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HILL, EDWIN (1793–1876), mechanical inventor and writer on currency, second son of Thomas Wright Hill [q. v.], by Sarah Lea his wife, was born at Birmingham on 25 Nov. 1793. He was an elder brother of Sir Rowland Hill [q. v.], the inventor of penny postage. He showed great mechanical ingenuity in his youth, and entering the Fazeley Street Rolling Mills in Birmingham, rose to be manager. This post he threw up in 1827 to join his brother, Rowland Hill, in establishing a school at Bruce Castle, Tottenham. On the introduction of penny postage in 1840 he was appointed supervisor of stamps at Somerset House. Till his retirement in 1872 he had under his control the manufacture of stamps. By his inventive mechanical skill he greatly improved the machinery. In conjunction with Mr. Warren De la Rue he invented the machine for folding envelopes which was exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851. In 1856 he published a work under the title of ‘Principles of Currency: Means of Ensuring Uniformity of Value and Adequacy of Supply.’ In this he proposed ‘that government should prepare and issue under the authority of parliament an adequate amount of interest-bearing securities, almost identical with exchequer bills; and that these be made a legal tender for their principal sum, together with their accumulated interest up to the day of tender, according to a table to be printed upon the face of each bill.’ He published, moreover, pamphlets entitled ‘Criminal Capitalists’ (1870–2), by which he meant those owners of house-property who knowingly provided lodgings for criminals, or shops where stolen goods could be disposed of. He proposed to strike at crime by first striking at these landlords. He died on 6 Nov. 1876 at his residence, No. 1 St. Mark's Square, Regent's Park, and was buried in Highgate cemetery. He married Anne Bucknall, the younger daughter of a Kidderminster brewer, by whom he had ten children, seven of whom survived him.

HILL, GEORGE (1716–1808), serjeant-at-law, of an old Northamptonshire family, was born in 1716. He was admitted a member of Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar, practising at first as a conveyancer. He joined the midland circuit, and although his practice was small, he soon gained a great reputation for exceptional knowledge of case law. Although he was a scholar and a mathematician of considerable learning and attainments, as a lawyer he was so overwhelmed by his memory for cases that he was unable to extract from them clear general principles, and earned for himself the nickname of Serjeant Labyrinth. On 6 Nov. 1772 he became at once a serjeant and a king's serjeant. Of his absence of mind and abstraction among unpractical points of law many anecdotes are told (see, Law and Lawyers, i. 76; , Life of Lord Eldon, i. 301, 325; , Memoirs, i. 248, iv. 149; Memoirs of Letitia Matilda Hawkins, i. 255; , Lives of the Chief Justices, ii. 571). He died at his house in Bedford Square on 21 Feb. 1808, and was buried in the family vault at Rothwell, Northamptonshire, where there is an epitaph upon him by Bennett, bishop of Cloyne. He married Anna Barbara, daughter and heiress of Thomas Medlycote of Cottingham, Northamptonshire, by whom he had two daughters. His legal manuscripts were purchased of his executors by the Society of Lincoln's Inn, and are in the library there.

HILL, GEORGE (1750–1819), principal of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, was born in that city in June 1750. He was the son of John Hill, one of the clergymen of St. Andrews, by his second wife, the daughter of his colleague, Dr. McCormick, and a grand-niece of Principal Carstares [q. v.] He was educated at the grammar school and university of his native city, and graduated at the age of fourteen. His distinction as a student attracted the notice of Lord Kinnoull, then chancellor of the university, who as long as he lived was his constant friend and patron. He entered the divinity hall in his fifteenth year, but, losing his father soon afterwards, he was recommended by Principal Robertson of Edinburgh to Pryse Campbell, esq., M.P., one of the lords of the treasury, as tutor to his eldest son. He resided for some time in Campbell's family in London and Wales, and afterwards spent two years with his pupil in Edinburgh, where he finished his divinity course at the university. In both capitals he saw much of the best literary society of the time. Before he had completed his twenty-second year he was appointed joint professor of Greek in the university of


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 St. Andrews. In 1775 he was licensed as a probationer by the presbytery of Haddington, and afterwards preached regularly in the college church. He was ordained by the same presbytery in 1778, and in 1780 was inducted as one of the ministers of St. Andrews, holding his parochial charge along with his chair. He received the degree of D.D. in 1787, and in the same year was appointed dean of the order of the Thistle. After having held the Greek chair for sixteen years, he became professor of divinity in St. Mary's College in January 1788, and in 1791 was promoted to the principalship. He was soon afterwards appointed one of his majesty's chaplains for Scotland, and in 1799 he received the deanery of the Chapel Royal as ‘an acknowledgment of his public services as a churchman.’ For these latter preferments he was much indebted to the first Lord Melville, with whom he was on terms of friendship, and who consulted him on Scottish ecclesiastical affairs. From 1773 Hill had been constantly a member of the general assembly, and he was raised to the moderator's chair in 1789. He early distinguished himself as a supporter of Principal Robertson, and succeeded him as leader of the moderate party, a position which he held for upwards of thirty years. Combining great natural abilities with unwearied industry, equanimity of temper, and dignified and courteous manners, he discharged his manifold duties with conspicuous success. He was esteemed a model of pulpit eloquence; his ‘Lectures on Divinity’ form one of the most valuable theological works which Scotland has produced; while his thorough knowledge of the constitution of the church, great power in debate, business capacity, and conciliatory spirit towards those who differed from him qualified him for the place which he long held in the ecclesiastical councils of his country. He died on 19 Dec. 1819, in his seventieth year.

Hill married, on 7 June 1782, Harriet, daughter of Alexander Scott, merchant, Edinburgh, and had, with other children, Alexander [q. v.], professor of divinity in Glasgow; David, chief secretary of the Honourable East India Company at Madras; Thomas, minister of Logie-Pert; Janet, who married Dr. John Cook, professor of divinity in St. Andrews; Jane, who married Dr. Macnair, minister of Paisley; and Harriet, who married Mark Sprot, esq., of Garnkirk, Lanarkshire. Hill published: 1. ‘Occasional Sermons.’ 2. Volume of ‘Sermons,’ London, 1796. 3. ‘Lectures upon Portions of the Old Testament,’ 1812. 4. ‘Theological Institutes,’ Edinburgh, 1817. 5. ‘Lectures on Divinity,’ 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1821.

HILL, HUGH (1802–1871), judge, second son of James Hill, by Mary, daughter of Hugh Norcott of Cork, was born in 1802 at Graig, near Doneraile, co. Cork, where his family had been long settled. He graduated B.A. at Dublin in 1821, kept two years' terms at the King's Inns, and then joined the Middle Temple in London. He practised with great success as a special pleader under the bar between 1827 and 1841, when he was called to the bar and joined the northern circuit. He became a Q.C. in 1851; on 29 May 1858 he was appointed a judge of the court of queen's bench, and about the same time was made a serjeant-at-law; he was also knighted. Owing to prolonged illness he retired from the bench in December 1861. He died at the Royal Crescent Hotel, Brighton, on 12 Oct. 1871. In 1831 he married Anoriah, daughter of Richard Holden Webb, controller of customs, and by her had two sons, who both survived him; his wife died in 1858.

HILL, JAMES (d. 1728?), antiquary, a native of Herefordshire, was called to the bar as a member of the Middle Temple. Between 1715 and 1717 he issued proposals for publishing by subscription a history of the city of Hereford in two parts, devoted to its ecclesiastical and its civil state respectively, with ‘transcripts from original records,’ ‘geometrical plans of the city, churches, monasteries, and chapels,’ and engravings of monuments, arms, ancient seals, and portraits of eminent persons. He proposed to follow this, if successful, by another volume treating of the county. The plan is printed in Rawlinson's ‘English Topographer,’ 1720, pp. 71–3. Owing to Hill's premature death nothing came of the project. In 1718 he was elected F.S.A., and was admitted F.R.S. on 30 April 1719. He showed to the Society of Antiquaries in the year of his election a ‘vast collection of drawings, views, inscriptions, plans, and observations in MS., the fruits of his travels in the west of England that summer’ (, British Topography, i. 410). One of his drawings, a west view and ichnography of Tintern Abbey, Monmouthshire, was engraved by J. Harris for John Stevens's ‘History of Antient Abbeys,’ 1723, ii. 57 (ib. i. 789). When at a meeting of the So-

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 ciety of Antiquaries on 3 Jan. 1721–2 it was resolved to attempt a complete history of British coins, Hill undertook to describe the Saxon coins in Lord Oxford's possession, while his own collection was to be catalogued by George Holmes (1662–1749) [q. v.] (, Lit. Anecd. iv. 543 n., v. 454 n., vi. 156 n.) During the same year he exhibited to the society an accurate survey of Ariconium and of Hereford (, i. 417). A few years before his death, in December 1727 or in January 1728, Hill went to reside permanently in Herefordshire, but still maintained a correspondence with his brother-antiquaries, especially with Roger Gale and William Stukeley. To the latter he sent his picture, drawn by himself, in profile (, Diaries and Letters, Surtees Soc., i. 132). At his dying request his father forwarded his Herefordshire collections to Gale for his perusal in March 1728. Gale found that although Hill had done more than was supposed, his work was ‘a mere embryo of what he had promised’ (ib. i. 204–5), and therefore unfit for publication. In 1752 Isaac Taylor of Ross bought the papers of Hill's brother, a schoolmaster in Herefordshire, for John Roberts, M.B., also of Ross, who indexed the volumes and made many additions in six duodecimo volumes. After Roberts's death in 1776 the whole collection, now increased to about twenty volumes of various sizes, again passed to Taylor, who sold them in 1778 to Thomas Clarke, F.S.A., principal registrar of the diocese of Hereford (, i. 418*). On Clarke's death in March 1780 they came to the Rev. James Clarke, who still owned them in 1821. Clarke offered to sell them to John Allen the younger of Hereford, but they could not agree about the price. A collection of thirty-five ancient Herefordshire deeds, most of them marked with Hill's name, was given by Joshua Blew, librarian of the Inner Temple, a native of the county, to Andrew Coltee Ducarel [q. v.] Isaac Taylor had ‘a beautiful soliloquy of Hill's on hearing a parent correct his child with curses’ (, i. 418*). A more ambitious, but unfinished, poem is mentioned by Maurice Johnson, junior, in a letter to Stukeley, dated 14 Oct. 1719 (, i. 168). Verses on his death are in John Husband's ‘Miscellany of Poems’ (pp. 134–40), 8vo, Oxford, 1731, from which it appears that Hill wrote some lines on ‘Eternity’ about ten hours before his death.

HILL, JAMES (d. 1817?), actor and vocalist, was a native of Kidderminster; lost his father when four years old; was educated by an uncle, and was apprenticed at the age of sixteen to a painter. After a visit to London he went to Bristol, and with some difficulty induced the managers of the theatres at Bristol and Bath to allow him to perform for a single occasion at the Bath theatre. He made his first appearance accordingly, 1 Oct. 1796, in Bannister's part of Belville in ‘Rosina,’ a comic opera by Mrs. Brooke. His success was enough to secure him an engagement for singing parts. After he had taken lessons of the leader of the orchestra at Bath, Xamenes, and others, he became, on the introduction of Signora Storace, the pupil of Rauzzini. As Edwin in Leonard MacNally's comic opera of ‘Robin Hood’ he made, at Covent Garden, 8 Oct. 1798, his first appearance in London, attracting little attention. He was the original Sir Edward in Thomas Knight's ‘Turnpike Gate,’ 14 Nov. 1799; Don Antonio in Cobb's ‘Paul and Virginia,’ 1 May 1800; Abdalla in T. J. Dibdin's ‘Il Bondocani,’ 15 Nov. 1800; Young Inca in Morton's ‘Blind Girl,’ 22 April 1801; Lorenzo in ‘Who's the Rogue?’ and he took other second-rate parts in musical pieces of little importance. De Mountfort, count of Brittany, in T. J. Dibdin's ‘English Fleet in 1342,’ is the last part in which he is traceable at Covent Garden, 13 Dec. 1803. At the close of the season of 1805–6, in resentment of some fancied injury, he retired into the country and disappeared. According to Oxberry's ‘Dramatic Chronology,’ Hill seems to have died in 1817 in Jamaica. Gilliland speaks of him as possessing a pleasing voice and genteel person, but wanting in sprightliness and ease of deportment, a respectable substitute for Incledon, but not in the same rank (Dramatic Synopsis, pp. 114–15).

HILL, JAMES JOHN (1811–1882), painter, was the son of Daniel Hill of Broad Street, Birmingham, where he was born in 1811. He was educated at Hazlewood School, and received his artistic training in the academy conducted by John Vincent Barber [see under ], where Thomas Creswick [q. v.] was his fellow-student. He practised his art for some years in his native town, chiefly as a portrait-painter, and among his sitters were Dr. Warneford and Mrs. Glover, the founder of Spring Hill College. In 1839 he removed to London, and in 1842 was elected a member of the Society of British Artists.


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Rh led to the interpretation that the phenomenon of totemism is little more than the incidental association between individuals or kinship groups and animal-like guardians, exogamous or analogous restrictions to marriage, ceremonial privileges, etc. The conception is that in this manner were accidentally formed tribal complexes of varying content which we class together under the name totemism because they have some elements in common. Like the other culture traits we have discussed, these complexes show a geographical grouping and so fall into more or less localized types.

The medicineman, or as he is sometimes called, the shaman, occupies a large place in our literature. Some writers give this functionary the chief place in all religious and ceremonial activities, thus making shamanism synonymous with religion. While it is conceivable that shamanism can be so defined as to include all religion, we must not overlook the fact that the medicineman of the New World is not the priest. A large number of tribes have distinct names for each and their cultures give them distinct and sometimes antagonistic functions. It is the shaman rather than the priest who is called upon to treat the sick, to foretell the future, etc. The priest is essentially the keeper and demonstrator of rituals, his right to do so arising chiefly from his mere knowledge of the subject, but the native conception of the shaman is one who works directly by virtue of some extra-human power. Consequently, it is the shaman who goes into trances and mystifies by jugglery, not the priest.

The importance of this distinction appears when we consider its wide distribution. For the three great centers of higher culture, Inca, Chibcha, and Maya-Nahua, we have far less data than for some of the wilder peoples, but what are available reveal a distinction between the two. The priests of these cultures were organized, as we have noted, in a manner comparable to and complementary to the political scheme, but the shaman class appears as unorganized and in some cases is described as itinerant. In Peru, they were sometimes

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The New International Encyclopædia/Jinn

JINN (Ar., from janna, to be veiled, be dark), often written. Supernatural beings of Arabic folk-lore and religion. Mohammed believed in their existence, and the seventy-second sura of the Koran is named after them. According to tradition, the Prophet recognized five orders of such creatures. They are both male and female; eat, drink, and propagate their kind, and die, though they generally live very long. Some are good, some bad; some are Mohammedans, some infidels. They were created two thousand years before Adam of smokeless fire, and in the early time were ruled by a race of kings each named Solomon. Their home is the mountains called Kaf, supposed to encompass the earth; but they haunt all sorts of places, rivers, ruined buildings, ovens, baths, etc. They are in the sea, on land, and in the air. They assume what form they choose, and appear to men as dogs, cats, serpents, and in other animal forms, as human beings, and in the whirlwinds, dust-clouds, and the like. They are the authors of many of the ills to which men are subject, but also confer benefits, and, in general, whatever the mind of the untutored cannot conceive of as done by human means is ascribed to them. It was they who built the pyramids. Solomon, son of David, acquired great power over them, and innumerable stories are told of the great things he accomplished with their help. They are identical with the spirits and demons that play so large a part in the religious literature of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Consult: Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xvi. (Boston, 1898); Fossey, La magie assyrienne, chap. ii. (Paris, 1902); and, for the Arabian demons, Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1837); id., The Thousand and One Nights, notes (London, 1838-40).

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188 given a room in the outer precincts of the temple where those who so desired could consult them. In the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes region, we have fewer organized cultures, but among the Pawnee and Ojibway, for example, the distinction is sharply made, as also appears to be the case on the Atlantic seaboard. In the great plateau region, we find among the Shoshoni a less formalized, but still perceptible distinction, while among the Navajo and Apache of the South, the line is again sharply drawn. In central California, the distinction vanishes, but appears in the mixed cultures of the North and South. Again, on the Northwest Coast, the priest and the shaman are distinguished one from the other.

On the other hand, we find the Eskimo angakok to be both the shaman and the priest. In the great Déné area of Canada, practically the same condition holds as for the Eskimo and an analogous one for some of the Cree. Turning back to South America, we meet with the undifferentiated priest in the Amazon country under the names, page, paye, kenaima, etc. For each group there is usually one such who performs all priestly and shamanistic functions.

Supplementary to our previous discussion of rituals it may be noted that the differentiation of the priest from the shaman occurs wherever ritualism is highly developed. While it is true that we cannot always draw a definite line between priestly and shamanistic activities, the rule is for all tribes having well formed rituals themselves clearly to differentiate two sets of individuals, priests and shamans. We cannot therefore ignore this fact in our consideration of the subject.

As we have stated, the shaman is usually the doctor, prophet, and seer. In native theory, he gets his powers not by training, but by direct transmission from some extra-human source. He is credited with the ability to perform extraordinary feats which we call jugglery. Some of these tricks fall into type classes with continuous geographical distributions. Thus, among the Ojibway and other Central Algonkin tribes, we find a form of the rope-tying trick which extends northward among some of the Déné to the Eskimo. Centering among the Siouan tribes of the bison area, we find the handling of fire and

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78 In order to make money by Indulgences, Alexander claimed jurisdiction over the other world. When the Jubilee of 1500 was celebrated, he was advised that it would produce far more if it were made applicable to the dead. Divines reported that this power was included in the Pope's prerogative. Sixtus IV. had attempted to restrain this superstition, but Alexander allowed it to prevail, and the idea that the release of a soul could be insured by a mass at a particular altar became in his time the recognised belief in Rome. It was supposed that the two last kings of Portugal had died under sentence of excommunication. The Pope gave them posthumous absolution, on condition that their successor discharged their debts to the Church. It was he who simplified and cheapened the deliverance of souls in purgatory, and instituted the practices which Arcimboldus and Prierias, in an evil hour, set themselves to defend. The mass was not held necessary; to visit the churches did as well. Neither confession nor contrition was required, but only money. It came to be the official doctrine that a soul


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Rh flew up to heaven as fast as the money chinked in the box. Whoso questioned the rightfulness of the system was delared a heretic.

By these measures in the spiritual order Alexander exercised vast influence over the future of the Catholic Church, whilst by his nepotism he caused the Papacy to become a political power in Italy. His nepotism is commonly explained by his desire to enrich his kindred. But there was more than this. There was the desire to put in the place of almost independent feudatories a prince who represented the person, and could be trusted to do the will, of the Pope, and to strengthen and sustain the Papacy by the introduction of an hereditary element. It is a wise saying of Guicciardini, that the Popes were badly served because their reigns were short, but that the Borgias proved what could be accomplished by a well-served Pope. It was a substitute for the security derived from dynastic interests and influence. There was a vulgar nepotism in the solicitude of Alexander to heap wealth and titles on his obscurer sons and kinsmen. But Cæsar's career of conquest, the great reproach of the Borgias, was not a mere pursuit of mean and sordid objects; it belonged to a system of policy founded on reason and design, and pregnant with consequences not yet extinct.

The secret of Cæsar's power over his father was not love but fear. Machiavelli saw that he really controlled the action of the pontiff, and advised the Florentines that they would obtain more by keeping an agent at Cesena than by their embassy at Rome; but he did not discover


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The New International Encyclopædia/Jin-Riki-Sha

JIN-RIKI-SHA, jĭn-rĭk'ē-shȧ (Sinico-Japanese, man-power vehicle). A light two-wheeled hooded carriage, much resembling a miniature hansom cab without the driver's seat at the back. It is drawn by a man, however, instead of a horse. Near the outer end of the shafts is a cross-piece used by the runner in pulling the carriage. With a cord attached to the cross-bar, one or two or more out-runners can assist when extra speed is needed or the burden is

heavy, though ordinarily the jin-riki-sha is almost wholly a single or double passenger vehicle only. The hiki, or puller, is not usually troubled with very much clothing in summer time. He can go at a great pace for long distances, frequently from 30 to 40 miles a day, arriving at his destination apparently as fresh as when he started. An American Baptist missionary named Goble claimed the invention of the jin-riki-sha, in 1869; but Takayama Kosuka of Tokio was the first to obtain Government permission to run the new vehicles, early in the same year, and another Japanese improved the rude original by supplying springs and designing the hood or calash top, adding wheel-guards. Then followed a period of lavish decoration. The change from the kago, or palanquin, was easily made, the bearers becoming pullers. At present the decoration is very simple, generally confined to the family crest or to a single symbol. The jin-riki-sha has been introduced into several Asiatic countries, and in India is vulgarly called ‘rickshaw,’ and has even found a place in literature. Useful applications of this vehicle have been made in the army.


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58 6.

And Heaven forbid I should conclude,

Without "the Board of Longitude,"

Although this narrow paper would,

My Murray. Venice, April 11, 1818. [First published, Letters and Journals, 1830, ii. 171.]

BALLAD.

TO THE TUNE OF "SALLEY IN OUR ALLEY."

1.

all the twice ten thousand bards

That ever penned a canto,

Whom Pudding or whom Praise rewards

For lining a portmanteau;

Of all the poets ever known,

From Grub-street to Fop's Alley,

The Muse may boast—the World must own

There 's none like pretty Gally!

2.

He writes as well as any Miss,

Has published many a poem;


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The New International Encyclopædia/Jirásek, Alois

JIRÁSEK, yḗ'rä-shēk, Author:Alois Jirásek (1851—). A Bohemian historical novelist, born at Hronov. In 1888 he became professor in a gymnasium at Prague. His novels, covering Bohemian history from the earliest times, include: Nevolnice, on the heathen period; a trilogy Mezi proudy, on the times of Huss; and Maryla and Vei zich služachV cizích službách [sic], dealing with the period after Huss. His collected works, including several dramas, were published at Prague (1899 sqq.).


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 information through the FOIA. Like the FOIA Memorandum, the President's Transparency and Open Government Memorandum called on agencies to disclose useful information to the public. But it also instructed agencies to solicit information from the public, and to give policymakers the benefit of outside experience and expertise through greater public participation and collaboration in agency decision-making. The Transparency and Open Government Memorandum also directed the Director of the Office of Management and Budget to issue further instructions to agencies for specific actions implementing the principles of transparency, participation, and collaboration.

The Open Government Directive

In December 2009, the OMB Director issued a comprehensive "Open Government Directive" to the heads of executive departments and agencies. The Open Government Directive included four sets of instructions, each specified in detail. First, agencies were instructed to "publish government information on line," and in doing so to "respect the presumption of openness." Reiterating the instructions of the President's FOIA Memorandum, the Open Government Directive instructed agencies "to disseminate useful information, rather than waiting for specific requests under FOIA." Second, the Directive instructed agencies to "improve the quality of government information," and specifically the quality and transparency of federal spending information. Third, the Open Government Directive instructed agencies to "create and institutionalize a culture of open government" by developing and sharing best practices among agencies. Finally, the Directive instructed agencies to "create an enabling policy framework for open government" employing new technologies and forms of communication.

The Open Government Directive also required each agency to develop and publish its own Open Government Plan, and to create an Open Government webpage to house information about how each agency will promote transparency and participation. The Directive furthermore prescribed the minimum contents of agency Open Government Plans. For example, it required agencies to describe in detail how their Open Government Plants will: improve transparency, identify and publish "high-value" information, increase opportunities for public participation and feedback, and use new technology platforms to foster collaboration between agency personnel and those outside of government. It also instructed agencies to develop new "flagship" initiatives to advance openness principles, and to specify how such new initiatives could be improved over time.

Agency Open Government Plans

For much of 2010, agencies worked to develop and refine their Open Government Plans. As prescribed by the Open Government Directive, agency plans provided for the publication of high-value data and the development of high-profile agency initiatives to foster increased public participation and collaboration. Agencies established new Open Government web pages highlighting their efforts, and providing a gateway for soliciting public feedback about those efforts. In other words, agencies solicited public participation in the very course of refining their Open Government Plans.

In addition, also as contemplated by the Open Government Directive, the federal Chief Technology Officer and Chief Information Officer created an "Open Government Dashboard,"

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 accessible through the White House website, to facilitate the transparent development and assessment of agencies' draft Open Government Plans. The Dashboard allowed the public to track the progress of agency plans during their formulation. Agency draft plans were reviewed also by components of the Executive Office of the President, in response to which agencies revised their draft plans. Outside good-government groups also evaluated agency plans. Most importantly, agencies' Open Government Plans expressly sought public participation in their development and implementation.

Many agencies' Open Government Plans—including those of the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Labor, the Department of Transportation, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Social Security Administration, among others—have received wide acclaim for their breadth and depth. The EPA's Open Government Plan, for example, provides detailed and continually updated information about upcoming agency action and encourages public participation in EPA rulemakings, hearings, and other initiatives. DOT's ambitious five-year, two-phased Open Government Plan harnesses new technology to create an agency culture of openness with stakeholders and provides comprehensive information about the Department's accomplishments, activities, and agenda.

Other agencies' Open Government Plans also employ new technology to promote transparency and participation. The Department of Commerce, in connection with its extensive outreach effort for the 2010 decennial census, launched an interactive website at "2010census.gov" to inform the public about the census count. To build public confidence and trust, DOC's site included information about the Census in 60 languages and used rich multimedia features.

In April 2010, the Department of Energy launched its Open Energy Information, a new open-source web platform that made DOE resources about clean energy sources widely available to the public. DOE's site, "OpenEI.org," houses more than 60 clean energy resources and data sets, including maps of worldwide solar and wind potential, information on climate zones, and energy best practices. In due course, the public, and indeed the energy community globally, will be able to upload additional data to the site and download the information in accessible formats. The Energy Department plans to expand this portal to include online training and technical expert networks to promote clean energy use.

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), together with the Institute of Medicine, released vast amounts of data over the past year to promote health and to aid policy decisions as part of HHS's Community Health Data Initiative. HHS's Open Government Plan aims to "help consumers and communities get more value out of the Nation's wealth of health data." These data includes local smoking rates, obesity rates, access to healthy food, hospital quality, and nursing home quality. The Community Health Data Initiative seeks to render such data more accessible for ordinary citizens thereby enabling them to make more informed health-related choices.

For another example, in July 2010 the Transportation Security Administration launched "My TSA," an application that gives citizens continuous access to information that passengers frequently request from the TSA, including a partly "crowd-sourced" feature of providing

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 was styled in its edition for the provinces, with the motto of ‘Pro rege sæpe, pro patria semper.’ In Michaelmas term 1819 he was called to the bar, joining the midland circuit. He at once obtained a brief in a case arising out of the Manchester massacre. On his first circuit he was engaged for the defence of Major John Cartwright [q. v.] and others who were prosecuted for conspiracy in attending a meeting to elect what they called ‘a legislatorial attorney’ for Birmingham. Hill's known sympathies with the radical party and his ability led to his being retained for the defence in many other political trials. In 1820 he defended the wife of Richard Carlile [q. v.] on a charge of selling a seditious libel, and in 1822 Carlile's shop-boy on a charge of disseminating blasphemy. In 1831 he was leading counsel for the Nottingham rioters, in 1839 for the Canadian prisoners, and in 1843 for the ‘Rebecca’ rioters in South Wales. In 1844 he was one of the counsel for Daniel O'Connell in his appeal to the House of Lords, and in 1848 for the plaintiffs in the Braintree church rate case, and for the crown in the case of the appointment of Dr. Hampden to the see of Hereford. He was for many years actively engaged both in parliament and in the courts of law in the celebrated case of the Baron de Bode, who claimed as an English subject compensation for the loss of his property confiscated by the French government. The money had been paid by the French government in 1814 into the English treasury; but in spite of the support given to the baron's claim by Lords Derby, Truro, Brougham, and Lyndhurst, all Hill's efforts for his client were fruitless.

In 1822 he had published his work on ‘Public Education’ [see under], which led to an intimate acquaintance with Jeremy Bentham and other advanced liberals. In 1823–4, under the pseudonyms of William Payne and Martin Danvers Heaviside, he contributed to Knight's ‘Quarterly Magazine,’ and so became intimate with Macaulay. In a contribution entitled ‘My Maiden Brief’ he gave a lively account of his first case. In 1826 he took part with Brougham in founding the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. In the political agitation which resulted in the Reform Bill he was largely concerned, and on the resignation of Lord Grey's ministry in 1832, when it was believed that the Duke of Wellington was going to use military force, he, like many of the reformers, purchased a rifle to use on the side of the people. Being returned for Hull in the first reform parliament, he strongly supported all measures for improving the law and extending liberty. He had the charge of the bill for the colonisation of South Australia, which in 1834 received the royal assent. In a speech at Hull in 1833, imprudently repeating a statement which he had heard in private conversation, he charged an Irish member with opposing a bill, and at the same time privately intimating to the government that it ought to pass. This led on the opening of the session to an unseemly debate, in the course of which Lord Althorp, who avowed his belief that the statement was true, and Sheil were committed to the custody of the sergeant-at-arms, as a duel between them seemed impending. A committee of inquiry was appointed, before which Hill, convinced that the report which had reached him could not be sustained, finally withdrew the charge. In the general election of 1835 he lost his seat. In 1838 he published a pamphlet, ‘A Letter to Thomas Pemberton, Esq., M.P., on the Privileges of the House of Commons.’

In 1834 he took silk, and in 1839, on the erection of his native town into a municipal corporation, he was appointed recorder of Birmingham. It was in this office, which he held for twenty-six years, that he delivered that series of charges to the grand jury which greatly helped to effect a reform in the criminal law. These charges were published in a collected edition in 1857 under the title of ‘Suggestions for the Repression of Crime.’ He had for a fellow-worker his youngest brother, Frederic Hill, who as first inspector of prisons in Scotland had remodelled the gaols in that part of the kingdom, and published the results of his experience in a work entitled ‘Hill on Crime’ (1853). In dealing with criminals the following were the principles which Hill laid down: (1) The object of criminal jurisprudence should be the repression of crime to the lowest possible amount, the treatment of the criminal being a means to that end, not an end itself; (2) with retribution for sin, man, in regard to his fellow-man, has nothing to do; (3) punishment used solely as a deterrent being often futile, at the best insufficient, and always uncertain in effect, two methods alone exist of preventing crime by penal means, namely, incapacitation or reformation. Under incapacitation come capital punishment and imprisonment. Criminals guilty of murder, but who have been reprieved, or guilty of inflicting irremediable injury, and those whom repeated convictions for grave offences have shown to be incorrigible, he proposed to imprison, not nominally as at present, but really for life, in a special gaol. From this there was to be no release except by the recommendation of the judicial committee of the privy council. In dealing with


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 all other prisoners he adopted the principles laid down by Captain Maconochie, formerly governor of Norfolk Island, which Hill thus summed up: ‘Begin to reform the criminal the moment you get hold of him, and keep hold of him until you have reformed him.’ By good conduct and work alone the prisoner was to earn indulgences and liberation. By the Penal Servitude Act of 1853 this principle was in part adopted. A prisoner whose conduct had been good was to be released before the expiration of his sentence on a ticket of leave, the chief condition of which was that he would be sent back to prison on proof being given that he was associating with persons of evil repute, and was not in possession of any visible means of earning an honest livelihood. This measure was almost wrecked at the outset by the folly of the home office. Convicts, however bad their conduct had been, were discharged on the expiration of a certain portion of their sentence, and scarcely a single license was revoked except on the commission of a fresh crime. Crimes of violence increased, and the public laid the blame on the system. Fortunately it was worked with great efficiency in Ireland by Captain Crofton, the head of the convict prisons there. By the reduction of convicts in that country in eight years from 4,278 to 1,314, its merits were vindicated. It was not till the Penal Servitude Act of 1864 that tickets of leave ceased to be granted in England as a matter of course, but were rigidly earned by good conduct.

The juvenile criminals, who in 1844 amounted to one in 304 of the population between the ages of ten and twenty, engaged much of Hill's attention. He joined with Mary Carpenter [q. v.] and other philanthropists in advocating the establishment of reformatories, which should be worked not as barracks, but on the family principle, as at Mettray in France; and of industrial schools for those who, not yet convicted, were hovering on the brink of a criminal life, and of free day- or ragged-schools for neglected children. The cost of the maintenance of the child was as far as possible to be thrown on the parents. These views Hill supported not only in his charges, but in large conferences held from time to time of those interested in these questions. The result of improved legislation was seen in the rapid lessening of the number of known criminals, which fell from 155,000 in 1861 to 77,000 in 1871, and 32,910 in 1887–8. In 1851 Hill was appointed commissioner of bankrupts for the Bristol district, which post he held till the abolition of the provincial courts by the act of 1869. His judgments were unusually sound. ‘I don't know how it is, Hill,’ remarked Lord-justice Knight Bruce, ‘but we can't manage to upset any of your decisions.’ ‘Nevertheless,’ answered the commissioner, ‘I do my best to give you a chance—I always try to be right.’ While commissioner of bankrupts he continued his efforts at reforming criminal jurisprudence, and took an active part in the work of the Social Science Association and in the co-operative movement. One of the last schemes which occupied his attention was the boarding-out of pauper children. He died on 7 June 1872, at his residence at Heath House, Stapleton, near Bristol, and was buried by the side of his wife in the cemetery of Arno's Vale. A bust of him has been placed by the town council of Birmingham in the public library of the town. He married in 1819 Margaret Bucknall, the elder daughter of a Kidderminster brewer. She died in 1868. By her he had six children, five of whom survived him—Alfred Hill, late registrar in the Birmingham court of bankruptcy; Matthew Berkeley Hill, professor of clinical surgery in University College, London; Rosamond Davenport Hill, member of the London School Board; Florence Davenport Hill and Joanna Margaret Hill, who have both been active in poor law reform, especially in the boarding-out system.

 HILL, NICHOLAS (1570?–1610), philosopher, born in London about 1570, entered Merchant Taylors' School about 1578, and in 1587 was elected scholar of St. John's College, Oxford, where he matriculated 21 July 1587, when he was aged 17. He graduated B.A. 27 May 1592, and became fellow of his college. He was for some time secretary to Edward de Vere, ‘the poetical and prodigal earl of Oxford’, and afterwards lived under the patronage of Henry, earl of Northumberland, and shared in his philosophic studies. Wood mentions a gossiping story to the effect that he was concerned in a plot against James I, and being obliged to flee the country, settled at Rotterdam, where, through grief at the death of his son Laurence, he poisoned himself about 1610. His death abroad seems well established, although


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 Responding to the President's challenge, the United States and Brazil are jointly leading a multi-stakeholder effort, the Open Government Partnership, to support more open and transparent government around the world. In July 2011, Secretary Clinton hosted a meeting of over sixty governments to announce this new effort, and to initiate the development of country-specific commitments to promote transparency and citizen participation, in anticipation of the formal launch of the Open Government Partnership in September 2011 in New York.

Congress

The promise of open government cannot be fully realized by the executive branch alone, however. Increasing the accountability of public decision-makers, strengthening our democracy, and promoting efficiency—these all will require greater openness on the part of Congress as well. Congress could do more of its share to promote open government, in part by taking steps not unlike those the White House has taken.

Members of Congress might, for instance, post their daily schedules online, and make electronic subscriptions to those schedules available to the public. They could post logs of all visitors to House and Senate offices. Members could post their income tax returns and financial disclosure forms, and make those downloadable for the public. Congress could also do more to post ethics investigations and reports. Members could take ethics pledges, and require the same of their staffs, to combat the influence of lobbyists, and close the "revolving door" between Capitol Hill and lobbyists at least part way.

These are just examples of what Congress could do to promote open government; other steps may be equally important. Which particular reforms are best to create a more open legislative branch is of course a matter for Congress to determine. The point is that the Administration's efforts to create an unprecedented level of openness in government have not been matched by the legislative branch. Yet fully realizing the benefits of open government will require greater openness by Congress as well.

CONCLUSION

To strengthen democracy and promote government efficiency and effectiveness, President Obama committed to promote a new level of openness in government. Accordingly, for over past two years, the Administration has taken substantial steps towards creating a more open government. At the President's direction, federal agencies have promoted greater transparency, participation, and collaboration through a number of major initiatives. The results of those efforts are measurable, and they are substantial. Agencies have disclosed more information in response to FOIA requests; developed and begun to implement comprehensive Open Government plans; made thousands of government data sets publically available; promoted partnerships and leveraged private innovation to improve citizens' lives; increased federal spending transparency; and declassified information and limited the proliferation of classified information.

To be sure, these efforts are still in progress, a consequence of their ambitious scope. The Administration will continue to improve FOIA's architecture, implement and expand agencies' Open Government Plans, make new government data available and solicit participation

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The New International Encyclopædia/Karamnassa

KARAMNASSA,. A river in the Province of Bengal, British India. After a course of about 150 miles it enters the Ganges from the right. It is subject to floods and has been known to rise 25 feet in a night. The river is repugnant to all caste Hindus, and its name signifies ‘the destroyer of religious merit.’


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The New International Encyclopædia/Kara Mustapha

KARA MUSTAPHA, (?-1683). A grand vizier of Turkey. He was the son of a spahi, and was educated by Mohammed Kiuprili. After the death of Ahmed Kiuprili in 1676, Mohammed IV. made Kara Mustapha Grand Vizier. He proved to be incapable, and was defeated repeatedly in the various wars. He is especially remembered for his siege of Vienna in 1683, where, in order not to be compelled to share the prospective booty with his soldiers, he delayed the assault so long that John Sobieski of Poland arrived on the scene in time, and together with the German princes inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Turks. The Sultan finally ordered Kara Mustapha to be strangled.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgins, Godfrey


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgins, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgins, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higginson, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higginson, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgons, Bevil


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgons, Theophilus


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higgons, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higham, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Highmore, Anthony


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Highmore, Joseph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Highmore, Nathaniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Highmore, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Highton, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Higson, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hilary (fl.1125)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hilary (d.1169)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hilda


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hildersam, Arthur


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The New International Encyclopædia/Mohammedan Art

MOHAMMEDAN ART. The art produced by the nations and in the countries professing the religion of Islam, from the seventh century A.D. to the present time. The most flourishing period was between the ninth and fourteenth centuries, though in certain places, such as Constantinople, Cairo, and India, the golden age lasted later. The homes of this art have been mainly Syria, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, Spain, Asia Minor, India, Sicily, and Constantinople. In a large

part of this region it succeeded Byzantine art, under the influence of which it long remained, while also inheriting local peculiarities of earlier Persian and Coptic (Egyptian) art. The Arabs, founders and propagators of Mohammedanism, possessed none of the arts (see ), and consequently a period of at least two centuries passed before the amalgamation of converted peoples, after tentative efforts to adapt preceding artistic forms, created the special types of Mohammedan art. This work was done especially in Syria, Persia, and Egypt, though North Africa and Spain also contributed their share. Byzantine, Persian, and Coptic artists, even if Christians, were employed at first; but finally all the branches were practiced by Mohammedans. The religious prejudice against the reproduction of the human figure in art prevented any development in the large fields of figured sculpture and painting, forcing the artist into decorative work in pure line and color, in which he became the most consummate master in the whole history of art. Surface ornamentation became the keynote to this art, whether displayed on broad architectural surfaces or on the smallest article of furniture or decoration. This ornamentation, like the forms of architecture themselves, was at first derived from Byzantine models, as in the case of the mosques of Cordova, Damascus, Jerusalem, and the earliest Cairo work, with a large element of stiff floral patterns, many of classic origin. But gradually the invasion of purely geometrical forms almost extinguished the flora, and the system was evolved and completed in the eleventh century, which is a combination of pure geometric and arabesque designs, used with ever-increasing profusion until all surfaces were covered with it.

ARCHITECTURE.

Commencing about A.D. 700, Mohammedan architecture runs parallel to the history of later Byzantine architecture in the East and Romanesque and Gothic in the West. We must study the origins of this architectural style in the mosques (q.v.). As the Mohammedans in the countries which they conquered found themselves surrounded by magnificent monuments of all the past civilizations of the East, it was natural that they should turn to them for the type of their mosques. The earliest mosque of any pretension was that of Amru (about A.D. 641) at Fostat, which consecrated the Arab conquest of Egypt. It served as a type for two centuries. Its colonnades around an open court seem to combine the plan of the atrium of a Christian basilica and the hypostyle hall of an Egyptian temple. The columns were taken from churches and arranged in numerous rows, surmounted by low-stilted arches, on which rested a flat, wooden ceiling. There appears to have been no æsthetic beauty and no decoration in this perfectly plain brick structure. It was in Syria, where the Ommiad caliphs had their capital at Damascus, that the first artistic monuments were erected under Abd al-Malak and his son Al-Walid, about A.D. 700. They spent immense sums on three buildings which still remain: the Mosque of Damascus (705), reputed the most sumptuous monument of the Mohammedan world, and built to surpass the works of Christian architecture in Syria; the Al-Aksa Mosque, and the Dome of the Rock, commonly called ‘Mosque of Omar’ (691), both in

Jerusalem, built to rival the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Al-Aksa was of a different type from the Egyptian mosques, and more like a hall or a Christian church. The principal side of its court, called the Jami, containing the Kiblah and pulpit (mimbar), had a forest of 280 columns in 20 rows, and in the centre, opposite the Kiblah, rose a dome. On the other hand, the great Damascus mosque was of the Egyptian type of the Mosque of Amru, the type of the atrium, and had only a triple line of columns on the Jami (main hall) side, and a single row on the others. In both mosques the columns now support pointed arches. The courts were filled with secondary monuments, usually in the shape of domed chapels or fountains. The most important of these is the Dome of the Rock in the court of the Al-Aksa Mosque. It followed the Byzantine domical type; its central dome, 112 feet high, is supported on four square piers with intermediate columns, and is surrounded by two concentric aisles with eight piers and sixteen columns, on an octagonal plan. It was erected in order to rival in splendor and sacredness the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

The next important building in the Mohammedan world is the great mosque at Cordova, the capital of the new Kingdom of Spain, founded in 786. The main hall of this mosque was the largest known, measuring 534 × 387 feet, and containing 856 columns in 19 aisles. Its wooden ceiling, notwithstanding this great length, is 30 feet high. The intricate effect of the maze of columns is increased by there being no central nave as in Christian churches and by the unique arrangement of two stories of superposed horseshoe arches. Here one sees the alternation of white and black marbles, which later became so characteristic of the Italian Tuscan school, and an early form of stiff foliated arabesque in small separate compartments. The eighth century and the following witness a flowering of Mohammedan architecture in all provinces and in all classes of buildings: fountains, baths, aqueducts, palaces, khans, bridges, caravanserais, minarets, mausoleums, monasteries and colleges, bazaars and city gates, hospitals, cloisters. A large part of the revenues of the State was devoted to public works. Bagdad was built in 762 and became the capital of the caliphate. Great buildings were erected in the cities of North Africa, in Kairwan (mosque in 837), Tunis (mosque and arsenal in 742). The wonderful buildings of Bagdad, so vividly described but now all destroyed, probably gave the keynote to the new art. The relief ornaments at Cordova were echoes from Byzantium; so were the mosaics and marbles, as well as the domes of the monuments of Damascus and Jerusalem. But gradually Persian preponderance makes itself felt through the dynasty of the Abbassides with Bagdad as centre. The wooden roof is entirely abandoned for the dome. A purely Oriental system of ornament is invented, both geometric and arabesque. The wall surfaces, which had hitherto been left plain or ornamented in Byzantine fashion, are covered with intricate stuccoes and faience tiles, inherited from ancient Persia and Babylonia.

Egypt remained for a while outside of this movement, probably because its architecture was still in the hands of native Christian Copts; no domes were used and brick had not yet given place to stone. The most famous mosque of this

age was that built by Ibn Tulun when he declared Egypt's independence (876 to 879). As Ibn Tulun objected to destroying so many Christian churches to get the 300 columns required for the new mosque, a Christian Coptic architect offered to build it without using a single column. It is the first mosque with piers in place of columns. This mosque is of the cloistered type, with two aisles on three sides and five aisles on the Jami side; formed of 160 rectangular piers supporting broad stilted pointed arches, such as the Copts had always employed. The entire construction was of burnt bricks stuccoed on both sides, the stucco being decorated with stiff arabesques in relief of the knop and flower pattern derived from ancient Oriental or Greek models. A flat wooden roof rested on the walls not far above the crown of the arches. The wall inclosing the mosque forms a court about 300 feet square. All the brilliant revetment and coloring have disappeared. Still this remains the finest example of the early type of mosque. It also has a couple of the earliest minarets, built, as were all the early ones, of brick. There is a small dome in front of the Mihrab, as in the earlier Syrian and Palestinian mosques.

Under another dynasty, another great mosque was built, the El-Azhar or University mosque, in the newly founded capital, Cairo, begun in 969. Here the same cloistered plan was used, but the churches were despoiled of columns for it, in place of using piers. When, in 996, the mosque of El-Hakim was built, however, the quadrangular pier was used as in the mosque of Tulun. But its proportions are far slenderer and higher.

It was about this time (c.1000) that Egyptian architects adopted the dome. Cairo's great characteristic is its multitude of domes. They were used mainly over funerary chapels. There now arose an important class of funerary mosques attached to royal tombs. The Egyptian rulers of the Fatimite dynasty displaced the caliphs of Bagdad as principal patrons of Mohammedan art, and the monuments of Syria, North Africa, and Sicily were inspired from Egypt during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Undoubtedly it was the thorough study and application of geometry by Arab writers of the schools of Bagdad and Cairo that made possible not only the scientific architecture of this period, but the wonderful system of geometrical ornament that became so much a part of it. A consistent style was finally developed, which spread over the entire Mohammedan world from Spain and Morocco to Persia, and from Asia Minor to India. The minaret towers were multiplied and began to lose their early heaviness (see ) and to take on great variety of forms, and, being built of stone as well as brick, they were better adapted to a richer ornamentation. The heavy walls were crowned with delicate battlements.

Most characteristic was the invention of the stalactite pendentive, on the basis of spherical polygons, as a unique constructive and decorative bond between the square plan and the circular dome. Often this transition was assisted by a polygonal dome. The historical tendency was ever to raise the domes higher and make them more pointed. Their numbers multiplied in the thirteenth and following centuries. The cemeteries of Cairo are full of ruined but beautiful mediæval domical tombs. The mausoleum mosques of Sultans Hasan, Barkuk, Kait Bey, Kalaun, El-Ghurl

are the finest examples in Cairo of the domical style. The use of domes over simple sepulchral chambers had been easy, but its application to the mosque was difficult. Beginning with the tomb of Esh-Shafi'y in 1211, passing through the stage of the tomb mosque of Es-Salih in 1249, complete success was realized, under the impetus given by the Mameluke sultans in the mosque of Hasan in 1356, where the plan is a Greek cross centring about an open court, and with the domed chapel beyond the mihrab. This magnificent building was regarded as unequaled in Mohammedan lands, its proportions are grandiose; the tunnel vaults over the arms of its cross are bold. Stone and marble have definitely replaced brick. During this time, however, the type of the old cloistered mosque had been continued in buildings not connected with tombs, such as those of Bibars (1268), of En-Nasir (1318), Kusun (1329), El-Maridany (1339). The system of stalactite construction passed from pendentives to corbels, and was used to fill up gaps between all different planes. Like most of Mohammedan work, it conceals under apparent irregularity and freedom, not to say vagrant fancy, the most scientific accuracy of form. The wonderful development of decorative work at this time in mosaic, faience, wood carving, marble inlay, metal, etc., is noticed later in this article and in special articles.

Meanwhile, other Mohammedan lands had been following the example of Egypt, but with the exception of Spain their architecture has been neglected by students. The Arabo-Byzantine style of the monuments of Cordova had ruled for about two centuries; a national Mohammedan style was formed shortly before 1000, as in Egypt, as shown in monuments of Tarragona, Segovia, and especially Toledo and Seville. The cusped and horseshoe arches became very decorative. Christian influence is still shown in mosques covered entirely by domes or roofs, like churches. The famous Giralda tower at Seville belongs to this middle style, while the alcázars, or Moorish palaces, at Seville, Segovia, and Malaga usher in the style of the Alhambra at Granada. When in 1238 Granada became the capital of the Moors in Spain, its monuments expressed the development of native arts for the ensuing century. Here is found the richest extant combination of the different kinds of surface decoration in which Mohammedan art excelled, however faulty it was in composition, construction, and form. Arabesque and geometrical ornament, stucco and faïence, mosaic and marble inlay cover every inch of space, and stalactites abound as well as open-work tracery. The round horseshoe arch yields to the flat pointed, stilted, and slightly incurving arch. But though so rich, the ornament of the Alhambra, being molded, lacks the life and flexibility of the Egyptian work of the same kind, which is done by hand in the soft plaster. See.

The Turks and Mongols made such havoc of the earlier monuments of Mohammedan Persia, the region of Bagdad and the great northern States of Bokhara and Samarkand, that nothing has survived in these regions belonging to the periods thus far mentioned. But the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, while they show a style certainly in full decadence, are interesting because we can study it in such a variety of forms in different countries. The Tatars and Turks give their version of it, adapted both from Persia,

and Armenia, and Georgia, in the buildings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries at Sivas, Kaisarieh, Konieh, Nigdeh, Nicæa, Brusa, etc. The contemporary buildings in Persia, at Tabriz, Sultanieh, Teheran, and especially Ispahan (the Meidan, mosque of Mesjid Shah, Bazar, and Medresseh of Hosein Shah), scattered over a period of about three centuries, show that Persian art was never led to abandon flowing lines for angular and geometrical designs; even its arabesques are more continuous and soft, and it hardly ever resorted to stalactite design. The form of its domes also varied essentially from those elsewhere. It is usually flat-sided and pointed on the interior and bulbous outside, built of brick, which was almost entirely used in place of stone. The minarets have the late circular shape and are exceedingly slender, being topped by small domes. Another peculiarity is the façade of various classes of buildings formed of high recessed pointed arches of the same peculiar flat-sided outline as the domes, and reminding distantly of such English screen façades as Lincoln and Peterborough.

At the same time Mohammedan art received a great impetus in India through the establishment of the Mogul supremacy (1526), and produced a style that was in many ways the most artistic and the grandest in the whole sphere of Mohammedan architecture. Buildings like the mosque and tomb of Mahmud at Bijapur, the mosques at Fathipur, Sikhri, Agra, and Delhi, the palace of Akbar at Allahabad, and the Taj Mahal at Agra are masterpieces. There is undoubtedly a dependence on the art of Persia in the shape of the pointed arches and domes, and in the niche façades, as well as a knowledge of the Turkish adaptation of the Saint Sophia type, but these Indian architects showed a surpassing sense of composition and effectiveness, never allowing, as the architects of Egypt and Spain so often did, the love of detail to become paramount.

Finally, when the Turks captured Constantinople (1453) they adopted the Byzantine style and specifically that of Saint Sophia, which became their chief mosque. They never knew the old type of cloistered mosque, but only great domical, fully vaulted interiors. The architects they employed were Christian Greeks. Their mosques have ever since been mere repetitions of Saint Sophia on a smaller scale. But some of them have great merit of dignity and composition and some originality in the exterior treatment; for example, the mosque of Mohammed II., which has four semi-domes grouped around the central one, but especially the Sulaimaniyyah mosque (1553). These have alternating white and black marbles in the interior voussoirs, and the simple brilliancy of the surfaces gives quite a different effect from a Byzantine interior. For details regarding special classes of buildings and the delightful domestic architecture of the Moslems, see special articles, such as ; .

MINOR ARTS.

The sculpture of the Mohammedans was purely decorative, becoming richer as the Middle Ages advanced. In the earlier stages it partook somewhat of Byzantine design, as in the mosque of Cordova and in early Egyptian and Syrian mosques. But it was then scanty and

heavy. When the schools became more differentiated in the eleventh century, into the Persian naturalistic, figured and floral; the Syrian schematic, animal and floral; and the Egyptian, geometric and stiff floral schools, ornament began to spread over the entire building. Even the exterior surfaces of domes and walls were covered, with a lacework cut in stone or stucco. Color was given by marble mosaics in Egypt, or in Syria and Persia by brilliantly colored tiles. The Mosque of Omar is an early, the Alhambra at Granada a mediæval, and the Mosque of Ispahan a late example. The tiles became an Oriental specialty, and were imitated in Spain until recently. See.

In no style of art has so varied an artistic use been made of wood. Where other styles have used stone and marble we find wood used, for instance, in carved ceilings, windows, pulpits, lecterns, screens, lattice-work, doors, balconies, parapets, tomb-casings. In the richest pieces ivory is sometimes used in connection with wood, being either inlaid in carved panels or being set as panels in wooden frames. Wood was used not only for the furniture of the private house, but for that of the mosque, such as cupboards, tables, and the classes of work mentioned above. Some of the best examples of floral design in Egypt are preserved in wood carvings. The most magnificent pieces are probably the pulpits, such as that of Kait Bey in South Kensington Museum, and the panels from those of Maridany, Lagin, and Kusun in the same museum. The panels of the hospital of Kalaun show a Persian style of figures and animals, rather than the floral and geometrical patterns. The reading-platform of the Mosque of Kait Bey is a fine instance of marquetry and ivory, largely in polygonal design. Ebony and ivory were often combined in mosaic-like patterns, sometimes framed in strips of metal, as in jewel cases and other boxes. But the most extensive of all the wood carvings and inlaid work were the ceilings of mosques and palaces, as in those of Kait Bey, El-Mogyed, and El-Bordeini.

The Persians, Syrians, and Egyptians were skillful workers in metal. Perhaps the earliest centre was in Mesopotamia, at Mosul. Brass, bronze, and copper were chiefly used. While chiseled bronze and repoussé copper seem the earliest processes, the works came to be often inlaid with silver and sometimes with gold by different processes: (1) by incrusting a thread of gold or silver into an undercut groove; (2) by inclosing a metal strip or plate between raised walls; (3) by pressing a thin leaf of metal into stipple marks. The entire metal surface was excavated according to the elaborate design, the edges undercut, the threads or plates of gold or silver inserted and burnished, and then the surfaces chased with all the details that could not be given by the general outlines. Animals, birds, human figures, hunting scenes, feasting scenes, and other genre subjects, as well as floral designs, characterize more especially the Persian and Syrian works, while arabesques and geometric patterns predominate in Egypt. Inscriptions are made almost always to contribute to the decorative effect. The Mesopotamian and Persian schools, though undoubtedly of much earlier origin, gained new life in the twelfth century, when Tatar and Turkish influence gave to artists far greater freedom in the use of the

human figure. The school of Damascus was the most famous centre at the time of the Crusades, giving its name to the entire process of damascening or inlaying. The Egyptian school, with its centre at Cairo, flourished somewhat later, under the Mameluke rulers of the fourteenth century. The objects made wholly of gold and silver have almost entirely disappeared, but the inventories of the palace of the rulers of Bagdad and Cairo prove the existence of many thousands of such objects—vases, boxes, mirrors, stands, lamps, trays, coffers, figures of birds and animals, dishes, cups, flagons, bowls. Of these classes many objects still remain in the baser metals, either plain or damascened; particularly interesting are the hanging lamps, lanterns, and chandeliers, the stands and tables, mosque doors, perfume-burners, ewers, boxes (especially writing boxes), trays, and bowls, it is in the magnificent arms and armor that the metal-workers showed the supremest mastery, using all the processes, chiseling, damascening, enameling, jewel-setting to produce the masterpieces in the shape of poniards, swords, and yataghans, helmets, breastplates, and lances, stirrups, bits, and the rest of the military equipment and caparison, including, in later times, muskets, pistols, and halberds. In this special field the school of Syria (Damascus) reigned supreme, manufacturing the best pieces for the entire Mohammedan world. The Persian style was more ornate, standing midway between Syrian simplicity and Indian gorgeousness. See.

It is in Egypt that stained-glass windows were made, rivaling on a small scale the cathedral windows of the Gothic period. Here, as in every other branch, there is originality of methods. The windows are small, forming usually an oblong of less than two by three feet. The frame is of wood and the process consists of pouring a bed of plaster into this frame, letting it set, and then cutting out the design, leaving only narrow rims or bands of plaster to hold the glass. The design is extremely elaborate, with a central motif, usually of flowers, plants, and trees; the bits of stained glass cut to fit over the openings are laid on and fastened with fresh plaster. The openings are often slanting toward the street and the plaster artistically finished on the outside. The effect on the inside is similar to mosaic. The commonest designs are: pinks, and other flowers growing from a vase; cypress with entwined flower-stem; scroll of flowers and leaves; kiosk between buds or cypresses; one or two cypresses with flowers. Earlier than these are the more purely geometric designs, as in the tomb of Bibars at Cairo. Of course the plaster is far more fragile than lead as a frame, and the windows easily disintegrate and cannot be made large. Such windows (called kamariye) are found not merely in mosques, but in the meshrabiyeh or latticed projecting windows of private houses. In harmony and quiet depth of color they surpass their more colossal Gothic counterparts.

A different kind of artistic glass is exemplified in the mosque lamps of enameled and painted glass. It is true that there is a great quantity of exquisite glass, both white and colored, showing in Persia; Syria and Egypt still carried on in the Middle Ages the old Egyptian and Phœnician industry, with exquisite understanding of forms and tones, furnishing models to Venice; but it is

in the mosque lamps that the glass-workers certainly enter the domain of fine art. Here the colors are enameled on a gilt ground and the designs are similar to those of metal work, with greater prominence given to inscriptions; cobalt, red, pale green, and white are the principal enamels and the decoration is in bands with medallions. The most beautiful examples are works of the fourteenth century from the mosques of Cairo. The mellow light shining through the enamels and glass of these suspended lamps was of an exquisite effect,

The aversion to the representation of the human figure hindered the development of the art of illumination —a branch of art not cultivated extensively until the later Middle Ages. It is true that figured compositions were not unknown either to the Egyptian or the Syrian artists, but it was the Persian school, under Tatar and Mongol influences, which first boldly attempted scenes of daily life and of history. There are many manuscripts of the Koran belonging to the other schools, whose first and last pages are a mass of geometric and floral ornament. The finest collection of Egyptian manuscripts, executed mainly for the sultans of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is that of the Cairo Museum rescued from the mosques, such as those of Sultans Kalaun, Shaban, and Barkuk. Sometimes the flowers, arabesques, and polygons are in colors on a gold ground, sometimes in gold on a ground of plain blue or red or of shaded and grouped colors. The finest of these illuminated pages surpass anything done by Christian artists in richness, in exquisite coloring, and in fineness of execution. They are executed not on vellum, but on fine Egyptian cream-colored or reddish paper. The Syrian and Persian schools avoided the geometric ornamentation, and their floral designs were freer and more naturalistic. The Persian fondness for legend and poetry shows itself in the rich illumination of poems and stories which gave occasion for charming genre scenes and vignettes, and the artist's fancy sprinkled animals and birds in riotous confusion in a background of beautiful garden scenes.

It is in these figured illuminations alone that we can study the style of the fresco-painters of Mohammedanism, whose works have disappeared. It is plain from native writers that the caliphs of Bagdad, the rulers of Egypt and Spain, at different times lavishly patronized figure painters and that such works were not confined to the Persian school. It is interesting to note the similarity between Persian and Chinese painted design and to make the Mongols the intermediaries between the two schools. The primitive conception of composition and figure and the awkward conventionalities make the Persian school, though successful in coloring, less successful in its sphere than the purely decorative Egyptian. The most famous Persian illuminators belong to the sixteenth century, such as Fabrizi, Jehangir, Bukhari, and Bahzada, The latter's works are masterly in composition and correspond to the Italian Giottesque masters. The last great master was Mari, a naturalist from India.

The Ear East had always been famous for its artistic stuffs, embroideries, tapestries, rugs. It was as successors to the arts of Persia and Babylon that the Mohammedans developed this branch, though Bagdad, Damascus,

Cairo, and Cordova all took part and the tribes and villages rivaled with the large cities. Nothing became more characteristic of the East, nothing influenced the West more strongly, through constant importation and the contact of the Crusaders. The haute-lisse tapestry, after a method long lost in Europe, was in current use. The same difference finally appeared in the designs here as in other branches: geometrical and set patterns being more common in Egypt; free floral designs being used in Persia. The few known Persian rugs of as early a period as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are now valued at many thousand dollars ($10,000 to $40,000), and a study of their design shows an almost incalculable variety of native flowers naturalistically reproduced. The Syrian school had much in common with the Byzantine and, as usual, occupied a middle position, with medallions in a stiff floral ground containing heraldic animals or birds. There were in every Mohammedan country royal manufactories whose products were entirely reserved for the Court and sovereign; the standards, baldachins, tents, royal robes, hangings, housings, and rugs were all of a magnificence unknown to the ruder West and unsurpassed at any time. The known specimens date no earlier than the eleventh century and the art decayed before the sixteenth century.

Sicily, Southern Italy, Venice, and Spain were all affected by the Mohammedan arts during the Middle Ages, and even as late as the Renaissance. Hence the use of the pointed and the horseshoe arch in many parts of Southern Europe. The cosmopolitan culture of the Norman Kings of Sicily had a large Mohammedan element. The palaces of the kings—such as La Kuba, La Liza, Favara. and Baida—were imitated from those of the Eastern emirs and sultans; San Giovanni degli Eremiti seems an importation from Cairo. Mohammedan artists executed the wonderful stalactite ceiling in carved wood and probably also the geometric mosaics in the Cappella Palatina at Palermo. The famous Ruffolo Palace at Ravello, and several cloisters (e.g. at Amalfi), show the spread of Eastern architectural forms in Campania. It is interesting to see how in most cases where there are traces of Byzantine art, there are also signs of Mohammedan influence, and vice versa. This is nowhere more evident than in Venice, where both forms of Oriental art were so prominent. Here quite a flourishing school of Mohammedan metal-workers was established, existing as late as the sixteenth century, when Mahmud El-Kurdi signed some exquisite pieces. The Italian artists who imitated them called themselves workers all' agemina, ‘in the Persian style,’ and even Cellini confesses to have copied Oriental arms. In fact, the Renaissance metal-workers of the sixteenth century both in Italy and France owed more than their mediæval predecessors to Oriental design. Even more widespread and radical was the use and imitation in Europe of Oriental stuffs and fabrics, partly Byzantine, but especially Mohammedan, wonderful not merely for beauty of material, but for the figures and patterns woven or embroidered. The imported tents, baldachins, hangings, carpets, and the like, furnished the models for the European ateliers in Sicily, Rome, Venice, Belgium, and France.

G. Le Bon, La civilisation des Arabes (Paris, 1883), contains the most

general sketch of the Mohammedan arts, with numerous illustrations; Gayet, in L'art persan (Paris, 1895) and L'art arabe (ib., 1893), describes the various arts in Mohammedan Persia and Egypt, in hand-book form. A more thorough book of the same type is Stanley Lane-Poole, The Art of the Saracens in Egypt (London, 1886). Franz-Pascha, Die Baukunst des Islam (Darmstadt, I89G), is a general historical and critical treatise on Mohammedan architecture and decorative details, with description of the different classes of buildings. For the designs and patterns used in decoration, the best text-book remains J. Bourgoin, Les arts arabes (Paris, 1868-70) and Précis de l'art arabe (ib., 1889). In Fergusson's History of Architecture (2d ed., London, 1873-76), considerable space, with not very scientiflc treatment, is given to the Mohammedan styles; see also his Indian and Eastern Architecture (London, 1876); M. von Berchem, in his “Notes d'archéologie arabe” (in various years of the Journal Asiatique), is laying a good historic basis for a historic treatment and making known new monuments. The most sumptuous illustrative plates are still for Egypt in Prissé d'Avennes, L'art arabe d'après les monuments du Caire (Paris, 1869-77), and for Persia Flandin and Coste, Monuments modernes de la Perse (ib., 1867). For Spain the first serious work was Girault de Prangly, L'architecture des Arabes et des Maures en Espagne, en Sicile et en Barbarie (ib., 1842), which should be supplemented by the Spanish Government publication, Monumentos arquitectonicos de España (Madrid, 1877 sqq.). Nothing satisfactory has been published about the monuments of Northern Africa, of Syria or Asia Minor. In fact, the whole literature of the subject is unsatisfactory. Aside from the works remaining in situ there are not many collections of the smaller works of Mohammedan art. That of the South Kensington Museum is important, as are those of Cairo, and of the Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hildersam, Samuel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hildesley, Mark


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hildeyard, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hildilid


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hilditch, Edward


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Rh of soda are the most powerful in the Pyrenees, and are charged with a peculiar nitrogenous substance called glairine that renders them oily to the touch. Their great use is for the healing of wounds and ulcers, and for scrofula. They have been employed for a military hospital since 1760. Barèges stands over 5000 feet above the sea, yet it is more bleak and inhospitable in appearance than many a town such as Briançon, little short of it in altitude. A covered tank for bathers was erected here in 1550; and hither, to take advantage of the waters, came Mme. de Maintenon, in 1677 with the young Duke of Maine.

The scourge of the place has been the avalanches, mainly those that shoot down by four great paths from the Labas Blancs, the mountain to the north, and which bring the town or village, call it which you will, under 100,000 cubic feet of snow. Extensive works have been undertaken to prevent the complete destruction of the houses, baths, and hospitals. Huge barriers of masonry 40 feet high and 46 feet long by 18 feet wide have been drawn across the ravine of Le Theil, and extensive replanting of the sides with pines has reduced the danger; but it will take many years of growth before the trees attain a sufficient height to be able to completely screen the place. The ravine of Le Thiel may be said to have been already rendered innocuous; but that of Midaou caused disaster in July, 1897, when an avalanche carried away a portion of the baths, and choked the valley as far as to Luz. Since 1900, however, this trough of the avalanche has been blocked.

On the left bank also the work has been energetically pursued to arrest the fall of torrents of snow from the Pic d'Ayré, where the avalanche path is formed of glacial clay, hard as cement when dry, but in time of rain forming a flood

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Aaron


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Abraham


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174 of mud falling 1200 feet. Here replanting has proved efficacious, and barriers of masonry have been erected, that have served the purpose intended. This work was begun in 1862, and since 1869 no lava-like flood of mud has reached the Valley of Bastan. The inspector Dellon says:—

"The regulation of the system of the torrents of Rieulet and Bayet, the fixing of the glacial mud which constitutes to a large extent the banks of these torrents, and the foot of the slope of the mountains facing Barèges, the attenuation of the avalanches, so dangerous to this thermal station, all prove the efficacy of the means adopted. The contrast is most striking between the districts within the range of these torrents acquired by the State, and such others as have not, and still belong to the communes. In these latter the devastation increases every year, annually exposing the route nationale and the Bastan to ever magnifying dangers of obstruction."

All the valley might be saved and reclaimed, but everywhere, here as elsewhere, the Board of Forestation meets with sullen and stubborn opposition from the peasantry.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Adam


text: A Book of the Pyrenees/Chapter 11

title: A Book of the Pyrenees/Chapter 11


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Arthur


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, David Octavius


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Dudley St. Leger


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Edwin


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, George (1716-1808)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, George (1750-1819)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Hugh


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, James (d.1728?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, James (d.1817?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, James John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, John? (d.1697?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, John (d.1732?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, John Harwood


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Matthew Davenport


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hill, Nicholas


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176

illustration. If I had never gone further into the Pyrenees than Tarbes I might have said that nothing can exceed the beauty of its neighbourhood. The charming plain that environs it—yet not altogether a plain—stretches to the foot of the mountains, rich in every production of the southern latitude, beautifully diversified with wood, and watered by the meanderings of the Adour and of several lesser streams. The celebrated Valley of Bagnères opens to the left, that of Lourdes to the right; while in the south, apparently at but a few leagues distant, the Pic du Midi towers above the range of mountains that extend to the right and to the left, as far as the eye can reach.

"After the long continuation of carriage-travelling from Avignon to Tarbes—oh, how I enjoyed this morning! It was a glorious morning, and the magnificent range of the Pyrenees, rising sharply from the plain, was bathed in sunbeams, which gilded the eminences, reposed on the slopes, and gleamed in among the valleys. If this book should chance to be read by anyone who knows the scenery of Scotland, let him recollect the road from Stirling along the foot of the Ochill Hills, and he will have a better conception of the country through which I am now conveying him, than could be conveyed by a thousand minute descriptions. It is true his imagination must assist me; he must imagine the Ochills seven to eight thousand feet high in place of two thousand; he must substitute Indian corn of the most luxuriant growth, for oats and barley; and, in place of whin-blossoms covering the knolls, he must fancy them clothed with vine; he must add the charm of a southern sky, and the balminess of a southern clime."

Tarbes is a huge, straddling city, a great village giving itself the airs of a capital. On entering it from the station the town has an unattractive aspect. An avenue has been driven from the Gave to the Place Maubourguet, which is the centre of the town; but it has few houses along it, and none of consequence, and these throughout Tarbes have the appearance

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Rh of villas in a suburb, surrounded with gardens. Some effort has been made to retrieve the ugliness of the town by the erection of fountains and statues, and by planting handsome promenades. But it is a lifeless place, only acquiring animation on the occasion of its fairs. The river strays in its vast bed, broken into several streams by rubble banks. It has been drawn off above the town by numerous channels of irrigation, so that when it reaches Tarbes it is out of proportion to its bed, as might be an infant in the vast fourposter of Ware.

But the Jardin Massey is the pride of Tarbes; it is a park extending over thirty acres—space is no object in Tarbes—and is really interesting. It was the gift to his native town by the man whose name it bears. Massey left Tarbes as a journeyman gardener, and visited Holland, where he obtained a situation as director of the gardens of the king. Louis Philippe summoned him to France, and made him manager of the gardens of Versailles. As he had amassed a good deal of money, he resolved on spending it for the adornment of his native town. He bought the land where now is the park, dug a lake, formed water-courses, planted rare trees, laid out flower-beds and lawns, and built a museum of natural history commanded by a lofty tower. In fifty years the trees have grown to a considerable size; and later benefactors have enriched the gardens with statues, busts, and the museum with sculptures and paintings. In the park has been erected the beautiful cloister of the fifteenth century removed from S. Sever-de-Rustan, a monastery wrecked by the Calvinists, under Lizier, who massacred all the inhabitants of the town, with the exception of seven persons. The monks would have been also put to death but that Queen Jeanne had already suppressed the abbey, and they had been dispersed. Next to the Jardin Massey the Haras should be inspected.

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80 the nature of the relations that existed between the father and the son. There was complicity, mutual dependence, even confidence, but not affection. The immense value which Alexander set on the advancement of his son, the perils and sacrifices he incurred to promote it, were not caused by family feelings. He justified his resignation of the Cardinal's hat, and his marriage, by saying that his presence among the clergy was enough to prevent their reformation. He spoke of Cæsar with the bitterness of aversion. When the Spanish and Portuguese ambassadors boldly reproached him with his nepotism, he answered helplessly that Cæsar was terrible, and that he would give a quarter of his dominions to keep him from Rome. At other times he complained that he could not be made to reside there, and that, when he did, he allowed ambassadors to wait an audience for months, and turned night into day, so that it was doubtful whether after his own death his son would be found capable of keeping what he had got. The year before his death he said to an envoy who was trusted with his secret plans, that he hoped Cæsar's character would change, and that he would learn to tolerate advice. Twelve months later, when he was at the height of his fortunes, Alexander was still lamenting that he would listen to nobody, that he made enemies everywhere, and all Italy cried out against him as a bastard and a traitor. At last, when nothing else would restrain him from attacking Siena, the Pope threatened him with excommunication.

When Alexander was dead, Cæsar Borgia attempted


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16 dour of youth! What a gain to have enriched my imagination with this perfect model of manhood! Now I can people the woods, the meadow, and the hills, with similar fine forms. I can see him as Adonis chasing the boar, or as Narcissus contemplating himself in the mirror of the spring.

But alas! my imagination cannot furnish as yet a Venus holding him from the chase, a Venus bewailing his death, or a beautiful Echo casting one sad look more on the cold corpse of the youth before she vanishes for ever. I have therefore resolved, cost what it will, to see a female form in the state in which I have seen my friend.

When, therefore, we reached Geneva, I made arrangements, in the character of an artist, to complete my studies of the nude figure, and to-morrow evening my wish is to be gratified.

I cannot avoid going to-day with Ferdinand to a grand party. It will form an excellent foil to the studies of this evening. Well enough do I know those formal parties, where the old women require you to play at cards with them, and the young ones to ogle with them; where you must listen to the learned, pay respect to the parson, and give way to the noble; where the numerous lights show you scarcely one tolerable form, and that one hidden and buried beneath some barbarous load of frippery. I shall have to speak French, too,—a foreign tongue,—the use of which always makes a man appear silly, whatever he may think of himself, since the best he can express in it is nothing but commonplace and the most obvious of remarks, and that, too, only with stammering and hesitating lips. For what is it that distinguishes the blockhead from the really clever man, but the peculiar quickness and vividness with which the latter discerns the nicer shades and proprieties of all that comes


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Rh before him, and expresses himself thereon with facility? Whereas the former (just as we all do with a foreign language) is forced on every occasion to have recourse to some ready-found and conversational phrase or other. To-day I will calmly put up with the sorry entertainment, in expectation of the rare scene of Nature which awaits me.

My adventure is over. It has fully equalled my expectation, nay, surpassed it; and yet I know not whether to congratulate or to blame myself on account of it.  PART THE SECOND.

, Oct. 3, 1797. Basle you will receive a packet containing an account of my travels up to that point; for we are now continuing in good earnest our tours through Switzerland. On our route to Biel we rode up the beautiful valley of the Birsch, and at last reached the pass which leads to this place.

Among the ridges of the broad and lofty range of mountains, the little stream of the Birsch found, of old, a channel for itself. Necessity soon after may have driven men to clamber wearily and painfully through its gorges. The Romans, in their time, enlarged the track; and now you may travel through it with perfect ease. The stream, dashing over crags and rocks, and the road, run side by side; and, except at a few points, these make up the whole breadth of the pass, which is hemmed in by rocks, the top of which is easily reached by the eye. Behind them the mountain chain rose with a slight inclination: the summits, however, were veiled by a mist.

Here walls of rock rise precipitously one above another, there immense strata run obliquely down to


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Rh use of the Plains warclub; greater use of edible roots (camas, etc.) and berries, some use of acorns, as in California; the handled digging-stick; roasting in holes (especially camas), and the pounding of dried salmon; a temporary summer house of bark or rushes; twine basketry prevailed; the sewed rush mat; costume like the central group. The art, social, and ceremonial traits of the North all thin out as we move southward.

5. Eskimo Area. The chief résumés of Eskimo culture have been made by Boas, who divides them into nine or more groups, as follows: the Greenland Eskimo; the Eskimo of southern Baffin Land and Labrador; the Eskimo of Melville Peninsula, North Devon, North Baffin Land, and the northwest shore of Hudson Bay; the Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island; the Eskimo of Boothia Felix, King William Land, and the neighboring mainland; the Eskimo of Victoria Island and Coronation Gulf; the Eskimo between Cape Bathurst and Herschel Island, including the mouth of the Mackenzie River; the Alaskan Eskimo; and the Yuit of Siberia. When we consider the fact that the Eskimo are confined to the coast line, and stretch from the Aleutian Islands to eastern Greenland, we should expect lack of contact in many parts of this long chain to give rise to many differences. While many differences do exist, the similarities are striking, equal, if not superior, in uniformity to those of any other culture area. However, our knowledge of these people is far from satisfactory, making even this brief survey quite provisional.

The mere fact that they live by the sea, and chiefly upon sea food, will not of itself differentiate them from the tribes of the North Pacific Coast; but the habit of camping in winter upon sea ice and living upon seal, and in the summer, upon land animals, will serve us. Among other traits the kayak and "woman's boat," the lamp, the harpoon, the float, woman's knife, bowdrill, snow goggles, the trussed-bow, and dog traction, with the sled, are almost universal and, taken in their entirety, rather sharply differentiate Eskimo culture from the remainder of the continent. The type of winter shelter varies considerably, but the skin tent is quite universal in summer,

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