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 as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. Before marriage free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage not common and incest unknown. By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe. The children are possessed of a bright intelligence, which, however, soon reaches its climax, and the adult may be compared in this respect with the civilized child of ten or twelve. The Andamanese are, indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in their own pursuits, keen sportsmen, naturally independent and not lustful, but when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and vindictive, and always unstable—in fact, a people to like but not to trust. There is no idea of government, but in each sept there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pigs’ flesh and fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group in regard to articles not locally obtainable. The religion consists of fear of the spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, Puluga, is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to propitiate him. There is a vague idea that the “soul” will go somewhere after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in the utterances of certain “wise men,” who practise an embryonic magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of simple games. The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use: (1) long and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones which are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats, and the story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. Honour is shown to an adult when he dies, by wrapping him in a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three months. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting from the philological standpoint. They are agglutinative in nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke’s vocabulary for “Andaman Island, or native country,” and the term—though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke’s part for Möngebe (“I am an Önge,” i.e. a member of the Önge tribe)—has thus become a persistent book-name for the people. Attempts to civilize the Andamanese have met with little success either among adults or children. The home established near Port Blair is used as a sort of free asylum which the native visits according to his pleasure. The policy of the government is to leave the Andamanese alone, while doing what is possible to ameliorate their condition.

Penal Settlement.—The point of enduring interest as regards the Andamans is the penal system, the object of which is to turn the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years’ graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self-supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights, a quasi-judicial procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in 1901 stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts’ children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about £6 per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19 m. A complete system of signalling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.

History.—It is uncertain whether any of the names of the islands given by Ptolemy ought to be attached to the Andamans; yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexandrian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab notices of the 9th century, already quoted. But it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; that the  was really a misunderstanding of some form like Agdamán, while  survived as Lanka Bālūs, the name applied by the Arabs to the Nicobars. The islands are briefly noticed by Marco Polo, who probably saw without visiting them, under the name Angamanain, seemingly an Arabic dual, “The two Angamans,” with the exaggerated but not unnatural picture of the natives, long current, as dog-faced Anthropophagi. Another notice occurs in the story of Nicolo Conti (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean “Island of Gold,” and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived from the Malay Handuman, coming from the ancient Hanuman (monkey). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well founded, of the ferocious hostility of the people; of whom we may instance Cesare Federici (1569), whose narrative is given in Ramusio, vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in Purchas. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and gossiping but useful work of Captain A. Hamilton (1727). In 1788–1789 the government of Bengal sought to establish in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. Two able officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September 1789, on Chatham Island, in the S.E. bay of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years, urged by Admiral Cornwallis,

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molaga

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molaissi


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mole, John (1743-1827)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mole, John Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molesworth, John Edward Nassau


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molesworth, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molesworth, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molesworth, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molesworth, William Nassau


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molines, Allan


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molines, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Molines, John de


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, Salmon Portland

CHASE, (1808-73). An American statesman. He was born in Cornish, N. H., January 13, 1808, and was a nephew of Bisliop Chase, who supervised his earlier education in Ohio. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1826, opened a school for boys in Washington, D. C., where he studied law under William Wirt; was admitted to the bar in 1830, and began to practice in Ohio, where almost his earliest work was the preparation of an edition of the statutes of Ohio with annotations, and a sketch of the history of the State. This work assisted him in gaining practice, and in 1834 he was appointed solicitor in Cincinnati for the Bank of the United States. His first effort in a cause touching slavery was in defense (1837) of a colored woman claimed as a fugitive, and of James G. Birney (q.v.) for harboring her. This was the celebrated Matilda case. He maintained that the ../Fugitive Slave Law/ (q.v.) of 1793 was void, because unwarranted by the Federal Constitution, and argued that slavery was a local institution; and that, as the slave had been brought into a free State by her master, she was in fact free. In 1847, in the Van Zandt ease, before the United States Supreme Court, he took the ground that under the ../Ordinance of 1787/ (q.v.) no fugitive from service could be reclaimed from Ohio unless he had escaped from one of the original thirteen States; that it was the understanding of the framers of the Constitution that slavery was to be left to the disposal of the several States, without sanction or support from the Federal Government; and that the clause in the Constitution relating to persons held to service was a compact between the States, conferring no power of legislation on Congress and never being intended to confer such power. Chase also took part in many other cases involving the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Law and came to be known among the slave-holders of Kentucky as the ‘attorney-general of fugitive slaves.’ Being in active correspondence with editors, clergymen, and politicians engaged in the anti-slavery movement, he soon became a recognized leader of the cause in Ohio. Although favoring the abolition of slavery, he differed radically from Garrison both as to methods of effecting that end and as to the relation of such movements to the existing law of the land. He voted for Harrison in 1840; but after the death of the President, when it became clearly apparent that the Whig Party could never be made a party of freedom, he withdrew from it in 1841, and was thereafter prominent as a member of the Liberal Party in Ohio, which he helped to organize. He took part in the National Liberty Convention in Buffalo in 1S43, and subsequent conventions, until the nomination by the Free-Soilers (in 1848) of Martin Van Buren for President; was a leading member, and in most cases directed the proceedings. He was frequently called upon to

prepare formal addresses and platforms for his party, and, in particular, was the author of the Liberty Platform of 1843, the Liberty Address of 1845, the resolutions of the People's Convention of 1847, and the Free Soil Platform of 1848. In February, 1849, he was chosen United States Senator from Ohio, his vote coming from all the Democrats and from a few of the Free Soil members. In the Senate he was an outspoken opponent of slavery extension, and he refused to accept Clay's compromise measures in 1850. Though under obligations to no one party for his election, he usually acted with the Democrats, until the nomination, in 1852, of Pierce on a strongly pro-slavery platform, when he withdrew and undertook the formation of an independent Democratic Party.

Remaining in the Senate entirely independent of party relations, he became, even at the side of Sumner and Seward, the leader in the opposition to the ../Kansas-Nebraska Bill/ (q.v.), and, acting with Giddings and Sumner, he sent out the historic “Appeal of the Independent Democrats.” In 1855 the ‘anti-Nebraska’ elements in Ohio fixed upon him as their candidate for Governor, and, after a vigorous and close contest, he defeated the candidate of the Old Democrats, and brought Ohio into line as a probable Republican State in the campaign of 1856. In that year Chase was put forward as a candidate for the Republican nomination for the Presidency, but he withdrew his name. In 1857 he was re-elected Governor of Ohio, and became recognized thenceforth as a leader in the new national party. During his service as Governor he was much occupied with matters connected with the slavery problem, and at the expiration of his term he was (in February, 1860) elected again to the Senate for the term beginning March 4, 1861. He was one of the candidates for the Republican nomination for the Presidency in 1860, and, failing to secure it, he was later appointed by Lincoln Secretary of the Treasury. In that office, which he held until June, 1864, when he resigned owing to differences between himself and President Lincoln, Chase rendered important public service. The maintenance of national credit and the supply of funds with which to prosecute the war, the provision and regulation of a currency system, the creation of a national banking system, and the administration of a national finance under conditions never before experienced or anticipated, mark these years as the most important in the history of the department, and distinguish Chase as one of the great Secretaries of the Treasury.

In the autumn of 1864 Chief Justice Taney died, and Chase was appointed as his successor in December of that year, retaining the office through a period in which were handed down a series of decisions second in importance only to those of Marshall. Chase dissented from the court's decision in the Milligan Case and in the so-called Slaughter-House Cases; he wrote the decision in Hepburn vs. Griswold, which held that the Legal-Tender Act, so far as it compelled the acceptance of paper money in payment of debts antedating the statute which provided for such money, was unconstitutional. The effect of this was naturally to disprove an important part of Chase's work as Secretary of the Treasury; and this decision against his own work was soon afterwards, in the Legal-Tender Cases,

by a slightly reorganized court. He also wrote the opinion in the case of Texas vs. White, in which the nature of the Union and the effect thereon of the Civil War were clearly expounded, the nation being characterized as “an indestructible Union composed of indestructible States.” As Chief Justice, Chase presided over the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson. He became separated from the Republican Party, and was in 1868 a candidate for the Democratic nomination for the Presidency, while his willingness to secure the same nomination in 1872 emphasized the weakness of his position. There is no doubt that as early as 1864 be had set his heart upon a Presidential nomination, and that he had to some extent intrigued against Lincoln, even while sitting in his Cabinet. In 1870 he was stricken with paralysis, from the effects of which he died, May 7, 1873, in New York. For his biography, consult: Warden (Cincinnati, 1874), a work undertaken at Chase's own request; Schuckers (New York, 1874); and for the most recent and authoritative “Life,” Hart (Boston, 1899), in the “American Statesmen Series.”


text:
The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1729)/Book 2/Section 6

Proposition XXIV. Theorem XIX. The quantities of matter in funependulous bodies, whose centres of oscillation are equally distant from the centre of suspension, are in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the weights and the duplicate ratio of the times of the oscillations in vacuo.

For the velociry, which a given force can generate in a given matter in a given time, is as the force and the time directly, and the matter inversely. The greater the force or the time is, or the less the matter, the greater velocity will be generated. This is manifest from the second law of motion. Now if pendulums are of the same length, the motive forces in places equally distant from the perpendicular are as the weights: and therefore if two bodies by oscillating describe equal arcs, and those arcs are divided into equal parts; since the times in which the bodies describe each of the correspondent parts of the arcs are as the times of the whole oscillations, the velocities in the correspondent parts of the oscillations will be to each other, as the motive forces and the whole times of the oscillations directly, and the quantities of matter reciprocally: and therefore the quantities of matter are as the forces and the times of the oscillations directly and the velocities reciprocally. But the velocities reciprocally are as the times, and therefore the times directly and the velocities reciprocally are as the squares of the times; and therefore the quantities of matter are as the motive forces and the squares of the times, that is, as the weights and the squares of the times. Q.E.D.

Corollary 1. Therefore if the times are equal, the quantities of matter in each of the bodies are as the weights.

Corollary 2. If the weights are equal, the quantities of matter will be as the squares of the times.

Corollary 3. If the quantities of matter are equal, the weights will be reciprocally as the squares of the times.

Corollary 4. Whence since the squares of the times, ceteris paribus, are as the lengths of the pendulums; therefore if both the times and quantities of matter are equal, the weights will be as the lengths of the pendulums.

Corollary 5. And universally, the quantity of matter in the pendulous body is as the weight and the square of the time directly, and the length of the pendulum inversely.

Corollary 6. But in a non-resisting medium, the quantity of matter in the pendulous body is as the comparative weight and the square of the time directly, and the length of the pendulum inversely. For the comparative weight is the motive force of the body in any heavy medium, as was shewn above; and therefore does the same thing in such a non-resisting medium, as the absolute weight does in a vacuum.

Corollary 7. And hence appears a method both of comparing bodies one among another, as to the quantity of matter in each; and of comparing the weights of the same body in different places, to know the variation of its gravity. And by experiments made with the greatest accuracy, I have always found the quantity of matter in bodies to be proportional to their weight.

Proposition XXV. Theorem XX. Funipendulous bodies that are, in any medium, resisted in the ratio of the moments of time, and funipendulous bodies that move in a nonresisting medium of the same specific gravity, perform their oscillations in a cycloid in the same time, and describe proportional parts of arcs together. Plate 5. Figure 5.

Let AB be an arc of a cycloid, which a body D, by vibrating in a non-resisting medium shall describe in any time. Bisect that arc in C, so that C may be the lowest point thereof; and the accelerative force with which the body is urged in any place D or d or E will be as the length of the arc CD or Cd or CE. Let that force be expressed by that same arc; and since the resistance is as the moment of the time, and therefore given, let it be express'd by the given part CO of the cycloidal arc, and take the arc Od in the same ratio to the arc CD that the arc OB has to the arc CB: and the force with which the body in d is urged in a resisting medium, being the excess of the force Cd above the resistance CO, will be expressed by the arc Od, and will therefore be to the force with which the body D is urged in a non-resisting medium in the place D, as the arc Od to the arc CD; and therefore also in the place B, as the arc OB to the arc CB. Therefore if two bodies D, d go from the place B, and are urged by these forces; since the forces at the beginning are as the arcs CB and OB, the first velocities and arcs first described will be in the same ratio. Let those arcs be BD and Bd, and the remaining arcs CD, Od, will be in the same ratio. Therefore the forces, being proportional to those arcs CD, Od, will remain in the same ratio as at the beginning, and therefore the bodies will continue describing together arcs in the same ratio. Therefore the forces and velocities and the remaining arcs CD, Od, will be always as the whole arcs CB, OB, and therefore those remaining arcs will be described together. Therefore the two bodies D and d will arrive together at the places C and O; that which moves in the non-resisting medium, at the place C, and the other, in the resisting medium, at the place O. Now since the velocities in C and O are as the arcs CB, OB, the arcs which the bodies describe when they go farther, will be in the same ratio. Let those arcs be CE and Oe. The force with which the body D in a non-resisting medium is retarded in E is as CE, and the force with which the body d in the resisting medium is retarded in e, is as the sum of the force Ce and the resistance CO, that is, as Oe; and therefore the forces with which the bodies are retarded, are as the arcs CD, OB, proportional to the arcs CE, Oe; and therefore the velocities, retarded in that given ratio, remain in the same given ratio. Therefore the velocities and the arcs described with those velocities, are always to each other in that given ratio of the arcs CB and OB; and therefore if the entire arcs AB, aB are taken in the same ratio, the bodies D and d will describe those arcs together, and in the places A and a will lose all their motion together. Therefore the whole oscillations are isochronal, or are performed in equal times, and any parts of the arcs, as BD, Bd, or BE, Be, that are described together, are proportional to the whole arcs BA, Ba. Q.E.D.

Corollary. Therefore the swiftest motion in a resisting medium does not fall upon the lowest point C, but is found in that point O, in which the whole arc described Ba is bisected. And the body proceeding from thence to a, is retarded at the same rate with which it was accelerated before in its descent from B to O.

Proposition XXVI. Theorem XXI. Funipendulous bodies, that are resisted in the ratio of the velocity, have their oscillations in a cycloid isochronal.

For if two bodies, equally distant from their centres of suspension, describe, in oscillating, unequal arcs, and the velocities in the correspondent parts of the arcs be to each other as the whole arcs; the resistances, proportional to the velocities, will be also to each other as the same arcs. Therefore if these resistances be subducted from or added to the motive forces arising from gravity which are as the same arcs, the differences or sums will be to each other in the same ratio of the arcs: and since the increments and decrements of the velocities are as these differences or sums, the velocities will be always as the whole arcs: Therefore if the velocities are in any one case as the whole arcs, they will remain always in the same ratio. But at the beginning of the motion, when the bodies begin to descend and describe those arcs, the forces, which at that time are proportional to the arcs, will generate velocities proportional to the arcs. Therefore the velocities will be always as the whole arcs to be described, and therefore those arcs will be described in the same time. Q.E.D.

Proposition XXVII. Theorem XXII. If funipendulous bodies are resisted in the duplicate ratio of their velocities, the differences between the times of the oscillations in a resisting medium, and the times of the oscillations in a non-resisting medium of the same specific gravity, will be proportional to the arcs described in oscillating nearly.

For let equal pendulums in a resisting medium describe the unequal arcs A, B; and the resistance of the body in the arc A will be to the resistance of the body in the correspondent part of the arc B in the duplicate ratio of the velocities, that is, as AA to BB nearly. If the resistance in the arc B were to the resistance in the arc A as AB to AA; the times in the arcs A and B would be equal (by the last proposition) Therefore the resistance AA in the arc A, or AB in the arc B, causes the excess of the time in the arc A above the time in a non-resisting medium; and the resistance BB causes the excess of the time in the arc B above the time in a non-resisting medium. But those excesses are as the efficient forces AB and BB nearly, that is, as the arcs A and B. Q.E.D.

Corollary 1. Hence from the times of the oscillations in unequal arcs in a resisting medium, may be known the times of the oscillations in a non-resisting medium of the same specific gravity. For the difference of the times will be to the excess of the time in the lesser arc above the time in a non-resisting medium, as the difference of the arcs to the lesser arc.

Corollary 2. The shorter oscillations are more isochronal and very short ones are performed nearly in the same times as in a non-resisting medium. But the times of those which are performed in greater arcs are a little greater, because the resistance in the descent of the body, by which the time is prolonged, is greater, in proportion to the length described in the descent, than the resistance in the subsequent ascent, by which the time is contracted. But the time of the oscillations, both short and long, seems to be prolonged in some measure by the motion os the medium. For retarded bodies are resisted somewhat less, in proportion to the velocity, and accelerated bodies somewhat more, than those that proceed uniformly forwards; because the medium, by the motion it has received from the bodies, going forwards the same way with them, is more agitated in the former case, and less in the latter; and so conspires more or less with the bodies moved. Therefore it resists the pendulums in their descent more, and in their ascent less, than in proportion to the velocity; and these two causes concurring prolong the time.'

Proposition XXVIII. Theorem XXIII. If a funipendulous body, oscillating in a cycloid, be resisted in the ratio of the moments of the time, its resistance will be to the force of gravity as the excess of the arc described in the whole descent above the arc described in the subsequent ascent, to twice the length of the pendulum. Plate 5. Figure 5.

Let BC represent the arc described in the descent, Ca the arc described in the ascent, and Aa the difference of the arcs: and things remaining as they were constructed and demonstrated in Proposition 25. the force with which the oscillating body is urged in any place D, will be to the force of resistance as the arc CD to the arc CO, which is half of that difference Aa. Therefore the force with which the oscillating body is urged at the beginning or the highest point of the cycloid, that is, the force of gravity, will be to the resistance as the arc of the cycloid, between that highest point and lowest point C, is to the arc CO; that is, (doubling those arcs) as the whole cydoidal arc, or twice the length of the pendulum, to the arc Aa. Q.E.D.

Proposition XXIX. Problem VI. Supposing that a body oscillating in a cycloid is resisted in a duplicate ratio of the velocity: to find the resistance in each place. Plate 5. Figure 6.

Let Ba be an arc described in one entire oscillation, C the lowest point of the cycloid, and CZ half the whole cycloidal arc, equal to the length of the pendulum; and let it be required to find the resistance of the body in any place D. Cut the indefinite right line OQ in the points O, S, P, Q, so that (erecting the perpendiculars OK, ST, PI, QE, and with the centre O, and the asymptotes OK, OQ describing the hyperbola TIGE cutting the perpendiculars ST, PI, QE in T, I and E, and thro' the point I drawing KF, parallel to the asymptote OQ meeting the asymptote OK in K, and the perpendiculars ST and QE in L and F) the hyperbolic area PIEQ may be to the hyperbolic area PITS as the arc BC, described in the descent of the body, to the arc Ca described in the ascent; and that the area IEF may be to the area ILT as OQ to OS. Then with the perpendicular MN cut off the hyperbolic area PINM, and let that area be to the hyperbolic area PIEQ as the arc CZ to the arc BC described in the descent. And if the perpendicular RG cut off the hyperbolic area PIGR, which shall be to the area PIEQ as any arc CD to the arc BC described in the whole descent; the resistance in any place D will be to the force os gravity, as the area (OR/OQ) IEF - IGH to the area PINM.

For since the forces arising from gravity with which the body is urged in the places Z, B, D, a, are as the arcs CZ, CB, CD, Ca, and those arcs are as the areas PINM, PIEQ, PIGR, PITS; let those areas be the exponents both of the arcs and of the forces respectively. Let Dd be a very small space described by the body in its descent; and let it be expressed by the very small area RGgr comprehended between the parallels RG, rg; and produce rg to h, so that GHhg, and RGgr may be the contemporaneous decrements of the areas IGH, PIGR. And the increment GHhg - (Rr/OQ)IEF, or Rr.HG - (Rr/OQ)IEF, of the area (OR/OQ)IEF - IGH will be to the decrement RGgr, or Rr.RG, of the area PIGR, as HG - IEF/OQ to RG; and therefore as OR.HG - (OR/OQ)IEF to OR.GR or OP.PI, that is (because of the equal quantities OR.HG, OR.HR - OR.GR, ORHK - OPIK, PIHR and PIGR + IGH) as PIGR + IGH - (OR/OQ)IEF to OPIK. Therefore if the area (OR/OQ)IEF - IGH be called Y, and RGgr the decrement of the area PIGR be given, the increment of the area Y will be as PIGR - Y.

Then is V represent the force arifing from the gravity, proportional to the arc CD to be described, by which the body is acted upon in D, and R be put for the resistance; V - R will be the whole force with which the body is urged in D. Therefore the increment of the velocity is as V - R and the particle of time in which it is generated conjunctly. But the velocity itself is as the contemporaneous increment of the space described directly and the same particle of time inversely. Therefore, since the resistance is, by the supposition, as the square of the velocity, the increment of the resistance will (by Lemma 2.) be as the velocity and the increment of the velocity conjunctly, that is, as the moment of the space and V - R conjunctly; and therefore, if the moment of the space be given, as V - R; that is, if for the force V we put its exponent PIGR, and the resistance R be expressed by any other area Z, as PIGR - Z.

Therefore the area PIGR uniformly decreasing by the subduction of given moments, the area Y increases in proportion of PIGR - Y, and the area Z in proportion of PIGR - Z. And therefore if the areas Y and Z begin together, and at the beginning are equal, these, by the addition of equal moments, will continue to be equal; and in like manner decreasing by equal moments will vanish together. And, vice versa, if they together begin and vanish, they will have equal moments and be always equal: and that, because if the resistance Z be augmented, the velocity together with the arc Ca, described in the ascent of the body, will be diminished; and the point in which all the motion together with the resistance ceases, coming nearer to the point C, the resistance vanishes sooner than the area Y. And the contrary will happen when the resistance is diminished.

Now the area Z begins and ends where the resistance is nothing, that is, at the beginning of the motion where the arc CD is equal to the arc CB, and the right line RG falls upon the right line QE; and at the end of the motion where the arc CD is equal to the arc Ca, and RG sills upon the right line ST. And the area Y or (OR/OQ)IEF - IGH begins and ends also where the resistance is nothing, and therefore where (OR/OQ)IEF and IGH are equal; that is, (by the construction) where the right line RG sills successively upon the right lines QE and ST. Therefore those areas begin and vanish together, and are therefore always equal. Therefore the area (OR/OQ)IEF - iGH is equal to the area Z, by which the resistance is expressed, and therefore is to the area PINM by which the gravity is expressed as the resistance to the gravity. Q.E.D.

Corollary 1. Therefore the resistance in the lowest place C is to the force of gravity, as the area (OP/OQ)IEF to the area PINM.

Corollary 2. But it becomes greatest, where the area PIHR is to the area IEF as OR to OQ. For in that case its moment (that is, PIGR-Y) becomes nothing.

Corollary 3. Hence also may be known the velocity in each place: as being in the subduplicate ratio of the resistance, and at the beginning of the motion equal to the velocity of the body oscillating in the same cycloid without any resistance.

However, by reason os the difficulty of the calculation by which the resistance and the velocity are found by this proposition, we have thought fit to subjoin the proposition following.

Proposition XXX. Theorem XXIV. If a right line a B (Plate 6. Figure 1.) be equal to the arc of a cycloid which an oscillating body describesy and at each of its points D the perpendiculars DK be erected, which shall be to the length of the pendulum as the resistance of the body in the corresponding points of the arc to the force of gravity: I say, that the difference between the arc described in the whole descent and the arc described in the whole subsequent ascent drawn into half the sum of the same arcs, will be equal to the area BKa which all those perpendiculars take up.

Let the arc of the cycloid, described in one entire oscillation, be expressed by the right line aB, equal to it, and the arc which would have been described in vacuo, by the length AB. Bisect AB in C, and the point C will represent the lowest point of the cycloid, and CD will be as the force arising from gravity, with which the body in D is urged in the direction of the tangent of the cycloid, and will have the same ratio to the length of the pendulum as the force in D has to the force of gravity. Let that force therefore be expressed by that length CD, and the force of gravity by the length of the pendulum, and if in DE you take DK in the same ratio to the length of the pendulum as the resistance has to the gravity, DK will be the exponent of the resistance. From the centre C with the interval CA or CB describe a semi-circle BEeA. Let the body describe, in the least time, the space Dd, and erecting the perpendiculars DE, de, meeting the circumference in E and e, they will be as the velocities which the body descending in vacuo from the point B would acquire in the places D and d. This appears by Proposition 52. Book 1. Let therefore these velocities be expressed by those perpendiculars DE, de; and let DF be the velocity which it acquires in D by falling from B in the resisting medium. And if from the centre C with the interval CF we describe the circle FfM meeting the right lines de and AB in f and M, then M will be the place to which it would thenceforward, without farther resistance, ascend, and df the velocity it would acquire in d. Whence also if Fg represent the moment of the velocity which the body D, in describing the least space Dd, loses by the resistance of the medium; and CN be taken equal to Cg: then will N be the place to which the body, if it met no farther resistance, would thenceforward ascend, and MN will be the decrement of the ascent arising from the loss of that velocity. Draw Fm perpendicular to df, and the decrement Fg of the velocity DF generated by the resistance DK will be to the increment fm of the same velocity generated by the force CD, as the generating force DK to the generating force CD. But because of the similar triangles Fmf, Fhg, FDC, fm is to Fm or Dd as CD to DF; and, ex æquo, Fg to Dd as DK to DF. Also Fh is to Fg as DF to CF; and, ex æquo ferturbate, Fh or MN to Dd as DK to CF or CM; and therefore the sum of all the MN.CM will be equal to the sum of all the Dd.DK. At the moveable point M suppose always a rectangular ordinate erected equal to the indeterminate CM, which by a continual motion is drawn into the whole length Aa; and the trapezium described by that motion, or its equal, the rectangle Aa.½aB, will be equal to the sum of all the MN.CM, and therefore to the sum of all the Dd.DK, that is, to the area BKVTa. Q.E.D.

Corollary. Hence from the law of resistance and the difference Aa of the arcs Ca, CB may be collected the proportion of the resistance to the gravity nearly.

For if the resistance DK be uniform, the figure BKTa will be a rectangle under Ba and DK; and thence the rectangle under ½Ba and Aa will be equal to the rectangle under Ba and DK, and DK will be equal to ½Aa. Wherefore since DK is the exponent of the resistance, and the length of the pendulum the exponent of the gravity, the resistance will be to the gravity as ½Aa to the length of the pendulum; altogether as in Proposition 28. is demonstrated.

If the resistance be as the velocity, the figure BKTa will be nearly an ellipsis. For if a body, in a nonresisting medium, by one entire oscillation, should describe the length BA, the velocity in any place D would be as the ordinate DE of the circle described on, the diameter AB. Therefore since Ba in the resisting medium, and BA in the non-resisting one, are described nearly in the same times; and therefore the velocities in each of the points of Ba, are to the velocities in the correspondent points of the length BA nearly as Ba is to BA; the velocity in the point D in the resisting medium will be as the ordinate of the circle or ellipsis described upon the diameter Ba; and therefore the figure BKVTa will be nearly an ellipsis. Since the resistance is supposed proportional to the velocity, let OV be the exponent ot the resistance in the middle point O; and an ellipsis BRVSa described with the centre O, and the semiaxes OB, OV will be nearly equal to the figure BKVTa, and to its equal the rectangle Aa.BO. Therefore Aa.BO is to OVx=.BO as the area of this ellipsis to OV.BO; that is, Aa is to OV as the area of the semicircle to the square of the radius, or as 11 to 7 nearly; and therefore 7/11Aa is to the length of the pendulum, as the resistance of the oscillating body in O to its gravity.

Now if the resistance DK be in the duplicate ratio os the velocity, the figure BKVTa will be almost a Parabola having V for its vertex and OV for its axis, and therefore will be nearly equal to the rectangle under 2/3Ba and OV. Therefore the rectangle under 3/2Ba and Aa is equal to the rectangle 2/3Ba x OV, and therefore OV is equal to 3/4Aa: and therefore the resistance in O made to the oscillating body is to its gravity as 3/4 Aa to the length of the pendulum.

And I take these conclusions to be accurate enough for practical uses. For since an Ellipsis or Parabola BRVSa falls in with the figure BKVTa in the middle point that figure, if greater towards the part BRV or VSa than the other, is less towards the contrary part, and is therefore nearly equal to it.

Proposition XXXI. Theorem XXV. If the resistance made to an oscillating body in each of the proportional parts of the arcs described be augmented or diminished in a given ratio; the difference between the arc described in the descent and the arc described in the subsequent ascent will be augmented or diminished in the same ratio.

For that difference arises from the retardation of the pendulum by the resistance of the medium, and therefore is as the whole retardation, and the retarding resistance proportional thereto. In the foregoing proposition the rectangle under the right line ½aB and the difference Aa of the arcs CB, Ca was equal to the area BKTa. And that area, if the length a B remains, is augmented or diminished in the ratio of the ordinates DK; that is, in the ratio of the resistance, and is therefore as the length aB and the resistance conjunctly. And therefore the rectangle under Aa and ½aB is as aB and the resistance conjunctly, and therefore Aa is as the resistance. Q.E.D.

Corollary 1. Hence if the resistance be as the velocity, the difference of the arcs in the same medium will be as the whole arc described: and the contrary.

Corollary 2. If the resistance be in the duplicate ratio of the velocity, that difference will be in the duplicate ratio of the whole arc: and the contrary.

Corollary 3. And universally, if the resistance be in the triplicate or any other ratio of the velocity, the difference will be in the same ratio of the whole arc: and the contrary.

Corollary 4. If the resistance be partly in the simple ratio of the velocity, and partly in the duplicate ratio of the same, the difference will be partly in the ratio of the whole arc, and partly in the duplicate ratio of it: and the contrary. So that the law and ratio of the resistance will be the same for the velocity, as the lav and ratio of that difference for the length of the arc.

Corollary 5. And therefore if a pendulum describe successively unequal arcs, and we can find the ratio of the increment or decrement of this difference for the length of the arc described; there will be had also the ratio of the increment or decrement of the resistance for a greater or less velocity.

General Scholium.

From these Propositions, we may find the resistance of mediums by pendulums oscillating therein. I found the resistance of the air by the following experiments. I suspended a wooden globe or ball weighing 577/22, ounces Averdupois, its diameter 67/8 London inches, by a fine thread on a firm hook, so that the distance between the hook and the centre of oscillation of the globe was 101/2 foot. I marked on the thread a point 10 foot and 1 inch distant from the centre of suspension; and even with that point I placed a ruler divided into inches, by the help whereof I observed the lengths of the arcs described by the pendulum. Then I number'd the oscillations, in which the globe would lose 1/8 part of its motion. If the pendulum was drawn aside from the perpendicular to the distance of 2 inches, and thence let go, so that in its whole descent it described; an arc of two inches, and in the first whole oscillation, compounded of the descent and subsequent ascent, an, arc of almost four inches: the same in 164 oscillations lost 1/8 part of its motion, so as in its last ascent to describe an arc of 13/4 inches; If in the first descent it described an arc of 4 inches; it lost 1/8 part of its motion in 121 oscillations, so as in its last ascent to describe an arc of 31/2 inches. If in the first descent it described an arc of 8, 16, 32, or 64 inches; it lost 1/8 part of its motion in 69, 351/2, 181/2, 92/3 oscillations, respectively. Therefore the difference between the arcs described in the first descent and the last ascent, was in the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th case, ¼, ½, 1, 2, 4, 8 inches, respectively. Divide those differences by the number of oscillations in each case, and in one mean oscillation, wherein an arc of 31/4, 71/2, 15, 30, 60, 120 inches was described, the difference of the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent will be 1/656, 1/242, 1/69, 4/71, 8/37, 24/29 parts of an inch respectively. But these differences in the greater oscillations are in the duplicate ratio of the arcs described nearly, but in lesser oscillations something greater than in that ratio; and therefore (by Corollary 2. Proposition 31. of this Book) the resistance of the globe, when it moves very swift, is in the duplicate ratio of the velocity, nearly; and when it moves slowly, somewhat greater than in that ratio.

Now let V represent the greatest velocity in any oscillation, and let A, B, and C be given quantities, and let us suppose the difference of the arcs to be AV + BV3/2 + CV². Since the greatest velocities are in the cycloid as ½ the arcs described in oscillating, and in the circle as ½ the chords of those arcs; and therefore in equal arcs are greater in the cycloid than in the circle, in the ratio of ½ the arcs to their chords; but the times in the circle are greater than in the cycloid, in a reciprocal ratio of the velocity; it is plain that the differences of the arcs (which are as the resistance and the square of the time conjunctly) are nearly the same, in both curves: for in the cycloid those differences must be on the one hand augmented, with the resistance, in about the duplicate ratio of the arc to the chord, because of the velocity augmented in the simple ratio of the same; and on the other hand diminished, with the square of the time, in the same duplicate ratio. Therefore to reduce these observations to the cycloid, we must take the same differences of the arcs as were observed in the circle, and suppose the greatest velocities analogous to the half, or the whole arcs, that is, to the numbers ½, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. Therefore in the 2d, 4th, and 6th case, put 1, 4 and 16 for V; and the difference of the arcs in the 2d case will become ½/121 = A + B + C; in the 4th case 2/35½ = 4A + 8B + 16C; in the 6th case 8/(92/3) = 16A = 64B + 256C. These equations reduced give A = 0,0000916, B = 0,0010847, and C = 0,0029558. Therefore the difference of the arcs is as 0,0000916.V + 0,0010847.V3/2 + 0,0029558.V²: and therefore since (by Corollary Proposition 30. applied to this case) the resistance of the globe in the middle of the arc described in oscillating, where the velocity is V, is to its weight as 7/11.AV + 7/10BV3/2 + ¾CV² to the length of the pendulum; if for A, B, and C you put the numbers found, the resistance of the globe will be to its weight, as 0,0000583.V + 0,0007593.V3/2 + 0,0022159.V² to the length of the pendulum between the centre of suspension and the ruler, that is, to 121 inches. Therefore since V in the 2d case represents 1, in the 4th case 4, and in the 6th case 16: the resistance will be to the weight of the globe, in the 2d case as 0,0030345 to 121, in the 4th as 0,041748 to 121, in the 6th as 0,61705 to 121.

The arc which the point marked in the thread described in the 6th case, was of 120 - 8/(92/3) or 1195/29 inches. And therefore since the radius was 121 inches, and the length of the pendulum between the point of suspension and the centre of the globe was 116 inches, the arc which the centre of the globe described was 1243/31 inches. Because the greatest velocity of the oscillating body, by reason of the resistance of the air, does not fall on the lowest point of the arc described, but near the middle place of the whole arc: this velocity will be nearly the same as if the globe in its whole descent in a non-resisting medium should describe 623/62 inches the half of that arc, and that in a cycloid, to which we have above reduced the motion of the pendulum: and therefore that velocity will be equal to that which the globe would acquire by falling perpendicularly from a height equal to the versed sine of that arc. But that versed sine in the cycloid is to that arc 623/62 as the same arc to twice the length of the pendulum 252, and therefore equal to 15,278 inches. Therefore the velocity of the pendulum is the same which a body would acquire by falling, and in its fall describing a space of 15,278 inches. Therefore with such a velocity the globe meets With a resistance, which is to its weight as 0,61705 to 121, or (if we take that part only of the resistance which is in the duplicate ratio of the velocity) as 0,56752 to 121.

I found by an hydrostatical experiment, that the weight of this wooden globe was to the weight of a globe of water of the same magnitude as 55 to 97: and therefore since 121 is to 213,4 in the same ratio, the resistance made to this globe of water moving forwards with the abovementioned velocity, will be to its weight as 0,56752 to 213,4, that is, as 1 to 3761/50. Whence since the weight of a globe of water, in the time in which the globe with a velocity uniformly continued describes a length of 30,556 inches, will generate all that velocity in the falling globe; it is manifest that the force of resistance uniformly continued in the same time will take away a velocity, which will be less than the other in the ratio of 1 to 3761/50, that is, the 1/3761/50 part of the whole velocity. And therefore in the time that the globe, with the same velocity uniformly continued, would describe the length of its semi-diameter, or 37/16 inches, it would lose the 1/3342 part of its motion.

I also counted the oscillations in which the pendulum lost ¼ part of its motion. In the following table the upper numbers denote the length of the arc described in the first descent, expressed in inches and parts of an inch; the middle numbers denote the length of the arc described in the last ascent; and in the lowest place are the numbers of the oscillations. I give an account of this experiment, as being more accurate than that in which only 1/8 part of the motion was lost. I leave the calculation to such as are disposed to make it.

First descent	2	4	8	16	32	64 Last ascent	11/2	3	6	12	24	48 Numb.of oscill. 374	271	1621/2	831/3	412/3	222/3 I afterwards suspended a leaden globe of 2 inches in diameter, weighing 26¼ ounces Averdupois by the same thread, so that between the centre of the globe and the point of suspension there was an interval of 10½ feet, and I counted the oscillations in which a given part of the motion was lost. The first of the following tables exhibits the number of oscillations in which 1/8 part of the whole motion was lost; the second the number of oscillations in which there was lost ¼ part of the same.

First descent	1	2	4	8	16	32	64 Last ascent	7/8	7/4	3½	7	14	28	56 Numb.of oscill. 226	228	193	140	90½	53	30

First descent	1	2	4	8	16	32	64 Last ascent	¾	1½	3	6	12	24	48 Numb.of oscill. 510	518	420	318	204	121	70 Selecting in the first table the 3d, 5th, and 7th observation, and expressing the greatest velocities in these observations particularly by the numbers 1, 4, 16 respectively, and generally by the quantity V as above: there will come out in the 3d observation ½ / 193 = A + B + C, in the 5th observation 2 / 90½ = 4A + 8B + 16C, in the 7th observation 8 / 30 = 16A + 64B + 256C. These equations reduced give A = 0,001414, B = 0,000297, C = 0,000879. And thence the resistance of the globe moving with the velocity V will be to its weight 26¼ ounces, in the same ratio as 0,0009.V + 0,000208.V1/2 + 0,000659.V² to 121 inches the length of the pendulum. And if we regard that part only of the resistance which is in the duplicate ratio of the velocity, it will be to the weight of the globe as 0,000659.V² to 121 inches. But this part of the resistance in the 1st experiment was to the weight of the wooden globe of 577/22 ounces as 0,002217.V² to 121; and thence the resistance of the wooden globe is to the resistance of the leaden one (their velocities being equal) as 577/22 into 0,002217 to 261/4 into 0,000659, that is, as 71/3 to 1. The diameters of the two globes were 67/8 and 2 inches, and the squares of these are to each other as 471/4 and 4, or 1113/16 and 1, nearly. Therefore the resistances of these equally swift globes were in less than a duplicate ratio of the diameters. But we have not yet consider'd the resistance of the thread, which was certainly very considerable, and ought to be subducted from the resistance of the pendulums here found. I could not determine this accurately, but I found it greater than a third part of the whole resistance of the lesser pendulum; and thence I gathered that the resistances of the globes, when the resistance of the thread is subducted, are nearly in the duplicate ratio of their diameters. For the ratio of 71/3 - 1/3 to 1 - 1/3, or 101/2 to 1 is not very different from the duplicate ratio of the diameters, 1113/16 to 1.

Since the resistance of the thread is of less moment in greater globes, I tried the experiment also with a globe whose diameter was 18¼ inches. The length of the pendulum between the point of suspension and the centre of oscillation was 121½ inches, and between the point of suspension and the knot in the thread 109½ inches. The arc described by the knot at the first descent of the pendulum was 32 inches. The arc described by the same knot in the last ascent after five oscillations was 28 inches. The sum of the arcs or the whole arc described in one mean oscillation was 60 inches. The difference of the arcs 4 inches. The 1/10 part of this, or the difference between the descent and ascent in one mean oscillation is 2/5 of an inch. Then as the radius 109½ to the radius 122½ so is the whole arc of 60 inches described by the knot in one mean oscillation to the whole arc of 671/8 inches described by the centre of the globe in one mean oscillation; and so is the difference 2/5f to a new difference 0,4475. If the length of the arc described were to remain, and the length of the pendulum should be augmented in the ratio of 126 to 122½; the time of the oscillation would be augmented, and the velocity of the pendulum would be diminished in the subduplicate of that ratio; so that the difference 0,4475 of the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent would remain. Then if the arc described be augmented in the ratio of 1242/31 to 671/8, that difference 0,4475 would be augmented in the duplicate of that ratio, and so would become 1,5295. These things would be so upon the supposition, that the resistance of the pendulum were in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. Therefore if the pendulum describe'the whole arc of 1243/31 inches, and its length between the point of suspension and the centre of oscillation be 126 inches, the difference of the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent would be 1,5295 inches. And this difference multiplied into the weight of the pendulous globe, which was 208 ounces, produces 318,136. Again in the pendulum above-mentioned, made of a wooden globe, when its centre of oscillation, being 126 inches from the point of suspension, described the whole arc of 1243/31 inches, the difference of the arcs described in the descent and ascent was 126 / 121 into 8 / 92/3. This multiplied into the weight of the globe, which was 577/22 ounces, produces 49,396. But I multiply these differences into the weights of the globes, in order to find their resistances. For the differences arise from the resistances, and are as the resistances directly and the weights inversely. Therefore the resistances are as the numbers 318,136 and 49,396. But that part of the resistance of the lesser globe, which is in the duplicate ratio of the velocity, was to the whole resistance as 0,56752 to 0,61675, that is, as 45,453 to 49,396; whereas that part of the resistance of the greater globe is almost equal to its whole resistance; and so those parts are nearly as 318,136 and 45,453, that is, as 7 and 1. But the diameters of the globes are 18¼ and 67/8 and their squares 3519/16, and 4715/64 are as 7,438 and 1, that is, as the resistances of the globes 7 and 1, nearly. The difference of these ratio's is scarce greater than may arise from the resistance of the thread. Therefore those parts of the resistances which are, when the globes are equal, as the squares of the velocities; are also, when the velocities are equal, as the squares of the diameters of the globes.

But the greatest of the globes, I used in these experiments, was not perfectly sphaerical, and therefore in this calculation I have, for brevity's sake, neglected some little niceties; being not very follicitous for an accurate calculus, in an experiment that was not very accurate. So that I could wish, that these experiments were tried again with other globes, of a larger size, more in number, and more accurately formed; since the demonstration of a vacuum depends thereon. If the globes be taken in a geometrical proportion, as suppose whose diameters are 4, 8, 16, 32 inches; one may collect from the progression observed in the experiments what would happen if the globes were still larger.

In order to compare the resistances of different fluids with each other, I made the following trials. I procured a wooden vessel 4 feet long, 1 foot broad, and 1 foot high. This vessel, being uncover'd, I fill'd with spring-water, and having immersed pendulums therein, I made them oscillate in the water. And I found sound that a leaden globe weighing 1661/6 ounces, and in diameter 35/8 inches, moved therein as it is set down in the following table; the length of the pendulum from the point of suspension to a certain point marked in the thread being 126 inches, and to the centre of oscillation 1343/8 inches.

The arc described in the first descent by a point marked in the thread, was inches	 64. 32.	 16.	 8.	 4.	 2.	 1.	 ½,	¼. The arc described in the last ascent, was inches	 48. 24.	 12.	 6.	 3.	 1½.	¾	3/8.	3/16. The difference of the arcs proportional to the motion lost, was inches	 16. 8.	 4.	 2.	 1.	½.	¼.	1/8.	1/16. The number of the oscillations in water	 	 	29/60. 11/5.	 3.	 7.	11¼.	122/3.	131/3. The number if the oscillations in air. 85½.	287.	535. In the experiments of the 4th column, there were equal motions lost in 535 oscillations made in the air, and 11/5 in water. The oscillations in the air were indeed a little swifter than those in the water. But if the oscillations in the water were accelerated in such a ratio that the motions of the pendulums might be equally swift in both mediums, there would be still the same number 11/5 of oscillations in the water, and by these the same quantity of motion would be lost as before; because the resistance is increased and the square of the time diminished in the same duplicate ratio. The pendulums therefore, being of equal velocities, there were equal motions lost in 535 oscillations in the air, and 11/5 in the water; and therefore the resistance of the pendulum in the water is to its resistance in the air as 535 to 11/5. This is the proportion of the whole resistances in the case of the 4th column.

Now let AV + CV² represent the difference of the arcs described in the descent and subsequent ascent by the globe moving in air with the greatest velocity V; and since the greatest velocity is in the case of the 4th column to the greatest velociry in the case of the 1st column as 1 to 8; and that difference of the arcs in the case of the 4th column to the difference in the case of the 1st column, as 2/535 to 16/85½, or as 16/85½ to 4280; put in these cases 1 and 8 for the velocities, and 85½ and 4280 for the differences of the arcs, and A + C will be = 85½, and 8A + 64C = 4280 or A + 8C = 555; and then, by reducing these equations, there will come out 7C = 449½ and C = 643/14 and A = 212/7; and therefore the resistance, which is as 7/11AV + 3/4 CV², Will become as 136/11V + 489/56V², Therefore in the case of the 4th column, where the velocity was 1, the whole resistance is to its part proportional to the square of the velocity, as 136/11 + 489/56 or 6112/17 to 489/56; and therefore the resistance of the pendulum in water is to that part of the resistance in air, which is proportional to the square of the velocity, and which in swift motions is the only part that deserves consideration, as 6112/17 to 489/56 and 535 to 11/5 conjunctly, that is, as 571 to 1. If the whole thread of the pendulum oscillating in the water had been immersed, its resistance would have been still greater; so that the resistance of the pendulum oscillating in the water, that is, that part which is proportional to the square of the velocity, and which only needs to be consider'd in swift bodies, is to the resistance of the same whole pendulum, oscillating in air with the same velocity, as about 858 to 1, that is, as the density of water to the density of air, nearly.

In this calculation, we ought also to have taken in that part of the resistance of the pendulum in the water, which was as the square of the velocity, but I found (which will perhaps seem strange) that the resistance in the water was augmented in more than a duplicate ratio of the velocity. In searching after the cause, I thought upon this, that the vessel was too narrow for the magnitude of the pendulous globe, and by its narrowness obstructed the motion of the water as it yielded to the oscillating globe. For when I immersed a pendulous globe, whose diameter was one inch only; the resistance was augmented nearly in a duplicate ratio of the velocity. I tried this by making a pendulum of two globes, of which the lesser and lower oscillated in the water, and the greater and higher was fastened to the thread just above the water, and by oscillating in the air, assisted the motion of the pendulum, and continued it longer. The experiments made by this contrivance proved according to the following table.

Arc descr. in first descent	 16. 8.	 4.	 2.	 1.	 ½,	¼. Arc descr. in last ascent	 12. 6.	 3.	 1½.	¾	3/8.	3/16. Diff. of arcs, proport. to mot. lost	 4. 2.	 1.	½.	¼.	1/8.	1/16. Number of oscillations	31/8. 6½	 121/12.	 212/5.	34.	53	622/5. In comparing the resistances of the mediums with each other, I also caused iron pendulums to oscillate in quicksilver. The length of the iron wire was about 3 feet, and the diameter of the pendulous globe about 1/3 of an inch. To the wire, just above the quicksilver, there was fixed another leaden globe of a bigness sufficient »o continue the motion of the pendulum for some time. Then a vessel, that would hold about 3 pounds of quicksilver, was filled by turns with quicksilver and common water, that by making the pendulum oscillate successively in these two different fluids, I might find the proportion of their resistances: and the resistance of the quicksilver proved to be to the resistance of water as about 13 or 14 to 1; that is, as the density of quicksilver to the density of water. When I made use of a pendulous globe something bigger, as of one whosediameter was about ½ of 2/3 of an inch, the resistance of the quicksilver proved to be to the resistance of the water as about 12 or 10 to 1. But the former experiment is more to be relied on, because in the latter the vessel was too narrow in proportion to the magnitude of the immersed globe: For the vessel ought to have been enlarged together with the globe. I intended to have repeated these experiments with larger vessels, and in melted metals, and other liquors both cold and hot: but I had not leisure to try all; and besides, from what is already described, it appears sufficiently that the resistance of bodies moving swiftly is nearly proportional to the densities of the fluids in which they move. I don't say accurately. For more tenacious fluids, of equal density, will undoubtedly resist more than those that are more liquid, as cold oil more than warm, warm oil more than rain-water, and water more than spirit of wine. But in liquors, which are sensibly fluid enough, as in air, in salt and fresh water, in spirit of wine, of turpentine and salts, in oil cleared of its fæces by distillation and warmed, in oil of vitriol and in mercury, and melted metals, and any other such like, that are fluid enough to retain for some time the motion impressed upon them by the agitation of the vessel, and which being poured out are easily resolv'd into drops: I doubt not but the rule already laid down may be accurate enough, especially if the experiments be made with larger pendulous bodies, and more swiftly moved.

Lastly, since it is the opinion of some, that there is a certain aethereal medium extremely rare and subtile, which freely pervades the pores of all bodies; and from such a medium so pervading the pores of bodies, some resistance must needs arise: in order to try whether the resistance, which we experience in bodies in motion, be made upon their outward superficies only, or whether their internal parts meet with any considerable resistance upon their superficies; I thought of the following experiment. I suspended a round deal box by a thread 11 feet long, on a steel hook by means of a ring of the same metal, so as to make a pendulum of the aforesaid length. The hook had a sharp hollow edge on its upper part, so that the upper arc of the ring pressing on the edge might move the more freely: and the thread was fastened to the lower arc of the ring. The pendulum being thus prepared, I drew it aside from the perpendicular to the distance of about 6 feet, and that in a plane perpendicular to the edge of the hook, left the ring, while the pendulum oscillated, should slide to and fro on the edge of the hook: For the point of suspension, in which the ring touches the hook, ought to remain immoveable. I therefore accurately noted the place, to which the pendulum was brought, and letting it go, I marked three other places, to which it returned at the end of the 1st, 2d, and 3d oscillation. This I often repeated, that I might find those places as accurately as possible. Then I filled the box with lead and other heavy metals, that were near at hand. But first I weighed the box when empty, and that part of the thread that went round it, and half the remaining part extended between the hook and the suspended box. For the thread so extended always acts upon the pendulum, when drawn aside from the perpendicular, with half its weight. To this weight I added the weight of the air contained in the box. And this whole weight was about 1/78 of the weight of the box when silled with the metals. Then because the box when full of the metals, by extending the thread with its weight, increased the length of the pendulum, I shortened the thread so as to make the length of the pendulum, when oscillating, the same as before. Then drawing aside the pendulum to the place first marked, and letting it go, I reckoned about 77 oscillations, before the box returned to the second mark, and as many afterwards before it came to the third mark, and as many after that, before it came to the fourth mark. From whence I conclude that the whole resistance of the box, when full, had not a greater proportion to the resistance of the box, when empty, than 78 to 77. For is their resistances were equal, the box, when full, by reason of its vis insita, which was 78 times greater than the vis insita of the same when empty, ought to have continued its oscillating motion so much the longer, and therefore to have returned to those marks at the end of 78 oscillations. But it returned to them at the end of 77 oscillations.

Let therefore A represent the resistance of the box upon its external superficies, and B the resistance of the empty box on its internal superficies; and if the resistances to the internal parts of bodies equally swift be as the matter, or the number of particles that are resisted: then 78B will be the resistance made to the internal parts of the box, when full; and therefore the whole resistance A+B of the empty box will be to the whole resistance A+78B of the full box as 77 to 78, and, by division, A+B to 77B, as 77 to 1, and thence A+B to B as 77x77 to 1, and, by division again, A to B as 5928 to 1. Therefore the resistance of the empty box in its internal parts will be above 5000 times less than the resistance on its external superficies. This reasoning depends upon the supposition that the greater resistance of the full box arises, not from any other latent cause, but only from the action of some subtile fluid upon the included metal.

This experiment is related by memory, the paper being lost, in which I had described it; so that I have been obliged to omit some fractional parts, which are flipt out of my memory. And I have no leisure to try it again. The first time I made it, the hook being weak, the full box was retarded sooner. The cause I found to be, that the hook was not strong enough to bear the weight of the box; so that as it oscillated to and fro, the hook was bent sometimes this and sometimes that way. I therefore procured a hook of sufficient strength, so that the point of suspension might remain unmoved, and then all things happened as is above described.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Birney, James Gillespie

BIRNEY, (1792-1857). An American reformer, leader of the conservative Abolitionists during the anti-slavery struggle. He was born in Danville, Ky., studied at Transylvania University, and graduated at Princeton in 1810. He then studied law under Alexander J. Dallas in Philadelphia, began practice in Danville in 1814, and was elected to the State Legislature two years later. In 1818 he removed to a plantation in the vicinity of Huntsville, Ala., and in the following year served in the Alabama Legislature. He resumed his law practice in Huntsville in 1823, was elected prosecuting attorney there, and soon became the most successful practitioner in northern Alabama, but turned his attention more and more to the study of the slavery question, and in 1832-33 acted as agent of the Colonization Society (q.v.) for the district embracing Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas. In November, 1833, he returned to Danville, Ky., where he freed his own slaves, and devoted himself with zeal and energy to the cause of gradual emancipation, though he soon became a convert to immediatism. He organized the Kentucky Anti-Slavery Society in 1835, and in the same year planned an anti-slavery paper; but, as he was unable to find a publisher in Kentucky, he removed to Cincinnati, Ohio, where, on January 1, 1836, he issued the first number of The philanthropist. During the next few years his press was several times destroyed by mobs, and he himself was repeatedly threatened with personal violence and death; but in spite of opposition his paper rapidly attained a wide circulation and exerted a powerful influence among those who, like himself, believed in abolition, but opposed the radicalism of Garrison and his followers. (See .) Both as an editor and as a speaker, though firm and unflinching in his advocacy of what he believed to be right, he upheld the Constitution, opposed all violence and fanaticism, and was uniformly courteous, tolerant, and fair. He spent much of his time in

making speeches throughout the North, especially before the legislatures of the various States, and in 1837 was elected secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society. In this capacity he conducted the correspondence of the Society, employed its lecturers, and prepared its reports; and, in addition, he continued to make frequent addresses before legislatures and large public assemblies. He soon came to be regarded everywhere as the leader of the ‘Constitutional’ Abolitionists; that is, of the Abolitionists who opposed all revolutionary measures, fought against secession, and endeavored to effect their desired reforms through the ordinary machinery of government; and both in 1840 and in 1844 he was the unanimous candidate of the ../Liberty Party/ (q.v.) for the Presidency, receiving 7069 votes in the first election and 62,263 in the second. He was disabled by a fall from his horse in 1845, and passed the last twelve years of his life in retirement as an invalid, first in Bay City, Mich., and afterwards in Eagleswood, N. J. Besides numerous brief articles for the press, his chief writings were his Letter on Colonization (1834); American Churches the Bulwarks of American Slavery (1840); Speeches in England (1840); and Examination of the Decision of the United States Supreme Court in the Case of Strader et al. vs. Graham (1850). Consult the excellent biography by his son, William Birney, James G. Birney and His Times (New York, 1890).