text:
Tirukural/Chapter 67

661 What men call 'power in action' know for 'power of mind' Externe to man all other aids you find.

Firmness in action is (simply) one's firmness of mind; all other (abilities) are not of this nature.

662 'Each hindrance shun', 'unyielding onward press, If obstacle be there,' These two define your way, so those that search out truth declare.

Not to perform a ruinous act, and not to be discouraged by the ruinous termination of an act, are the two maxims which, the wise say, from the principles of those who have investigated the subject.

663 Man's fitting work is known but by success achieved; In midst the plan revealed brings ruin ne'er to be retrieved.

So to perform an act as to publish it (only) at its termination is (true) manliness; for to announce it beforehand, will cause irremediable sorrow.

664 Easy to every man the speech that shows the way; Hard thing to shape one's life by words they say!.

To say (how an act is to be performed) is (indeed) easy for any one; but far difficult it is to do according to what has been said.

665 The power in act of men renowned and great, With king acceptance finds and fame through all the state.

The firmness in action of those who have become great by the excellence (of their counsel) will, by attaining its fulfilment in the person of the king, be esteemed (by all).

666 Whate'er men think, ev'n as they think, may men obtain, If those who think can steadfastness of will retain.

If those who have planned (an undertaking) possess firmness (in executing it) they will obtain what they have desired even as they have desired it.

667 Despise not men of modest bearing; Look not at form, but what men are: For some there live, high functions sharing, Like linch-pin of the mighty car!.

Let none be despised for (their) size; (for) the world has those who resemble the linch-pin of the big rolling car.

668 What clearly eye discerns as right, with steadfast will, And mind unslumbering, that should man fulfil.

An act that has been firmly resolved on must be as firmly carried out without delay.

669 Though toil and trouble face thee, firm resolve hold fast, And do the deeds that pleasure yield at last.

Though it should cause increasing sorrow (at the outset), do with firmness the act that yield bliss (in the end).

670 The world desires not men of every power possessed, Who power in act desire not,- crown of all the rest.

The great will not esteem those who esteem not firmness of action, whatever other abilities the latter may possess.

title: Tirukural/Chapter 67


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/175

 the Moukabalah, and intended for the redemption of the Unified Debt, the sum necessary to make up the difference.

In order to be in a position to meet this liability, the Commissioners of the Public Debt will keep in hand (‘conservera dans ses caisses’) out of the available sums yielded by the Moukabalah, and assigned for the Redemption of the Public Debt, a sum of 600,000l. per annum. This sum can only be sent to Europe after a notification of the Finance Committee mentioned above.

If, on the other hand, there is an excess of revenue after the charge for the Public Debt and the budget expenses above-mentioned have been met, this excess is to be added to the Redemption Fund.

The amortization, both by the deduction of 1 per cent., and by the sums remaining available from the Moukabalah and the budget surpluses, is to be conducted by means of public purchases so long as it will be possible to effect these purchases below the price of 75.

In the event that during the period of the Moukabalah purchases cannot be made at a rate below 75, the amortization is to take place by drawings at the rate of 75. As soon as the increments of revenue shall produce a budget surplus of 150,000l. per annum, the amortization will take place at the rate of 80.

.—Administration: Controllers-General. VII. Two Controllers-General will be appointed, the on a Controller-General of Receipts, the other a Controller-General of Audit (‘comptabilité’) and of the Public Debt.

VIII. The functions of the Controller-General of Receipts are the following:—

(1) The Collection of all the revenues of the State, and their payment into the receiving offices to which they belong (‘dans les caisses respectives’). (2) He will have under his direction all the collectors, except the officials charged with the collection of judicial fees and others

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Talk:Poems, Chiefly Lyrical/The Sleeping Beauty


text: Poems, Chiefly Lyrical/The Sleeping Beauty


text: Index:The Treasure of Traffike.pdf

title: Index:The Treasure of Traffike.pdf


text:
MediaWiki:Gadget-Fill Index.js

/* * Author: w:fr:Phe * * Import the contents of the "Book" template from Commons into the Index * page fields at Wikisource * * Modified: 2020-11-10:   More robust template handling to deal with Faebot *                         uploads (Inductiveload) *          2020-11-27:    Some simple heuristics to improve IA metadata *          2021-04-03:    Supports authors set with */

/* eslint-disable camelcase, one-var, vars-on-top */

( function ( mw, $, Promise ) {	'use strict';

// var FillIndex = { // };

function parse_template( text, template ) { // find the start of the the template in the wikitext var re = new RegExp( '{{ *' + template + '[ \n]*\\|', 'i' ), index = text.search( re );

// The template is not if ( index < 0 ) { return [ null, null ]; }

var tokens = [],

old_index = index,

token_list = [ [ '{{', '}}' ],				[ ,  ]			// ["[", "]"],			],

param_name = '', param_content = '', found_equals = false, pos_param_idx = 0,

params = {};

while ( index < text.length ) {

var handled_token = false;

for ( var i = 0; i < token_list.length; i += 1 ) { var cand_token = text.slice( index, index + token_list[ i ][ 0 ].length ); if ( cand_token === token_list[ i ][ 0 ] ) { tokens.push( cand_token ); index += cand_token.length;

if ( cand_token !== '{{' || Object.keys( params ).length > 0 ) { param_content += cand_token; }					handled_token = true; break; } else if ( cand_token === token_list[ i ][ 1 ] &&						tokens.slice( -1 )[ 0 ] === token_list[ i ][ 0 ] ) { tokens.pop; index += cand_token.length; param_content += cand_token; handled_token = true; break; }			}

if ( tokens.length === 0 ) { // end of template break; } else {

if ( text[ index ] === '|' && tokens.length === 1 ) { param_name = ''; param_content = ''; found_equals = false; } else if ( tokens.length === 1 &&						( text[ index + 1 ] === '|' || text.slice( index, index + 2 ) === '}}' ) ) { // end of a template parameter, save it					param_name = param_name.trim; param_content = param_content.trim;

if ( param_name.length === 0 ) { // positional parameter (pos=0 is the template name) params[ pos_param_idx ] = param_content; pos_param_idx += 1; } else { param_name = param_name[ 0 ].toUpperCase + param_name.slice( 1 ); params[ param_name ] = param_content; }				} else if ( text[ index + 1 ] === '=' && !found_equals ) { found_equals = true; param_name = param_content; param_content = ''; index += 1; // skip = } else if ( !handled_token ) { param_content += text[ index ]; }

if ( !handled_token ) { // tokens do their own lengths index += 1; }			}		}

if ( tokens.length === 0 ) { // got to end of template return [ params, text.slice( old_index, index ) ]; }		return [ null, text.slice( old_index, index ) ]; }

/*	 * Converts text to title case. *	 * BOOK IV. THE INSTRUCTIONS OF I -> Book IV. The Instructions of I.	 * * Takes care of: *  - all-caps roman numerals *  - always title-cases the first words after. *  - otherwise title-cases words except a list of exceptions like 'a', 'of' */	var toTitleCase = function ( str ) {

var titler = function ( word ) { if ( word.length === 0 ) { return word; }

return word.replace( word[ 0 ], word[ 0 ].toUpperCase ); };

var all_capped = function ( word ) { // check for roman numerals (and "I"), maybe followed by punct return ( word.search( /^[ivxlcdm]+\b.$/ ) > -1 ); };

// if bookish title case, not all words are capped var no_cap_words = [ 'a', 'an', 'be', 'the', 'of', 'on', 'to', 'at', 'this', 'than', 'then', 'by', 'and', 'for', 'with', 'in' ];

var words = str.toLowerCase.split( ' ' );

var titled = [];

var new_sentence = true;

for ( var i = 0; i < words.length; i++ ) {

if ( all_capped( words[ i ] ) ) { // some words are all caps always titled.push( words[ i ].toUpperCase );

} else if ( new_sentence || no_cap_words.indexOf( words[ i ] ) === -1 ) { // new sentences and most words get title casing titled.push( titler( words[ i ] ) ); } else { // lower titled.push( words[ i ] ); }

new_sentence = words[ i ].search( /\.$/ ) !== -1; }

return titled.join( ' ' ); };

var extract_dict = {}, field_names = {};

function setup_extract_dict { extract_dict = self.fill_index_data.extract_dict; field_names = self.fill_index_data.field_names; }

/**	 * Set the appropriate input field *	 * @param {string} idx    the field index * @param {string|Promise} content the new content, or a Promise that resolves it	 */ function set_field( idx, content ) {

// this resolves with either the raw value, or the resolution of the Promise // eslint-disable-next-line compat/compat Promise.resolve( content ).then( function ( content_value ) {			content_value = content_value.replace( / ([;:,]) ?/, '$1 ' );

// fix any sneaky double spaces content_value = content_value.replace( / +/g, ' ' );

var field_name = field_names[ idx ], f = document.getElementsByName( 'wpprpindex-' + field_name )[ 0 ];

if ( f ) { f.value = content_value; }		} );	}

function get_wd_author( qid ) {

// eslint-disable-next-line compat/compat return new Promise( function ( resolve, reject ) {			$.ajax( { url: '//wikidata.org/w/api.php', data: { format: 'json', action: 'wbgetentities', ids: qid, props: 'sitelinks' },				dataType: 'jsonp', cache: true, success: function ( data ) { var author = data.entities[ qid ].sitelinks[ mw.config.get( 'wgWikiID' ) ].title; console.log( author ); resolve( author ); },				error: function ( error ) { reject( error ); }			} );		} );	}

// returns a promise that resolves the author function process_author( str ) { str = str.replace( /^[*:][ ]*/, '' ); str = str.trim;

var author_promise;

if ( str.match( /Q[0-9]+/ ) ) {

author_promise = get_wd_author( str ); } else {

// strip dates - these are nearly always not needed str = str.replace( /(?:, )?(?:(?:ca\.|fl\.) )?(\(?\d+-\d+\)?).?$/, '' );

// strip birth date str = str.replace( /(?:, )(?:b\.|d\.) +\d{3,4}$/, '' );

// strip initial expansions str = str.replace( /(?:[A-Z]. ?)+ \((.*)\)/, '$1' );

str = str.replace( /, (Sir|Lord)$/, '' );

// Last, First -> First Last str = str.replace( /^([^,]+), ([^,]+)$/, '$2 $1' );

// Fix initials without dots str = str.replace( / ([A-Z]) /g, ' $1. ' );

// Fix bogus fullstops // str = str.replace(/(?<!Jr|Sr)\.$/, "");

// just resolve right now author_promise = Promise.resolve( str ); }

return author_promise.then( function ( author ) {			// prevent the pipe trick triggering on the JS			// eslint-disable-next-line no-useless-concat			return '[' + '[' + self.fill_index_data.ns_author_name + ':' + author + '|]]';		} ); }

// returns a promise that resolves with the processed author list function process_authors( str ) {

// strip creator templates: str = str.replace( //g, '$1\n' );

// TODO: fix wikidata here str = str.replace( //g, '$1\n' );

var as = str.split( '\n' );

as = as.filter( function ( s ) {			return !!s.trim;		} );

// map array to promises var promises = as.map( function ( author ) {			return process_author( author );		} );

// eslint-disable-next-line compat/compat return Promise.all( promises ).then( function ( results ) {			var list = results.join( ', ' );			// console.log( list );			return list;		} ); }

function split_city_publisher( str ) {

// most books are published in a few cities var cities = [ /London/, /Edinburgh/, /Oxford/, /Cambridge/, /New York/, /Boston/, /Philadelphia/, /Washington D. ?C./, /Paris/, /Berlin/, /Stuttgart/, /Jena/, /Hong Kong/, /Shanghai/, /Calcutta/, /Bombay/, /Delhi/ ],

city = '', publisher = str, parts;

if ( str.indexOf( ':' ) > -1 ) { // a colon: assume this is a city: publisher parts = str.split( ':' ); city = parts[ 0 ]; publisher = parts.slice( 1 ).join( ':' ); } else {

parts = str.split( /[,;:] / );

if ( parts.length > 1 ) { for ( var i = 0; i < cities.length; i++ ) { if ( parts[ 0 ].match( cities[ i ] ) ) { city = parts[ 0 ]; publisher = parts.slice( 1 ).join( ', ' ); break; }				}			}		}

return [ publisher.trim, city.trim ]; }

function processVolume( v ) {

// first, strip off either : Foo or (Foo): var match = v.match( /(.*?) *(?:\((.*)\)|: *(.*))?$/ );

var vol = v;		var v_desc = ''; if ( match ) { vol = match[ 1 ]; v_desc = match[ 2 ]; }

// Add "Volume " if it looks like we need it vol = vol.replace( /^(?:(?:vol|v)\. ?)?([-0-9]+)$/i, 'Volume $1' );

return [ vol, v_desc ]; }

function processCity( c ) { c = c.replace( /\{\{ *City *\| *(.*?) *\}\}/i, '$1' ); return c;	}

function extract_content( data ) { var importationDone = false; // until Object entries is allowed // eslint-disable-next-line no-jquery/no-each-util $.each( data.query.pages, function ( ids, page ) {			if ( ids < 0 ) {				return;			}

var content = page.revisions[ 0 ][ '*' ], temp_parsed = parse_template( content, 'Book' );

if ( temp_parsed[ 0 ] === null ) { console.error( 'Failed to parse Book template' ); } else {

var title = temp_parsed[ 0 ][ extract_dict.Title ];

if ( title ) { title = toTitleCase( title ); set_field( 'Title', "" + title + "" ); }

for ( var idx in extract_dict ) {

var template_content = '';

if ( typeof extract_dict[ idx ] === 'string' ) { template_content = temp_parsed[ 0 ][ extract_dict[ idx ] ]; } else { // find the first matching parameter for ( var i = 0; i < extract_dict[ idx ].length; i++ ) {

template_content = temp_parsed[ 0 ][ extract_dict[ idx ][ i ] ];

if ( template_content !== undefined && template_content.length > 0 ) { break; }						}					}

if ( template_content !== undefined && template_content.length > 0 ) { switch ( idx ) { case 'Editor': case 'Author': case 'Translator': case 'Illustrator': set_field( idx, process_authors( template_content ) ); break; case 'Publisher': // it is very common for the Commons publisher field // to contain the location var pub_city = split_city_publisher( template_content );

if ( pub_city[ 1 ].length > 0 ) { set_field( 'Publisher', pub_city[ 0 ] ); set_field( 'City', pub_city[ 1 ] ); } else { set_field( 'Publisher', pub_city[ 0 ] ); }								break; case 'Volume':

var v = processVolume( template_content );

var v_field; if ( title !== undefined ) { v_field =  + v[ 0 ] + ; } else { // fallback v_field = v[ 0 ]; }

if ( v[ 1 ] ) { v_field += ' (' + v[ 1 ] + ')'; }								set_field( idx, v_field ); break; case 'Title': break; case 'City': set_field( idx, processCity( template_content ) ); break; default: set_field( idx, template_content ); }					}				}			}

// set the file type selector set_field( 'Source', mw.config.get( 'wgTitle' ).split( '.' ).slice( -1 )[ 0 ] );

// set the sort key {				var skTitle = temp_parsed[ 0 ][ extract_dict.Title ]; if ( skTitle !== undefined ) { var titlewords = skTitle.split( ' ' ); if ( [ 'The', 'A', 'An', 'Of' ].indexOf( titlewords[ 0 ] ) >= 0 ) { skTitle = titlewords.slice( 1 ).join( ' ' ) + ', ' + titlewords[ 0 ]; skTitle = skTitle[ 0 ].toUpperCase + skTitle.slice( 1 ); set_field( 'Key', skTitle ); }				}			}			importationDone = true; } );

return importationDone; }

function common_content( data ) { if ( !extract_content( data ) ) { $.ajax( {				url: mw.util.wikiScript( 'api' ),				data: {					format: 'json',					action: 'query',					prop: 'revisions',					rvprop: 'content',					titles: 'File:' + mw.config.get( 'wgTitle' )				}			} ) .done( extract_content ); }	}

function do_extraction { $.ajax( {			url: '//commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php',			data: {				format: 'json',				action: 'query',				prop: 'revisions',				rvprop: 'content',				titles: 'File:' + mw.config.get( 'wgTitle' )			},			dataType: 'jsonp'		} ) .done( common_content ); }

function setup { setup_extract_dict; // eslint-disable-next-line no-jquery/no-global-selector if ( $( '.mw-newarticletext' ).length === 0 ) {

// Portlet link to re-extract var portlet = mw.util.addPortletLink(				'p-tb',				'#',				'Re-fill index',				't-refill-index',				'Re-import this index page\'s data from the Commons file'			);

$( portlet ).on( 'click', function ( e ) {				e.preventDefault;				do_extraction;			} ); } else { do_extraction; }	}

/* Localisation section, you can provide your own data before loading this script to * change the script behavior */	if ( !self.fill_index_data ) { self.fill_index_data = {}; }

if ( !self.fill_index_data.ns_author_name ) { self.fill_index_data.ns_author_name = 'Author'; }

if ( !self.fill_index_data.extract_dict ) { // Commons Book template field names // Should not need to be internationalised self.fill_index_data.extract_dict = { Editor: 'Editor', Publisher: 'Publisher', Author: 'Author', Translator: 'Translator', Volume: 'Volume', Illustrator: 'Illustrator', 'Image page': 'Image page', Title: 'Title', Date: [ 'Publication date', 'Date' ], City: 'City', Source: 'Source', LCCN: 'LCCN', OCLC: 'OCLC' };	}

if ( !self.fill_index_data.field_names ) { // Proofread page field names self.fill_index_data.field_names = { Editor: 'Editor', Publisher: 'Publisher', Author: 'Author', Translator: 'Translator', Volume: 'Volume', Illustrator: 'Illustrator', 'Image page': 'Image', Title: 'Title', Date: 'Year', City: 'Address', Source: 'Source', LCCN: 'LCCN', OCLC: 'OCLC', Key: 'Key' };	}	/* end of localisation section */

$( function {		if ( mw.config.get( 'wgCanonicalNamespace' ) === 'Index' && mw.config.get( 'wgAction' ) === 'edit' ) {			setup;		}	} ); // eslint-disable-next-line no-undef }( mediaWiki, jQuery, Promise ) );

title: MediaWiki:Gadget-Fill Index.js


text:
Page:The food of the Gods - A Popular Account of Cocoa.djvu/120

Rh flowers—called by the natives vinacaxtlides, or little ears—six white roses in powder, a pod of campeche, two drachms of cinnamon, a dozen almonds and as many hazel-nuts, with achiote enough to give it a reddish tincture; the sugar and vanilla are mixed at discretion, as also the musk and ambergris. They frequently work this paste with orange water, which they think gives it a greater consistence and firmness."

When the chocolate is sufficiently ground it is put into a stove to attain the correct temperature, and is then passed on to a moulding-table, where it is pressed into tin moulds, and shaken till it settles. After passing through a refrigerating chamber, the contents of these moulds are ready as cakes of hard chocolate for putting up in the well-known blue "Mexican" or the dark-red "Milk," packets.

It would, of course, be interesting to proceed to an inspection of the many processes involved in making all the dainties that are prepared with chocolate, and of the numerous trades concerned in the production of packages, boxes, and fancy cases, did space permit. Room after room might be visited, bright in


text: Author:Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert

title: Author:Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartford

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartford


text: Author:Arthur Charles O'Neil

title: Author:Arthur Charles O'Neil


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartford City


text: Author:Timothy Joseph Crowley

title: Author:Timothy Joseph Crowley


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartig, Georg Ludwig


text: Author:Hermann Muckermann

title: Author:Hermann Muckermann


text: Author:Thomas Edward Shields

title: Author:Thomas Edward Shields


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartebeest

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartebeest


text: Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Harte-Beest


text:
Page:China- Its State and Prospects.djvu/77

 dynasty, and for the amazing difference between the forty-ninth and fiftieth year of Kang-he, when the capitation tax was removed, and converted into a land tax. Indeed considering the change of measures, adopted by the government, it was rather to he expected that the returns for the following year would exhibit an increase of twenty instead of five millions, as all those who had been previously deterred from giving in their names, had now every motive to concealment removed, and would willingly allow the registration of their signatures.

From the year 1711 to the year 1753, a period of forty-two years, the population appears to have advanced, from twenty-eight millions and a half to a hundred and three millions. This may be accounted for, partly in the way above mentioned, and partly by the gradual increase of the population. This increase will not appear very great, if it be considered, that an excess of three per cent, per annum, of the births over the deaths, will make the population treble itself in the time specified. The next increase, according to the official returns, is of a like character: viz. from 102,328,258 in 1753, to 307,467,200, in 1792; or a triple sum in about forty years. And, when we consider, that during these two periods of forty years each, the dominions of the Tartar-Chinese monarch were extending, and more and more persons were inscribed on the population list; besides the perfect tranquillity which the empire enjoyed during the whole series of years, it is not be wondered at, that the population should advance at such a rapid rate.

The customs and institutions of the Chinese, doubtless, contributed much to this increase; for, according


text: Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Hartford


text:
User talk:Euroflux

de:Benutzer Diskussion:Euroflux fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Euroflux

title: User talk:Euroflux


text:
User:Euroflux

de:Benutzer:Euroflux fr:Utilisateur:Euroflux

title: User:Euroflux


text:
Page:China- Its State and Prospects.djvu/78

56 to the precepts of Confucius, "of the three degrees of unfilial conduct, to be without posterity, is the greatest;" hence the Chinese of every class and degree marry when quite young, and rejoice in nothing so much as in the increase of their families. Added to the strong desire of issue, we may allude to the bounties offered by the Tartar rulers, when fully established in the dominion of the empire, proposing grants of the land which had been previously deserted by the terrified population, to any who would settle down and cultivate it; which has induced many to spread over the country and to prosecute the quiet and healthy arts of husbandry; by which their industry has been exercised, and their increase promoted; until now the whole land is full of inhabitants, and they are bursting their bounds on every side.

From 1792 to 1812, a period of twenty years, the increase has been inconsiderable compared with former years, being only one-sixth of the whole, and scarcely an addition of one per cent, per annum. This diminution in the rate of increase, during the last twenty years, previous to 1812, may be accounted for, partially by the growth of emigration, and, more fully by the introduction of opium, which, since the latter part of the last century, has been smuggled into the country, at an enormous rate. Those who have not seen the effects of opium smoking, in the eastern world, can hardly form any conception of its injurious results on the health, energies, and lives of those who indulge in it. The debilitating of the constitution, and the shortening of life, are sure to follow, in a few years, after the practice has been commenced; as soon and as certainly if not much more so, than is seen to be the case with


text: Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Georg Ludwig Hartig


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Andropogon

ANDROPOGON, ăn'drọ-pō'gŏn, a genus of about 200 species of grasses of very diverse utility, distributed widely, especially over dry plains throughout the temperate and tropical zones. The species are usually characterized by long, narrow leaves; terminal and axillary spikes; sessile perfect spikelets paired with pedicelled staminate, empty ones or scales; and straight or twisted awns. A. halepensis, or Sorghum halepense of some authors, Johnson grass, attains a height of from three to six feet from stout, perennial creeping rootstocks, which being difficult to eradicate make the plant a

troublesome weed where not needed for pasture or hay, for which it is largely grown in South America, Australia and the southern United States, where it was introduced about 1830. It makes quick growth, yields abundantly and may be cut several times in a season. It is not fully hardy in the North, where, as in Europe, it is often grown for ornament. A. schœnanthus, lemon grass, and A. nardus, citronella grass, are handsome tropical species cultivated in India and Ceylon for the fragrant oils they contain, and which are used in perfumery, soap-making and in the former case for the adulteration of certain perfumes, notably attar of roses. A. sorghum, or Sorghum vulgare of some authors, is of wide economic importance, its numerous varieties or sub-species being cultivated for fodder, sugar, alcohol, brushes, brooms and its seeds, which last are used for poultry, stock, and human food (see ). A. provincialis, A. scoparius and various other species known as blue-stem grass, are valued as fodder grasses in arid regions where they are native.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Andros, Edmund

ANDROS, Edmund, an American colonial governor; b. in London, England, 6 Dec 1637; d. there, 27 Feb. 1714. His father was master of ceremonies to Charles I. His son earned the favor of the Stuarts by steady and laborious service, unwavering loyalty and military and executive ability. In 1666 he was made major of an infantry regiment and sent to America, where he won laurels against the Dutch. In 1672, after his return to England, he became titular commander of the British forces in Barbados, and in the same year was made major in a regiment of dragoons raised for Prince Rupert; also a “landgrave” in Carolina, two years later succeeding his father as bailiff of Guernsey.

In 1674 Andros was made “lieutenant and governor” of “all the Duke of York's territories in America,” including New York (just restored by the Dutch, who had retaken it the year before), New Jersey and Delaware, Martha's Vineyard and parts of Maine, and a claim to all Connecticut west of that river. He arrived in November, and the next year began to push the Connecticut claim; but the Duke did not desire an appeal to force, and after making formal declarations at Saybrook, Andros retired. During the next two years the Indian troubles were acute; and in settling these he proved himself one of the ablest and most useful of Indian managers, winning the good will of the Iroquois at a critical time, and not only keeping his own colony protected, but sending help to the outlying points in Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Maine. He spent a few months in England in 1677-78, and was knighted. In 1678-80 there was increasing friction, reli- gious and otherwise. He was an Episcopalian, and one of his appointees to a coadjutorship in an Albany church was tried for heresy but acquitted; Andros, however, tactfully quieted the disturbance and contributed to build a Reformed church in New York. Then the merchants charged him with unfairness in trade matters, and with suppressing part of his receipts in his public accounts, with the object of inducing the Duke to sell to some of them the right to farm the New York revenues. At this period Philip Carteret was acting as

of East Jersey under the Duke of York's grant to his brother and Berkeley; there were complications inherited from previous changes which forced Andros to keep interfering, under his superior commission, and at last he sent a body of soldiers to seize Carteret and bring him to New York to be tried for exercising illegal jurisdiction. Andros acted as judge, but the jury acquitted Carteret, who was triumphantly reinstated. Lady Carteret complained to the Duke of York, who recalled Andros, and sent out a commissioner to investigate this and the other charges: he reported that Andros was not in fault, but the latter was retained at home, made gentleman of the privy chamber to Charles II, and received a 99-years' grant of the island of Alderney and other favors.

The accession of the Duke of York as James II (February 1685) was followed by the return of Andros to New England, as the agent in an unpopular scheme of consolidation, and in consequence his memory has been loaded with unjustifiable abuse. The Massachusetts charter had been revoked in October 1684, and Charles II had appointed the notorious Col. Piercy Kirke governor; but as he never entered on his duties, Andros was commissioned governor of all New England as one centralized colony on 3 June 1686. Dislike to James has done injustice to this statesmanlike scheme, distasteful though it was to the New Englanders. The intention was to create, out of the several weak and mutually contending colonies, one strong confederated colony with a militia powerful enough to resist French and Indian aggression, and under one command. Andros can only be blamed for needless harshness or blundering or corruption in obeying his instructions; and despite the current opinion there was none of this, but rather the reverse. On arriving at Boston, 19 Dec. 1686, he organized his new government, which, as the people had no longer the right to tax themselves, levied a new tax, the exact counterpart of the old. Ipswich refused to pay, and the ringleaders were fined and imprisoned, as must happen under any law. Andros was ordered to proclaim all land titles invalid unless confirmed by the Crown for a quitrent. Outrageous as this may seem, it was held to be sound law, and he enforced it in the most humane way by bringing test suits against a few of the wealthiest citizens before proceeding further. As a fact, only a part had yielded when the Revolution interrupted it. He granted waste common-lands to individuals who would improve them; a venial crime. Heavy fees were charged by the public officials; but he neither fixed the rates, received the proceeds nor appointed the officers who did. He had Episcopal services held in the Old South Church, but only when its regular congregation was not using it; this sacrilege, however, has blackened his memory worse than anything else. He was sometimes sharp in speech; but when some wickedly foolish people charged him with secretly fomenting an Indian war, he only laughed at them and left the courts to attend to the matter. In a word, there was neither a political nor a religious reign of terror set up; no one was persecuted for non-conformity or executed or whipped for political offenses. Andros behaved like a statesman, an honest man and a humane one. He early extended his authority over Plymouth, New

Hampshire and Rhode Island, as well as Maine and Massachusetts. In October 1687 he visited Hartford, to take up the Connecticut charter: the story of its being hidden in the Charter Oak is classic, and it is certain enough that one copy was hidden and was efficient in restoring the charter rights of the colony later; but there was another copy, and the event was regarded as of no significance at the time. Andros, on returning to Boston in 1688, received the news that he was made governor also of all the British provinces in America except Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. While making a tour of his northern provinces he was checked by the information that the Penobscot Indians, stirred up by ../Castine/ (q.v.), whose property had been taken, were about to go on the war-path. He collected 700 troops, and in November proceeded to Maine and garrisoned several posts. On 4 April 1689 news was received of the deposition of James II; on the 18th the citizens of Boston rose and captured Andros, and kept him prisoner till 2 August, when he escaped to New York, but was recaptured and brought back, and not released till February 1690. He returned to England to face a trial with a committee of his accusers, but the charges fell through. William III needed officials as able and upright as he, and in 1692 made him governor of Virginia. He carried with him the charter of William and Mary College, and till 1698 remained in Virginia, a most public-spirited, hard-working, excellent ruler, doing much for the progress of the colony and esteemed by its people. His removal was caused by a quarrel with the commissary of the bishop of London and president of the college, who quarreled with all the governor. He was governor of Jersey 1704-06. He had been governor of every mainland English province in North America, and won the confidence of four successive monarchs of hostile lines. Even for New England, his departure was not an unmixed good, for it was followed by one of her bloodiest and most disastrous Indian wars, which his presence might have averted. See Brodhead, ‘Governorship of Sir Edmund Andros’ (1867); ‘Andros in New England’ (1691); ‘ Andros Tracts, with Notes and a Memoir’ (Prince Society, Boston 1868-74).


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Jean Croiset

Croiset,, ascetical writer, b. at Marseilles, 1656; d. at Avignon, January 31, 1738. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1677, and was for a long time rector of the novitiate at Avignon, which he governed with great wisdom. He became famous as a director of consciences, and as a writer of many spiritual books which have been translated into several languages. His "Devotion to the Sacred Heart" appears to have been the first of his publications. He wrote also: "Retreats for Each Day of the Month"; "The Lives of the Saints for Each Day of the Year", in eighteen volumes, in the last of which is "The Life of Our Lord" and "The Life of the Blessed Virgin"; "The Model of Youth"; "Spiritual Illusions"; "Dialogues on Worldly Dangers"; "Parallel of the Morals of Our Age, with the Morality of Christ", etc. He also published collections of prayers. De Backer accuses Lamennais of having plagiarized from Croiset in his little work called "Guide du jeune age". Feller attributes a book of meditations also to Croiset. He is regarded as one of the great masters of the spiritual life.

T. J. CAMPBELL


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 Bast at Bubastis, Sothis at Elephantine, and many other goddesses. These authorities alone are sufficient, almost at a glance, to convince us that not only are some inferior deities mere aspects of the greater gods, but that several at least of the greater gods themselves are but different aspects of one and the same.

Lepsius, in his Dissertation on the gods of the first order, has published several lists of these divinities taken from monuments of different periods, the most ancient list being taken from an altar of the sixth dynasty. On comparing these lists together, it is again plain that Mentu and Tmu, two of the great gods of Thebes, are merely aspects of the sun-god Rā. The entire list of the gods of the first order is easily reduced to two groups; the first representing the sun-god Rā and his family, and the second Osiris and his family. It is most probable that neither Ptah nor Amon were originally at the head of lists, but obtained their places as being chief divinities of the capitals Memphis and Thebes. Both these gods are identified with the sun-god Rā, and so indeed are all the chief local divinities. The whole mythology of Egypt may be said to turn upon the histories of Rā and Osiris, and these histories run into each other, sometimes in inextricable confusion, which ceases to be wonderful when texts are discovered which simply identify Osiris and Rā. And, finally, other texts are known wherein Rā, Osiris, Amon and all the other gods disappear,


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Trinity College (Hartford)

TRINITY COLLEGE, Hartford, Conn., was founded by Bishop Brownell of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1823 and was then chartered as Washington College. In 1845 the name was changed to Trinity College; in

1872 the original campus was sold to the city of Hartford as the site for the State Capitol and the college moved to its present site in the suburbs. The college offers (1) a course in arts leading to the degree of A.B.; (2) a course in science, leading to the degree of B.S.; (3) a course in civil engineering, added to the curriculum in 1903-04; those taking this course may receive either the degree of A.B., or B.S., according to their electives; (4) graduate courses leading to the degrees of M.A. and M.S. The college has a large number of scholarships, two fellowships and several graduate scholarships. The principal buildings are of brown stone, secular Gothic in architecture. The library in 1918 contained 85,000 volumes. The productive funds amounted to $1,618,000. The average attendance is about 250 and the faculty numbers 25.


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 except as simple names, and the unity of God is asserted in the noblest language of monotheistic religion. There are many very eminent scholars who, with full knowledge of all that can be said to the contrary, maintain that the Egyptian religion is essentially monotheistic, and that the multiplicity of gods is only due to the personification of "the attributes, characters and offices of the supreme God."

Is the Religion really Monotheistic?

No scholar is better entitled to be heard on this subject than the late M. Emmanuel Rougé, whose matured judgment is as follows:

"No one has called in question the fundamental meaning of the principal passages by the help of which we are able to establish what ancient Egypt has taught concerning God, the world and man. I said God, not the gods. The first characteristic of the religion is the Unity [of God] most energetically expressed: God, One, Sole and Only; no others with Him.—He is the Only Being—living in truth.—Thou art One, and millions of beings proceed from thee.—He has made everything, and he alone has not been made. The clearest, the simplest, the most precise conception.


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 "But how reconcile the Unity of God with Egyptian Polytheism. History and geography will perhaps elucidate the matter. The Egyptian religion comprehends a quantity of local worships. The Egypt which Menes brought together entire under his sceptre was divided into nomes, each having a capital town; each of these regions has its principal god designed by a special name; but it is always the same doctrine which re-appears under different names. One idea predominates, that of a single and primeval God; everywhere and always it is One Substance, self-existent, and an unapproachable God."

M. de Rougé then says that from, or rather before, the beginning of the historical period, the pure monotheistic religion passed through the phase of Sabeism; the Sun, instead of being considered as the symbol of life, was taken as the manifestation of God Himself. The second characteristic of the religion was "a mystery which does honour to the theological intellect of the Egyptians. God is self-existent; he is the only being who has not been begotten; hence the idea of considering God under two aspects, the Father and the Son. In most of the hymns we come across this idea of the Double Being who engendereth Himself, the Soul in two Twins—to signify two Persons never to be separated. A hymn of the Leyden Museum. … calls Him 'the One of One.'

"Are these noble doctrines then the result of


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 Certainly not; for they were in existence more than two thousand years before the Christian era. On the other hand, Polytheism, the sources of which we have pointed out, developes itself and progresses without interruption until the time of the Ptolemies. It is, therefore, more than five thousand years since, in the valley of the Nile, the hymn began to the Unity of God and the immortality of the soul, and we find Egypt in the last ages arrived at the most unbridled Polytheism. The belief in the Unity of the Supreme God and in his attributes as Creator and Lawgiver of man, whom he has endowed with an immortal soul—these are the primitive notions, enchased, like indestructible diamonds, in the midst of the mythological superfetations accumulated in the centuries which have passed over that ancient civilization."

Although some of the texts here alluded to have most probably a somewhat different meaning from that which M. de Rougé ascribes to them, the facts upon which he relies are in the main unassailable. It is incontestably true that the sublimer portions of the Egyptian religion are not the comparatively late result of a process of development or elimination from the grosser. The sublimer portions are demonstrably ancient; and the last stage of the Egyptian religion, that known to the Greek and Latin writers, heathen or Christian, was by far the grossest and most corrupt. M. de Rougé is no doubt correct in his assertion that


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Charter Oak

CHARTER OAK, a tree nearly seven feet in diameter, formerly in Hartford, Conn., it blew down in a storm, 21 Aug. 1856 when its age was computed to be nearly a thousand years. A section of its trunk was preserved in the rooms of the Connecticut Historical Society; the remainder — currently believed to rival in miraculous powers of reproduction the loaves and fishes or the Mayflower furniture — was kept or sold for small souvenirs. It is thus venerated from a tradition, first accredited to it in 1789, that in a hollow of it was concealed the charter of Connecticut rescued from Andros in 1687; earlier ones specify an elm, others the houses of different persons. This is of little moment; but the adventures of the charter form a mystery which the latest investigations, instead of illuminating, render utterly insoluble. The contradiction of unquestionable facts is absolute. The story without these is sufficiently peculiar. James II, wishing to make Connecticut a part of his consolidated New England under Andros (q.v.), found its charter in the way; and as the colony declined to surrender it he brought writs of quo warranto to vacate it, the last of which was returnable in February 1687. To delay or avoid voluntary surrender, yet escape forfeiture and entire outlawry of rights, they replied that they would much rather stay as they were, but if they could not, preferred a provincial union under Andros over annexation to any other province. The council chose to consider this a formal waiver of charter rights, and dropped proceedings under the writ; and on 31 Oct. 1687 Andros rode over from Norwich to Hartford, under orders to assume the government. Calling the governor and council together, he demanded surrender of the charter according to their dutiful assurances. The meeting was secret; what happened we learn only from tradition and the brief account of a later intimate of the actors. The colonial officials protested and debated till after dark; that this was prearranged is not only morally certain in itself, but Trumbull's account of a long speech by the governor, to no conceivable purpose otherwise, deepens the certainty. Candles were lighted; the charter was (or the charters were) at last brought in and laid on the table; suddenly some officious candle-snuffers put out all the lights, and when they were relighted no charter was to be seen. But if Andros had no longer a charter to suppress, equally the colony had no longer one to appeal to; the old government was just as effectually extinguished as if they had let him have the paper; they cannot have foreseen a revolution in England, and it is not evident what they intended to do with it. Most likely, from their previous actions, it was merely to save their “face” from the humiliation of a formal surrender. There was no outcry by Andros, no charge made against the officials, no appearance of ill-will to them, no report of the affair to England, seemingly no disclosure of it to the train of Massachusetts magnates who accompanied him (and may or may not have attended the meeting), or to any one else; and (perhaps the most curious of all the circumstances of

this curious affair) both our informant and tradition stop short at the relighted candles and the missing document, and give no hint what Andros said or if he said anything, or whether he seemed puzzled or offended, or any of the immediate sequelæ of the business. The governor (Treat) had called a meeting of the General Court, which accepted the situation and the annexation; the secretary inscribed it on the colonial records and wrote “Finis” on them; and the next day Andros publicly proclaimed his commission. When James was overthrown and Andros with him, the colony resumed its government, appealed to its charter brought from hiding, and the English authorities admitted without trial that it had never been vacated. But that was chance and not foresight. This, however, is only the beginning of mystery. The charter, obtained by Gov. John Winthrop from Charles II's council in April 1662, was engrossed in duplicate, and the official fees are entered on the English records. No other copies were made, nor could have been unless both the others were lost; and neither was lost The first copy was sent to the colonial government, which acknowledged receipt of “the charter, the duplicate and the old copy of the former charter” (that is, the Warwick Patent). Duplicate of what? It is usually assumed to mean of the charter; but the facts to be cited prove that it was of the patent Winthrop was to bring over the duplicate of the charter with him and a legislative committee was appointed to receive it from him. That he did not is conclusively shown by a letter from the colony to its agent, William Whiting, in 1686, instructing him to obtain it from James Porter in London, with whom Winthrop had left it, and use it in defending the colony's rights before the council. That Winthrop may have taken it across once more on official business, and left it there, is barred out by the fact that he never visited England again. That Whiting sent it back within the next year is equally negatived by the fact that he continued to need it there and the colony did not need it at all, that he would not have sent it without orders and they gave him no such orders, and that in his correspondence there is no letter of transmittal. Furthermore, a legislative committee of 1715 voted a money acknowledgment to Joseph Wadsworth for safely preserving the “Duplicate Charter” when “our constitution was struck at.” It is absurd to suppose they made him the grant for preserving a second copy when they had one safe already. Obviously, the one he preserved was the only one they had. On the other hand, Roger Wolcott, the first narrator (1759), distinctly says that “the charters were set on the table,” and that when the candles were relighted the charters were gone. Still more specifically, President Stiles of Yale writes in his ‘Itinerary,’ as from Wolcott, that Nathan Stanley took one copy and Governor Talcott's father the other. Wolcott was only eight at the time; but by 1714 he was in the council, in 17l5 was on the very committee which made the grant to Wadsworth, and was certainly intimate with many who were present at the scene and probably helped arrange it. We have, then, the certain fact that there was but one copy of the charter in America in 1687, set against the positive assertion of one who must have known.

that two were abstracted. Still a third mystery is, that Wadsworth was not present at the meeting and could not have taken the paper; that Wolcott, who publicly honored Wadsworth as the savior of the charter, privately gives all the credit to others and does not even mention Wadsworth, and that the names he cites are really those of members present; and that if one of the actual abstracters passed it to Wadsworth waiting outside, he and not they should receive the public acknowledgment. The writer can guess at solutions to these problems, but all solutions are guesses alike.


text: Author:Albert Carlos Bates

title: Author:Albert Carlos Bates


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Transylvania

Transylvania, the southeastern part of Hungary, called in German "Siebenburgen", apparently from the old name of the City of Hermannstadt, once known as Sibinburg; in Hungarian the name is "Erdely" (cf. maps to article Austro-Hungarian Monarchy).

At the beginning of the Christian era what is now Transylvania was inhabited by Dacians, a Thracian people. In the second half of the first century King Decebalus united the various tribes of the Dacians into a homogeneous kingdom. He maintained his independence in successful battles against the Romans and forced the Emperor Domitian to agree to a disgraceful peace. Trajan conquered the country during the years 101-7 and made it a Roman province. From 260 Dacia swarmed with Goths and the Emperor Aurelian abandoned the country to them. During the great migrations the Goths were followed by the Huns; after the death of Attila the Huns were followed by the German Gepidw; these were succeeded by the Avars, the Petchenegs, and other tribes. Finally in the eleventh century the Magyars succeeded in getting control of Transylvania and were ruled by petty independent princes. In 1003 King St. Stephen, the organizer of Hungarian Christianity, overthrew the last of these princes. Stephen's successor gradually gained the greater part of the country. It was intended that Transylvania should be the bulwark of western civilization against the onslaught of the barbarian hordes of the East. With this purpose in view the Hungarian kings brought German colonists into Transylvania. In the medieval charters these settlers were called Saxons, a name that is still retained. In 1211 King Andreas gave what is called Burzenland, that is the country surrounding Kronstadt, to the Teutonic Knights, who settled German peasants on it and built numerous citadels, as the Kreuzburg, Marienburg, the fortified castles of Rosenau, Bosau, etc. When in 1224 the Teutonic Knights placed their possessions under the control of the pope the king revoked his gift, and sought to drive the order out by force. The next year the order left Burzenland; having been summoned by Duke Konrad of Kujavien into the district surrounding the present Kulm to fight against the heathen Prussians. Notwithstanding the withdrawal of the knights the region preserved its German character, for Saxons had settled also in Burzenland. The manufacturing German towns that sprang up in the district became centers of a flourishing civilization and the main props of the Hungarian authority. The Magyars in Transylvania were ruled by a voivode, while the Germans formed a separate nation who were governed by the Count of Saxony. A third nation, the Szeklers in Szeklerland, apparently a branch of the Magyars, had a governor or Gespann of their own. The Wallachians or Rumanians (Blaci), who had settled in various parts of the country, were not on a political equality with the others; they appear chiefly as tenants of the great Hungarian landowners.

As one of the frontier bulwarks of Hungary, Transylvania was often obliged to defend itself against the incursions of foreign tribes. Thus it had to contend against the Kumanis and Tatars who traversed, in the thirteenth century, almost the whole of eastern Europe, plundering and burning as they went, and who in the years 1241-42 devastated the whole of Transylvania. The country also, for more than a century, resisted successfully the attacks of the Turks, who from the fifteenth century repeatedly forced their way into Transylvania along the rivers Danube and Maros. The numerous fortified castles of the country, the fortified churches, and the church strongholds, that are a peculiar feature of Transylvania, belong chiefly to this period of the incursions of the Tatars and Turks. The devastation wrought by the Turks, the misery that followed their incursions, and a revolt of the peasants led to a union of the three nations. This union was formed in 1437 for the common protection and defense of the country, utterly neglected by the Hungarian government. Even at this early date the alliance led to the growth of the idea of separation from the mother-country. This took place in the sixteenth century, and was due to the successful advance of the Turks. In 1526 the Hungarian King Louis II, a member of the Jagellon dynasty, was killed in the battle against the Turks at Mohacs. A part of the Hungarian nobility elected the Archduke Ferdinand I, brother of the Emperor Charles V, as King of Hungary, on account of a treaty of succession made by Waladislaus, father of King Louis; while another faction elected John Zapolya, Count of Zips. During the struggle between these two parties the Turks conquered almost the whole of Hungary, with the exception of the northern and extreme western sections. Transylvania now separated from Hungary, at this time under the rule of the Habsburgs, and John Zapolya made it an independent principality, although under Turkish suzerainty.

The separation from the rest of the empire of the Habsburgs was greatly aided by religious discord. On account of the active intercourse between the Holy Roman Empire and the Germans, in particular, of Transylvania, the writings of Luther and the other Reformers were circulated in Transylvania as early as 1521, and the new doctrine spread rapidly, especially among the nobility, who meant to seize the lands belonging to the Church. Zapolya's revolt against Ferdinand, the secularizing in 1556 of the Diocese of Weissenburg by the nobles, and the lack of priests, all were of advantage to Protestantism. In 1544 the whole Saxon nation decided to adopt the Augsburg Confession, which in 1557 was placed on a parity with the Catholic Church. From the year 1554 the teachings of Calvin also gained ground in Transylvania, and in 1564 Calvinism received full recognition and was placed on a parity with the two other denominations. During the reign of John Sigmund, son of John Zapolya, the doctrines of Socinus also spread in Transylvania and the adherents of these teachings, the Unitarians, were granted the free exercise of their religion in 1571. In addition, there were also Anabaptists and other sects in the country. Consequently the Catholic Faith declined more and more, its members became the minority of the population, and were robbed of nearly all their Church lands. The exercise of the Catholic worship was forbidden in a large part of the land, and the diocese was only nominally filled for over a century and a half. In 1579 Prince Christopher Bathory called in the Jesuits for the protection of the Catholic Faith, but they were driven away in 1588, and all their later attempts to return were frustrated by force.

The period of the Turkish suzerainty over Transylvania lasted for a century and a half. During this era the country was nominally a constitutionally governed principality, for the prince had the administrative aid of a Council of State and a diet, but in reality the nobility governed, as they had the right to the free election of a successor after the death of the ruling prince. Yet this right was often illusory on account of the pressure exercised by the Turks. A number of the princes of this era gained reputation by the part they took in European affairs. Among these were: John Sigmund Zapolya (1541-70), Stephen Bathory (1571-75), afterwards King of Poland; Sigmund Bathory (1581-1602), Bethlen-Gabor (1625-29), the two rulers named George RakGczy (1630-61), who were allies of France in the Thirty Years War, and Michael I Apafy (1662-90). The feeling constantly grew in Transylvania that the supremacy of the Turks, who repeatedly interfered in the internal affairs of the country, was discreditable. This and the influence of a strong party in favor of the Habsburgs, which had always existed in the country, led several times to the union of Transylvania with the Austrian monarchy, as in the years 1551-56, and 1598-1602. The final connection with Austria was brought about by the successful advance of the imperial army after the second siege of Vienna by the Turks in. 1683, and the reconquest of Hungary by Austria in 1684-85. Transylvania was separated from Turkey and the oath of loyalty to Leopold I as King of Hungary was confirmed by several treaties between the emperor and the Transylvanian estates, the most important of which was the Leopoldine Diploma of December 4, 1691. On his side Leopold recognized all the rights of the three political nations of Transylvania and confirmed the former liberties of the four confessions recognized in Transylvania. In 1697 Prince Michael II Apafy renounced all his rights for a pension and the title of a prince of the empire, while the Porte withdrew all claims to Transylvania in the Peace of Karlbwitz (1699). In this way Transylvania was once more won for the Hungarian Crown and the Habsburg dynasty. The Hungarian revolt under Francis II Rakoczy threatened the loss of Transylvania again, as his adherents proclaimed him ruler of the principality (1704), but after a few years the revolt was suppressed.

Under the rule of Austria the country was made a separate crown land. The ruler of Austria who was Prince of Transylvania did not reside in the country, consequently, the Transylvanian Royal Chancellery (Excelsa Cancellaria regia Transylvanue Aulica) was formed at Vienna as the chief authority for the exercise of the princely rights. Its head was a chancellor and the orders of the chancellery were imperative upon the royal board of government (Excelsum regium Gubernium) which had been established at Hermannstadt in 1713, and which was moved to Klausenburg in 1790. This board directed the administration of the country, supervised the churches and schools, and formed the supreme court. Laws were issued by the ruler in conjunction with a Diet consisting of one chamber. In 1765 Maria Theresa raised the principality to the rank of a grand principality, by which nothing, in reality, was changed. In 1715 the Catholic Diocese of Transylvania was reestablished with its see at Karlsburg. Thus for a century and a half Transylvania formed a distinct crown land of the Austrian monarchy, and was independent of Hungary. This arrangement was fundamentally changed by the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-49. As early as the decade 1830-40, the desire for the union of Transylvania with Hungary was constantly and increasingly expressed in Hungary. These efforts failed, however, on account of the opposition of the Saxons, who fought energetically for political independence from Hungary and municipal self-administration. Nevertheless, despite the opposition of the Saxons, the union with revolutionary Hungary was proclaimed in the Transylvania Diet on May 30, 1848, and thus Transylvania became involved in the defection from the Habsburg dynasty. After the suppression of the revolt with the aid of Russia the supremacy of the Austrian Crown was absolute in Transylvania, as in Hungary, during the years 1849-60, after which the country received the right of self-administration once more, and the chancellery for Transylvania was formally reestablished at Vienna. By the treaty of adjustment between Austria and Hungary in 1867 the Magyar efforts for the control of Transylvania met with complete success. Its independence as a crown province was annulled and it was united with Hungary. The Transylvanian chancellery at Vienna and the supreme court at Klausenburg were abolished, the Transylvanian Diet was dissolved, the municipal independence of the Saxons was destroyed, and in 1876 the country was divided into fifteen counties. Since then Transylvania has been nothing more than a Hungarian province and the non-Hungarian part of the population, the Germans and Rumanians, are at the mercy of an arbitrary Magyarization by the Hungarian government.

The area of Transylvania is 21,578 sq. m.; in 1900 its population was 2,476,998. Of this number, as regards religion, 13.3 per cent were Catholics of the Latin Rite, 28.2 per cent Uniats of the Greek and Armenian Rites; 30.3 per cent Orthodox Greeks; 14.7 per cent members of the Reformed Church; 9 per cent Lutherans; 2.6 per cent Unitarians; 2.1 per cent Jews. According to nationalities, 32.9 per cent were Magyars; 9.3 per cent, German; 56.5 per cent, Rumanians; 1.1 per cent, Serbs; the remainder were mainly Gypsies or Armenians. There exists for the Catholics of the Latin Rite the Diocese of Transylvania with its see at Karlsburg. Since 1897 the bishop has been Gustav Karl, Count Maj-16th von Szekhely, a member of the Hungarian House of Lords. The cathedral chapter consists of ten members, of whom 3 are appointed by the king, and 7 by the bishop. In 1912 the diocese contained: 16 archdeaconeries, 229 parishes, 398 secular priests, 226 regular priests, 354,145 Catholics, 2 houses of Minorites with 29 members; 24 houses of Franciscans with 153 members; 1 of the Piarists with 44 members; 1 of Mechitarist monks with 2 members; 9 of Franciscan nuns with 187 Sisters; 4 of Sisters of Mercy with 56 Sisters; 1 of Ursuline nuns with 37 Sisters. There are 229 parish churches and 2200 dependent churches. The Uniat Catholics have the Archdiocese of Alba Julia Fogaras and its suffragan the Diocese of Armenierstadt. The Orthodox Greeks are under the direction of the Oriental Greek Rumanian Archdiocese at Hermannstadt. The Reformed, or Protestants of the Helvetic Confession, are under the bishop at Klausenburg; the Lutherans are under the bishop at Hermannstadt; the Unitarians have a representative consistory at Klausenburg.

JOSEPH LINS


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Executive Order 13625

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, I hereby order as follows:

Barack Obama The White House, August 31, 2012. [FR Doc. 2012–22062 Filed 9–4–12; 2:00 pm] Billing Code 3295–F2–P

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :2.

 * a.

Assured that the French would not cease fire prior to the conference, Washington forged ahead in late April and early May in search of a policy that would guide the American delegation. The National Security Council, less than a week before the opening conference session, carefully examined American alternatives. The NSC urged the President not to join the Geneva deliberations without assurance from France that it was not preparing to negotiate the surrender of Indochina. Again, the Korean example was foremost: Communist tactics, the NSC said, will likely resemble those at Panmunjom: a cease-fire with lack of compliance by the communists because of ineffective supervision, a wilting French position before the communists' typical dilatory tactics, all resulting in the French accepting almost any terms.

 * b.

The NSC, therefore, decided that the French had to be pressured into adopting a strong posture in the face of probable communist intransigence. The NSC urged a policy of informing Paris that its acquiescence in a communist takeover of Indochina would bear not only on France's future position in the Far East, but also on its status as one of the Big Three; that abandonment of Indochina would grievously affect both France's position in North Africa and Franco–U.S. relations in that region; that U.S. aid to France would automatically cease upon Paris' conclusion of an unsatisfactory settlement; and, finally, that communist domination of Indochina would be of such serious strategic harm to U.S. interests as to produce "consequences in Europe as well as elsewhere [without]...apparent limitation." In addition, the NSC recommended that the U.S. determine immediately whether the Associated States should be approached with a view to continuing the anti-Viet Minh struggle in some other form, including unilateral U.S. involvement "if necessary."

 * c.

The NSC's adamant attitude was reflected in Dulles' extreme pessimism over the prospects for any meaningful progress in talks with the communists. At Geneva on April 25, the Secretary said that the solution of the Indochina problem was the primary responsibility of France, the non-Communist Vietnamese, and the Viet Minh. The U.S. would not normally expect to "interpose [its] veto" except "where we felt that the issues involved had a pretty demonstrable interest to the United States itself." And he went on to say that if highly disadvantageous solutions were proposed at the conference which the U.S. could not prevent, "we would probably want to disassociate ourselves from it [the Conference]." Rh

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This first official indication for public consumption of U.S. refusal to join in a settlement contrary to our interests, was coupled with a comment by Dulles on the possibility of partition. In views that would change later, Dulles said he did not see how partition could be arranged with the fighting not confined to any single area. Although he did not actually rule out partition, he made it clear that the U.S. would agree only to a division equivalent to a communist surrender, one that would place all the communist troops in a small regroupment area out of harm's way. But that arrangement "might not be acceptable to them," he said coyly.

 * 3.

 * a.

The test of U.S. policy came May 5 when the French informed Washington of the proposals they intended to make in the first round of talks. The proposals included a separation of the Vietnam situation of "civil war" from the communist aggressions in Cambodia and Laos; a ceasefire supervised by international authority, to be followed by political discussions aimed at free elections; the regrouping of regular forces of the belligerents into defined zones upon signature of a cease-fire agreement; the disarming of all irregular forces (., the Viet Minh guerrillas); and a guarantee of the agreements by "the States participating in the Geneva Conference."

 * b.

Once more, the Chiefs, in reviewing the proposals, fell back on the Korean experience, which they said demonstrated the certainty that the communists would violate any armistice controls, including those supervised by an international body. An agreement to refrain from new military activities during armistice negotiations would be a strong obstacle to communist violations; but the communists, the JCS concluded, would never agree to such an arrangement. The Chiefs therefore urged that the U.S. not get trapped into backing a French armistice proposal that then could be taken up by the communists and exploited to bind us to a cease-fire. The only way to get satisfactory results was through military success, and since the Navarre Plan was no longer tenable, the next best alternative was not to associate the U.S. with any cease-fire in advance of a satisfactory political settlement. The first step, the Chiefs believed, should be the conclusion of a settlement that would "reasonably assure the political and territorial integrity of the Associated States..."; only thereafter should a cease-fire be entertained.

 * c.

As previously, the Joint Chiefs' position became U.S. policy, in this case with only minor emendations. The President, reviewing the Rh

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 state, on Apalachicola Bay and at the mouth of the Apalachicola river. Pop. (1890) 2727; (1900) 3077, of whom 1589 were of negro descent; (1905, state census) 3244. It is served by the Apalachicola Northern railway (to Chattahoochee, Florida), and by river steamers which afford connexion with railways at Carrabelle about 25 m. distant, at Chatahoochee (or River Junction), and at Columbus and Bainbridge, Georgia, and by ocean-going vessels with American and foreign ports. The city has a monument (1900) to John Gorrie (1803–1855), a physician who discovered the cold-air process of refrigeration in 1849 (and patented an ice-machine in 1850), as the result of experiments to lower the temperatures of fever patients. The bay is well protected by St Vincent, Flag, Sand, and St George’s islands; and the shipping of lumber, naval stores and cotton, which reach the city by way of the river, forms the principal industry. Before the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apalachicola was one of the principal centres of trade in the southern states, ranking third among the Gulf ports in 1835. In 1907 the Federal government projected a channel across the harbour bar 100 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep and a channel 150 ft. wide and 18 ft. deep for Link Channel and the West Pass. In 1907 the exports were valued at $317,838; the imports were insignificant. The value of the total domestic and foreign commerce of the port for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 was estimated at $1,240,000 (76,000 tons). The fishery products, including oysters, tarpon, sturgeon, caviare and sponges, are also important. APAMEA, the name of several towns in western Asia.

1. A treasure city and stud-depot of the Seleucid kings in the valley of the Orontes. It was so named by Seleucus Nicator, after Apama, his wife. Destroyed by Chosroes in the 7th century, it was partially rebuilt and known as Fāmia by the Arabs; and overthrown by an earthquake in 1152. It kept its importance down to the time of the Crusades. The acropolis hill is now occupied by the ruins of Kalat el-Mudik.

2. A city in Phrygia, founded by Antiochus Soter (from whose mother, Apama, it received its name), near, but on lower ground than, Celaenae. It was situated where the Marsyas leaves the hills to join the Maeander, and it became a seat of Seleucid power, and a centre of Graeco-Roman and Graeco-Hebrew civilization and commerce. There Antiochus the Great collected the army with which he met the Romans at Magnesia, and there two years later the treaty between Rome and the Seleucid realm was signed. After Antiochus’ departure for the East, Apamea lapsed to the Pergamenian kingdom and thence to Rome in 133, but it was resold to Mithradates V., who held it till 120. After the Mithradatic wars it became and remained a great centre for trade, largely carried on by resident Italians and by Jews. In 84 Sulla made it the seat of a conventus of the Asian province, and it long claimed primacy among Phrygian cities. Its decline dates from the local disorganization of the empire in the 3rd century ; and though a bishopric, it was not an important military or commercial centre in Byzantine times. The Turks took it first in 1070, and from the 13th century onwards it was always in Moslem hands. For a long period it was one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, commanding the Maeander road; but when the trade routes were diverted to Constantinople it rapidly declined, and its ruin was completed by an earthquake. A Jewish tradition, possibly arising from a name Cibotus (ark), which the town bore, identified a neighbouring mountain with Ararat. The famous “Noah” coins of the emperor Philip commemorate this belief. The site is now partly occupied by  (q.v., sometimes locally known also as Geiklar, “the gazelles,” perhaps from a tradition of the Persian hunting-park, seen by Xenophon at Celaenae), which is connected with Smyrna by railway; there are considerable remains, including a great number of important Graeco-Roman inscriptions.

3. A town on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the end of a bridge of boats (zeugma); the Til-Barsip of the Assyrian inscriptions, now (q.v.).

4. The earlier Myrlea of Bithynia, now (q.v.), the port of Brusa. The name was given it by Prusias I., who rebuilt it.

5. A city mentioned by Stephanus and Pliny as situated near the Tigris, the identification of which is still uncertain.

6. A Greek city in Parthia, near Rhagae. APARRI, a town of the province of Cagayán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Grande de Cagayán river near, its mouth, about 55 m. N. of Tuguegarao, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,252. The valley is one of the largest tobacco-producing sections in the Philippines; and the town has a considerable coastwise trade. Here, too, is a meteorological station. APATITE, a widely distributed mineral, which, when found in large masses, is of considerable economic value as a phosphate. As a mineral species it was first recognized by A. G. Werner in 1786 and named by him from the Greek , to deceive, because it had previously been mistaken for other minerals, such as beryl, tourmaline, chrysolite, amethyst, &c. Although long known to consist mainly of calcium phosphate, it was not until 1827 that G. Rose found that fluorine or chlorine is an essential constituent. Two chemical varieties of apatite are to be distinguished, namely a fluor-apatite, (CaF)Ca4P3O12, and a chlor-apatite, (CaCl) Ca4P3O12: the former, which is much the commoner, contains 42·3% of phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) and 3·8% fluorine, and the latter 4·10% P2O5 and 6·8% chlorine. Fluorine and chlorine replace each other in indefinite proportions, and they may also be in part replaced by hydroxyl, so that the general formula becomes [Ca (F, Cl, OH)] Ca4P3O12, in which the univalent group Ca(F, Cl, OH) takes the place of one hydrogen atom in orthophosphoric acid H3PO4. The formula is sometimes written in the form 3Ca3(PO4)2 + CaF2. Mangan-apatite is a variety in which calcium is largely replaced by manganese (up to 10% MnO). Cerium, didymium, yttrium, &c., oxides may also sometimes be present, in amounts up to 5%.

Apatite frequently occurs as beautifully developed crystals, sometimes a foot or more in length, belonging to that division of the hexagonal system in which there is pyramidal hemi-hedrism. In this type of symmetry, of which apatite is the best example, there is only one plane of symmetry, which is perpendicular to the hexad axis. The arrangement of the pyramidal faces n and u in fig. 2 show the hemihedral character and absence of the full number of planes and axes of symmetry. Fig. 2 represents a highly modified crystal from St Gotthard; a more common form is shown in fig. 1, which is bounded by the hexagonal prism m, hexagonal bipyramid x and basal pinacoid c.

In its general appearance, apatite exhibits wide variations. Crystals may be colourless and transparent or white and opaque, but are often coloured, usually some shade of green or brown, occasionally violet, sky-blue, yellow, &c. The lustre is vitreous, inclining to sub-resinous. There is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid, and the fracture is conchoidal. Hardness 5, specific gravity 3·2.

Yellowish-green prismatic crystals from Jumilla in Murcia in Spain have long been known under the name asparagus-stone. Lazurapatite is a sky-blue variety found as crystals with lapis-lazuli in Siberia; and moroxite is the name given to dull greenish-blue crystals from Norway and Canada. Francolite, from Wheal Franco, near Tavistock in Devonshire, and also from several Cornish mines, occurs as crystallized stalactitic masses. In

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive JCS paper, agreed that the U.S. could not back the French proposal with its call for a supervised cease-fire that the communists would never respect. Eisenhower further concurred with the Chiefs' insistence on priority to a political settlement, with the stipulation that French forces continue fighting while negotiations were in progress. He added that the U.S. would continue aiding the French during that period and would, in addition, work toward a united action coalition "for the purpose of preventing further expansion of communist power in Southeast Asia."

 * d.

These statements of position paved the way for a National Security Council meeting May 8 which set forth the guidelines of U.S. policy on negotiations for the delegation at Geneva. The decision taken at the meeting simply underscored what the President and the Chiefs had already stated:

 * "The United States will not associate itself with any proposal from any source directed toward a ceasefire in advance of an acceptable armistice agreement, including international controls. The United States could concur in the initiation of negotiations for such an armistice agreement. During the course of such negotiations, the French and the Associated States should continue to oppose the forces of the Viet Minh with all the means at their disposal. In the meantime, as a means of strengthening the hands of the French and the Associated States during the course of such negotiations, the United States will continue its program of aid and its efforts to organize and promptly activate a Southeast Asian regional grouping for the purpose of preventing further expansion of Communist power in Southeast Asia."

 * e.

Before receiving detailed instructions from Dulles, Smith spoke twice at the first round of plenary sessions, once on May 10 (the second plenary) and again on May 12 (at the third). At these sessions, Smith brought home two major points of U.S. policy: first, he declined to commit the U.S. in advance to a guarantee of the settlement, despite Bidault's call for all the participants to make such a guarantee; second, he proposed that national elections in Vietnam be supervised by an international commission "under United Nations auspices." Smith stressed that the UN should have two separate functions — overseeing not only the cease-fire but the elections as well. Both these points in Smith's speech were to remain cardinal elements of U.S. policy throughout the negotiations. On 12 May Smith received instructions clearly designed to make the U.S. an influential, but unentangled and Rh

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 and other titles, or else by the Ottoman law, in the district ceded to Greece, will be recognized by the Hellenic Government.

The titles of property called vacoufs, which serve to keep up the mosques, colleges, schools, and other pious or charitable institutions, will be equally recognized.

. V. His Majesty the Sultan shall be enabled, as in the past, to dispose of the Imperial estates, the revenues of which are collected on behalf of His Majesty or of the Imperial family.

In the case of the nature and destination of these properties being contested, the question shall be submitted to the examination of the Commission of which the appointment is contemplated by Article IX of the present Convention, and, eventually, according to the terms of the said Article, to the decision of the Mediating Powers.

. VI. No one may be deprived of his property except for some object of public utility, duly established, in the cases and in the manner provided by law, and in exchange for a fair and prepaid compensation.

No landlord shall be obliged to sell his goods to the cultivators of the soil or to third parties, nor to hand over any portion of them; nor shall any alteration be introduced into the relations between landlords and the cultivators of the soil, except by a general law, applicable to the whole Kingdom.

Land-owners settled outside the Kingdom, and possessing real property in the ceded territories, may let their lands under a lease, or have them administered through third parties.

. VII. The inhabitants of the provinces bordering on the territories ceded to Greece, who have been for a long time in the habit of sending their flocks to the meadows and pasture lands, as well as on to the farms situated within those territories, shall continue to enjoy these privileges as in the past.

. VIII. Freedom of religion and of public worship is secured to Mussulmans in the territories ceded to Greece.

No interference shall take place with the autonomy or


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apalachicola


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apamea

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apamea


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 60 the daylight, or equally well lighted by electricity at night, humming with busy machines; some peopled with girls—among whom only men wearing a certain badge on their arms are allowed—some with men and boys, but all vibrating with a genial air of content as well as of busy occupation. Suffice it to say that half the handicrafts of the town seem represented in this centre of industry, in every department of which order and cheerfulness reign supreme. Each would require a chapter to do it justice, for everything employed in packing seems to be made on the premises, and that, too, on a system of piece-work paid for, not at the lowest possible price, but on the basis of securing a satisfactory living wage to the average worker. No wonder the faces around are bright, no wonder that openings at the Bournville factory are in demand, and that long service for the firm is the boast of so many of the employees. Among these, a little band of about thirty still upholds the traditions of the old firm that laid the foundations of the present company in the city of Birmingham.


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 Rh The work hours are forty-eight each week, and the wages depend both on age and length of service, no man of twenty-three years of age and over twelve months' service receiving less than 24s. weekly. There are no deductions for sick club or fines, the sick fund, as before stated, being a free gift from the company. Offences and late time are entered in a record book, and an opportunity is given to wipe off all past records by two years' good service. The Athletic Club, with over 500 voluntary subscribers, runs three cricket, four football, and two hockey teams, besides bowling, tennis, swimming, and other sports. One of the most interesting events of the Cricket Club is the annual match with a team representing Messrs. Fry and Sons, of Bristol, the oldest established cocoa firm in this country. In friendly opposition to the "Bournville Club" are the teams drawn from the "Youths' Club," and other out-side organizations. A summer camp of over a hundred boys has been successfully held at the seaside for some years past.

The recent introduction of the system of


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Rh together, as each feels sure of getting due credit for original ideas. Many important alterations in organization and methods of working have been carried into effect, entirely owing to this scheme.

In order to encourage thrift (at the same time insuring privacy), a Savings Fund on a novel system has been working successfully for several years at Bournville. The fund was opened in Jubilee year by gifts of £1 to each employee who had been three years in the service of the firm, and 10s. to those employed for a shorter time. Deposits are received, and amounts withdrawn in the usual way during the year, through collectors in each department, the depositors' cards being called in quarterly for audit. At the end of each financial year, in May, interest at the rate of four per cent, is added to the amount standing to the credit of each depositor, and the whole amount paid over to the Post Office Savings Bank. At this time also, Post Office officials attend at the works,


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FTER a prosperous, but to me very wearisome, voyage, we came at last into port. Immediately on landing I got together my few effects; and, squeezing myself through the crowd, went into the nearest and humblest inn which first met my gaze. On asking for a room the waiter looked at me from head to foot, and conducted me to one. I asked for some cold water, and for the correct address of Mr. Thomas John, which was described as being "by the north gate, the first country-house to the right, a large new house of red and white marble, with many pillars." This was enough. As the day was not yet far advanced, I untied my bundle, took out my newly-turned black coat, dressed myself in my best clothes, and, with my letter of recommendation, set out for the man who was to assist me in the attainment of my moderate wishes.

After proceeding up the north street, I reached


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136 the gate, and saw the marble columns glittering through the trees. Having wiped the dust from my shoes with my pocket-handkerchief, and readjusted my cravat, I rang the bell—offering up at the same time a silent prayer. The door flew open, and the porter sent in my name. I had soon the honor to be invited into the park, where Mr. John was walking with a few friends. I recognized him at once by his corpulency and self-complacent air. He received me very well—just as a rich man receives a poor devil; and turning to me, took my letter. "Oh, from my brother! it is a long time since I heard from him: is he well?—Yonder," he went on,—turning to the company, and pointing to a distant hill—"yonder is the site of the new building." He broke the seal without discontinuing the conversation, which turned upon riches. "The man," he said, "who does not possess at least a million is a poor wretch." "Oh, how true!" I exclaimed, in the fulness of my heart. He seemed pleased at this, and replied with a smile: "Stop here, my dear friend; afterwards I shall, perhaps, have time to tell you what I think of this," pointing to the letter, which he then put into his pocket, and turned round to the company, offering his arm to a young lady: his example was followed by the other gentlemen, each politely escorting a lady; and the whole party proceeded towards a little hill thickly planted with blooming roses.


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Rh I followed without troubling any one, for none took the least further notice of me. The party was in high spirits—lounging about and jesting—speaking sometimes of trifling matters very seriously, and of serious matters as triflingly—and exercising their wit in particular to great advantage on their absent friends and their affairs. I was too ignorant of what they were talking about to understand much of it, and too anxious and absorbed in my own reflections to occupy myself with the solution of such enigmas as their conversation presented.

By this time we had reached the thicket of roses. The lovely Fanny, who seemed to be the queen of the day, was obstinately bent on plucking a rose-branch for herself, and in the attempt pricked her finger with a thorn. The crimson stream, as if flowing from the dark-tinted rose, tinged her fair hand with the purple current. This circumstance set the whole company in commotion; and court-plaster was called for. A quiet, elderly man, tall and meagre-looking, who was one of the company, but whom I had not before observed, immediately put his hand into the tight breast-pocket of his old-fashioned coat of gray sarcenet, pulled out a small letter-case, opened it, and, with a most respectful bow, presented the lady with the wished-for article. She received it without noticing the giver, or thanking him. The wound was bound up, and the


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68 for some of those who, in their best years, have rendered faithful service to the firm. Thirty-three independent houses, brick and stone built, each with its own doorway to the quiet greensward, and its windows to the sun, form an inviting, reposeful quadrangle. They were the last gift of a life devoted to the interests of others, and the happiness and peace which characterize them are fitting memorials of the late Richard Cadbury, the elder of the two brothers who founded this great industry, and who have in their lives been favoured to see such untold blessing upon their labours.


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 addition to these crystallized varieties, there are massive varieties, fibrous, concretionary, stalactitic, or earthy in form, which are included together under the name  (q.v.), and it is these massive varieties, together with various rock-phosphates (phosphatic nodules, coprolites, guano, &c.) which are of such great economic importance: crystallized apatite is mined for phosphates only in Norway and Canada.

With regard to its mode of occurrence, apatite is found under a variety of conditions. In igneous rocks of all kinds it is invariably present in small amounts as minute acicular crystals, and was one of the first constituents of the rock to crystallize out from the magma. The extensive deposits of chlor-apatite near Kragerö and Bamle, near Brevik, in southern Norway, are in connexion with gabbro, the felspar of which has been altered, by emanations containing chlorine, to scapolite, and titanium minerals have been developed. The apatite occurring in connexion with granite and veins of tin-stone is, on the other hand, a fluor-apatite, and, like the other fluorine-bearing minerals characteristic of tin-veins, doubtless owes its origin to the emanations of tin fluoride which gave rise to the tin-ore. Special mention may be here made of the beautiful violet crystals of fluor-apatite which occur in the veins of tin-ore in the Erzgebirge, and of the brilliant bluish-green crystals encrusting cavities in the granite of Luxullian in Cornwall. Another common mode of occurrence of apatite is in metamorphic crystalline rocks, especially in crystalline limestones: in eastern Canada extensive beds of apatite occur in the limestones associated with the Laurentian gneisses. Still another mode of occurrence is presented by beautifully developed and transparent crystals found with crystals of felspar and quartz lining the crevices in the gneiss of the Alps. Crystallized apatite is also occasionally found in metalliferous veins, other than those of tin, and in beds of iron ore; whilst if the massive varieties (phosphorite) be considered many other modes of occurrence might be cited.

APATURIA ( ), an ancient Greek festival held annually by all the Ionian towns except Ephesus and Colophon (Herodotus i. 147). At Athens it took place in the month of Pyanepsion (October to November), and lasted three days, on which occasion the various phratries (i.e. clans) of Attica met to discuss their affairs. The name is a slightly modified form of  = ,  , the festival of “common relationship.” The ancient etymology associated it with  (deceit), a legend existing that the festival originated in 1100 in commemoration of a single combat between a certain Melanthus, representing King Thymoetes of Attica, and King Xanthus of Boeotia, in which Melanthus successfully threw his adversary off his guard by crying that a man in a black goat’s skin (identified with Dionysus) was helping him (Schol. Aristophanes, Acharnians, 146). On the first day of the festival, called Dorpia or Dorpeia, banquets were held towards evening at the meeting-place of the phratries or in the private houses of members. On the second, Anarrhysis (from , to draw back the victim’s head), a sacrifice of oxen was offered at the public cost to Zeus Phratrius and Athena. On the third day, Cureotis ( ), children born since the last festival were presented by their fathers or guardians to the assembled phratores, and, after an oath had been taken as to their legitimacy and the sacrifice of a goat or a sheep, their names were inscribed in the register. The name  is derived either from , that is, the day of the young, or less probably from  , because on this occasion young people cut their hair and offered it to the gods. The victim was called . On this day also it was the custom for boys still at school to declaim pieces of poetry, and to receive prizes (Plato, Timaeus, 21 ). According to Hesychius these three days of the festival were followed by a fourth, called , but this is merely a general term for the day after any festival. APE (Old Eng. apa; Dutch aap; Old Ger. affo; Welsh epa; Old Bohemian op; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the animal’s chatter), the generic English name, till the 16th century, for animals of the monkey tribe, and still used specifically for the tailless, manlike representatives of the order (q.v.). The word is now generally a synonym for “monkey,” but the common verb for both (as transferred figuratively to human beings) is “to ape,” i.e. to imitate. APELDOORN, a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, and a junction station 26 m. by rail W. of Amersfoort. It is connected by canal north and south with Zwolle and Zutphen respectively. Pop. (1900) 25,834. The neighbourhood of Apeldoorn is very picturesque and well wooded. The Protestant church was restored after a fire in 1890. Close by is the favourite country-seat of the royal family of Holland called the Loo. It was originally a hunting-lodge of the dukes of Gelderland, but in its present form dates chiefly from the time of the Stadtholder William III., king of England. Apeldoorn possesses large paper-mills. APELLA, the official title of the popular assembly at Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia in most other Greek states. Every full citizen who had completed his thirtieth year was entitled to attend the meetings, which, according to Lycurgus’s ordinance, must be held at the time of each full moon within the boundaries of Sparta. They had in all probability taken place originally in the Agora, but were later transferred to the neighbouring building known as the Skias (Paus. iii. 12. 10). The presiding officers were at first the kings, but in historical times the ephors, and the voting was conducted by shouts; if the president was doubtful as to the majority of voices, a division was taken and the votes were counted. Lycurgus had ordained that the apella must simply accept or reject the proposals submitted to it, and though this regulation fell into neglect, it was practically restored by the law of Theopompus and Polydorus which empowered the kings and elders to set aside any “crooked” decision of the people (Plut. Lycurg. 6). In later times, too, the actual debate was almost, if not wholly, confined to the kings, elders, ephors and perhaps the other magistrates. The apella voted on peace and war, treaties and foreign policy in general: it decided which of the kings should conduct a campaign and settled questions of disputed succession to the throne: it elected elders, ephors and other magistrates, emancipated helots and perhaps voted on legal proposals. There is a single reference (Xen. Hell. iii. 3. 8) to a “small assembly” ( ) at Sparta, but nothing is known as to its nature or competence. The term apella does not occur in extant Spartan inscriptions, though two decrees of Gythium belonging to the Roman period refer to the  (Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage archéologique, ii., Nos. 242a, 243).

APELLES, probably the greatest painter of antiquity. He lived from the time of Philip of Macedon till after the death of Alexander. He was of Ionian origin, but after he had attained some celebrity he became a student at the celebrated school of Sicyon, where he worked under Pamphilus. He thus combined the Dorian thoroughness with the Ionic grace. Attracted to the court of Philip, he painted him and the young Alexander with such success that he became the recognized court painter of Macedon, and his picture of Alexander holding a thunderbolt ranked with the Alexander with the spear of the sculptor Lysippus. Other works of Apelles had a great reputation in antiquity, such as the portraits of the Macedonians Clitus, Archelaus and Antigonus, the procession of the high priest of Artemis at Ephesus, Artemis amid a chorus of maidens, a great allegorical picture representing Calumny, and the noted painting representing Aphrodite rising out of the sea. Of none of these works have we any copy, unless indeed we may consider a painting of Alexander as Zeus in the house of the Vettii at Pompeii as a reminiscence of his work; but some of

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T WAS a day in midsummer, I remember. I had been tramping over the densely wooded and desolate hillside the greater part of the morning, getting with each mile farther and farther from the tawdry haunts of man and nearer and nearer the rugged heart of nature.

Finally (it must have been after noontime) I paused and made a light lunch of the sandwiches and cold coffee I had brought with me from town, sitting on the edge of a great slab of granite rock, swept clean and smooth by ages of winds and rains and snows.

All about me was a veritable garden of great projecting rocks, jagged and broken, flat and polished, needle-like, giant flowers of earth in a thousand different forms.

Here and there a short, dwarfed pine or spruce tree struggled for a footing amid its rock)' friends, and the resistless undergrowth surged up through every crack and crevice, while energetic mosses and lichens clutched at the granite walls and crept bravely up. One had a feeling of awe, as if in the presence of elemental, eternal forces. Here, I thought, if anywhere, one might commune with the voiceless void.

Suddenly my eyes chanced to fall upon a fissure in the rock to the left, and I sprang up with a low exclamation. What I had beheld was to all appearance a human skeleton!

Advancing reluctantly, yet with that insistent inquisitiveness which surrounds the dead, I bent, and peered into the fissure. As I looked, a cry escaped me. The object I beheld was indeed a skeleton—but what a skeleton! The head, the left hand, and the foot were entirely missing, nor was there any sign of them at first sight.

Thoroughly fascinated by the morbid spectacle, I began a search for the missing members, and was finally rewarded by unearthing the head some twenty feet away, where it lay half buried in the soft loam of decayed vegetation and sifted chole. But a painstaking and minute hunt failed to reveal the missing hand and foot.

I was successful, however, in finding something immeasurably more important W. T.—7


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apatite

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apatite


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apaturia

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apaturia


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ape

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ape


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apeldoorn

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apeldoorn


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apella

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apella