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Rh Let $$\scriptstyle\ \phi$$ be the angle of position of the tube about the vertical axis, then the moment of momentum of the liquid in the tube is

The moment of momentum of the liquid thrown out of the tube in unit of time is

where $$\scriptstyle\ r$$ is the radius at the orifice, $$\scriptstyle\ k$$ its section, and $$\scriptstyle\ \alpha$$ the angle between the direction of the tube there and the direction of motion.

The energy of motion of the fluid in the tube is

The energy of the fluid which escapes in unit of time is

The work done by the prime mover in turning the shaft in unit of time is

The work spent on the liquid in unit of time is

Equating this to the work done, we obtain the equations of motion

These equations apply to a tube of given section throughout. If the fluid is in open channels, the values of $$\scriptstyle\ A$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ C$$ will depend on the depth to which the channels are filled at each point, and that of $$\scriptstyle\ k$$ will depend on the depth at the overflow.

In the governor described by Mr. C. W. Siemens in the paper already referred to, the discharge is practically limited by the depth of the fluid at the brim of the cup.

The resultant force at the brim is $$\scriptstyle\ f = \sqrt{g^2+\omega^4r^2}$$.

If the brim is perfectly horizontal, the overflow will be proportional to $$\scriptstyle\ x^n$$ (where $$\scriptstyle\ x$$ is the depth at the brim), and the mean square of the velocity relative to the brim will be proportional to $$\scriptstyle\ x$$, or to $$\scriptstyle\ Q^{2/3}$$.

If the breadth of overflow at the surface is proportional to $$\scriptstyle\ x^n$$ where $$\scriptstyle\ x$$ is the height above the lowest point of overflow, then $$\scriptstyle\ Q$$ will vary as $$\scriptstyle\ x^{n+3/2}$$ and the mean square of the velocity of overflow relative to the cup as $$\scriptstyle\ x$$ or as $$\scriptstyle\ 1/Q^{n+3/2}$$.

If $$\scriptstyle\ n=-1/2$$, then the overflow and the mean square of the velocity are both proportional to $$\scriptstyle\ x$$.

From the second equation we find for the mean square of velocity

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10 If the velocity of rotation and of overflow is constant, this becomes

From the first equation, supposing, as in Mr. Siemens’s construction, that cos $$\scriptstyle\ cos \alpha = 0$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ B = 0$$, we find

In Mr. Siemens’s governor there is an arrangement by which a fixed relation is established between $$\scriptstyle\ L$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ z$$,

whence

If the conditions of overflow can be so arranged that the mean square of the velocity, represented by $$\scriptstyle\ Q^2/k^2$$, is proportional to $$\scriptstyle\ Q$$, and if the strength of the spring which determines $$\scriptstyle\ S$$ is also arranged so that

the equation will become, if $$\scriptstyle\ 2gh=\omega^2 r^2$$,

which shows that the velocity of rotation and of overflow cannot be constant unless the velocity of rotation is $$\scriptstyle\ \omega$$.

The condition about the overflow is probably difficult to obtain accurately in practice; but very good results have been obtained within a considerable range of driving-power by a proper adjustment of the spring. If the rim is uniform, there will be a maximum velocity for a certain driving-power. This seems to be verified by the results given at p. 667 of Mr. Siemens’s paper.

If the flow of the fluid were limited by a hole, there would be a minimum velocity instead of a maximum.

The differential equation which determines the nature of small disturbances is in general of the fourth order, but may be reduced to the third by a proper choice of the value of the mean overflow.

In some contrivances the main shaft is connected with the governor by a wheel or system of wheels which are capable of rotation round an axis, which is itself also capable of rotation about the axis of the main shaft. These two axes may be at right angles, as in the ordinary system of differential bevel wheels; or they may be parallel, as in several contrivances adapted to clockwork.

Let $$\scriptstyle\ \xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \eta$$ represent the angular position about each of these axes respectively, $$\scriptstyle\ \theta$$ that of the main shaft, and $$\scriptstyle\ \phi$$ that of the governor; then and are linear functions of $$\scriptstyle\ \xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \eta$$, and the motion of any point of the system can be expressed in terms either of $$\scriptstyle\ \xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \eta$$ or of $$\scriptstyle\ \theta$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \phi$$.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Rh Let the velocity of a particle whose mass is $$\scriptstyle\ m$$ resolved in the direction of $$\scriptstyle\ x$$ be

with similar expressions for the other coordinate directions, putting suffixes 2 and 3 to denote the values of $$\scriptstyle\ p$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ q$$ for these directions. Then Lagrange's equation of motion becomes

where $$\scriptstyle\ \Xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ H$$ are the forces tending to increase $$\scriptstyle\ \xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \eta$$ respectively, no force being supposed to be applied at any other point.

Now putting

and

the equation becomes

and since $$\scriptstyle\ \delta x$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \delta \eta$$ are independent, the coefficient of each must be zero.

If we now put

where $$\scriptstyle\ p^2 = p_1^2+p_2^2+p_3^2, \ pq = p_1 q_1+p_2 q_2+p_3 q_3$$, and $$\scriptstyle\ q^2 = q_1^2+q_2^2+q_3^2$$, the equations of motion will be

If the apparatus is so arranged that $$\scriptstyle\ M = 0 $$, then the two motions will be independent of each other; and the motions indicated by $$\scriptstyle\ \xi$$ and $$\scriptstyle\ \eta$$ will be about conjugate axes—that is, about axes such that the rotation round one of them does not tend to produce a force about the other.

Now let $$\scriptstyle\ \Theta$$ be the driving-power of the shaft on the differential system, and $$\scriptstyle\ \Phi$$ that of the differential system on the governor; then the equation of motion becomes

and if

and if we put

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Rh successfully repelled an attack by Ingeld, Hrothgar’s son-in-law, on their own land. Hrothgar’s own sons are Hrethric and Hrothmund; and they seem to be considerably younger than their cousin Hrothulf, judging by the queen’s appeal to the latter, and her assumption that he would treat the boys honorably and kindly if their father, the king, should die. This queen of Hrothgar—who first breaks the list of aspirated names—is Wealhtheow (“foreign maid”), a dignified and charming woman so far as she appears in the epic. She and the king have a daughter, who made a favorable impression on the affable Beowulf; he heard men in hall call her Freawaru as she went about, like her mother, pouring the ale. She was betrothed to Ingeld, son of Froda, the Heathobard king; but the visitor forecasts no real good from this alliance.—Such was Hrothgar’s family. Besides unnamed officers and attendants, three important men at his court were Æschere, his beloved comrade and chancellor, whom Grendel’s mother destroys, a warrior of renown, rich in counsel, elder brother to Yrmenlaf; further, Wulfgar, a prince of the Wendlas, chamberlain and marshal of the court; and Unferth, the orator or spokesman, who is a puzzle in regard to his exact vocation and rank. He undertakes to “haze” Beowulf at the first banquet, and is badly beaten in the battle of words. He is a warrior, and lends Beowulf his sword; but dark things are hinted about his character and perhaps about his reputation for courage. Yet he is a favorite of Hrothgar, sits “at his feet,”—on a bench just below him,—and could be regarded as a kind of jester and merrymaker, were not his position so evidently above that class. “Orator”


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 SPIRITUALISM

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12 must do. He had the gift of tongues; but there is no hint that he made verses.

Another quite subordinate group of Danes may be noted here as involved in the episode of Finn. Hnæf, son of Hoc, brother to Hildeburh, is said by Widsith to be ruler of the Hocings. His sister Hildeburh is married to Finn the Frisian king, son of Folcwalda. When Hnæf is killed, Hengest is leader of the Danes; later he too is slain. Guthlaf and Oslaf are Danish warriors.—One Danish king, moreover, is mentioned as antitype for Beowulf. This is Heremod, who resembles both Lotherus of Saxo, and Hermod of the Hyndluljoth in Norse poetic tradition.

The other main group is that of the house of Hygelac, and his nephew Beowulf. Swerting, a king of the Geats, had a son Hrethel, who had three sons,—one notes again the rime and the aspirated names,—Herebeald, Hæthcyn, and Hygelac. By a tragic accident, Hæthcyn shot and killed his elder brother; he is killed himself in leading his people against the Swedes; and Hygelac then becomes king. Hygelac falls on the historic raid, leaving a son, Heardred, who is killed by Onela the Swede. Then Beowulf comes to the throne. Professor Gering conjectures the year 521 for this accession. Hygelac’s queen is Hygd, daughter of Hæreth; when her husband falls, she offers the crown to Beowulf, but he prefers to act as regent for Heardred. Hygd is described in terms of praise. Hygelac, moreover, has a daughter whom he gives to Eofor in reward for killing Ongentheow, the Swedish king. Eofor and Wulf (“Boar” and “Wolf”) are sons of Wonred. As for the hero, he is a Wægmunding, son of Ecgtheow of that tribe; but his mother is only daughter


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Rh of King Hrethel the Geat, who adopts the boy at seven years of age and brings him up. Ecgtheow, meanwhile, has killed one Heatholaf, a Wylfing, and is not allowed to stay with his wife’s people, but takes refuge with Hrothgar the Dane. The boy, of course, remains with Hrethel. As sister’s son to Hygelac, a very close relationship among the old Germans, “by some accounted nearer than actual son-ship,” Beowulf becomes virtually a Geat. Nevertheless, when he dies he has but one kinsman left, the faithful Wiglaf, “last of the Wægmundings.” Beowulf’s own story is mainly reminiscence of feuds in which he took part. He tells Hrothgar’s court of his swimming adventure along with a friend of his youth, Breca, son of Beanstan and prince of the Brondings. He also names to Hygelac a favorite thane who was killed by Grendel, Hondscio, whose man-price is paid by the Danish king. Beowulf leaves a widow, but no children. His “last words” are very impressive.

One would like to have the lays which dealt with feud between Geat and Swede; but all one has in the epic is allusion or summary. Ongentheow, a capable king, has the poet’s good-will in spite of these hostile relations. He kills Hæthcyn, but is killed by Eofor as deputy of Hygelac. Ongentheow’s son Onela becomes king of Swedes; another son, Ohthere, has himself two sons, Eanmund and Eadgils (all these names rime by the initial vowels), who rebel against their uncle, King Onela, and are banished, taking refuge with Heardred the Geat. Onela invades Geatland and kills Heardred, but, it would seem, allows Beowulf to


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14 succeed to the throne undisturbed. Later, Beowulf supports Eadgils in an expedition of revenge; the nephew kills Onela and succeeds to the Swedish throne.

Other persons are mentioned incidentally. Dæghrefn, champion of the Hugas, or Franks, probably killed Hygelac, and was killed by Beowulf on the famous raid. Far more enticing are the dim traditions of Offa the old Anglian king, son of Garmund, and father of Eomer. Offa still was known by later generations, and by his kin beyond the German Ocean, as the best warrior and wage-giver who ever reigned in the sea-girt lands of the north. Something of the Offa legend besides mere reminiscence and comparison has surely slipped into the epic; but it is hard to follow in detail. A wider range of legend, touching the heroic times which have given so many names and stories to Germanic verse, includes Eormanric the Goth, typical tyrant; Hama, also a Goth, who bore away the mysterious Brosings’ necklace; and that famous pair, Sigemuhd and Fitela, the Wælsings, of whom the Volsung saga afterwards told so full a tale.

Biblical names are few; our poet was no pedant, and carried his learning with ease. Probably the burden was light. Cain and Abel decorate Grendel’s family tree. “God” is used mainly in the Christian sense, even when divine dealings with a heathen people are in point. “Hel” is the place, not the goddess. But Weland, god of the forge, is named as maker of Beowulf’s armor; and if the conception of Wyrd, or Fate, is now and then a philosophical projection of the heathen goddess, it is more often a personal name. Devils, fiends, monsters, dragons, occur in indiscriminate execration of the Christian and


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 {| width=450 align=center
 * colspan=2 align=center | CONTENTS
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER I
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER II
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER III
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER IV
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER V
 * || align=right | 81
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VI
 * || align=right | 98
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VII
 * || align=right | 115
 * }
 * || align=right | 64
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER V
 * || align=right | 81
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VI
 * || align=right | 98
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VII
 * || align=right | 115
 * }
 * || align=right | 98
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VII
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 {| width=450 align=center
 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER VII
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER IX
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER X
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER XI
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER XII
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER XIII
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER XII
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 * colspan=2 align=center | CHAPTER XIII
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 * || align=right | 241
 * }
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Rh heathen vocabulary. “Eotens” are giants, but also enemies, also devils; in complimentary use, also Frisians.

Geography is not very clearly visualized, but it was conceived. The Frisians, Franks, Finns, place themselves. The Heathobards are either the Langobards, or a small tribe on the Elbe. The Danes are called Bright-Danes, Spear-Danes, and Ring-Danes; also, and quite indifferently, North, South, East, and West Danes. The Geats are called Weather or Storm Geats, War Geats, and Sea Geats. Of their place names. Eagle Cliff and Whale’s Cliff are mentioned, and “Hreosnabeorh.” Ravenswood is probably to be sought in Swedish lands.

The poet used the old lays for facts and events, but he must have taken many of the descriptions as well as most of the comment into his own hand. The conditions of culture in the epic are fairly English; though the very raid on which Hygelac lost his life testifies to commerce, however predatory, on the part of continental Germanic tribes with the civilized section of Europe, and to their acquaintance with things of civilized life. The actual Beowulf surely knew wine, beds, ornaments and gold of all sorts, armor and weapons of the best; these were objects of plunder. So, perhaps, even with tapestry. But the construction of the hall Heorot is certainly helped by ex post facto information of the poet, and so are the paved street, the mosaic floor, trappings of war-horses, musical instruments. Above all, the courtesy, refinement, reticence, and self-control not only of the main characters, but of chamberlains, watchmen, and the like, must be a


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was a very small village in the extreme north of New York State. It was not far from Lake Ontario, and not very far from Niagara. From New York it was two hundred and fifty miles distant—a two-days' journey at the time—and the nearest town of any size, Rochester, was thirty miles away. Hydesville was, in fact, merely an irregular cluster of a few dozen wooden houses, lying on the outskirts of the larger village of Arcadia. The people were, of course, farmers and purveyors to farmers. The winter was a long stretch of small talk over blazing fires, while the land without lay in the grip of the terrible northern winter. The summer and autunn—there is scarcely a spring—were crowded with agricultural and domestic work. It was a world in which the birth of kittens mattered, and the flight of a crow was an omen.

Here, in the winter of 1847-8, lived a quiet Methodist farmer, John D. Fox, with his family. In the house with Mr. and Mrs. Fox were Margaretta, or Maggie, aged fifteen, and Catherine, or Katie, three years younger. A married sister, Leah Fish, a most important person in the history of Spiritualism,

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 the number of their children, and so on. There was no doubt about the visitation. The Fox family abandoned the haunted house—needless to say, it then ceased to be haunted—and scattered. Margaretta went to live with her married sister at Rochester. Katie was sent to live with relatives at Auburn. The ghosts, who were now numerous, followed the girls. The mediumistic power was strangely conveyed to their relatives and friends. Rochester and Auburn soon had quite a number of houses in which ghostly fingers rapped out answers to questions. Visitors to Rochester and Auburn took away the contagion to their own towns. Within a few months the epidemic had spread over the State of New York, and was approaching the metropolitan city. Spiritualism was founded.

Mrs. Fish, the eldest sister, gives us a moving account of the way in which her family tried to evade or get rid of their awful power. Her mother's hair turned white in a week. She and Margaretta after a time were told by the spirits that they must give public sittings, and charge for admission, so that a larger audience might hear the truth. They shrank from the ordeal, and there came a night, in November (1848), when the spirits gave them an ultimatum. Unless they promised within twenty minutes to begin work in public, the spirits would leave the earth and postpone the great revelation until a later generation. The small circle of sitters frantically appealed to the Fox sisters, but they were adamant, There were "showers of tears and choking sobs."

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16 of English life at one of the Christianized courts. Weapons and armor are perhaps traditional in the main. The corselet or coat of mail was very carefully made, and required a year of one man’s time to forge it and to join its twenty thousand small rings,—the “ring-mail” of the poem. Shields are perpetually mentioned, and were mainly of wood, strengthened by leather and even by metal bands. The sword is so valued as to have name and pedigree. All this could be traditional; and so could be the use of runes or letters for inscriptions on the hilt or blade of a sword. The poet still held to old belief in the magic effects of such runes, as well as in the efficacy of spells and bannings generally. One must not too closely regard this attitude of the bard, his puerility and pettiness of tone. Even Chaucer sins in the same fashion, if it be a sin to breathe the intellectual and artistic air of one’s own day, and to reveal this habit in one’s work.

Metre and style of the epic are traditional; the art of the minstrel was unchanged by the poet. His rhythm holds to that four-stressed verse with initial rimes which dominates all Anglo-Saxon poetry and rests on the common Germanic tradition. Its essential principles, as observed in the present translation, may be stated as follows. The single verse consists of two obvious half-verses, each of which has two stressed syllables; and these stressed syllables of the verse must be also accented syllables of the word,—as in modern, but not as in classical metres. The first stressed syllable of the second half—third of the whole—is the “rime-giver.” With


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 The last rap was rapped; the spirits sadly departed. For two weeks the little group of faithful in Rochester lived under a cloud. Then there came to Rochester from Auburn a Mr. E. W. Capron, at whose house Katie was staying, and who also had developed or discovered the mysterious gift. He became one of the leading apostles of the early movement, and its chief historian. Whatever words of persuasion he used, they were effective. Leah (Mrs. Fish) and Margaretta opened a public hall in Rochester, and became professional mediums. Mr. Capron went back to Auburn, and that town also was soon busy with professional mediums.

The town of Rochester was rent in twain. Do you, or do you not believe it, was a question that dwarfed every political issue and all interest in the harvest. Committees were appointed with American facility, and came to no conclusion. Leah Fish (who about this time married her lodger, Mr. Brown) bore her younger sisters triumphantly through the ordeal. The professors of Buffalo University, not far away, challenged her. They held that the sounds were produced, as it is possible to do, by the girls cracking their knee-joints. Leah boldly accepted the challenge. It was really with the joints of their toes that the sisters produced the noises, and Leah felt that they were safe. In point of fact, the professors so placed or bound their legs that they could not use their toes, and there were no "raps."

In spite of this crucial experiment, the movement spread like a fire on a prairie in autumn. The august

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Rh it must rime one and may rime both of the two preceding stressed syllables. The fourth stressed syllable, however,—second in the second half-verse,—must not rime with the third, or rime-giving syllable, but may rime with that one of the other two which happens not to match the rime-giver. For example, in the usual form,—

“foes” rimes with no stressed syllable, as both first and second match the rime-giving third; but in—

a cross-rime prevails. It must be remembered that all vowels rime with one another: so,—

By observing these rules in translation, one may count on a rhythmic movement which fairly represents the old verse. The translation, to be sure, must alternate stressed and unstressed syllables with more “regularity” than can be found in the original, which followed rules of detail now impossible to observe. The preponderance of falling rhythm cannot always be maintained, nor can the translator always keep his rimed verse-stresses on the words to which they belong in the old metrical system. But these are not vital objections. Nothing meets the reader in this old rhythm with which he is not familiar in modern poetry; he recognizes initial rime as an ornamental factor in verse, though he is not wont to find it the controlling factor.

This same statement holds true of the style of the old epic. Modern poetry has occasional variant repetition; but repetition is not the controlling factor, the


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 Rh that ho undertook, in the most painstaking manner, neglecting nothing that could insure success. The beds and rows and walks in that garden were models of exactness and neatness. It was a quarter of a mile from the house and from water, on the top of a long, high hill, and three-quarters of an acre in extent. In a time of drought, or if he had set out anything that needed watering, he toiled up that long precipitous hill with bucket after bucket of water. "I never look at the clouds" had been a saying of his in cultivating his plantation, and he carried it out now. That garden supplied the daily food of his family nearly all the year round. He planted vegetables in such quantities that it was impossible to consume all on the table, and he sold barrels of vegetables of different kinds in New Orleans.

Oftentimes he was so exhausted when he came in to dinner that he could not eat for a while. He had his old bright way of making every one take an interest in his pursuits,—sympathy was as necessary and sweet to him as to a child,—and he showed with pride what he had done by his personal labor in gardening and in washing. He placed the clothes on the line as carefully as if they were meant to hang there always, and they must be admired, too! He said, and truly, that he had never seen snowier ones.

Oh, thou heroic old man! Thou hast a right to thy pride in those exact strokes of the hoe and in those superb potatoes, "the best ever seen in the New Orleans market," and in those long lines of snowy drapery! But those to whom thou art showing these things are looking beyond them, at the man! They are gazing reverently, and with scarce suppressed tears, on the hands that have been in this world for three-score and ten years, and are beginning to-day to support a houseful of children!

At the end of the hard day's work he would say, sometimes, "General Sherman has not brought my daughters to the wash-tub. I could not stand that."

General Sherman's words were as a cruel spur in the side of a noble steed that needed no spur, and was already running beyond his strength.


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18 inevitable cross-pattern, as it is in old poetic diction. Modern poetry makes ample use of metaphor; but the practical necessity of “kennings” in alternate statement or epithet is no longer known. Considering now these old factors of poetic style for themselves, one finds that variant repetition is woven into the very stuff of epic; it is closely allied, as in Hebrew poetry, with the rhythmic principle. But our epic verse is continuous, and has no stanzaic balance, no limit, such as exists in Hebrew; so that in oldest English poetry the unrestrained process of variant repetition piles epithet on epithet and phrase on phrase. In Beowulf there have been counted a hundred different appellations for the hero, and fifty-six for King Hrothgar. Occasionally there is a “couplet” which resembles the Hebrew:

On this variant repetition great force is bestowed by the use of metaphor, particularly by “kennings.” A kenning is where one speaks of the sea as “the whale’s road” or “the gannet’s bath,”—as if the phrase were a “token” of the thing. So in the couplet just quoted, “spake in answer” is literal; its variant, “unlocked the word-hoard,” is metaphorical; and “word-hoard” is kenning for “thoughts” or “intention.” When the reader grows accustomed to this cross-pattern of repetition,—and he has no quarrel with it in its somewhat different guise in the Psalms,—he will appreciate its importance as a factor in the old poetry, and he will not be unduly baffled


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Rh by its persistence. One can easily get rid of it, or suppress it to the vanishing point, by a prose translation; but that is not only to renounce real knowledge of the poetical ways of the epic, but to get an utterly false idea of it.

Other features of the style of the epic call for little or no comment. Litotes, or emphasis by understatement,—as when the best of warriors is called “not the worst,”—is a prime favorite with the poet of Beowulf; it can be found on almost every page. The simile occurs a few times, to be sure, but it is an exotic; and any long simile may be set down as copied from learned sources.

No greater mistake exists than to suppose that the rhythm and style of these early English poems cannot be rendered adequately in modern English speech. It is not a question of classical hexameters, but of English verse old and new. As a practical problem solvitur ambulando; one can point to the fact that all the accredited German translations of Beowulf and Finnsburg, with one exception, have been made in the verse of the original; and this exception is a failure just so far as it fails to give account of verse and style. As a matter of theory nothing is more absurd than to contend that the old system of verse was an art suddenly and utterly lost in the abyss of the Norman Conquest. To be sure, its exact prosody could not survive changes in linguistic structure; compromises with


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The New International Encyclopædia/Essenes

ESSENES,. A Jewish brotherhood, whose origin can be traced hack to the second century B.C., and which ceased to exist in the second century A.D. The derivation of the name is doubtful. Its source may perhaps be in the Aramaic ehasē, the two plural forms of which, ehasēn and ehasaia, would correspond to the two Greek names interchangeably used by Josephus for the order Ἐσσηνοὶ, Essēnoi, and Ἐσσαῖοι, Essaioi. As an organization it was confined to Palestine, having its chief, if not its only, settlement on the eastern shores of the Dead Sea; though it represented tendencies of thought and life which were generally prevalent in that time and consequently manifested themselves in many regions, especially where Judaism was present.

Information regarding the order is meagre, being practically confined to that received frsm the elder Pliny, Josephus, and Philo, who alone

speak of the Essenes from personal knowledge. No mention is made of them in the Bible nor in Rabbinical literature. From these sources we learn that their most distinctive features were the strictness of their organization, their intense regard for ceremonial purity, and their practice of the community of goods. A probation of one year was required before the novice could be admitted to the lustrations, and a further probation of two years before he could obtain entrance to the common meal and take the oath of full membership. This oath demanded absolute obedience and secrecy, and when broken was punished by an expulsion that, because of the continuance of the binding requirement that no food should be taken which was ceremonially unclean, was equivalent to death by starvation. As regards their ceremonial purity, the special points of insistence were abstinence from sexual intercourse, innumerable washings, scrupulous bodily cleanliness, the avoidance of contact with lower orders in the brotherhood, the exclusive wearing of white raiment, and particularly the peculiar ceremonial requirements of their common meal, to which none but full members of the order were admitted, the food of which was specially prepared by their priests and the whole conduct of which partook of the nature of a sacrificial feast. As communists, all possessions and all rewards of labor were held in common and distributed among the members according to need. The chief employment of the brotherhood was agriculture, though handicrafts of all kinds were carried on — the only prohibition being trading, as leading to covetousness, and the manufacture of weapons and instruments which might injure men, as being against their fundamental principle of peace.

The order had its chief roots in Judaism, its struggle after ceremonial purity showing it to be a refinement of Pharisaism. At the same time it had elements so strongly at variance with Judaism in general, and Pharisaism in particular, as to suggest influences foreign to Palestine. These elements were especially the rejection of animal sacrifices, by which its members were excluded from the temple worship; the peculiar attention to the sun, which was considered as representing the Divine brightness, the members praying toward it at its rising and avoiding all uncovering of themselves before it; and especially the view entertained regarding the origin, present state, and future destiny of the soul, which was held to be pre-existent, being entrapped in the body as in a prison and having before it, as a reward of righteousness, a blessed paradise in the farthest west, and, as a penalty of iniquity, a dark and gloomy cavern full of unending punishments. As to what these foreign influences were, there is considerable discussion, in which perhaps no conclusions can be reached beyond the general one that they were Oriental, rather than Greek, gathering around an essential dualism whose influence can be traced in other peculiarities of the order's belief and custom. This is confirmed by the fact that Oriental influences were prevalent in the West from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D., within which time Essenism flourished.

It is an interesting question as to how much Christianity owed to Essenism. It would seem that there was room for definite contact between John the Baptist and this brotherhood. His

time of preparation was spent in the wilderness near the Dead Sea; his preaching of righteousness toward God, and justice toward one's fellow men, was in agreement with the propaganda of Essenism; while his insistence on baptism was in accord with the Essenic emphasis on lustrations. But the Baptist was much more of an ascetic than an Essene would have needed to be, and had a Messianic outlook which does not seem to have entered into the Essenic belief. Doubtless the fundamental teachings of Essenism — love to God, to virtue, and to fellow men — had vital agreement with the precepts of Christianity; so that from this element in Judaism Christianity was quite likely to have taken many of its earlier converts, while it is more than probable that Christianity's world-wide development of these common ideals did as much as anything to prepare Essenism for its final disappearance as a distinctive organization.

. A large literature has been produced on this subject. Among the more recent books, consult: Lightfoot, “Excursus,” in Commentary on Colossians and Philemon (3d ed., London, 1879); Friedländer, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Christentums (Vienna, 1894); Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes zur Zeit Jesu, English translation (New York, 1896); Holtzmann, “Excursus,” in Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie (Leipzig, 1897). See also and its bibliography.


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20 foreign forms of verse took it into new ways, and sent it, say as “tumbling verse,” down to our own time, justified by such a line as Browning’s

yet in its own person it passed the stage of the conquest, kept its vigor, suffered few notable changes, and appears as a popular and effective verse, some six centuries from the date of the original Beowulf, in the Piers Plowman poems. Englishmen of that day had ears to hear “rum-ram-ruf” in no mocking spirit, as well as to greet the harmonious flow of Chaucer’s pentameter. That very pentameter, too, reveals from time to time in the actual four-stress tendency, and,—though not so often,—in its initial rimes, a hint of the old rhythmic structure:

In short, if the two systems—old four-stressed initial-rimed and new pentameter—could appeal to the same hearers, and if Chaucer is now the delight for lovers of verse that he was in his own day, there should be no difficulty for modern ears to allow the dual presence. William Morris employed something akin to the old rhythm in parts of his charming Love is Enough:

Yet, apart from its haphazard and unregulated initial rimes, this rhythm is far too swift in its pace for the old verse. Professor J. L. Hall used it for his translation of Beowulf very effectively; but though he curbed it here and there, it is still too rapid, and the initial rimes are not fully carried out. The translation of Beowulf by Morris and Wyatt cannot be called an improvement on


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Rh Professor Hall’s translation, for their vocabulary is archaic or invented to an intolerable degree, and the rimes are not followed on any fixed principle. However, the present writer’s business lies not at all with the criticism of verse-translations of Beowulf; his affair consists in presenting to modern readers a rendering, faithful as he can make it, of the entire body of oldest traditional narrative poetry in English, as handed down by the minstrel, or as worked over into longer epic form.


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 236 He urged some of his old friends to follow his example, and was quite disgusted at the answer of one, that he had no "turn" for working; in a garden. "No turn!" he repeated, indignantly, in speaking of it to his children. "I hear that he allows the ladies to do all this work. I wonder what turn for it they have! I have no toleration for such big Indian talk."

His hands were much bent with age and gout. No glove could be drawn over them. They had been so soft that a bridle-rein, unless he had his gloves on, chafed them unpleasantly. He expressed thankfulness that the bent fingers and palms did not interfere with his holding either his hoe-handle or his pen. He wrote as man of letters as ever, and an article for a State newspaper or a Virginia or New Orleans paper occasionally, if interested in anything that was going on. But he said that politics were getting to the state that only disgusted him, and he took no active part or interest even in State government till he saw a hope of throwing off "carpet-bag" rule. When he spoke of the expense of the postage on his correspondence, he said that he could not maintain himself in his station if he wrote fewer letters.

He tried hard to learn to plough, but he could not do it. It was a real disappointment. He tried to learn to cut wood, but complained that he could not strike twice in the same spot. It was with great labor that he got a stick cut in two. His failure in this filled him with a dogged determination to succeed, and he persisted in cutting wood in the most painful manner, often till he was exhausted. Some one told him of a hand-saw for sawing wood, and he was delighted and felt independent when he got one. He enjoyed it like a new toy, it was so much better in his hands than the axe. He sawed wood by the hour in the cold and in the heat. It seemed to be his rule never to stop any work till he was exhausted.

His son Edward lived with him during these years. He tried to lessen his father's labors. But Thomas Dabney was not a man to sit down while his children worked. Besides, there was work enough for these


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 Rh two men, and more than enough. The arrangement of both house and plantation had been planned to employ many servants, as was the custom in the South. Everything was at a long distance from everything else. As time went on, an effort was made to concentrate things. But, without money, it was impossible to arrange the place like a Northern farm, with every convenience near at hand.

One fall, in putting down the dining-room carpet, Thomas heard his daughter say that she meant to turn the carpet, because it looked new on the other side.

"Do not turn it, then," he said. "I do not wish any one to suppose that I would buy a new carpet, owing money as I do."

In these years he was preparing once for a business visit to New Orleans. His daughter asked him to buy a new suit, as he spoke of calling on his friends in the city.

"No," he answered; "I should be ashamed to wear new clothes. What hope would my creditors have of ever getting their money if they saw me in New Orleans in new clothes? No; I am going in this suit that you say looks so shabby and faded. I shall call on all my creditors in this suit. I have not a dollar to take to them, but I shall let them see that I am not shunning them for that. I shall show myself to them, and tell them that I am doing my very best to pay them, and that they shall have every dollar if they will have patience. You see, my child, this is the only assurance I can give them that I mean to pay them. Now, could I expect to be believed if I were handsomely dressed?"

His merchants, Giquel & Jamison, were among the creditors whom he saw during this visit. They informed him that all their books had been burned during the war, and that they had no bill against him. They said also that they had accounts amounting to one hundred and fifty thousand dollars set down in those books, and that he was the only man who had come forward to pay them. He was not to be turned from paying his debt.

An humble neighbor had said years ago that he hated


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Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near, who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, gave him gifts: a good king he! To him an heir was afterward born, a son in his halls, whom heaven sent to favor the folk, feeling their woe

Rh


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Rh that erst they had lacked an earl for leader so long a while; the Lord endowed him, the Wielder of Wonder, with world’s renown. Famed was this Beowulf: far flew the boast of him, son of Scyld, in the Scandian lands. So becomes it a youth to quit him well with his father’s friends, by fee and gift, that to aid him, agéd, in after days, come warriors willing, should war draw nigh, liegemen loyal: by lauded deeds shall an earl have honor in every clan. Forth he fared at the fated moment, sturdy Scyld to the shelter of God. Then they bore him over to ocean’s billow, loving clansmen, as late he charged them, while wielded words the winsome Scyld, the leader belovéd who long had ruled. . . . In the roadstead rocked a ring-dight vessel, ice-flecked, outbound, atheling’s barge: there laid they down their darling lord


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 238 Colonel Dabney because he acted as if he considered himself a prince. In these later days he admired Thomas as much as he had before disliked him. "I thought him a haughty man because he was rich; now I see that he is the same man poor that he was rich. Now I know that he is a prince."

One of his daughters had occasion to offer a draft of his to an ignorant man in a distant county of Mississippi. She felt a natural diffidence, as she was not sure that it would be accepted in payment of her indebtedness. She asked the man if he had ever heard of Thomas Dabney.

"Heard of him?" he said. "Every letter in his name is pure gold. I would as soon have that draft as the gold in my hand." Seeing one of his daughters look sad and quiet, Thomas said to her, "My child, it seems to me that you look coldly on me. I cannot bear that. You are the very core of my heart. If I have done anything that you do not like, tell me."

Oh, what heart would not bound out to the father who could say that to his own child!

And the tender, satisfied look when he was embraced and kissed, and the real trouble confided to his sympathizing bosom!

His cousins in New York, Augustine and Mary Smith, the children of his uncle, endeavored to help Thomas at this time, and sent a large check to him. This he promptly returned, but when their kindness was offered to his children he could not wish to see it refused; and the first gleam of light and hope came to the family when these generous kinspeople gave them substantial aid.

The following letter is from one who visited Burleigh many times, our friend, Miss Marianne P. Eggleston:

" O

"My first recollection is of a figure firmly knit and erect, with white hair and smooth-shaven chin, always clad in a suit of dark blue cloth, with brass buttons on the dress coat. Riding back and forth twice a day over


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Welcome
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Intrigues, Amours, & Adventures of Rachel Cunningham
Sorry for the delay. I've been trying to upload this but I've had problems. It's done now and the book can be found here: Index:Adventures of Rachel Cunningham.djvu. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 12:52, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:StillNotKing


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 different, and one, and many, and to what attributes, and thing, all these are accidental. Likewise also, as to those from what is consequent, for the consequent is a certain part of accident; besides also, in many instances it appears, and is required to be granted thus, that if this thing is not separated from that, neither will that, be separated from this. Nevertheless, of those which are from the defect of definition, and of those from a certain respect, and simply, there is deception from the difference being small, for we concede universally, as if a certain thing, or in a certain respect, or in what manner, or now, signified nothing in addition. Likewise also, in the case of those which assume the original question, and which are not causes, and such as make many interrogations as if they were one, since in all these, the deception arises from smallness, as we do not accurately distinguish either the definition of the proposition, or of the syllogism, on account of the before-named cause.

Chapter 8
we have assigned the causes from which apparent syllogisms arise, we also have those from which sophistical syllogisms and elenchi may be produced. Now I call a sophistical elenchus and syllogism, not only the syllogism and elenchus which are apparent but not real, but also the real, but which appear (falsely) appropriate to a thing. Such are they which do not confute according to a thing, and expose the ignorant, which was the province of the peirastic art, but the peirastie is a part of the dialectic, which is able syllogistically to conclude the false through the ignorance of him who admits the argument. Sophistical elenchi, on the other hand, though they syllogistically infer contradiction, do not render it evident whether he, (the opponent) is ignorant, for by these arguments, persons impede the man of science.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Monkhouse, William Cosmo


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24 on the breast of the boat, the breaker-of-rings, by the mast the mighty one. Many a treasure fetched from far was freighted with him. No ship have I known so nobly dight with weapons of war and weeds of battle, with breastplate and blade: on his bosom lay a heapéd hoard that hence should go far o’er the flood with him floating away. No less these loaded the lordly gifts, thanes’ huge treasure, than those had done who in former time forth had sent him sole on the seas, a suckling child. High o’er his head they hoist the standard, a gold-wove banner; let billows take him, gave him to ocean. Grave were their spirits, mournful their mood. No man is able to say in sooth, no son of the halls, no hero ’neath heaven,—who harbored that freight!


text: Author:Rajiv Ratna Gandhi

title: Author:Rajiv Ratna Gandhi


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Chapter 8
indeed what is defined should either be per se, or generically, a relative, consider whether that to which it is referred, either per se, or generically, has not been mentioned in the definition, as if some one had defined science to be immutable opinion, or the will, appetite unattended with pain. For the essence of every relative consists in a relation to something else, since the being of every thing which subsists with reference to another thing, is the same with that of being in a certain respect referred to something; wherefore it is necessary to say that science, is the opinion of the object of science, and the will, the appetency of good. Likewise, also, if a person defined grammar to be the science of letters, since it will be necessary in the definition to assign that to which the thing defined, or to which the genus, is referred. Also (consider), whether the definition of a certain thing referred to something, is not assigned with reference to the end; now the end in each thing is that which is best, or on account of which other things subsist, wherefore, either what is best, or what is last, must be stated; e. g. that desire is not of the pleasant, but of pleasure, for we even choose the pleasant for the sake of this.

Examine, moreover, whether that to which a thing is referred, be generation or energy, since nothing of this kind is an end; for to have energized, or to have been generated, are rather the end, than to generate or to energize, or is it not that such a thing as this is true in all, for almost all men rather desire to be delighted than to cease being delighted, so that they rather make the end to energize than to have energized?

In some cases again, (we must notice) whether there is not a definition of the quantity or quality, or the where, or according to the other differences; for instance, what the quality or


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 Rh the sawdust-covered road, and both horse and rider thrown out in bold relief by a background of dancing blue water. The dress has a suspicion of the military about it, while the 'speech' as plainly 'bewrayeth' the Virginian. As a child, I was rather awed by the decided manner and tones, and the eyes flashing so brightly under the bushy brows. He seemed a man full of chivalry and action, to whom one, especially a woman, might turn for protection always, and for help in a real trouble, sooner than for sympathy in a small one. I wonder if the tenderness of earlier-years was latent there then, or if it only came with the need for it! Surely it was deep enough.

"The old house on the lake-shore seems to come back before my eyes again as it was, and I stand once more among the people who filled it thirty-five years ago. Many have fallen asleep, and those whose forms are still with us are as utterly changed to our eyes as if the grave had closed over those we then knew. There were but vague impressions of character made then; they are mostly recollections of form and color, and prominent among these is the dear old red silk handkerchief.

"Later on come recollections of Burleigh, and much better defined impressions of its master. How well I remember the day I saw it for the first time!

"After dinner we walked (or stood) in that little garden of pinks you had in the front yard, near the 'big gate.' There your father joined us, and standing outside, leaning on the low fence, he told us of an article he had read on the 'Genius of Shakespeare.' The author regarded the 'Tempest' as Shakespeare's greatest work, and Caliban as his most perfect creation of fancy.

'I cannot agree with him about the "Tempest,"' he said, but he may be right about Caliban.' As we returned to the house, we all stopped under the mimosa-tree, where a table was placed, and our father presided over an immense waiter of cantaloupes. I remember how he put back his cuffs and flourished his knife. I so often recall the Burleigh of those days,—the ready and apparently boundless hospitality, the abundant supply of all the necessaries of life (and much of what we call