in the focus. The micrometer has a screw-thread with a pitch of 0.25 mm., so that one revolution of the micrometer head moves the thread through exactly 1 nun. as seen on the wood. The individual measures of rings are made on the micrometer screw by reading the graduation of the head to revolutions and hundredths, giving directly millimeters and hundredths. On commencing a set of readings the stationary thread of the micrometer is first placed on the zero-year ring of each decade, and the reading of the cathetometer is made and this is entered on the adding machine. A space is then inserted on the adding machine and thereafter the micrometer reading of each ring in the decade is added in column as fast as made. Then another space is made on the adding machine and the total is entered without clearing the machine. Immediately below this total the reading of the cathetometer in the new position 10 years advanced is made and inserted on the machine without addition. Then another space on the machine is given, followed by the individual readings of the next decade. In this way all the years are read individually by the micrometer and every 10 years the sum of these readings is checked against the cathetometer reading, which should come to the same amount.

The reading of the micrometer screw to 0.01 mm. is closer than the average setting can be obtained. The rule has been generally observed that in every decade the agreement between the sum of the readings obtained and the cathetometer reading should check within 0.20 mm. In the earlier measures, where the rings were irregular or the surface of the wood uneven, this accuracy of check was not obtained in a few cases. Yet even there the error in checking was not much larger than the figure mentioned, and it is expected that the results are sufficiently close for all purposes desired. The 25,000 measures on the first group of sequoias were begun by the writer, but after 2,000 had been done they were continued by Mr. Edward H. Estill, who did them with great care. In the second group, with 22,000 rings, the measuring had been done by Mr. J. F. Freeman, who has made some slight alterations in the method above described by which an increased accuracy is obtained. As a result, the check between the decades by measure and by cathetometer is nearly always within 0.10 mm. TABULATING. The paper used for the tables throughout has been a cross-ruled paper with squares about three-eighths of an inch in size. This paper is 8 by 10 inches in size and suffices admirably for small tables. Usually 20 numbers are placed on a horizontal line with the beginning year at the left and with numbers from 1 to 20 at the top. Thus 1820, 1840, etc., will be placed at the left, and 1821 will be the first date given in


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 as sequoias are concerned, a distance of 50 miles between groups is likely to be no particular obstacle in cross-identification.

The difficult ring 1580.—The small ring 699 A. D. and several other difficult ones were absent in comparatively few trees and any uncertainty regarding them was removed in the early part of the work, but it was not so with the ring of the year 1580. The best of the tree records were from the uplands and usually omitted it, while many of the basin trees which showed it were at first very uncertain in identification. The ring was therefore provisionally called 1580a and held in doubt for several years. The question of its reality was finally settled in the affirmative by a special trip to the sequoias in 1919 and the collection of a dozen carefully selected radial samples. The final review of all the tree-records has resulted in satisfactory identification of some previously doubtful cases and in complete conviction regarding the ring for 1580 A. D. No other uncertain cases were discovered. Considering the 35 sequoia records now (1919) made use of, it seems possible that all errors of dating have been removed. MEASURING. Having prepared and identified the wood samples, the first method of measuring was to lay a steel rule on edge across the series of rings in a radial direction and to read off from the rule the position of the outside of every red ring. These were either recorded at once by the person measuring or were noted by a clerical assistant. This method applied to the Flagstaff and Prescott trees and to the European and Vermont groups. In nearly all of them the steel rule used was a meter in length. It was ascertained by tests that the errors in readings of this kind were less than 0.1 mm. on the average for a single reading. For the Oregon group a microscope slide was used with a vernier which gave at once readings to 0.01 mm. The readings obtained by either of these methods were recorded in two columns on a page, and the subtractions were performed afterwards, giving the actual width of the ring in millimeters and fractions. Thus any error in the original reading would affect two rings only. Very great numbers of readings have been done a second time and vast numbers have been checked over approximately; hence it is believed that errors of this kind are extremely rare; out of 20,000 measures, perhaps 4 or 5 have been discovered. Errors of subtraction may have occurred, but it is thought that these also are extremely rare indeed, since practically all of the work has been checked over a second time.

In the case of the sequoias, however, the method of measuring was much more highly developed. It required a cathetometer with a thread micrometer and adding machine. The cathetometer is placed horizontally on the table and the wood to be measured is also put


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 wood begins again with the year 1791 in a thick, rapid growth. The heartwood continues for some 20 years before changing again into the white sapwood, which persists to the outside. In order to make sure that this gap would not prevent satisfactory identification, a small portion was cut from another part of the outside of the tree, showing some 300 rings without interruption; but this additional piece I found in that case to be unnecessary.

In sections numbered 22 and 23, from the old Enterprise millsite, there are injuries which do not greatly alter the appearance of the rings, yet are sufficiently great to weaken the wood and cause it to break at several points. If the break in such case is across the rings, it is easy to carry the identity of rings past the injured point. But when the break in any wood "sample is all in one ring there may be a doubt as to whether the break is between two rings or in the middle of one. In the latter case there will apparently be an extra ring at that point. If the break is obviously between two complete rings, then an unknown number of rings may be lost at the broken point. The only way to carry the correct dating of the rings past such broken places is to secure samples from other parts of the same tree or from other trees, which show 100 to 200 rings on each side of the uncertain place without serious interruption. A simple cross-identification will show whether any rings are lost. However, in Nos. 22 and 23 just referred to, nearly all lines of breakage crossed the rings in a way that left no uncertainty. But No. 22 had an injury and a break between complete rings at about 1020 B. C. and a pronounced injury at about 1060 B. C. No. 23 had an extensive decayed place with the loss of about 35 rings at 1060 B. C. An extra piece cut from the stump of No. 23 carried the dating across these gaps with perfect satisfaction and in complete accord with No. 21 which had been secured 50 miles to the north.

Cross-identification between distant points.—The sequoias collected in 1915 had come from the immediate vicinity of Camp 6, about 7 miles east of Hume, and from Indian Basin, which is 3 to 4 miles north of Hume. The total extent of country covered was about 10 miles. All these were identified and found to be very similar in their characteristics. In 1918 the country represented was extended by sections from the new Camp 7, some 2 miles east of Camp 6. Nos. 20 and 21 were then obtained from the old Converse Hoist, 4 miles from Indian Basin and 15 miles from the Camp 7 district. Finally, 2 trees were obtained from the old Enterprise millsite, 50 miles from the other localities. It was realized at the time that there might be difficulties of cross-identification between these 2 trees at Enterprise and the other well-known and well-identified groups near Hume and the General Grant National Park. However, it was very gratifying to observe on close examination of these sections that no uncertainty was introduced in the identity of the rings. One realizes from this that, so far


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 {|
 * || DOUGLASS PLATE 7
 * | A
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 7A.jpg
 * | B
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 7B.jpg
 * }
 * | B
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 7B.jpg
 * }

A. Cutting sample from stump, Enterprise: D-22, age 3000 years.

B. Centennial stump, Enterprise, Cut in 1874: D-23, age 3075 years.


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 {|
 * || DOUGLASS PLATE 6
 * | A
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 6A.jpg
 * | B
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 6B.jpg
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 * | B
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 6B.jpg
 * }

A. Cutting radial sample from end of log, Converse Hoist: D-20, age 2800 years.

B. Site of oldest tree, Converse Hoist: D-21, age 3200 years.


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 All the sections so far in this group came from the west side of Norway near latitude 60°. The remaining two came from farther north and were first examined in the office of Dr. Jelstrup. No. N 1 was a small tree some 6 inches in diameter with its center in 1848. It grew in Mo i Ranen in latitude 66° 15', a 2 days' trip by boat from Trondjem. The rings show a rhythmic character, and a photograph of the thin section presented to me is given in plate 3,. As in the other similar photographs, the years of sunspot maxima are marked with arrows. It was cut in 1907 and the outer incomplete ring was taken as of that year. The identification with trees from near Bergen is poor, as would be expected.

No. N 2 was an interesting cross-shaped section from beyond the Arctic Circle, latitude 68° 45'. It had been damaged by forest fires at various times to such an extent that the injured parts of the trunk ceased growing while the rest kept on; hence it was of this extraordinary shape. It was cut in the winter of 1905-6, and the outer ring was taken as of 1905. As a rule the rings were very easy to follow until before the year 1600, and even then by carrying the ring to other arms the identification seemed practically certain. The rings reached a suspiciously small size between the center at 1497 and 1512.

The measuring of this 400-year section was done on December 31, 1912. By noting ring after ring with care, tracing all rings a short distance and following the one case of suspected double across into another arm, there seemed to be no errors, certainly none of doubling and none suspected of disappearance. Letters B, BB, indicating maximum growth, were placed at the center of groups of large rings as the measuring progressed, without knowledge of any relation between them. That same day, on looking over the measures, a Brückner period seemed indicated. The maxima were marked as the measuring progressed. See table 3, on page 35.

This series of maxima, 270 years long, from 1561 to 1830, shown in figure 38, permits the application of a 34-year period with an average error of less than 3 years. If that case were alone, I would not include it here, but I believe I shall be able to show it in a number of very old trees in widely separated localities.

From the above description it is evident that we have in this group some very interesting trees, even though they grew far apart. They are probably worth more as individuals than as a group, but until more trees can be added from their various localities the usual method of presenting them here is used. So the group means are tabulated in the appendix, using an extrapolated value of N 1 from its center in 1848 back to 1821. These means will be found plotted in figure 8. They have been corrected for age and reduced to standard size in the


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Rh and all doubt seemed to be overcome. Nevertheless, judging by past experience, unchecked counting leaves a doubt wherever the rings are reduced to 0.1 to 0.2 mm. in thickness.

Another disadvantage of this group is that the trees came from very diverse localities, and hence do not represent homogeneous conditions. Therefore, each section in the group will have special mention. The first number in the group, B 11, was cut from a log of Pinus silvestris lying on the woodpile in the yard of the forest school at Sopteland. The tree had been brought in for firewood late in 1912, but was undoubtedly dead at that time, for the outermost ring checked with the Ös group unmistakably as 1911. This view was supported by the decayed bark and moldy trunk. This section was 9 by 14 inches in size and had the center (date 1734) some 3 inches from one end, producing one of the most uniform cases of eccentric growth which I have seen.

Nos. B 12, 13, and 14 cross-identify most satisfactorily with the Ös group. From one to six individual characters or a most convincing sequence of characters were obvious in every decade. Section 12, a foot across, was cut in 1909, and the last complete ring was unmistakably of 1908 by comparison with the previous group. A section was cut for me at the school in Sopteland. The original was marked "No. 1, 1909, Knagenkjelm, Kaupanger," a location on Sogne Fjord, some 80 miles northeast of Bergen. My section shows the bark and very dense, handsome wood with strongly marked rings. Its center is at 1682. No. B 13, center at 1807, is of about the same size and from the same place, and was marked "No. III, 1909." Its outer ring also identified as 1908. A portion of this section also was cut for me.

No. B 14, center 1779, was marked "No. 1, 1909, Lyster Sanatorium," on Sogne Fjord. As in the other two cases, its outer ring was plainly 1908. A thin section was cut for me. Its size was 12 by 14 inches. B 16 was marked "No. 3, 1909," from the same place. This huge section was 28 inches in diameter and 7 inches thick, and its center was about 1724. There was a series of very small rings from 1787 to 1794 and another from 1806 to 1813. I have no section of it and so no cross-identification could be attempted, but the measures of the recent years agree with No. 14 from the same place.

No. B 15, center at 1633, was also measured at the school and no section retained for comparison with the others. It is the only one from its locality. It was marked "No. 1, 1909, Nestaas, Granvin," on Hardanger Fjord. It was cut in October and the first ring was considered to be of that same year. The rings were very clear back to 1680 and in fact to the center, but between the center and 1680 they were very small.


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32 sections there is more than usual variation in different radii, an excess of growth starting in one direction and then slanting off in some other direction. Here it was found also that maxima were not always the same in different radii. It was suspected that some radii tried to follow a single cycle and others a double cycle. A photograph of one of these sections is shown in plate 4,.

The appendix presents a table of mean growth of this group from 1845 to 1912. No. 2 had its center in 1865, and between that date and 1845 extrapolated values have been used in forming the means. These extrapolated or artificial values preserve the average shown by the individual tree during its years of growth, but are made to vary from that average in accordance with the variations of the rest of the trees in the group. From 1828 to 1844 the mean of 3 sections only is given. The actual mean has in this latter case been multiplied by 1.25 to bring the average into accord with the group, for the mean of these 3 for the 11 years from 1845 to 1855 inclusive is only 80 per cent of the mean of the group. In this group one center was in 1865, three in 1844, one in 1842, one in 1840, one in 1836, one in 1827, one in 1800, and one in 1693.

These means are plotted in figure 8. The same corrected to a standard mean and smoothed by Hann's formula will be found in figure 23. No real correction for age has been made in this case, for there seems little change in rate of growth that can certainly be identified as such. The whole, therefore, has been simply reduced to scale for comparison with other groups by dividing every year by 1.25, which is very nearly the average growth in millimeters.

It is a great help to visit the exact locality in which the trees grew, or to get very near it, as in the groups already described, and especially to obtain personal information in a mountainous country like Norway, where meteorological conditions may vary enormously within a few miles. But it was impossible in the present group, whose sections had mostly been collected some years before for use in the forest service and schools. By courtesy of various officials I was permitted to examine and measure these sections in their offices, and whenever it was possible thin sections were cut off for me to add to my collection. In measuring sections of which samples were not retained, for example B 15, B 16, and N 2, there was no opportunity of cross-identifying rings, and hence unusual precautions were observed in numbering the rings. If at any spot they seemed to be very close together with any chance whatever of mistake by omission or doubling, the numbering was carried to as many other radii as were necessary for a check, and worked over very carefully until the best possible result was obtained


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Rh


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 moisture. The trees had formed a border to a little plot of cultivated land with a southwesterly exposure. The average age was 54 years. The rings were all extremely plain, averaging 2 to 4 mm. in size, and cross-identification was everywhere perfect. Of the 50 or 60 rings, about 10 had marked characteristics and were easily recognized in nearly every section. It was noted that a few sections had numerous rings more sharply defined on the summer side of the dense red portion than on the usual winter edge. One of the 11 sections is shown in plate 3, A.

The appendix contains a table of mean tree-growths of the 11 British sections; the years 1859 to 1863 inclusive show means of 6 trees only, as some did not extend back that far; of these, 2 had their centers about 1858, 2 in 1857, and 2 in 1855. The owner of the land informed me that the trees had all been planted at the same time, and therefore this apparent discrepancy may be due to sections cut at different heights above the ground. These means are plotted in figure 8.

For ready comparison it seemed desirable to standardize this British curve as well as each of the other European curves. Each curve is therefore corrected for changing rate of growth with age and also very slightly smoothed to get rid of the confusing effect of the 2-year "seesaw " described later. In the present group, after careful consideration, the standardizing line follows the tree-growth through a uniform curve in the earlier years and becomes straight in the later years. Percentage departures from this mean standard line give the standardized curve. These percentage departures smoothed by Hann's formula will be found plotted in figure 23, together with similar curves from the other European groups.

OUTER COAST OF NORWAY GROUP.

On the advice of Dr. H. H. Jelstrup of Christiania, I visited the Forest School of Sopteland, a small place located about 18 miles south of Bergen, near latitude 60°. The elevation is but little above sea-level, and irregular intervening hills give slight protection from the North Sea storms. This group of 10 Pinus silvestris sections was collected on January 3, 1913, from logs in the yard of the Forest School. The logs had been cut within a week or two in Os, 12 miles to the south, on an exposed part of the coast and probably close to sea-level. Os is on the north shore of one of the larger inlets entering on the north side of Hardanger Fjord.

The average diameter was 6 to 8 inches and the average date of the center was about 1840, but one extended back to about 1800 and another to 1700. The average size of rings was about 1.25 mm. The group cross-identified extremely well and on a preliminary inspection seemed to show somewhat rhythmic variations in growth. In these


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28 few isolated peaks. The mountains are covered with pines from their crests to a little below the level of the city.

This Prescott group was obtained in 1911 for the purpose of testing the conclusions derived from the Flagstaff trees some years earlier.

It consists of 67 trees selected in 5 subgroups depending on their nearness to town. The farthest was 10 miles southeast and the nearest was 1 mile south. It was apparent that the agreement between growth and precipitation increased as the location of the actual rainfall station was approached. The nearest subgroup, containing 10


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26 only. A comparison between the 5 and these oldest 2 taken by themselves give an agreement not absolutely perfect, yet so close that errors thus introduced will not materially affect the curves. However, the oldest 2 were very slow-growing trees and they required on the average an increase of about 30 per cent in order to make their curve continuous with the whole 5. Thus the tree-record is made to begin at 1385. In the recent years of the record also, between 1891 and 1896, a slight correction was made for omitted rings, the complete omission of a ring being an exaggeration that introduces error.


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Rh at the table d'hôte. "Had I not," he said, "the pleasure of coming from Bonn to Cologne with you? I see one of your party is absent. She is, I hope, well," &c. To appreciate as they deserve these wayside courtesies, you should see the relentless English we come in contact with, who, like ghosts, never "speak till they are spoken to."

A few days since, as we were issuing from our lodgings, a very gentlemanly German stopped us, begging our pardons, and saying, "English, I believe?" and then added, that as we appeared to be strangers in quest of lodgings, as he bad just been, he would take the liberty to give as the addresses of two or three that had been recommended to him. This was truly a Samaritan—a German kindness. The hotel-keepers, that important class to travellers, often blend with the accurate performance of the duties of "mine host" the kindness of a friend. Their civility, freedom, and gentlemanliness remind me of my friend Cozzens and others, the best specimens of their fraternity at home. The landlord often sits at the table with his guests, and, with his own country people, converses on terms of apparent equality.

The same self-respect blends with the civility of the shopkeeper. He is very happy to serve and suit you, but, if he cannot, be is ready to direct you elsewhere. Shopmen have repeatedly, unasked, sent


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Use for adding the “lb-bar” ligature (unicode U+2114, a 19th-century-style pound symbol) for pounds (avoirdupois). A single, un-named parameter is optional, and if used, will proceed the glyph and be separated by a non-breaking space. It can also be formed by using the code &nbsp;&#8468;.

Used extensivly in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

Usage

 * gives
 * gives

title: Template:Lb-/doc


text: Blaise Pascal/Letters/To M. Perier

title: Blaise Pascal/Letters/To M. Perier


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackfin

BLACKFIN. See.


text: Blaise Pascal/Letters/To Mme. and M. Perier


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 22.djvu/876

LIGHT RAILWAYS]

The term light railways is somewhat vague and indefinite, and therefore to give a precise definition of its significance is not an easy matter. No adequate definition is to be found even in the British statute-book; for although parliament has on different occasions passed acts dealing with such railways both in Great Britain and Ireland, it has not inserted in any of them a clear and sufficient statement of what it intends shall be understood by the term, as distinguished from an ordinary railway. Since the passing of the Light Railways Act of 1896, which did not apply to Ireland, it is possible to give a formal definition by saying that a light railway is one constructed under the provisions of that act; but it must be noted that the commissioners appointed under that act have authorized many lines which in their physical characteristics are indistinguishable from street tramways constructed under the Tramways Act, and to these the term light railways would certainly not be applied in ordinary parlance. Still, they do differ from ordinary tramways in the important fact that the procedure by which they have been authorized is simpler and cheaper than the methods by which special private acts of parliament have to be obtained for tramway projects. Economy in capital outlay and cheapness in construction is indeed the characteristic generally associated with light railways by the public, and implicitly attached to them by parliament in the act of 1896, and any simplifications of the engineering or mechanical features they may exhibit compared with the standard railways of the country are mainly, if not entirely, due to the desire to keep down their expenses.

The saving of cost is effected in two ways: (1) Instead of having to incur the expenses of a protracted inquiry before parliament, the promoters of a light railway under the act of 1896 make an application to the light railway commissioners, who then hold a local inquiry, to obtain evidence of the usefulness of the proposed railway, and to hear objections to it, and, if they are satisfied, settle the draft order and hand it over to the Board of Trade for confirmation. The Board may reject the order if it thinks the scheme to be of such magnitude or importance that it ought to come under the direct consideration of parliament, or it may modify it in certain respects, or it may remit it to the commissioners for further inquiry. But once the order is confirmed by the Board, with or without modifications, it has effect as if it had been enacted by parliament, and it cannot afterwards be upset on the ground of any alleged irregularity in the proceedings. (2) The second source of economy is to be sought in the reduced cost of actually making the line and of working it when made. Thus the gauge may be narrow, the line single, the rails lighter than those used in standard practice, while deep cuttings and high embankments may be avoided by permitting the curves to be sharper and the gradients steeper: such points conduce to cheapness of construction. Again, low speeds, light stock, less stringent requirements as to continuous brakes, signals, block-working and interlocking, road-crossings, stations, &c., tend to cheapness in working. On the lines actually authorized by the Board of Trade under the 1896 act the normal minimum radius of the curves has been fixed at about 600 ft.; when a still smaller radius has been necessary, the speed has been reduced to 10 m. an hour and a guard-rail insisted on inside the curve. Again, the speed has been restricted to 20 m. an hour on long inclines with gradients steeper than 1 in 50, and also on a line which had scarcely any straight portions and in which there were many curves of 600 ft. radius and gradients of 1 in 50. In the case of a line of 2½ ft. gauge, with a ruling gradient of 1 in 40, a maximum speed of 15 m. an hour and a minimum radius of curve of 300 ft. have been prescribed. Curves of still smaller radius have entailed a maximum speed of 10 m. an hour. It must be understood that a railway described as “light” is not necessarily built of narrower gauge than the standard. Many lines, indeed, have been designed on the normal 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge, and laid with rails weighing from 50 to per yard; a flat—footed  rail, with the axle load limited to 14 tons, has the advantage for such lines that it permits the employment of a proportion of the locomotives used on main lines. The orders actually granted have allowed, , and  rails, with corresponding axle loads of 10, 12, 14 and 16 tons. On a line of 2 ft. gauge, rails of have been sanctioned. In regard to fencing and precautions at level-crossings, less rigid requirements may be enforced than with standard railways; and in some cases where trains are likely to be few, it has been provided that the normal position of the gates at crossings shall be across the line. Again, if the speed is low and the trains infrequent, the signalling arrangements may be of a very simple and inexpensive kind, or even dispensed with altogether. It should be mentioned that the act provided that the Treasury might advance a portion of the money required for a line in cases where the council of any county, borough or district had agreed to do the same, and might also make a special advance in aid of a light railway which was certified by the Board of Agriculture to be beneficial to agriculture in any cultivated district, or by the Board of Trade to furnish a means of communication between a fishing-harbour and a market in a district where it would not be constructed without special assistance from the state.

As a general classification the commissioners have divided the schemes that have come before them into three classes: (A) those which like ordinary railways take their own line across country; (B) those in connexion with which it is proposed to use the public roads conjointly with the ordinary road traffic; and (Neutral) which includes inclined railways worked with a rope, and lines which possess the conditions of A and B in about equal porportions.

The Light Railways Act 1896 was to remain in force only until the end of 1901 unless continued by parliament, but it was continued year by year under the Expiring Laws Continuance Act. In 1901 the president of the Board of Trade introduced a bill to continue the act until 1906, and to amend it so as to make it authorize the construction of a light railway on any highway, the object being to abolish the restriction that a light railway should run into the area of at least two local authorities; but it was not proceeded with. Towards the end of 1901 a departmental committee of the Board of Trade was formed to consider the Light Railways Act, and in 1902 the president of the Board of Trade (Mr Gerald Balfour) stated that as a result of the deliberations of this committee, a new bill had been drafted which he thought would go very far to meet all the reasonable objections that had been urged against the present powers of the local authorities. This bill, however, was not brought forward. In July 1903, Lord Wolverton, on behalf of the Board of Trade, introduced a bill to continue and amend the Light Railways Act. It provided that the powers of the light railway commissioners should continue until determined by parliament, and also provided, inter alia, that in cases Where the Board of Trade thought, under section (9) subsection (3) of the original act, that a proposal should be submitted to parliament, the Board of Trade itself might submit the proposals to parliament by bringing in a bill for the confirmation of the light railway order, with a special report upon it. Opposition on petition could be heard before a select committee or a joint committee as in the case of private bills. The bill was withdrawn on the 11th of August 1903, Lord Morley appealing to the Board of Trade to bring in a more comprehensive measure to amend the unsatisfactory state of legislation in relation to tramways and light railways. In 1904 the president of the Board of Trade brought in a bill on practically the same lines as the amending bill of 1903. It reached second reading but was not proceeded with. Similar amending bills were introduced in the 1905 and 1906 sessions, but were withdrawn. During the first ten years after the act came into force 545 applications for orders were received, 313 orders were made, and 282 orders were confirmed. The orders confirmed were for 1731 m., involving an estimated capital expenditure of £12,770,384. At the end of 1906 only 500 m. had been opened for traffic, and the mileage of lines

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackfish

BLACKFISH, any one of a variety of dark-colored fishes, both of America and Europe. For the American “blackfish,” see , and . The English “blackfish” is a kind of mackerel (Centrolophus niger), about two feet long. It occurs rather abundantly off the south coast of Europe, and is much esteemed as a food fish.

The name is also given to a small “killer” whale of the genus Globicephalus, which goes about in shoals that often enter harbors. They are sought by fishermen for the sake of a small amount of oil, resembling sperm-oil, to be obtained from their fat, and also for the sake of their beef-like flesh. The common blackfish of the Atlantic is G. brachypterus, and that of the north Pacific G. scammoni, Sailors give the name “blackfish” to the “caaing,” or “pilot” whale, and to the various other small cetaceans. Consult Bullen, ‘Cruise of the Cachalot’; Scammon, ‘Marine Mammals of North America.’


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackguard

BLACKGUARD, a term used in the 16th century for the lowest menials of a noble house, the scullions who cleaned pots and pans. It was also used of the hangers-on of an army, camp followers, then of a rabble, and of vagabonds in general.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackhead

BLACKHEAD, the name for several animals, characterized by the blackness of the head; especially in the United States: (1) the scaup duck; (2) a common minnow, the fathead. The name is also applied to the accumulations of dirt found in the sebaceous follicles.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackheath

BLACKHEATH, England, an elevated heath in the county of Kent chiefly in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham. It borders on Greenwich Park, contains 267 acres, and is a place of popular resort. In 1381 Wat Tyler and John Ball mustered their followers here. Jack Cade occupied the same position twice in 1450. In 1497 the Cornish insurgents, under Lord Audley, were routed there by the King's forces. Blackheath has been the scene of many historical pageants and processions. Henry IV met there (1400) the Byzantine emperor, Michael Palæologus; the corporation of London there met Henry V, on his return from Agincourt; and the year afterward, the Emperor Sigismund. One of the last was the reception of Anne of Cleves, by Henry VIII, in 1541. The Roman road to Dover crossed Blackheath. Consult Drake, ‘History of Blackheath’ (London 1886).


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98 discontents, to accept the donative promised by the new emperor, to swear allegiance to him, and, with joyful acclamations and laurels in their hands, to conduct him to the senate-house, that the military consent might be ratified by the civil authority.

This important night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, and the commencement of the new year, the senators expected a summons to attend an ignominious ceremony. In spite of all remonstrances, even of those of his creatures who yet preserved any regard for prudence or decency, Commodus had resolved to pass the night in the gladiators' school, and from thence to take possession of the consulship, in the habit and with the attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break of day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, to meet the guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. For a few minutes they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their unexpected deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel artifices of Commodus: but, when at length they were assured that the tyrant was no more, they resigned themselves to all the transports of joy and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented the meanness of his extraction, and pointed out several noble senators more deserving than himself of the empire, was constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and received all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by the most sincere vows of fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public enemy, resounded in every corner of the house. They decreed in tumultuous votes, that his honours should be reversed, his titles erased from the public monuments, his statues thrown down, his body dragged with a hook into the stripping-room of the gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they expressed some indignation against those officious servants who had already presumed to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. But Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to the memory of Marcus and the tears of his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, who lamented the cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and lamented still more that he had deserved it.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackhorse

BLACKHORSE, a fish, one of the suckers of the Mississippi Valley (Cycleptus elongatus); also known as the Missouri or gourdseed sucker. It is about two feet long, with a small head, suggesting, in profile, that of a horse, and becomes almost jet-black in spring. See.


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Rh  These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the senate had flattered when alive with the most abject senate over servility, betrayed a just but ungenerous spirit of revenge. The legality of these decrees was, however, supported by the principles of the Imperial constitution. To censure, to depose, or to punish with death, the first magistrate of the republic who had abused his delegated trust, was the ancient and undoubted prerogative of the Roman senate; but that feeble assembly was obliged to content itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that public justice from which, during his life and reign, he had been shielded by the strong arm of military despotism.

Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor's memory,—by the contrast of his own virtues with the vices of Commodus. On the day of his accession he resigned over to his wife and son his whole private fortune; that they might have no pretence to solicit favours at the expense of the state. He refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of Augusta, or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by the rank of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the duties of a parent and those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a severe simplicity, which, while it gave him no assured prospect of the throne, might in time have rendered him worthy of it. In public the behaviour of Pertinax was grave and affable. He lived with the virtuous part of the senate (and, in a private station, he had been acquainted with the true character of each individual), without either pride or jealousy; considered them as friends and companions, with whom he had shared the dangers of the tyranny, and with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the present time. He very frequently invited them to familiar entertainments, the frugality of which was ridiculed by those who remembered and regretted the luxurious prodigality of Commodus.


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100  To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the hand of tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of Pertinax. The innocent victims who yet survived were recalled from exile, released from prison, and restored to the full possession of their honours and fortunes. The unburied bodies of murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus endeavoured to extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres of their ancestors; their memory was justified; and every consolation was bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these consolations, one of the most grateful was the punishment of the Delators, the common enemies of their master, of virtue, and of their country. Yet, even in the inquisition of these legal assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady temper, which gave everything to justice, and nothing to popular prejudice and resentment.

The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the emperor. Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been adopted which could collect the property of the subject into the coffers of the prince, the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so very inadequate to his extravagance that, upon his death, no more than eight thousand pounds were found in the exhausted treasury, to defray the current expenses of government, and to discharge the pressing demand of a liberal donative, which the new emperor had been obliged to promise to the Prætorian guards. Yet, under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax had the generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented by Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; declaring, in a decree of the senate, "that he was better satisfied to administer a poor republic with innocence, than to acquire riches by the ways of tyranny and dishonour". Economy and industry he considered as the pure and genuine sources of wealth; and from them he soon derived a copious supply for the public necessities. The expense of the household was immediately reduced to one half. All the instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to public auction, gold and silver plate, chariots of a singular construction, a superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and a great number of beautiful slaves


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackie, John Stuart

BLACKIE, John Stuart, Scottish poet, litterateur and professor; b. Glasgow, 28 July 1809; d. 2 March 1895. He was educated at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh; subsequently went to Göttingen, Berlin and

Rome, where he continued his studies, which were chiefly connected with philology. In 1834 he published a translation of Goethe's ‘Faust,’ and the same year became an advocate at the Scottish bar; in 1841 he was inducted to the chair of humanity in Marischal College, Aberdeen. This position he held until, in 1852, he was appointed to the professorship of Greek in the University of Edinburgh, a chair which he resigned in 1882. By his unwearied efforts to preserve the Gaelic language, he succeeded in raising $60,000, with which sum a Celtic chair was endowed in Edinburgh University. He was one of the most popular Scotsmen of his time, his breezy, unconventional personality making him a favorite with all classes. Perhaps his most enduring work is the hymn he wrote on his honeymoon, ‘Angels holy, high and lowly.’ Among his more important writings are ‘Lyric Poems’; ‘Homer and the Iliad’; ‘Horæ Hellenicæ’; ‘Self-culture’; ‘Songs of Religion and Life’; ‘Lays of the Highlands and Islands’; ‘Lay Sermons’; ‘Altavona’; ‘Wisdom of Goethe’; and ‘Life of Burns.’ His biography has been published (2 vols.) by Anna M. Stoddart.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blacking

BLACKING, the article employed in blacking boots and shoes, usually contains for its principal ingredients oil, vinegar, ivory, or bone black, sugar or molasses, and strong sulphuric acid, though every manufacturer has his own recipe, and endeavors to turn it to best account by concealing its composition and puffing its merits. Blacking is used either liquid or in the form of a paste, but both are obtained from the same ingredients, the only difference being that in making the paste a portion of the liquid is withheld. Blacking was introduced into England from France in the latter part of the 18th century. A celebrated old English blacking consists of 18 ounces of caoutchouc dissolved in 9 pounds of hot rape-oil, 60 pounds ivory-black, 45 pounds molasses, and 20 gallons vinegar, of strength No. 24, in which one pound finely ground gum-arabic has been dissolved. The whole mixture, after being carefully triturated in a grinding mill, receives 12 pounds sulphuric acid, in small successive quantities, stirring strongly for half an hour. The stirring is continued for half an hour daily during a fortnight, and then three pounds of gum-arabic are added, after which the stirring is resumed, and continued as before for another fortnight. This gives fine liquid blacking; the paste is obtained within a week by withholding 8 of the 20 gallons in which the gum-arabic is dissolved. Shoe blacking in liquid form may be made from powdered graphite (1 pound), lampblack (1 ounce), rosin (4 ounces) and turpentine (1 gallon). Graphite is the principal ingredient in many stove polishes. The solid cakes of stove polish are made by subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with turpentine, to great pressure.


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Rh of both sexes; excepting only, with attentive humanity, those who were born in a state of freedom, and had been ravished from the arms of their weeping parents. At the same time that he obliged the worthless favourites of the tyrant to resign a part of their ill-gotten wealth, he satisfied the just creditors of the state, and unexpectedly discharged the long arrears of honest services. He removed the oppressive restrictions which had been laid upon commerce, and granted all the uncultivated lands in Italy and the provinces to those who would improve them; with an exemption from tribute during the term of ten years.

Such an uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the noblest reward of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. Those who remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to contemplate in their new emperor the features of that bright original, and flattered themselves that they should long enjoy the benign influence of his administration. A hasty zeal to reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less prudence than might have been expected from the years and experience of Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His honest indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found their private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred the favour of a tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws.

Amidst the general joy the sullen and angry countenance of the Prætorian guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had reluctantly submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of the ancient discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and they regretted the licence of the former reign. Their discontents were secretly fomented by Lætus, their præfect, who found, when it was too late, that his new emperor would reward a servant, but would not be ruled by a favourite. On the third day of his reign, the soldiers seized on a noble senator, with a design to carry him to the camp, and to invest him with the imperial purple. Instead of being dazzled by the dangerous honour, the affrighted victim escaped from their violence, and took refuge at the feet of Pertinax. A short time afterwards Sosius Falco, one of the consuls of the year, a rash youth, but


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackleg

BLACKLEG, a cattle disease. See .


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blacklegs

BLACKLEGS, a name commonly applied in England to cheating gamblers; during the labor agitation in 1889 and 1890 the name was given to non-unionist workmen by the members of trade unions. In this latter sense the

word is now exclusively used, and corresponds with the American epithet “scabs.”


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 22.djvu/877

860 opened was much less in proportion to the mileage sanctioned in the cases of lines constructed on their own land than in the case of lines more of the nature of tramways. (In other countries where the mileage of main lines of railways in proportion to area and population is roughly the same as in the United Kingdom, the mileage of light railways already constructed is considerable, while many additional lines are under construction. At the end of 1903 there were 6150 m. working in France, costing on an average £4500 per mile, earning £275 per mile per annum; 3730 miles in Prussia costing £4180 per mile, earning £310 per mile per annum; 1430 m. in Belgium at £3400 per mile, earning £320 per mile per annum.) The average cost per mile in Great Britain on the basis of the prescribed estimates is £5860, but this figure does not include the cost of equipment and does not cover the whole cost of construction. According to the light railway commissioners, experience satisfied them (a) that light railways were much needed in many parts of the country and that many of the lines proposed, but not constructed, were in fact necessary to admit of the progress, and even the maintenance, of existing trade interests; and (b) that improved means of access were requisite to assist in retaining the population on the land, to counteract the remoteness of rural districts, and also, in the neighbourhood of industrial centres, to cope with the difficulties as to housing and the supply of labour. They pointed out that while during the first five years the act was in force there were 315 applications for orders, during the second five years there were only 142 applications, and that proposals for new lines had become less numerous owing to the various difficulties in carrying them to a successful completion and to the difficulty of raising the necessary capital even when part of it was provided with the aid of the state and of the local authorities. They expressed the opinion that an improvement could be effected enabling the construction of many much-needed lines by an amendment of some of the provisions of the Light Railways Act, and by a reconsideration of the conditions under which financial or other assistance should be granted to such lines by the state and by local authorities.

The so-called light railways in the United States and the British colonies have been made under the conditions peculiar to new countries. Their primary object being the development and peopling of the land, they have naturally been made as cheaply as possible; and as in such cases the cost of the land is inconsiderable, economy has been sought by the use of lighter and rougher permanent way, plant, rolling stock, &c. Such railways are not “light” in the technical sense of having been made under enactments intended to secure permanent lowness of cost as compared with standard lines. On the continent of Europe many countries have encouraged railways which are light in that sense. France began to move in' this direction in 1865, and has formulated elaborate provisions for their construction and regulation. Italy did the same in its laws in 1873, 1879, 1881, 1887 and 1889; and Germany fostered enterprise of this kind by the imperial edicts of 1875, 1878 and 1892. Holland, Hungary and Switzerland were all early in the field; and Belgium has succeeded, through the instrumentality of the semi-official Société Nationale de Chemins de For Vicinaux, started in 1885, in developing one of the most complete systems of rural railway transport in the world.

In France the lines which best correspond to British light railways are called Chemins de fer d’intérêt local. These are regulated by a decree No. 11,264 of 6th August 1881, which the Ministry of Public Works is charged to carry out. The model “form of regulation” lay’s down the scales of the drawings and the information to be shown thereon. For the first installation a single line is prescribed, but the concessionaire must provide space and be prepared to double when required. The gauge may be either 1.44 metres (4 ft. 8·7 in.), or 1 metre (3 ft. 3·37 in.), or ·75 metre (2 ft. 5·5 in.). The radius of curves for the 1·44 m. gauge must not be less than 250 metres, 100 metres for the 1 m. gauge and 50 metres for the ·75 m. gauge. A straight length of not less than 60 metres for the largest gauge and 40 metres for the smallest must be made between two curves having opposite directions. Except in special cases, gradients must not exceed 3 in 100; and between gradients in the opposite sense there must be not less than 60 metres of level for 1·44 m. and 40 metres for 1 m. and ·75 m. gauges. The position of stations and stopping-places is regulated by the council of the department. The undertaking, once approved, is regarded as a work of public utility, and the undertakers are invested with all the rights that a public department would have in the case of the carrying out of public works. At the end of the period of the concession the départment comes into possession of the road and all its fixed appurtenances, and in the last five years of the period the départment has the right to enter into possession of the line, and apply the revenue to putting it into a thorough state of repair. It has also the right to purchase the undertaking at the end of the first fifteen years, the net profits of the preceding seven years to govern the calculation of the purchase price. The maximum 1st, 2nd and 3rd class passenger fares are, per kilometre, ·067 f. (·6d.), ·050 f. (·455d.) and ·037 f. (·34d.) respectively, when the trains are run at grande vitesse, the fares including 30 kilogrammes weight of personal baggage.

In Belgium a public company under government control (“Société Nationale de Chemins de Fer Vicinaux”) does all that in France forms the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior and of the prefect of the department. Over an average of years it ap ears that 27% of the capital cost was found by the state, 28% by the province, 40·9% by the communes and 4·1% by private individuals. At the end of 1908 there were 2085 m. in operation, and the total mileage authorized was 2603, while the construction of a considerable further mileage was under consideration. As far as possible, these railways are laid beside roads, in preference to independent formation; the permanent way costs £977 per mile in the former as against £793 in the latter. If laid in paving, the price varies between £1108 and £2266 per mile. Through villages, and where roads have to be crossed, the line is of the usual tramway type. The line is of 1 metre gauge, with steel rails weighing 21½ kilos per yard. In the towns a deeper rail is used, weighing about per yard. In three lines of the Vicinaux system, in the aggregate 45 m. in length, the sharpest curves are 30 metres, 35 metres and 40 metres respectively. There are gradients of 1 in 20 and 1 in 25. The speed is limited to 30 kilometres (about 18 m.) in the country and 6 m. per hour in towns and through villages.

In Italy many railways which otherwise fulfil the conditions of a light railway are constructed with a gauge of 4 ft. 8½ in. The weights are governed by what the railway has to carry, and the speed. Light locomotives, light rails and light rolling stock are employed. There are no bridges, except where watercourses occur. Cuttings are reduced to a minimum; and where the roads are sufficiently wide, the rails are laid on the margins. The advantage of uniformity of gauge is in the use of trucks for goods which belong to the rolling stock of the main lines. In Italy these railways are called “economic railways,” and are divided into five types. Types I., II. and III. are of 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge, type IV. of 0·95 m. and type V. of 0·70 m.; but as there is no example of type V., the classification is practically one of 1·445 m. (4 ft. 8½ in.) and one of 0—95 (3 ft. 0·5 in.). The chief difference between the first three types lies in the weight of rails and rolling stock and in the radius of the curves. The real light railway of Italy is that of type IV.: gauge, 0·95 m. (3 ft. 0·5 in.); weight of rails, 12 to 20  kilos; mean load per axle, 6 tons; minimum curve, 70 m. (229 ft. 2·6 in.) radius; width of formation, 3·50 m. (11 ft. 5·5 in.); top width of ballast, 2·10 m. (6 ft. 10·7 in.); depth of ballast under sleepers, 0·10 m. (3 ft. 9·5 in.); maximum gradient, 1 in 50; length of sleepers, 1·70 m. (5 ft. 6·92 in.); width between parapets and width of tunnels, 1 m. over width of carriage; height of tunnels, 5 m. (16 ft. 4·85 in.); locomotives, maximum weight per axle 6 tons, rigid wheel base 1·80 m. (5 ft. 10·86 in.), diameter of driving-wheels 1 m. (3 ft. 3·37 in.).

In Germany the use of light railways (Klein-bahnen) has made great strides. The gauges in use vary considerably between 4 ft. 8½ in., the standard national gauge, and 1 ft. 11¾ in., which appears to be the smallest in use. They are under the control of the Post and Telegraph department, the state issuing loans to encourage the undertakings; the authorities in the provinces and communes also give support in various ways, and under various conditions, to public bodies or private persons who desire to promote or embark in the industry. These conditions, as well as the degree of control over the construction and working of the lines, are left to the regulation of the provincial governments. Similarly, the same authorities decide for themselves the conditions under which the public roads may be used, and the precautions for public safety, all subject to the confirmation of the imperial government.

What are known as “portable railways” should be included in the same category as light railways. With a 24 in. gauge, lines of a portable kind can be made very handily and the cost is very much less than that of a permanently constructed light railway. The simplicity is great; they can be quickly mounted and dismounted; the correct gauge can be perfectly maintained; the sections of rails and

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102 of an ancient and opulent family, listened to the voice of ambition; and a conspiracy was formed during a short absence of Pertinax, which was crushed by his sudden return to Rome and his resolute behaviour. Falco was on the point of being justly condemned to death as a public enemy, had he not been saved by the earnest and sincere entreaties of the injured emperor; who conjured the senate that the purity of his reign might not be stained by the blood even of a guilty senator.

These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the Prætorian guards. On the twenty-eight of March, eighty-six days only after the death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in the camp, which the officers wanted either power or inclination to suppress. Two or three hundred of the most desperate soldiers marched at noon-day, with arms in their hands and fury in their looks, towards the Imperial palace. The gates were thrown open by their companions upon guard; and by the domestics of the old court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy against the life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their approach, Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own innocence, and the sanctity of their recent oath. For a few moments they stood in silent suspense, ashamed of their atrocious design, and awed by the venerable aspect and majestic firmness of their sovereign, till at length, the despair of pardon reviving their fury, a barbarian of the country of Tongres levelled the first blow against Pertinax, who was instantly dispatched with a multitude of wounds. His head, separated from his body, and placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the Praetorian camp, in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who lamented the unworthy fate of that excellent prince, and the transient blessings of a reign, the memory of which could serve only to aggravate their approaching misfortunes.


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Rh

power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive monarchy than in a small community. It has been calculated by the ablest politicians that no state, without being soon exhausted, can maintain above the hundredth part of its members in arms and idleness. But, although this relative proportion may be uniform, its influence over the rest of the society will vary according to the degree of its positive strength. The advantages of military science and discipline cannot be exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united into one body, and actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, such an union would be ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it would be impracticable; and the powers of the machine would be alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness, or the excessive weight, of its springs. To illustrate this observation we need only reflect that there is no superiority of natural strength, artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man to keep in constant subjection one hundred of his fellow-creatures: the tyrant of a single town, or a small district, would soon discover that an hundred armed followers were a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or citizens; but an hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, with despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or fifteen thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous populace that ever crowded the streets of an immense capital.

The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom and cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted to the last mentioned number. They


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104  their institution from Augustus. That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might colour, but that arms alone could maintain, his usurped dominion, had gradually formed this powerful body of guards, in constant readiness to protect his person, to awe the senate, and either to prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. He distinguished these favoured troops by a double pay, and superior privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have alarmed and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were stationed in the capital; whilst the remainder was dispersed in the adjacent towns of Italy. But after fifty years of peace and servitude, Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which for ever riveted the fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of relieving Italy from the heavy burden of military quarters, and of introducing a stricter discipline among the guards, he assembled them at Rome, in a permanent camp, which was fortified with skilful care, and placed on a commanding situation.

Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal, to the throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards, as it were, into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught them to perceive their own strength, and the weakness of the civil government; to view the vices of their masters with familiar contempt, and to lay aside that reverential awe which distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an imaginary power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their pride was nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was it possible to conceal from them that the person of the sovereign, the authority of the senate, the public


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User:James500/Index to the Statutes

INDEX TO THE STATUTES

covering the legislation in force on 31st December 1990

VOLUME I A-K

Published by Authority

London: HMSO

1992

[First page ends here]

Crown copyright 1992

HMSO publications are available from:

HMSO Publications Centre (Mail and telephone orders only) PO Box 276, London SW8 5DT Telephone orders 071-873 9090 General enquiries 071-873 0011 (queuing system in operation for both numbers)

HMSO Bookshops 49 High Holborn, London, WC1V 6HB 071-873 0011 (Counter service only) 258 Broad Street, Birmingham, B1 2HE 021-643 3740 Southey House, 33 Wine Street, Bristol, BS1 2BQ (0272) 264306 9-21 Princess Street, Manchester, M60 8AS 061-834 7201 80 Chichester Street, Belfast, BT1 4JY (0232) 238451 71 Lothian Street, Edinburgh, EH3 9AZ 031-228 4181

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Price for the two volumes: £245.00 net

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[Second page ends here]

Contents

VOLUME I

Preface

List of Principal Abbreviations pages

INDEX TO THE STATUTES (A-K). . . . . . 1-1224

VOLUME II

INDEX TO THE STATUTES (L-Z). . . . . . 1225-2466

Appendices. . . . . . . . . . 2467-2468

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Preface

AUTHORITY FOR PUBLICATION

The official Index to the Statutes was first published in 1870 under the title Index to the Statutes in Force, in pursuance of a suggestion made by Lord Cairns when Lord Chancellor to Lord Chelmsford. It was prepared under the general direction of the Statute Law Committee, until that Committee was replaced by the Lord Chancellor, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, in June 1991 with a new committee known as the Advisory Committee on Statute Law. The Statutory Publications Office, which prepares this Index, became part of the Lord Chancellor's Department in April 1990.

CONTENTS

The Index covers the whole of the subsisting general statute law of the United Kingdom (including Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland and Measures of the Church Assembly and General Synod), except-
 * (a) Appropriation Acts and Consolidated Fund Acts, and
 * (b) Acts relating only to Northern Ireland (apart from those relating to constitutional matters). The substantive provisions of these Acts are comprehensively indexed in the Index to the Statutes, Northern Ireland.

Since the Index also serves as an Index to Statutes in Force (see under STRUCTURE below), it also covers a few Acts from the Local and Personal series and a few Acts of the Parliament of Ireland which are printed in Statutes in Force.

STRUCTURE

The Index is framed in accordance with the principles laid down in a paper of instructions prepared by Lord Thring in 1876. The scheme is to enter the statute law under subject-headings, divided in many cases into sub-headings. Under these headings and sub-headings, each item of statute law is entered briefly with a reference to the calendar year and chapter number of the Act and the number of the section or schedule in which it is contained.

At the beginning of each heading is a list of all the Acts referred to in the heading, each Act being cited by its calendar year, chapter number and short title (or where there is no short title its subject). It must not be assumed however that this list contains all the Acts relevant to the heading: others may be found by following up cros-references to other headings.

The Index also serves as an index to the official revised edition of the statutes known as Statutes in Force by having, after most of the Acts cited in a heading, a reference to the group (e.g. 86) or group and sub-group (e.g. 113:2) in which the relevant text of the Act can be found in Statutes in Force. The relevant texts of Acts which are followed by no group number is not printed in Statutes in Force, either because it is an amending provision, which has been carried into the text of the amended Act, or because the Act itself is excluded from the edition.

Individual provisions are not specifically indexed under more headings than is absolutely necessary, but extensive use is made of cross-references, both within and outside a heading, to enable the user to find the information he seeks.

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AMENDMENTS AND REPEALS

Where more than one Act is cited in a single entry, this is usually an indication that one of the earlier provisions has been amended. On the other hand, the fact that there is only one citation does not necessarily mean that the provision cited has not been amended, but it is an indication that there has been no relevant amendment. On this principle, under a Scottish heading an amendment that relates only to England and Wales will not be shown, and vice versa. For the complete history of a provision, regardless of the context in which it is cited, reference should be made to the Chronological Table of the Statutes published annually by HMSO.

Where a provision is shown as partially repealed, the reference to the partial repeal is retained after the repealing provision itself has been repealed, having regard to section 16 of the Interpretation Act 1978 (c.30, SIF 115:1).

STATUTES LAW REVISION REPEALS

Total repeal of a provision (other than a repealing provision) by a Statute Law Revision Act or a Statute Law (Repeals) Act receives the same treatment (i.e. removal of any reference to the repealed provision) as an ordinary total repeal. Partial repeals by such Acts were not shown until 1970, and even now they are only included where they alter the practical effect of a provision; minor repeals of obsolete material (such as references to repealed Acts) are not usually shown.

PROSPECTIVE LEGISLATION

Legislation, including amendments and repeals, that is not yet in force is disregarded, so as to avoid confusion. Details of prospective amendments and repeals may be found in the Chronological Table of the Statutes, and also in the Table of Effect in the annual volume of Public General Acts and Measures for each year.

COLLECTIVE TITLES

Sometimes a number of Acts on the same subject are given a collective title by which they may together be cited. In the Index, collective titles are given in footnotes to the Acts in the list at the beginning of headings. The Acts currently included in a collective title can be ascertained by selecting from the list of Acts those Acts that have the same footnote letter against them as the collective title footnote itself.

TABLES OF STATUTES AND MEASURES

These Tables, on pink paper, were last printed in the 1988 edition. They contained chronological lists of Acts and Measures together with the location in the Index of their extant provisions.

With the approval of the Statute Law Committee, these Tables have been omitted from the Index as being of limited practical use to subscribers. The Statutory Publications Office will however continue to maintain the tables for editorial purposes, and a copy (containing some 500 pages) may be purchased on application to the Editor at the address given at the end of this Preface.

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EXTENT

Many headings relate to the whole of Great Britain. Where such a heading refers to a provision that is limited to a particular part of Great Britain (for example England and Wales or Scotland) the reference is distinguished with the letter "E", "W", "E&W", "S" or "L" (for London), as the case may require. Acts that extend to the whole of Great Britain are shown without any distinguishing lettering.

In a rarer kind of case, although the general law on the subject-matter of the heading relates to the whole of Great Britain, there is an appreciable quantity of additional legislation limited to a particular part of Great Britain, in most cases Scotland. Where this is so, the general law is entered under a heading containing no territorial designation (e.g. POLICE), and the additional matter is entered under a separate heading, similarly named but with the appropriate territorial designation added (e.g. POLICE, S) and with a cross-reference to the general heading for matters relating to the whole of Great Britain.

SCOTTISH AND IRISH ACTS

No mark is used in the entries to distinguish provisions of the Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland or Ireland, but in the list of Acts at the beginning of a heading these Acts are distinguished by an S or and I in heavy square brackets, thus [S] or [I].

REGULATIONS

Powers to make regulations and other subordinate legislation are shown briefly, but for full descriptions of the powers and particulars of their exercise reference should be made to the Index to Government Orders published biennially by HMSO.

ACTS OF LIMITED APPLICATION

Some of the Acts are limited in their application to particular areas, places or persons, and some others have effect only in certain Commonwealth countries outside the United Kingdom. As these Acts are not of general interest they have not been indexed in detail, and instead the user is referred to the Appendices in which the Acts are listed.

LOCAL AND PERSONAL ACTS

This Index covers only a few Local and Personal Acts which are considered to be of general interest and are printed in Statutes in Force. Those interested in other Local and Personal Acts should consult the Index to Local and Personal Acts 1801-1947 and thereafter the annual Index to Local and Personal Acts.

TABLE OF VARIANCES

A Table of Variances between Statutes of the Realm and Ruffhead's edition appears in the Chronological Table of the Statutes.

SUGGESTIONS

Correspondence about the work may be addressed to the Editor, Statutory Publications Office, America House, 6-8 Spring Gardens, London SW1A 2BP.

January 1992

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title: User:James500/Index to the Statutes


text: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Bury)/V


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title: Category:Indexes


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blacklisting

BLACKLISTING. A method employed in various countries to place upon record for the guidance of others the names of persons or firms whom it might not be desirable to employ or to have business relations with. Lists of those against whom unsatisfied judgments are standing, or whose credit is poor, or who have given chattel mortgages on stock in trade and lists of a similar nature have been published by mercantile agencies and are not only regarded as of great benefit to the business world but also fair and lawful. The publisher or compiler of such list must be careful that in printing a person's name, he do not subject himself to a libel suit. He must be able to prove that his statements about the blacklisted person are true, or that they were correctly transcribed from some public record, or that they constituted a fair and accurate report of some judicial proceeding, or that the information contained in the statements was secured in a privileged manner, such as a report of financial standing of a person or firm asking credit of another. But the blacklist is more widely known for its use in labor controversies. For many years railroads kept lists of employees dismissed for any reason so that they could not be re-employed. Manufacturers and dealers who have formed an association or combination to control a certain line of industry have blacklisted others who refused to enter the association. The blacklist of the early period of labor controversies was a printed list of the names of workmen, circulated among employers, who had previously agreed not to employ those so listed. Labor unions have kept lists of non-union workmen with the object of preventing the laborers or of employers of non-union employment of the workmen or of boycotting the employer. Such lists are now termed a misdemeanor in the statutes of some States,

and offenders are punishable by a fine or imprisonment. The central offices of employers' associations keep a list from which information regarding workmen is exchanged, thus coming within the law. See .


text:
Author:Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier

Works

 * The Gilded Man (El Dorado)


text:
Author:Leigh Harrison Hunt

Editor

 * The Memoirs of Sarah Barnum (1884)

title: Author:Leigh Harrison Hunt


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180 a person to guide as through the intricate Continental streets to another shop.

The domeatics are prompt, faithful, and cheerful in their services. There is freedom, but no presumption in their manners, and nothing of that unhappy uncertainty as to their exact position, so uncomfortable in our people. In all these subordinate classes you see nothing of the cringing servility that marks them in England, and to which they are exposed by their direct dependance on their employers.

Our English friend, Miss ——, who has been repeatedly in Germany, and is a good observer, acquiesces in the truth of my observations, and says this general freedom of deportment comes from people of all ranks freely mingling together. If so, this surely is a healthy influence, a natural and beneficent effect from an obedience to that Divine precept, "honour all men." Wo to those who set the brethen of one family off into castes, and build up walls between them so that they cannot freely grasp hands and exchange smiles!

I HAVE just been to the poste to see our English friends off. Their departure is a sad epoch to us, for they have been our solace and delight. A curious scene is the "poste" in a Continental town. Here (and ordinarily, I believe) it has a quadrangular court, enclosed on three sides by a hotel and its offices, including that for letters, and having on the fourth side a passage through a stone arch to the


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Rh street. Here the public coaches arrive, and hence take their departure; and here the travellers and their luggage are taken up and discharged. I will describe the scene to you precisely as I just saw it. Besides the diligence for Sewalback, in which our friends were going, and towards which the luggage of various passengers was converging, while that which exceeded the authorized weight was passing through the postoffice window out of the hands of the weighmaster, there were private carriages arriving and departing. Some of these were elegant, and the horses curveting and prancing right royally so that I fancied they must be carrying German princes, or Englishmen, who are princes all over Europe.

My friend's postillion, with his yellow and black Nassau livery, his official band round his arm, his leather boots cut to a peak in front and extending some inches above his knee, his immense yellow tassel bobbing over his shoulder, was blowing his note of preparation from the trumpet he carries at his side. Fat Germans stood at the windows of the different stories of the hotel, smoking and talking to women as fat as they. There were other Germans, mustachoed and imperturbable, coolly awaiting the moment of departure, meandering about among the carriages and barrows, with their pipes


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182 dangling from one side of their mouths, and their incessant "Ja," "Ja woh!" (yes—yes, indeed), dropping from the other. Our friend's female fellow-passengers, in caps without bonnets, had ensconced themselves in a little nook, where they were knitting as if they were neither part nor parcel of this stirring world.

But what a contrast to this quietude, the English traveller! You may know him by the quantity and variety of his luggage, by every ingenious contrivance for comfort (alas! comfort implies fixture), impregnable English trunks, travelling-bags, dressing-cases, cased provisions for all the possible wants that civilization generates, and all in travelling armour. There is no flexibility about an Englishman, no adaptation to circumstances and exigencies. He must stand forth, wherever he goes, the impersonation of his island-home. I said his luggage betrayed him; I am sure his face and demeanour do. His muscles are in a state of tension, his nerves seem to be on the outside of his coat, his eyebrows are in motion, he looks, as my friend says she felt when she first came to such a place as this, "as if all the people about her were rats;" his voice is quick and harsh, and his words none of the sweetest, so that you do not wonder the Continental people have fastened on him the descriptive soubriquet of "Monsieur God-d—n."

An interesting little episode to me in this bustling scene was Miss W., the very essence of refinement and English gentlewomanliness, running hither and