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 to retain its native name, whilst the third received its title from the reigning monarch, William IV. At His Excellency's departure, the entire population of the settlement—five hundred souls—assembled to give him a parting cheer. These five hundred settlers were possessed of 140,000 sheep, 2,500 head of cattle, and 150 horses—a very satisfactory state of progress. In this year (1837) the first government land sale in Melbourne took place, and the event is worthy of note as showing how enormously the value of land may increase by unforeseen circumstances. A small allotment in Collins Street (the aristocratic thoroughfare of Melbourne) purchased originally for £S5 was afterwards bought for £24,000, and, at the present time, the average price of land in the same locality is £900 per foot. A gentleman was considered very foolish for having paid what was then regarded as the excessive sum of £80 for half-an-acre, but after the lapse of two years the same land realized £5,000, and twelve years later it was sold for £40,000. These are only two examples out of many that might be recorded.

Mr. William Kelly, a contemporary eye-witness, states the following facts: "Innumerable small lots, making in their aggregate immense breadths of property, were sold at nominal prices in the early part of 1851, which, ere its close, were 'pearls beyond price,' translated into the seventh heaven of appreciation by the fortuitous discovery of the Ballarat shepherd. I know the particulars of numerous cases of constrained fortune. One I will relate which occurred in the person of an humble man from my native country, who accumulated a very modest competence in Melbourne under the old régime—first by manual labour and then by carting at the moderate rates of the day. He purchased a town lot in Swanston Street, and erected a wooden house upon it, in

title: Page:The Irish in Australia.djvu/24


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Sugars

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Sugars


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 which during the progress of his industrial prosperity he opened a little shop for the good woman. His decent thrift was as remarkable as his industry, so that in homely phrase he 'got the name of having a little dry money always by him;' and at the period in question he was beset by importunate neighbours and friends, imploring him, as he intended remaining, to purchase their town allotments at his own price. In some cases he yielded, not so much with the view of benefiting himself as of helping a few friends on the road to fortune, and much against his own will or conviction he secured, for some £450, property which in less than fifteen months he sold for £15,000, and which was resold within the subsequent year for nearly three times that amount. Had my humble countryman purchased to the full amount of his means and held over like other stay-at-home townsmen, he might now be side by side in the Legislative Council of Victoria with another Sligo man who came to Port Phillip without any capital but his brains and his hands, but who is reputed at present as possessed of property worth half-a-million sterling."

I have now before me the official list of purchasers of land at the first government sale in Melbourne, and, as might have been expected, Ireland is well represented. Amongst the principal buyers I find the names of Michael Pender, Michael Connolly, John Roach, James Connell, John McNamara, F. R. D'Arcy, Patrick Cussen, Patrick Murphy and E. D. O'Reilly.

In 1841 the revenue derived from the Port Phillip district had increased to £31,799, and, consequent on increasing prosperity, the colonists became dissatisfied with their political position. They had a nominal representation in the New South Wales Parliament, the Port Phillip district being

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Preserves


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 allotted six members; but owing to the distance of the capital and the expense of living there during the session, no local candidates, no men having a personal interest in the prosperity of the new province, would come forward. As a necessary consequence, the choosing of parliamentary representatives soon became a merely formal matter in which not the slightest public interest was manifested. The choice of candidates being practically limited to Sydney residents, members were elected and re-elected for the Port Phillip district on the most approved old-world pocket-borough principle. As a matter of fact, many of the electors, probably the majority of them, were in complete ignorance of the names of their parliamentary representatives. To put an end to this stupid farce, a novel expedient was hit upon. In 1848, when the time again arrived to send representatives to Sydney, an ingenious elector suggested that they would be quite as well represented by residents of London as by residents of Sydney, and therefore he moved that Earl Grey was a fit and proper person to represent the electors of Port Phillip in the Sydney Parliament. This ludicrous proposal was immediately adopted and acted upon, and it must be admitted that no better means could be devised of showing the home authorities the absurdity of giving the form of parliamentary representation without the substance. When the news reached England that Earl Grey, Secretary of State for the Colonies, had been elected member for Melbourne in the Sydney Parliament, the irresistible drollery of the situation compelled attention to the remonstrances of the colonists. The agitation for separation was carried on with renewed vigour, and eventually, on August 5th, 1850, an "Act for the Better Government of the Australian Colonies" and providing for the separation of the Port

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Fruit Pastes


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Page:Brundtland Report.djvu/74

 national and international political and economic institutions have not and perhaps cannot overcome, the pursuit of sustainable development requires:
 * a political system that secures effective citizen participation in decision making,
 * an economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self-reliant and sustained basis,
 * a social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising from disharmonious development.
 * a production system that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for development,
 * a technological system that can search continuously for new solutions.
 * an international system that fosters sustainable patterns of trade and finance. and
 * an administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction.

82. These requirements are more in the nature of goals that should underlie national and international action on development. What matters is the sincerity with which these goals ate pursued and the effectiveness with which departures from them are corrected.

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 Phillip district from New South Wales, and its erection into a separate colony under the name of Victoria, passed the Imperial Parliament. The gratifying intelligence reached Melbourne in the following November, and it is needless to say there were considerable rejoicings, lasting several days. The Act came into operation on July 1st of the following year and the day has ever since been commemorated as a public holiday, under the title of Separation Day. Prominent amongst those who took an active part in directing the separation movement were Sir William Foster Stawell (afterwards Chief Justice, and now Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria), Sir Redmond Barry (subsequently Judge of the Supreme Court), Sir John O'Shanassy (three times Prime Minister of the colony), and Sir Francis Murphy (for many years Speaker of the Legislative Assembly)—four Irishmen to whom reference will again be made.

In the same year (1851) that witnessed the practical outcome of the separation movement—in fact almost coincidently with that historical episode, an event occurred that completely altered the destinies of the Australian colonies in general and Victoria in particular. It is unnecessary to state that the event alluded to was the Discovery of Gold. Victoria up to that time was only known for the richness of its pastoral and agricultural resources, and the idea that mineral wealth of untold value lay concealed beneath the verdant soil never once entered the minds of the simple growers of wool and cultivators of corn. In 1849 the accounts of the golden treasures of California attracted adventurers from all parts of the world, and amongst those who left Australia for the American El Dorado were two intelligent colonists, named Edward Hammond Hargreaves and James William

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 Esmond. They were only ordinarily successful, but their visit to California gave them some valuable knowledge which they afterwards turned to good account. One thing they observed was the striking similarity in the geological formation of the two countries, and they rightly concluded that if the precious metal existed in the one place, it must also exist in the other. This conclusion they practically tested on their return, and were rewarded with immediate success. Hargreaves prospected the Bathurst district of New South Wales and found some nuggets and gold dust.

Esmond tried his luck in Victoria near the site of the present flourishing mining town of Clunes, then a squatter's run, and succeeded in finding some rich specimens, with which he hurried to the nearest town, Geelong, and made his discovery known. The news caused the most intense excitement amongst all classes, and the "gold fever" rapidly spread throughout the colonies. All ordinary pursuits were abandoned, and everywhere parties for the diggings were in process of formation. The first discoveries soon paled before the brilliant digging results that were daily brought to the surface. It was soon ascertained that the whole cent nil portion of the colony was auriferous, and, as the various parties spread about in the hope of finding new and richer ground, the great goldfields of the colony became gradually opened up. Words cannot describe the delirium that ensued on reading the reports of the developments of the famous Ballarat, Bendigo and Mount Alexander mines. Not only were the other colonies literally drained of their population, but, on the wondrous intelligence being circulated at home, the old world sent thousands to swell the mining community at the antipodes. Ireland despatched a numerous contingent, whose members prospered in the main, invested their savings

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Bomboons, Pastils


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 judiciously, and founded a patriotic and influential Irish-Victorian community. All the colonial towns were deserted, and people in the most reckless manner sold their houses and lands at an immense reduction on the cost price, and hastened away to the diggings. Hobson's Bay, the harbour of Melbourne, was a forest of masts; ships lay anchored in hundreds, unable to proceed on their voyages, the sailors having deserted in a body for the up-country goldfields. Every week a mounted escort brought down from Ballarat to Melbourne an average yield of 2,500 ounces of gold, and much larger quantities were sent away privately. But these astonishing yields were soon afterwards eclipsed by the discoveries at Mount Alexander, which proved to be literally and without exaggeration "a mountain of gold." The quantity sent from this mountain during the second week of December, 1851, was 23,650 ounces, more than one ton in weight. The influx of population consequent on the gold discoveries may be gathered from the fact that in the one month of September, 1851, 16,000 new arrivals appeared on the scene, whilst in the following month the number had increased to 19,000, and each succeeding month had to be credited with a similar rate of progress. At Bendigo, 25 miles north of Mount Alexander, 70,000 men were simultaneously seeking their fortune. The public revenue had jumped from £380,000 in 1851 to £1,577,000 in 1852. Melbourne, as the commercial centre on which the goldfields depended for supplies, and the principal point of departure for the up-country districts, had developed into an important city. Its streets were thronged with lucky diggers, some of whom were dissipating their easily-acquired riches in the wildest profusion, lighting their pipes with fifty-pound notes, purchasing gorgeous dresses for their female companions of

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Conserves


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Compotes


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Fruit Ices, Cream Ices


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Marmalades


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 the moment, chartering all the private carriages available, treating the floating population to unlimited champagne, and generally conducting themselves as if suddenly-acquired wealth had bereft them of their sober senses. But this high-pressure era in the colony's history was only of a temporary character. In a few years the rich alluvial deposits became exhausted, and a new and more scientific mode of mining had to be adopted. Companies were organised to crush the auriferous quartz that lay many hundred feet below the surface, and necessarily a considerable amount of capital had to be expended before the quartz rock was reached, before the crushing commenced, and before the shareholders received a dividend. But once the gold-bearing quartz was struck, the reef was worked systematically, and usually the promoters of the company received an immense profit on the capital they had originally invested. It is in this manner that mining as an industry is now carried on, and though the days of rich "nuggets" (solid masses of gold generally found near the surface) have apparently passed away, yet the auriferous resources of the colony are being successfully developed at enormous depths in the manner just described. The total amount of gold produced in Victoria from the time of the first discovery in 1851 to the year 1886 is no less than fifty-five millions of ounces, equal in value to more than two hundred million pounds sterling. From 1851 to 1861 was the most exciting time on the goldfields, and during that remarkable decade, the precious metal was raised to the surface at an average rate of £10,000,000 per year.

The unparalleled productiveness of her gold mines, principally, and the extent of her pastoral and agricultural resources, secondarily, have combined to place Victoria at the head of the Australian colonies, and have given her a lead

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 that none of the others have yet been able to overtake. She is in the full enjoyment of Home Rule, having two chambers modelled on the principle of the British Constitution, the Legislative Council, corresponding to the House of Lords, and the Legislative Assembly, possessing all the powers and privileges of the House of Commons. Her capital, Melbourne, is a city, whose public institutions, principal churches and commercial buildings, will bear favourable comparison with those of the historic cities on the other side of the equator.

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Jellies


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 archæology seem to hold to the belief that our data here in the New World are quite susceptible of division into true Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. Again, when the notion of a cave culture developed in Europe, American students searched our caverns for similar types, but without marked success. All this occupies an important place in the history of our subject; but the result was in the main negative, since no exact parallels were found. Unfortunately, the investigators of this period sought for specific parallels and not finding them, formulated a theory that the New World was extremely young and that in consequence no true Paleolithic, or even deeply stratified remains, would be found. The reaction to this seems to have been a turning away from all stratigraphic and analytic studies to other problems, with the obvious result that no advance has been made.

Recently some of the younger anthropologists have turned to the problem anew, this time not seeking mere parallels, but seeking to analyze the situation as found. For example, Nelson worked last season in the Mammoth Cave district of Kentucky, finding two cultures, the earlier of which is without pottery and with very little polished stone. Again, new studies at Trenton, New Jersey, by Spier have made conclusive the existence of an earlier culture, also without pottery and polished stone. Since both of these observations are east of the Mississippi River, we may conclude that the existence of two culture periods is extremely probable in eastern United States. In other words, when the problem is treated independently, we can, by analysis, arrive at chronological distinctions. We may, therefore, expect great developments in the near future. While it is clear that the specific concepts of European archæology cannot apply here, yet in the end it may turn out that there is something in common; at least, the pioneer efforts of the new anthropological school have brought results.

INFERENTIAL CHRONOLOGIES

We now turn to the second method of determining time relations for culture. The theoretical demonstration of the

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Cakes

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Cakes


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Rh method has been led by Sapir, while the best examples of its application are to be found in certain studies by Boas among the Eskimo, Spinden in Maya art, Lowie in societies of the Plains Indians, and Hatt in studies of clothing.

Boas has used the method in a number of instances, but particularly in his discussions of Eskimo culture, when he concludes that the most differentiating features of the Alaskan Eskimo are more recent than the remaining Eskimo culture. The method is even more extensively applied by Thalbitzer, who decides that the original home of the Eskimo was around Bering Sea, from which general center he traces out the older and newer traits.

Hatt, a Danish student, has exhaustively studied skin clothing both for North America and Asia, distinguishing between very old surviving types and those of recent origin. The oldest origin center he places in northern Asia from whence the concepts seem to have been diffused. In general, he finds two periods of diffusion over the arctic and sub-arctic areas of the world:—

Spinden's searching analysis of Maya art is important both for the results attained and as an example of sound method. By objective comparison the carvings upon the monuments and walls of Maya ruins were placed in two groups that seemed to be sequential. Further, since these stelæ, or monuments, are dated, it is easy to designate the time relations of these groups, thus establishing art periods. From this as the point of departure, the entire art of the region is analyzed into its respective periods and norms established for the identification of such additional examples as may be discovered. As to how far the method can be trusted in localities where there is no dating system to serve as a check, is not clear; but it promises well.

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Tarts

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Tarts


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Creams

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Creams


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Syllabubs


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Page:The Irish in Australia.djvu/32

 CHAPTER II.

GREATER BRITAIN'S METROPOLIS.

to the census of 1881 Victoria has a population of, in round numbers, 900,000, of whom one-fifth are either Irish born, or of Irish parentage. Melbourne, the capital, with its numerous suburbs of Carlton, Collingwood, Fitzroy, Richmond, Hotham, Emerald Hill, Port Melbourne,Williamstown, Footscray, Prahran, Hawthorn, St. Kilda and Brighton, forms a splendid city of 350,000 inhabitants, embracing 90,000 of the Irish race. The principal provincial centres are Ballarat, Sandhurst, Geelong, Castlemaine, Echuca, Beechworth, Stawell, Belfast, Warrnambool, Kilmore, and Kyneton, in all of which the Green Isle is well and ably represented. Melbourne is the metropolis of Australia, the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere, the great centre of antipodean life and activity. When it is remembered that fifty years ago a forest of gum-trees occupied the site on which this bustling city now stands, and that, within the

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Ornaments


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Dragees


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 recollection of many living persons, black fellows have encamped where colossal banks and stately public buildings now rear their lofty heads against the blue Australian sky, it is not surprising that visitors should be amazed at what they see before them. The progress of Melbourne from the primeval wildness of less than half a century ago of its brilliant position to-day in the world of culture, civilisation, and commerce, fully justifies the epithet of "marvellous" applied to it by the much-travelled George Augustus Sala. The rapid growth of San Francisco is the only contemporaneous incident that suggests itself by way of comparison, but it remains to be seen whether the great American city of the West will eventually distance the great Australian city of the South in the race of material and permanent prosperity. Melbourne is situated at the head of a large inlet or land-locked sea called Port Phillip. It is bisected by the River Yarra, the native name for "everflowing water." This river is navigable for several miles, and thus the large intercolonial steamers are enabled to come up almost to the doors of the massive warehouses, and discharge their multifarious cargoes. But most of the ocean vessels and mercantile marine remain in the bay. Port Melbourne and Williamstown, the two ports of the capital, presenting all the facilities and conveniences that could be desired. Melbourne proper is built on two hills, gradually sloping to the river, the intervening valley, covered with shops and warehouses, being about a mile in width.

Sailing up the bay from the Heads, one of the first objects that arrest the stranger's eye is the magnificent Cathedral of St. Patrick, crowning the summit of the Eastern Hill—a monument of the undying ftxith and active piety of the

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Miscellaneous Receipts


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 exiled children of the Isle of Saints. It has been in course of erection for more than a quarter of a century, the noble sum of £200,000 having been subscribed in voluntary contributions during that period to its building fund by the Irishmen and Irishwomen of Victoria. Though still unfinished, the elaborate and expressive design of its architect, Mr. Wardell, is rapidly being fulfilled. A portion of the main building has for years been used for public worship, accommodation being provided for a congregation of 3,000. When finished, the cathedral will accommodate more than double that number. It occupies the site of a smaller church which was hastily erected when Melbourne was not much larger than a village, but the prophetic eye of faith saw in that village not only the great southern metropolis of to-day, but the far greater city of a coming time. Short-sighted people of that early period were amused and astonished at the idea of the Roman Catholics building a grand cathedral in the "bush," but most of them lived to see what they then called the "bush" become the very heart and centre of the greatest city of Australasia. Addressing a large public meeting of his co-religionists on June 20th, 1880, the Hon. John Gavan Duffy, M.P. reminded his audience of "the wonderful and magnificent basilicas and cathedrals which Catholics in the ages of faith had erected in Europe, which were an honour to their builders, a glory to the earth, and would last as long as the world held together." "We have here," he remarked, "a noble site which should be crowned by a nobler edifice. It has often struck me, when sailing up the bay, what a thrilling spectacle it will be to a Catholic immigrant to see, as he approaches our shores, our noble tower crowned by the Catholic cross, telling him that even in this remote corner of the globe he will not be an outcast or a

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Syrups

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Syrups


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Page:Our New Zealand Cousins.djvu/128

, like all the New Zealand towns we have yet seen, strikes a stranger favourably at first glance. Oh, if our Australian hotel-keepers and licensed victuallers were but more alive to the importance of first impressions! The welcome we received at the "Rutland" did more to dissipate our fatigue than even the subsequent ablutions and snug little supper. It was past ten, and we had had nothing since midday, and were, as you may imagine, both tired and hungry. On timidly preferring a request for supper, what a relief to find alacrity, in place of the usual response to which a long travelling experience in New South Wales had habituated us—that response being, generally, something of this sort—"The kitchen's closed, and the cook's gone; ye can't have nuthin." Instead of that we were served with delicious oysters, fresh bread, and beautiful butter, and told

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 stranger, but will find himself amongst brethren of the faith." As a companion picture to this may be added the testimony of one of the ablest and most accomplished of Australian journalists, Mr. Howard Willoughby, who, in his collected series of sketches entitled "The Critic in Church," writes in this graceful and appreciative strain: "St. Patrick's Cathedral is a pile which looms above Melbourne, the first object starting into sight as we approach the city from any quarter; a structure massive, isolated and grand, like the communion it represents. It is in its infancy just now, but the infancy is that of a giant. Already it is the wonder of the Eastern Hill, whose summit it crowns, and some time it must be its architectural pride. We may anticipate the day when the stranger, drawing rein on the Nunawading heights, or the Keilor Hill, or, as off Gellibrand's Point the liner's royals and to'gallants are reefed aloft, and the bellying canvas let fly below, will obtain his first glimpse of the double spires and of the lantern tower, near 350ft. in height, and will feel something of the glow of Chaucer's pilgrims when they caught sight of the 'Angel Towner' rising far away at the head of Canterbury's forest vista. In every way does the cathedral shed a glory on its founders, and probably they will not live to claim more than that title. They will begin, but others must finish. It shows how they can rise above the prevalent meanness and littleness of the present day, the selfishness which cares not about the future, which forgets that our buildings are the tombstones of the generation, and that by them our children will stand and judge us. England received cathedrals from her struggling forefathers; Melbourne is likely, but for the builders of St. Patrick's, to send down nothing in ecclesiastical architecture but specimens of hard bargain-driving and cheap contracting—the greatest

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text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Bills of Fare


text:
Author:Howard Willoughby

Works

 * The Critic in Church
 * The British Convict in Western Australia
 * Critiques on Spiritualism

title: Author:Howard Willoughby


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Oils

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Oils


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/English Wines


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Artificial Wines


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Brandy

title: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Brandy


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Pickles


text: The Complete Confectioner (1800)/Distillation


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The World Commission on Environment and Development was created as a consequence of General Assemb13, resolution 38/161 adopted at the 38th Session of the United Nations in the fall of 1983. That resolution called upon the Secretary General to appoint the Chairman and Vice, Chairman of the Commission and in turn directed them to jointly appoint the remaining members. at least ball of whom were to be selected from the developing world. The Secretary General appointed Mrs, Gro Harlem Brundtland of Norway. then leader of the Norwegian Labour Party, as Chairman and Dr. Mansour Khalid, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs from Sudan, as Vice-Chairman. They together appointed the remaining members of the Commission.

The Commission has functioned as an independent body. All its members have served he Commission in their individual apacities, not as representatives of their governments. The Commission has thus been able to address any issues, to solicit any advice, and to formulate and present any proposals and recommendations that it considered pertinent and relevant.

In pursuing its mandate, the commission has paid careful attention to the Terms of Reference suggested by the General assembly in Resolution 38/161 and has operated in close collaboration with the Intergovernmental Inter-sessional Preparatory Committee of the Governing Council of the UN Environment Programme. which ha itself been preparing an intergovernmental report on environmental perspectives to the year 2000 and beyond. After the Commission's report has been discussed by UNEP's Governing Council, it is to be submitted to the General Assembly of the United Nations for its consideration during its and Session in the fall of 1987. {{c|

The Commissioners
}} Chairman

Gro Harlsm Brundtland. Norway. Prime Minister. Parliamentary Leader of the Labour Party 1981 86, Member of Parliament from 1977, Minister of Environment 1974-79, Associate Director Oslo School Health Services 1968-74.

Vice-Chairman

Mansour Khalid, Sudan. Deputy }'rime Minister 1975, Minister of Education 1975-76, President. UN Security Council 1972, Minister of Foreign Affairs 1971.75, Minister of Youth and Social Affairs 1969-71. /…

title: Page:Brundtland Report.djvu/343


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 Members

Susanna Agnelli, Italy. Italian Senator, writer, Under-Secretary State of Foreign Affairs, Member of the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues. Member of the European Parliament 1979–81. Mayor of Monte Argentario 1974–84, Member of Chamber of Deputies 1976–83.

Saleh Abdulrahan A1-Athel. Saudi Arabia. President of King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology; Vice-President for Graduate Studies and Research. King Saud University 1976–84: Dean, College of Engineering, King Saud University 1975–76.

Pablo Gonzalez Casanova. Mexico. Professor of Political and Social Sciences. National Autonomous University of Mexico, President of the Latin American ssociation of Sociology.

Bernard T. G. Chidzero, Zimbabwe. Minister of Finance, Economic Planning and Development: Chairman, Development Committee of the World Bank and the International Fund: Member, UN Committee for Development Planning: Member, Board of the World Institute for Development Economics and Research; Director, Co..odities Division, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) 1968–1977; Deputy Secretary General, UNCTAD 1977–80.

Lamine Mohaed Fadika. Cote d'lvoire. Minister of Marine Affairs, Chairman of the National Council for Environment. Secretary of State for Marine Affairs 1974–76.

Volker Hauff, Federal epublic of Germany. Member of Parliament: Vice Chairman. Social Democratic Party Parliamentary Group. Responsible for Environment:Minister for Transportation 1980–82; Minister for Research and Technology 1979–80: Parliamentary Secretary of State for Science Research and Technology 1972–78.

Istvan Lang, Hungary. Secretary General of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences; Deputy Secretary General 1970–85, and Executive secretary 1963–70, Section of Biology. Hungarian Academy of Sciences; Research Institute of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Hungarian Academy of Sciences

Ma Shijun, Peoples Republic of China. Director of the Research Center of Ecology, Academia Sinica, Chairman of the Commission of Environmental Sciences, President of the Ecological Society of China. /…

title: Page:Brundtland Report.djvu/344


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Page:Brundtland Report.djvu/345

 Margarita Marino do Batere, Colombia. Chairman, Fundacion El Colegio de Villa de Leyva (The Green College): Director General, tional Institute of Renewable Natural Resources and the Environment (INDERENA) 1983–86; Director, Office of International Affairs. INDERENA 1978–83: Regional Consultant, United Nations Environment Programme 1973–77.

Nagendra Singh, Idia. President of the International Court of Justice, President of IMO Assembly 1959, President of ILO Maritime Session 1971, President of the Indian Academy Environmental Law and Research, President of the National Labour Law Association of India, Life Member of the Board of Governors of the International Council for Environmental Law, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration: Deputy Chairman of CEPLA (IUCN); Chancellor of the University of Goa: Fellow of the British Academy.

Paulo Nogueira-Neto, Brazil. Federal District Secretary of Environment, Science and Technology, National Council of Environment; Federal Secretary of the Environment 1974–86; Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, University of Sao Paulo; President, Association for the Defence of the Environment 1954–83: President, Sao Paulo State Forest Council 1957–74.

Saburo Okita. Japan. President. International University: Advisor to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Advisor to Environment Agency; Executiv Committee Member of the Club of Rome; Chairman. World Wildlife Fund Japan; Chairman, Advisory Committee for External Economic Issues 1984-85: Government Representative re: External Economic Relations 1980–81; Foreign Minister 1979–80; Member of the Pearson Commission 1968–69.

Shridath S. Ramphal, Guyana. Secretary General of the Commonwealth of Nations, Minister for Foreign Affairs 1972–75, Minister of Justice 1973–75, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs 1967–72, Attorney General 1966–72.

William Doyle Ruckelshaus, United States, Attorney, Perkins, Coie: Administrator. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1970–73, 1983–84; Senior Vice President for Law and Corprate Affairs, Weyerhaeuser company 1976–83; Acting Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1973: Deputy Attorney General, US Department of Justice 1973.

Mohamed Sahnoun, Algeria. Algerian Ambassador to the United States: Chief of Algerian Permanent Mission to the United Nations 1982–84; Algerian Ambassador, Paris 1979–82: Algerian Ambassador, Bonn 1975–79: Deputy Secretary General, Arab League 1973–74: Deputy Secretary General. Organization of African Unity 1964–73.

Emil Salim, Indonesia. Minister of State for Population and the Environment: Ministerial State for Development Supervision and the Environment 1978–83; Member People's Consultative Assembly 1977–32; Minister of Communications 1973–78: Minister of State for Administrative Reform: Deputy Chairman, National Planning Board 1971–81. /…

title: Page:Brundtland Report.djvu/345


text:
American Principle and Purpose in East Asia

Good evening. Admiral Larson, thank you for your kind introduction. Captain Bogle, Dean Shapiro, Captain Evans, midshipmen, I am delighted to have a chance to address the Naval Academy community and the participants in your annual Foreign Affairs Conference.

I am also pleased that the Conference organizers chose as your topic this year the great unfinished cause of our times--the struggle for democracy.

This Academy has been the training ground for many of the heroes of that struggle.

Their memory is strong within us and cherished by us. For within the past few years, we have celebrated what sometimes seems the fiftieth anniversary of everything. And as we have recalled the bravery of sailors, aviators, soldiers and Marines from Normandy to Leyte Gulf to Tarawa to Iwo Jima, we have been in awe of their sacrifice and inspired by their example.

The lessons they bequeathed to us are many:

-- We must maintain strong alliances, for there is no better way to prevent war. -- We must be prepared to defend our interests whether in air, on land or at sea. -- We must never take freedom for granted. -- And as Americans, we must continue to carry aloft the banner of leadership.

Today, we are approaching the threshold of a new century in a new era of possibility and risk. The class that entered this Academy last fall will graduate in the year 2000. You will embark upon your careers of service at a time when America is strong, prosperous, respected and at peace.

You will look across the Caribbean and see a nearly-complete hemisphere of democracies, and a group of forward-looking leaders with whom we are striving to consolidate the sway of freedom, defeat the plague of drugs and lay the groundwork for sustainable economic growth.

You will look across the Atlantic and see a NATO strengthened by new members and trained for new missions in a Europe in which every democracy--including Russia--is our partner and every partner is a builder of peace.

And you will look across the Pacific, where you will see a region of dynamic economic growth, thriving new democracies, and complex political and security challenges.

It is American policy toward this region--East Asia--that I would like to discuss with you tonight.

When the Cold War ended, some Asian leaders feared that we Americans would retreat from our historic presence in the region. If any remnants of that perception persist, let me dispel them now. As President Clinton has repeatedly made clear, and as the U.S. Navy helps ensure, America is and will remain an Asia-Pacific power.

Our role there is vital, from the stabilizing effects of our diplomatic and military presence, to the galvanizing impact of our commercial ties, to the transforming influence of our ideals. And our commitment is solid because it is solidly based on American interests.

We have an abiding security interest in a region where we have fought three wars in the last half-century, and where almost any significant outbreak of international violence would threaten our well-being or that of our friends.

We have an abiding economic interest in a region that is characterized by explosive growth, and with which we already conduct more than 40% of our trade.

We have an abiding political interest in a region whose cooperation we seek in responding to the new global threats of proliferation, terrorism, illegal narcotics and the degradation of our environment.

And we have an abiding interest as Americans in supporting democracy and respect for human rights in this, the most populous region of the world.

These interests cannot be separated into discrete boxes. They are reinforcing. The vitality of the international economic system rests upon international political order. Political order depends, in great measure, on military security. And economic stability reduces the likelihood of dangerous conflict. When each of these pillars is strong, progress on all fronts is possible. If one pillar collapses, stress on the others is multiplied.

For this reason, we are working with our allies and others in the region to build an Asia-Pacific community based on a full range of interests, including economic growth, the rule of law and a shared commitment to peace.

To this end, we are fortifying our core alliances, maintaining our forward deployment of troops, and supporting new multilateral security dialogues such as the ASEAN Regional Forum. We are negotiating agreements to open markets for American goods, services, and capital. And we are actively promoting the trend within the region towards greater political openness.

Although many of our initiatives in East Asia are regional in nature, most are grounded in key bilateral relationships. Of these, especially prominent are those with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and China.

Five decades ago, our predecessors made a strategic decision to help Japan rebuild from the destruction of World War Two. The resulting alliance of two great peoples, two great democracies and the two largest economies in the world is not directed against any particular adversary. Rather, U.S.-Japanese cooperation is for peace, for prosperity, for democracy and for economic and political development around the globe.

Militarily, we are committed to maintaining our presence in Japan, to being good guests there, and to working with our hosts to expand the already high degree of cooperation among our armed forces.

Economically, we will continue to strive for a more balanced relationship. Since 1993, we have negotiated 23 market-access agreements that have narrowed our trade deficit and set the stage for further progress. And politically, we are working with Japan almost everywhere, from peace in Bosnia to development in Africa to reform at the UN to our pathbreaking Common Agenda on global issues.

In ten days, Prime Minister Hashimoto will be in Washington, and I know that President Clinton is looking forward to reviewing with him ways to further strengthen our alliance.

The U.S.-Japan partnership is a cornerstone of our engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and a vital contributor to Asian security. Central, as well, is our friendship with the Republic of Korea. Since the Armistice four decades ago, South Korea has climbed the ladder from poverty and destruction to become an active democracy with a modern economy.

Today, our annual trade with Korea tops $50 billion, and we work with the Government in Seoul on a range of political matters. But most critical is our shared effort, as allies, to preserve stability on the Korean Peninsula.

To this end, the Agreed Framework we have negotiated has frozen North Korea's dangerous production of nuclear materials and required it to take the steps necessary to comply fully with the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. U.S. and South Korean diplomacy has thereby preserved the Peninsula's stability in the short term, while preparing the way for discussions that may lead to full reconciliation in the long term.

A year ago, Presidents Clinton and Kim proposed talks involving the two Koreas, China, and the United States. We have recently joined with South Korea in briefing the North on the details of these proposed Four Party talks. And we look forward to what we hope will be a positive response at meetings scheduled this week in New York.

We are also continuing to respond to North Korea's food shortage, the tragedy of which has been documented not only by UN officials but by recent visitors from Congress. Although the threat of famine results largely from the failed policies of the North, we view the suffering as an humanitarian, not a political issue. Earlier this year, the United States contributed $10 million in response to a World Food Program appeal. Today, I have announced that we will commit an additional $15 million.

In February, I visited U.S. troops in the DMZ. These men and women are the visible, human evidence of our commitment to South Korea's security. As I talked with these young Americans, shook their hands and thanked them, I felt again the urgency of the challenge that Korea presents to us all.

Our alliance with the Republic of Korea is a source of stability and vital for the defense of freedom. North Korea has begun to move, ever so slowly, in the direction of greater contact and openness with the outside world. While maintaining our firm policy of deterrence, we will also continue to make clear the benefits of cooperation.

The future of the Peninsula is for Koreans to decide. Our role is to support the South in its efforts to assure peace. We are doing that, and we will maintain that commitment for as long as our help is required.

No nation will play a larger role in shaping the course of 21st century Asia than China. With its huge population and vast territory, China's emergence as a modern, growing economic and military power is a major historical event.

In the United States, there are some, alarmed by China's rise, who suggest that our policy should be to contain China. Such a policy assumes and would, in fact, guarantee an outcome contrary to American interests.

A policy of containment would divide our Asian allies and encourage China to withdraw into narrow nationalism and militarism. Our interests are served by an Asia that is coming together, not splitting apart--and by a China that is neither threatening nor threatened.

What we see in Asia today is not a clash of civilizations, but a test of civilization. And that test is whether we can seize the opportunity for mutually beneficial cooperation that now exists, for we are privileged to live in an era when the protection of security and prosperity is not a zero sum game.

Much is made in the foreign policy journals of the dialogue that is underway between our government and the government of China. What those journals sometimes ignore is that--in addition to what is occurring at the official level--ties between the American and Chinese people are deepening at every level.

From the Bay area to Beijing, from New York to Shanghai, we are visiting each other, studying with each other, doing business with each other, philosophizing with each other and learning from each other. It is our peoples, even more than our governments, that are bringing the old era of mutual isolation and miscommunication to a decisive and irreversible end.

But for America, the strategic benefits of our official dialogue with China are also tangible, clear and growing. We are not yet where we want to be, nor has China evolved as rapidly or thoroughly as some have hoped, but the direction we must go is clear: greater interaction based on China's acceptance of international norms.

For example, the United States has an interest in China's integration into the global trading system. Accordingly, we support its entry into the World Trade Organization on commercially acceptable terms. And we have worked with China to develop a list of concrete steps that would broaden access to its markets and bring its trade practices into line with WTO rules.

In the security arena, when the Clinton Administration took office in 1993, the U.S. and China generally did not see eye to eye on nuclear issues, and the Chinese were selling dangerous weapons and technologies with impunity. Through our dialogue, we have built a record of cooperation on agreements to enhance international nuclear safeguards, ban nuclear tests and make illegal the possession and production of chemical arms.

We also welcome China's commitment not to assist unsafeguarded nuclear activities and its agreement to abide by the guidelines of the Missile Technology Control Regime. We remain concerned, however, about the adequacy of China's export control system. Difficulties have arisen, for example, over Chinese exports of arms as well as sensitive goods and technologies to Iran and Pakistan. Through our dialogue, we are working with China to strengthen export controls and expand cooperation in the development of peaceful nuclear energy and other areas.

More broadly, we have maintained a good working relationship with China at the UN Security Council; we consult regularly on Korea; we are exploring steps to avoid military incidents at sea; we have a shared interest in fighting international terrorism and crime; and we have joined forces on specific problems such as halting the inhumane and criminal practice of smuggling illegal aliens.

Finally, as the world's top producers of greenhouse gases, the U.S. and China must cooperate in responding to the strategic danger posed by threats to the global environment. Those of you who have traveled in East Asia know that the "Asia miracle" has been accompanied in some places by undrivable streets, unbreathable air, undrinkable water and unbearable living conditions. We all should care whether the globe's strongest power, and its largest, are able to work together to ensure a future that is not only wealthier--but healthier.

The U.S.-China relationship is guided by principles set out in the 1972 Shanghai and two later Communiqués. Pursuant to these documents, we recognized the Government of the PRC as the sole legal government of China. At the same time, under the Taiwan Relations Act of 1979, we have maintained strong unofficial ties with the people of Taiwan, thereby helping to propel Taiwan's flourishing democracy.

Although leaders in both the PRC and Taiwan recognize the need to resolve differences peacefully, those differences remain a potential source of instability. That is why we have stressed to both Beijing and Taipei that our "one China" policy is firm, and that they should do all they can to build mutual confidence and avoid provocative actions and words.

In this regard, our naval presence in the Pacific plays a stabilizing role. When China's military exercises caused tensions in the Strait early last year, our deployment of two aircraft carriers helped lower the risk of miscalculation.

Another important element in the U.S.-China dialogue is our interest in the future of Hong Kong.

Two centuries ago, Hong Kong was a treeless granite island populated by leopards, tigers, mongooses, butterflies and what has been described as "an unusual variety of newt". Today, it is a vital and astonishing center of global commerce. I am a skeptic about the human ability to predict the future, but I pay homage to the 12th century Chinese poet who imagined a Hong Kong ablaze "with a host of stars in the deep night and a multitude of ships passing to and fro within the harbor."

On July 1, less than ninety days from now, the world will watch with a mixture of hope and concern as Hong Kong reverts to Chinese sovereignty. The United States supports this reversion under the terms of the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, which calls for the preservation of Hong Kong's high degree of autonomy and its way of life and basic freedoms.

As I assured Martin Lee, the leader of Hong Kong's largest democratic party, in a meeting I held with him yesterday, the United States is deeply committed to freedom and democracy in Hong Kong, as elsewhere.

In addition, 40,000 Americans live in Hong Kong; our citizens have $13 billion in investments there; and we have an interest in law enforcement cooperation and in port access for Navy ships. Advancing these interests depends on the rule of law and protection of civil liberties in Hong Kong.

Accordingly, I have decided to accept the invitation of the British and Chinese Governments to represent the United States at the reversion ceremony in July. By so doing, I will underline American support for the continuation of Hong Kong's current way of life and freedoms. And I will emphasize America's continued involvement in protecting our interests and supporting Hong Kong's people as they enter the Chinese nation.

A major area of disagreement between the United States and China is human rights. We recognize that the Chinese people today possess far more options in their daily lives than did their parents. Progress has also been made in revising civil and criminal law and in permitting a degree of choice in village elections.

China is changing, but the Chinese government's repression of political dissent has not.

The United States will continue to shine the spotlight on egregious violations of internationally-recognized human rights in China, as elsewhere. The world cannot and should not be allowed to forget dissidents such as Wei Jingsheng and Wang Dan, both of whom have been sentenced to long terms in jail for their non-violent support of democracy.

We have expressed to China particular interest in seeing the release of those imprisoned for the peaceful expression of political, religious, or social views and, as a first step, the release on medical parole of those who are eligible. We have urged that international humanitarian organizations be given access to prisoners. And we have stressed the value of resuming negotiations between Beijing and the Dalai Lama for the purpose of preserving Tibet's unique cultural, linguistic, and religious heritage within China.

Earlier today, the UN Human Rights Commission decided not to consider a resolution we had cosponsored that would have urged China to improve its human rights practices. We regret that decision. We congratulate the Government of Denmark for sponsoring the Resolution and the others who cosponsored it.

The Clinton Administration views human rights as an essential part of what our country is all about. We recognize that no nation is perfect, and that none has all the answers. But we also believe that human rights are a legitimate subject for discussion among nations. On this, we differ with China. But we also differ with those who believe that the way to improve human rights conditions in China would be to deny to that country the trading status we accord to most others.

For years, the debate in Washington linking trade to human rights in China has raged. And for years, it has failed to advance American interests or to produce progress in China.

Instead, this debate has divided us, and blurred the focus we should be putting on Chinese practices. The debate has also created the perception that our economic ties to the PRC and our concerns about human rights are in opposition when, in fact, they are two sides of the same coin. Economic openness and political liberalization are not identical, but they do reinforce each other. Both add to China's integration within the world community.

As Americans, we all enjoy a good debate, but we should also realize that--in this debate--we all have the same goal. And that goal is a China that is a responsible and deeply engaged participant in the international system, and that is meeting international norms including those that concern the treatment of its own people.

The strategic dialogue between the United States and China is not based on any particular presumptions about the future. On the contrary, it is designed to influence the future in a manner that serves the interests of both countries, the region and the world.

Later this month, we will welcome Vice Premier Qian Qichen to Washington. And later this year, we look forward to a meeting between President Clinton and China's President Jiang Zemin. Throughout, we will continue efforts to narrow differences, expand cooperation and build understanding. And we anticipate that the larger process of increased ties between the American and Chinese peoples will accelerate with profoundly positive results.

The unifying trends of economic and political modernization that are sweeping East Asia have not erased the region's kaleidoscopic diversity. Nations are adapting to growth and change each in their own distinctive ways. But the struggle for democracy in two countries, in particular, deserves mention now and here.

In Cambodia, the terror of Khmer past--Pol Pot's genocidal Khmer Rouge--has faded in relevance and power. But the transition to a democratic future has been slowed by corruption, infringement of civil liberties and political violence.

As Cambodians prepare for elections next year, we call upon all factions to honor the past sacrifices of the Cambodian people and to agree to debate their differences openly and to settle them peacefully, in accordance with the popular will.

In Burma, a military dictatorship continues to repress a democratic movement that enjoys wide and proven popular support. The outcome of this struggle matters to us because Burma's potential can only be realized by a government accountable to its people. And it matters because Burma is the largest source of heroin in the world.

Our policy is to oppose repression and support a dialogue between the government and the democratic opposition, led by the Nobel-prizewinning Aung San Suu Kyi, and including the leaders of Burma's many ethnic groups.

U.S. officials, myself included, have stressed to Burma's military the opportunity presented by a democratic opening. Unfortunately, the government has responded by placing even greater limits on the right of political expression and by throwing peaceful demonstrators in jail. These decisions continue to have a corrosive effect on the Burmese government's standing at home and abroad; and Burmese leaders are on notice that, unless the clouds of repression are lifted, they will face investment sanctions under U.S. law.

There are some scholars who suggest that democracy and respect for human rights are not well-suited to Asia, and that our focus on them is an attempt to impose alien values. But to me, that argument is more rationalization than rational.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights reflects aspirations that are common to all cultures on all continents. Those who stood up to tanks in Tiananmen Square, transformed the Philippines from kleptocracy to democracy, and who are now raising their voices for freedom in Burma are both true democrats and true Asians. They deserve our respect and the world's.

Before I close, I would like to stress again one central point. American policy in Asia has many facets, but those facets are inter-related, not separate and distinct. If you are an American interested in investing in Asia, you will care whether the legal structure in that country respects individual rights, and whether the political and security environment is stable.

If you are a military planner, you will want to see nations moving ahead with economic and political reform because you know that democracy is a parent to peace.

If you are a human rights activist, you will want to encourage outside investment, expanded trade, and a broad dialogue between nations that are democratic and those that are just beginning to experiment with democratic institutions.

And if you are Secretary of State, you will be determined to move ahead on all fronts, encouraging the full integration of every country in the region into an international system based on the rule of law.

Fifty years ago this month, President Harry Truman addressed an American people still weary from war and wary of the commitments that loomed in the dawn of the postwar world. He said that "the process of adapting ourselves to the new concept of world responsibility is naturally a difficult and painful one. But it is not in our nature to shirk our obligations."

Truman continued by saying that "we have a heritage that constitutes the greatest resource of this nation, I call it the spirit and character of the American people. We.not only cherish freedom and defend it, if we need with our lives, but (we) also recognize the right of other (people) and other nations to share it."

It was not enough, after World War II, to say that the enemy had been defeated, and that what we were against had failed. The scourge of war had cut too deep. The generation that defeated Hitler and won the war in the Pacific was determined to build a foundation of principle and purpose that would last. Together, they designed the institutions and alliances that would one day defeat Communism, promote prosperity and strengthen the rule of law around the world.

To them, and to all those who have fought and sacrificed so that we might be free, we have inherited a duty to history and to ourselves. If we allow the momentum towards democracy to stall, or turn away from our responsibilities, or take for granted the blessings of liberty, we would betray generations past and future, and squander all that is truly precious to ourselves.

The dawn of a new century carries with it no guarantees. It will be our shared task, as diplomats, sailors, marines and just plain citizens to shape a future in which our interests are advanced, our values flourish, our goodwill is understood and our determination and capacity to defend freedom is never in doubt.

Tonight, as I look out at you--the Naval officers and leaders of tomorrow--I have no doubt that in this shared task, we will prevail. Thank you very much.

美國在東亞的原則與目標


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 earliest physicians have mostly died with their inventors, and posterity have scarcely been able to equal, much less to exceed, the ancients. Some allusion has been made above to the "Divine Husbandman," who discovered the noxious and healing qualities of various plants, and laid the foundation of the Chinese pharmacopoeia. About the same time lived a statesman, to whom the invention of the puncture is attributed; this man left on record two fragments, which are looked upon as the most ancient notices on the cause and cure of diseases in China. In these fragments the circulation of the blood is recognised, and compared to the unceasing revolutions of the heavens and the earth, which begin, end, and begin again from the same point at which they originally set out; thus, they say, the blood goes round and round the human body, till its dissolution. It must not be imagined from this, however, that the Chinese understand the circulation of the blood, as the phrase is used in Europe; or know anything distinctly about the veins and arteries through which it flows. Not having practised anatomy, they are unacquainted with the internal structure of the human frame, and remain satisfied with the fact of the blood's circulation, without attempting to explain it.

To the pulse, however, they have paid close attention, and are enabled to discover its variations with a nicety and precision, scarcely equalled by European physicians. They affect to distinguish twenty-four different kinds of pulsations, and will frequently proceed to prescribe, without asking a single question, or examining any other prognostic. The system which they have imagined to themselves, is more the result of fancy than experience; and the connection they pretend


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 to trace between the five points at which the pulse may be feh, the five viscera, the five planets, and the five elements, is the fruitful source of innumerable mistakes in their practice; but we must remember, that it is not long since Bacon opened the gate of experimental science in Europe, and that our forefathers once united astrology with medicine, by which they blundered quite as much as the Chinese!

In the earliest classics of the Chinese, several physicians of eminence are referred to, and during the period of the "contending states," a medical man was called "the nation's arm," because he rescued so many from impending death. When China was divided into three kingdoms, about the third century of the Christian era, the father of Chinese surgery, Hwa-to, flourished. He is said to have laid bare the arm of a wounded chieftain, and to have scraped the poison off the scapula, while the unmoved warrior continued to play at chess, and to drink wine, with the other arm. A jealous tyrant of that age cruelly murdered this useful man, and his wife burnt all his manuscripts, by which means his valuable art perished with him. In the fourth century the well-known work on the pulse, quoted by Du Halde, was published. In the sixth century lived Chin-kwei, who is said to have cut into the abdomen, removed diseased viscera, and stitched up the part again, curing the patient in a month's time. The most eminent writers on medicine in China are the "four great masters," who flourished—the first in the third, the second in the thirteenth, the third in the fourteenth, and the fourth in the fifteenth centuries. The first is considered the father of physic, and has left numerous writings behind him. From the various treatises on


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 medicine, one imperial work has been compiled, in forty volumes, called "a golden mirror of medical practice," which was completed nearly a century ago, after four years' labour. Other works on medicine have successively appeared; and a gentleman in Canton, wishing to obtain all that was procurable in that city, made a collection of eight hundred and ninety-two volumes of medical books: so that if the Chinese know little of the science in question, it is not for want of books or theories.

We are not, however, to estimate the value of medical knowledge in China by the aggregate of treatises on the subject; or the efficiency of their practice, by the number of doctors' shops throughout the country: for though the celestial empire literally swarms with medical works and apothecaries' shops, jet the number of successful practitioners we believe to be small. For the most part, their medical practice is mere quackery; and their surgery, in modern days, does not extend beyond puncturing, cauterizing, drawing of teeth, and plastering, without attempting any operation in which skill or care is required.

The advance which the Chinese have made in the fine arts has been more considerable than in the sciences. To begin with painting, we may observe that the graphical representations of the Chinese are not altogether despicable. It is true they lamentably fail in the knowledge of perspective, and the differences of light and shade have not been much noticed by them. But their colours are vivid and striking, and in delineating flowers, animals, or the human countenance, they are sometimes very successful. The Chinese drawings brought to this country on what is called rice paper,


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Author:Madeleine Albright

Works

 * American Principle and Purpose in East Asia (1997)

title: Author:Madeleine Albright


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 CHAPTER XIII

MYTHOLOGY

the general name of folklore, we have a more or less distinct department of inquiry, with its own particular societies and journals whose supporters consider the whole unwritten literature of the earth as their province, whether it pertains to primitive groups or to the most advanced nations. However, in our country, the American Folk-Lore Society has given its attention almost wholly to the mythology of the aborigines. Every such tribe, so far examined, has been found to possess two kinds of tales, those referring to a previous order of events, and those having to do with the present. The latter take the form of anecdotes, hero tales, etc., and, regardless of the many fictitious elements they contain, have the form of narratives of real events. The former deal with a period in which the world was taking shape and the present order of things evolving. While it may be true that a tribe will regard one of these two classes of tales as worthy of belief as the other, they yet recognize them as different. In this volume we shall designate as myths all tales that deal with this mythical pre-world, or that partake of the mythical style.

In the first place, the myths of the world embody one universal feature: namely, that the animals and heavenly bodies are endowed with human qualities and associate with man indiscriminately. One can scarcely find a well-developed tale in which animals, heavenly bodies, or both, together, do not play the part of human beings. Another peculiarity is that but rarely do any of these tales convey a moral or even pretend to exemplify worthy ideals. In fact, we often find the standard of ethics and morals of the tales much at variance with the tribe of the narrator. On the other hand, these tales frequently profess to convey information as to the origins of specific features in the modern world. Thus, the alternation of day

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 have been much admired for the striking characteristics, and brilliant tints which they display. If instructed in the art of shading, and taught the nature of perspective, the Chinese might become good artists; and one of them, who had the advantage of a few lessons from an eminent English painter, has produced some pieces which have been thought worthy of a place in the Royal Exhibition at Somerset House.

In the art of engraving the Chinese excel. The rapidity with which they carve their intricate and complicated characters is really surprising, and not to be imitated by European artists, in the same style of execution, and at the same low prices. A London engraver was surprised when he learned, that what would cost sixty or eighty shillings in England, might be accomplished by a Chinese workman for half-a-crown. In seal engraving they are not behind our own countrymen, and in ivory and ebony, tortoiseshell, and mother-of-pearl, their carving surpasses that of most other artists. The celebrated Chinese balls, one in the other, to the amount of seven or nine, all exquisitely carved, have puzzled many of our English friends; who have been at a loss to know, whether they were cut out of a solid piece, or cunningly introduced by some imperceptible opening, one within the other. There can be no doubt, however, of their having been originally but one piece, and cut underneath from the various apertures, which the balls contain, until one after another is dislodged and turned, and then carved like the first. The ivory work-boxes and fans, commonly sold in Canton, exhibiting the various figures standing out in very bold relief, may be considered as fair specimens of Chinese skill.


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 In the useful arts, the Chinese are by no means deficient; and in what contributes to the necessaries, comforts, and even elegances of life, shew themselves to be as great adepts as their neighbours. The manufacture of silk has been long established among them; and thousands of years ago, when the inhabitants of England were going about with naked bodies, the very plebeians of China were clothed in silks; while the nobility there vied with each other in the exhibition of gold and embroidery, not much inferior to what they now display. In the fabled days of the Yellow Emperor, at the commencement of the Chinese monarchy, "the empress taught her subjects to rear the silkworm, and unwind the coocoonscocoons [sic], in order to make dresses; so that the people were exempted from cold and chilblains." When Confucius arose, the Chinese had long been in the habit of cultivating the silkworm, and the general rule then was, for "every family that possessed five acres of ground, to plant the circumference with mulberry trees, in order that all above a certain age might be clothed in silk." Down to the present age, the Chinese are still celebrated for the abundance, variety, and beauty of their silk fabrics, equalling in the richness of their colours, and the beauty of their embroidery, anything that can be manufactured in France or England, while the crapes of China still surpass the products of this western world. But they are not only skilled in making, they are also attached to the wearing, of gay apparel; the Chinese are confessedly a well-clothed nation, and, except where poverty prevents, the people are seen attired in silks and crapes, as commonly as we appear in cloth and leather. Their fashions differ indeed from ours, but the dress of a Chinese gentleman


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text: Index:Memoir of Dr James Alexander (1795-1863), Wooler by his son-in-law, Sir John Struthers, 1863.pdf


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 number housed at the least possible cost; the most souls accommodated at the least expense. We build for our present wants and forget the past and ignore the future, like the degenerate savages Goldsmith pictured, occupying turf huts in sight of palaces, and, like them, wonder that 'man should need the larger pile.' The Roman Catholics, true to nobler instincts, are not content to chant 'Day by day we magnify Thee and we worship Thy name ever, world without end,' in a barn. The painfulness of the incongruity strikes them. And they, free from schism and strife, can unite for a common purpose in the cause of the Cross as other men only appear able to do in the cause of the Dollar—a thing declared by some to be the devil, it being as easy for the author of evil to take the form of a coin as to assume the disguise of a reptile. Were this land blighted at its present stage, as Greece has been, or Spain, there would remain many magnificent temples erected in the service of Mammon. Thanks to the Roman Catholics, and them alone, there would be one temple dedicated to God."

At the rear of the cathedral are the Archbishop's Palace and St. Patrick's College, the latter being one of the leading public schools of the colony. It is conducted most efficiently by the Jesuit Fathers, and many of its pupils have won high honours, both in colonial and home universities. The Very Rev. J. Ryan, S. J., has been the accomplished rector of the college for some time past. It is an institution that has given to the Victorian priesthood much-needed recruits, and to the learned professions some of their most distinguished members. More recently the Jesuits have found it necessary to establish a second collegiate institution to meet the growing requirements of the rising Catholic population. This is situated on a commanding site in the suburb of

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User talk:Chiswick Chap

— billinghurst  sDrewth  14:04, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

Neat! Now ...
I have done the author page for Struthers, though not sure whether he was the editor or the author, noting that it says "Memoirs of ..." so confirmation either way would be good. Are you right to transclude it to main namespace? If not, then give me a shove and I will get to it tomorrow. — billinghurst  sDrewth  15:08, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Well done, I was just working my way thru the "how to create an author" page when I got an edit conflict! Struthers was the author of this piece. By all means go ahead and do the transclusion, sounds complicated. Thanks Chiswick Chap (talk) 15:10, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Oops, apologies for stealing your thunder. Transclusion is a little fiddly for the first few times, but you get used to it.  Work has been validate, thrown some links in and created author page for Alexander, as he published.  Can I invite you to add the work to Template:New texts?  The form to add is  to give

which will pop it onto the front page. Congrats on getting the work done, — billinghurst  sDrewth  15:44, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

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 was born about the year 1795 in Dunfermline, where his father was a surgeon. Both his father and mother, whose only child he was, were above the average in talent, and he used to speak of his mother as a person of unusual cultivation. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, and among his teachers were John Gordon, Andrew Duncan, Home, Hope, Hamilton, and James Gregory. He took his surgeon's diploma in 1815, and among his examiners on the occasion appears the name of Dr Abercrombie, with whom he formed an intimacy which lasted for life. Finding that he must endeavour at once to get some position where he could maintain himself, he had to relinquish his ardent desire to fight his way in Edinburgh, and the chance of circumstances led to his being fixed for life in the remote district where he worked so long. He went to Wooler first as the partner of Mr Cupples, the partnership continuing till the death of the latter. He married very soon after he went to Wooler, and Mrs Alexander, like himself from Dunfermline, proved throughout life to him and his children the most devoted and unselfish of wives and mothers. She survived him a year. With much domestic happiness he had his domestic sorrows, in the death of three of his children, losing his eldest daughter of scarlet fever at the age of seven, his eldest son after he had commenced the study of medicine, and his youngest son, who had entered the army as a surgeon, died of cholera in India.

The district of Glendale in which Mr Alexander practised, with Wooler as its centre, is essentially a rural one. An extensive, fertile, and beautiful valley, watered by the Till and some of its tributaries, divided for the most part into large and highly


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 Kew, about five miles distant from the metropolis. St. Francis Xavier's College, as it has been titled, is built on a spacious estate of seventy acres in extent, and the view from its windows is superb, embracing the shining expanse of Port Phillip Bay, the picturesque panorama of the city and suburbs, and the mountain ranges in the background. Young Irish-Australians from all quarters are being carefully trained for a future honourable career in this delightful spot, under the careful supervision of its highly-successful rector, the Very Rev. C. Nulty, S. J.

Near the western end of the city proper, fronting Bourke Street, the main thoroughfare of the metropolis, stands St. Patrick's Hall, an unpretentious but historically interesting structure. Here the infant legislature of the colony assembled, and formed the machinery by which the measure of Home Rule granted by the Imperial authorities was brought into practical operation. Here, in 1854, the Victorian Convention, consisting of delegates from public meetings throughout the country, and guided by one of the purest patriots in colonial political life, the late Wilson Gray, met and agitated for a reform of the land laws, and paved the way for future liberal land legislation. Here for forty years the Irish national sentiment has been kept alive and perpetuated by historical lectures, inspiring speeches, and frequent gatherings of the clans. Here every movement initiated in the old land has met with a generous, ready, and sympathetic response, whether its object was to raise immediate funds for the relief of our famine-stricken countrymen, or to help them to conquer the tyranny of bad and brutal landlordism, or to join with them in the

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 righteous demand for the restitution of a native parliament, or to cheer the declining days of the men who have suffered for their love of country. Here is the head-quarters of the leading Irish organisation, the St. Patrick's Society, numbering 1,000 members, and having an accumulated fund of £15,000. Here were celebrated with the utmost enthusiasm the centenaries of Daniel O'Connell, Thomas Moore, and Henry Grattan. Here, on each recurring national anniversary. Irishmen of all shades of opinion and diversities of creed, unite to do honour to the common toast, "Our Native Land." And here, many a time and oft, has a political orator addressed the surging and excited crowd of free and independent electors, for St. Patrick's Hall is the polling-place for the West Melbourne constituency, which returns two members to parliament.

In the hollow between the two hills stands the popular Church of St. Francis of Assisium, occupying the position on which the early Irish Catholics first assembled in a little body to worship their Creator. A large cross, erected in the grounds attached to the present church, indicates the precise spot where the first Mass was offered up on Victorian soil by the late Father Patrick Bonaventure Geoghegan, the earliest Irish missionary to the infant settlement, and afterwards the energetic Bishop of Adelaide, South Australia. Its historical character as the cradle of Irish Catholicism in Victoria has made St. Francis' the most popular church of the city, and nowhere in the colonies, or even in Ireland itself, could a more genuinely Irish congregation be found. It can accommodate about 2,000 persons; but as a rule, the seating accommodation is wholly inadequate to the numbers in attendance. Not only are the passages filled, but many are to be seen kneeling outside the doors, unable to obtain

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2 farms, skirted by the Cheviots, giving a Highland aspect to the scenery, and implying many long rides to the shepherds' huts which are scattered among the glens. Practice in such a district, extending as his practice came to do some ten miles in either direction, was necessarily laborious, involving long rides, much exposure, and frequent want of sleep. He drove partly, but some of the roads were so hilly that he was more frequently in the saddle. But naturally active and energetic, he did not feel this, and took pleasure in his daily rounds, endowed as he was with a genial many-sidedness which enabled him to find sources of interest and pleasure where some men would have experienced only the dulness and fatigue of daily routine. His habit of keeping up his general as well as his professional reading no doubt contributed to this. After twenty or thirty miles in the saddle, with the breeze in one's face, it is no easy matter to find time for evening study, or wakefulness to pursue it, but Mr Alexander managed somehow to do this. Much of his reading was accomplished during his daily rounds. He read everywhere, riding, driving, or sitting by the bedside of his patients, and often in bed both in his own house and elsewhere. Many a down-come of his horse was the consequence. The danger of this became so evident that his family endeavoured latterly to prevent him taking a book with him, and his combined love of reading and amiability of character were sometimes amusingly illustrated by his innocent stratagems to conceal the book, and his laughingly yielding it up when it was found on him or secreted in some unlikely place. His habit of reading in bed on one occasion got him into an amusing predicament in a friend's house. His light having been accidentally extinguished, he ventured out into the passage to try to relight it, forgot which was his own bedroom door among several around him, and was obliged to stand in the middle of the night en robe de nuit and call loudly to the gentleman of the house to extricate him from his undesirable situation.

With such tastes and habits it need hardly be added that Mr Alexander was well acquainted with the literature of his profession, and that he kept abreast of what was new. Although familiar with the writings of the older physicians, he was far from being a man of the old school, and was sparing in his use of drugs and of the lancet. He early used the stethoscope when some men of his standing were sneering at it, and he was at all times ready and indeed eager for surgical operations, not merely those of emergency


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Author:Walter Henry Medhurst (1796-1857)

Works

 * China: Its State and Prospects (1840)
 * Ancient China: The Shoo King or the Historical Classic (1846)
 * A Glance at the Interior of China
 * Chinese Dialogues, Questions, and Familiar Sentences, Literally Rendered (1863), revised by Walter Henry Medhurst (1822-1885)
 * A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language (1832)


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3 which the country practitioner might take in hand, but operations which he might have sent to the metropolitan surgeons, such as  lithotomy, tying the arteries for aneurism, and the excision of  tumours. Besides reading the journals and the new books, he was himself an occasional contributor of reviews and papers, chiefly in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, the  Edinburgh Medical Journal, and in the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review. It is to be regretted indeed that what he wrote was mainly in the form of reviewing, and not  more in the form of communications bearing his name. Of these, however, there are several in the Edinburgh journals. In the Edinburgh Monthly Journal he published a "Case of Popliteal Aneurism, with Remarks", and his "Case of Excision of the Sub-maxillary Gland". This case furnishes at least one example in which the tumour excised really was the sub-maxillary salivary gland.

In the Edinburgh Medical Journal he published in 1857 a "Case of Suppurating Tumour in the Groin, resembling Hernia", and a "Case of Dislocation of the Humerus Backwards;" in 1858 a "Case of Cancerous Tumour treated by Chloride of Zinc"; in 1859 "Cases of Suppression of Urine," and on "Surgical Statistics"; and in 1862, "Case of Strangulated Hernia, accompanied with Chronic Abscess in the neighbourhood of Poupart's Ligament," in which he takes occasion to inculcate early recourse  to the operation in strangulated hernia. These communications contain useful practical remarks besides the record of interesting cases. The most remarkable of them is the one entitled "Surgical Statistics," in which he gives a tabular view of 126 operations which he had performed, although the district, being purely agricultural, is one in which accidents comparatively seldom occur. There are 12 larger amputations, 2 of ligature of the femoral artery for popliteal aneurism, 2 of lithotomy, 11 cases of  operation for strangulated hernia, a case of excision of the eye- ball; of excision of the mamma for cancer, 8 cases; of excision  of the lip for cancer, 34 cases; of other tumours, 6; and 42 of minor operations. Of the cases of excision of the mamma for cancer, the operation appeared to have afforded permanent relief in only 2, while in the cases of cancer of the lip the disease  returned in only 7 of the 34. His object in giving these statistics and remarks was to make his small contribution illustrate the  effect of country air and home influences on recovery after


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 operations as compared with the opposite conditions. The result is certainly remarkable enough, for, with the exception of 1 of the 11 cases of strangulated hernia, and 2 cases of fistula in ano in which the patients died of phthisis, the whole of the cases  did well as far as the operations were concerned.

Mr Alexander was strongly impressed with the idea that important contributions to the statistics of practice could be made  from the experience of practitioners in the country; that the  statistics commonly founded on are from town practice, and even  there from the practice of hospitals and dispensaries, in which  many of the patients are below the average in constitution and  condition. He was fully aware of the difficulties attending the obtaining of such statistics, as distinguished from mere opinions, but thought that much might be done if an organisation could be  formed, or some machinery put in motion by the medical journals  or by the colleges or influential societies of the profession. He took an active interest, along with his respected friend Dr Charles Wilson, then of Kelso, in the Border Medical Society. In the Transactions published by the society in 1841 occurs an interesting paper by Mr Alexander, containing, besides a tabular view  of cases, 1,705 in number, treated by him in the Glendale Dispensary, some useful reflections on the prevalence of fever and  the means by which it is spread in the country, and on the  difficulties of the country practitioner.

Notwithstanding the difficulties there feelingly expressed, he managed to keep up his reading in literature and philosophy. He was especially familiar with Shakespeare and Milton, with Scott and Burns, and could quote them readily on occasion, and with much fervour and point. In philosophy he was familiar with the writings of Hume, Reid, Dugald Stewart, and Hamilton, and with  those of Locke and Butler, and he engaged eagerly in philosophical  discussion. He wrote in the Reviews occasionally, and his later writings I find were reviews of such works as Buckle's "History of Civilisation," the "Essays and Reviews," Sir Wm. Hamilton's  "Lectures on Metaphysics." The review of Dr John Brown's "Horæ Subsecivæ" in the Edinburgh Medical Journal of February 1859, which I know to be from his pen, is a good specimen of his  style. He took an active part in organising courses of lectures, and among his papers are manuscript lectures on Burns, Byron, on  the philosophy of history, &c.

He relished society keenly, and shone in it, for his


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 powers were high, and he abounded in anecdote and quotation. Although the district was a rural one, there were not wanting in it men of education who met round his table, and I have there heard discussions and conversations which could not be easily surpassed. He took pains himself to assist in the education of his children, getting up early in the mornings for this purpose, and as they grew up the evenings were spent with them as often as possible in family readings. In matters of religion, while it may be said to have pervaded his whole life and character, he had a strong dislike not only to cant but to the too common use of religious phraseology or the unwise obtrusion of sacred things. With earnest convictions of his own he combined a wise and tolerant charity for those who differed from him, and there was nothing ascetic in his view of religion. Ecclesiatically he adhered to the Scotch form in which he had been educated, but he attached no importance to such distinctions. In politics he took an intelligent interest and was an active Liberal, and that in the days when Liberalism did not pay. I understand that he rather suffered for this in his early years at the hands of those who came afterwards to trust him as their physician and friend.

One intention of his life remained unaccomplished. He had been urged by friends who knew his literary ability, and the large store of experience of human nature which he possessed, to write a book of recollections, embracing his experiences of life as a country surgeon. There can be no doubt that that would have proved a work full of interest alike to the professional and to the general reader. He had accepted the idea, and thought over the plans, but the end came before it had been even begun.

He had always said that he would die in harness, and so the event proved. He had paid a visit to Edinburgh during the meeting of the Social Science Association early in October 1863, and though to outward appearance the same as ever, full of interest in what was going on, he felt some breathlessness, and complained sometimes of violent pain across the chest. He was carefully examined by his friend Dr W. T. Gairdner, who could detect no disease beyond a more than usually atheromatous state of the arteries, and warned him against violent exercise of any kind. The night before the apopleptic seizure which carried him off, he experienced severely the pain across the chest, but was so well in the morning that he preferred riding to driving. An hour after he left home he was found lying on the roadside insensible. On being


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 admission. The national character of the congregation becomes manifest, when in the course of a sermon, the preacher makes an incidental allusion to the old land, her sufferings for the faith, the achievements of her sons, her fortitude and fidelity in the past, and her bright destiny in the future as "a nation once again." The panegyric of St. Patrick is here an annual institution. It is preached on the Sunday nearest the national anniversary, and then the throng becomes something astonishing. Several reasons have been given why St. Francis' Church should have taken such a hold on the popular liking, but the one advanced by a witty Irish priest, when asked his opinion, is rather ingenious: "You see," he said, "it is a nice walk down hill to St. Francis' from every quarter, and the people never think of the up-hill journey afterwards." And this is literally true, for, no matter in what direction you start for St. Francis', you walk down a decline, it being built, as already mentioned, in the hollow between the Eastern and the Western hills. This latter circumstance renders the locality at times both disagreeable and dangerous during heavy rains, for the running streams converge from all points in this hollow and flow past St. Francis' Church in a foaming torrent to the Yarra. According to tradition, after one of these temporary floods, a heavily-laden waggon and a team of horses once sank completely out of sight in the soft soil immediately in front of St. Francis'. But this occurred in the early days, when there were no smooth, substantial pavements, and strong macadamized roads as at present. It is in St. Francis' Church on Sunday evenings, at Vespers, that the Irish servant girls from all parts of the city and suburbs are to be seen in force. As a class they are a credit to their country and their creed. By the majority of Protestant masters and

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 removed to a neighbouring cottage, where a stimulant was administered, he recovered consciousness so far as to be able to relate that he had dismounted to pick up his whip, which he had dropped, and had been knocked over by the horse; that being his impression of what had evidently been the result of the apoplectic seizure. He was conveyed home, unconsciousness deepened into coma, and on the evening of the fourth day, the 23rd of November 1863, he passed away. He had reached his sixty-seventh year. A tombstone in the Wooler Churchyard marks his resting-place.

It is almost needless to say that a man of this stamp held a high position in a locality in which he practised for more than forty years. His practice was extensive, all that the district admitted of, and he was on terms of intimacy and personal esteem with all classes of the community. One is apt to feel that a man of such capacity and attainments was in a measure lost in such a position. That he would have taken a high position had his lot been cast in the metropolis or in connection with the medical school, there can be little doubt. At the same time we must not underestimate the value and influence of such a life. The great majority of the profession are and must be country practitioners; the hardest work of the profession is done by them; in the winter nights, when the world is asleep, they have many a long and weary drive; they are far from libraries, from hospitals and museums, and from societies; and thus in their comparative isolation want that stimulus and guidance which tend to keep the city practitioner up to the mark. It depends more upon himself what the country practitioner shall be, whether he shall succumb to the influences around him, or resolve on a plan of life and work up to to. It has been truly said that if the country practitioner is a man of observation and reading, he is in the best position to develop the whole medical man, for unlike the town man, he has not the consultants and specialists at his elbow, and must rely on himself in every branch and corner of his profession; his intimacy, too, with his patients, closer than the town practitioner can have, gives him greater influence among them, and perhaps a deeper insight into human nature. The subject of this notice was essentially such a man, and we must not therefore underrate the influence and usefulness of such a life wherever it may have been spent. The presence of such a man in the community must have been beneficial to a degree which it is not easy to calculate. As he moved about his district from day to day, not merely alleviating


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