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Rh stillness becomes more and more impressive. At last I look—it is glorious! A pure bright star is marching through the field to the music of the spheres; and at the very instant predicted, even to the fraction of a second, it stalks across the wire and is gone. The song that was sung by the morning stars has been felt, and the heart, swelling with emotions too deep for the organs of speech, almost bursts with the unutterable anthem.

"The machinery by which the forces of the universe are regulated and controlled is exquisite; and if it be instructive to study the mechanism of a watch, or profitable to understand the principles of the steam-engine, the contrivances of man's puny intellect, how much more profitable and instructive must it be to look out upon the broad face of nature and study that machinery which was planned and arranged in the perfection of wisdom!

"If you be at first a little sceptical as to this order and arrangement, taking the harmonies of nature for discord, you will soon feel satisfied that the machinery of the universe—that mechanism which gives nature her powers to act—is, in all its parts, the expression of one thought, as much so as the works of a watch are of one design; that the same hand which weighed the earth and gave gravitation its force, adjusted the fibres of the little snowdrop and proportioned their strength.

"The forces displayed in the blade of grass, in the wing of the bird, and in the flaming path of the comet as it whirls around the sun, are all adjusted with equal nicety and care. Chance has nothing to do with the works of nature; yet there are many of her operations which, upon partial study only, do look like the results of accident. Botanists tell us of some: they say that certain plants have not the power of scattering their pollen—it is glutinous, and will not fly with the wind—but as the insects come to suck the flower it adheres to them; Rh


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Rh This barricade was in the bend of the river. In order to get round it, General B. F. Butler conceived the unsuccessful and much ridiculed plan of cutting "the Dutch Gap Canal." Thus, by a single torpedo with its powers of "moral suasion," that formidable fleet was paralysed and rendered impotent during the whole time that Richmond was beleaguered by Grant with his armies and the whole Federal host on land.

Admiral Porter confessed that, in his first attack with Butler upon Fort Fisher (at Wilmington), it was the fear of these electrical torpedoes which kept him from entering the Cape Fear River with his gunboats. He afterwards entered, found no torpedoes, and carried the place.

Every one knows the dread that sailors have of hidden rocks and sunken dangers; but when those dangers may at any time and at the bidding of an enemy burst out into live volcanoes, the idea of encountering them is simply awful

This James River torpedo was planted on the bottom in seven fathoms of water. It was an old steam-boiler, and contained 1800 pounds of common powder. The battery used was galvanic, and the igniting arrangement was made by cutting the wire and connecting the two ends by a bit of fine platinum wire, which left a space of a quarter of an inch between the two ends of the copper or conducting wire, then lashed firmly to a bit of wood; this was thrust into a small sack filled with fine rifle-powder, which was the exploding charge; but the whole wire, battery, and bursting-charge were mere makeshifts. Much ingenuity was called into play to defend Southern harbours by means of other submarine contrivances; such as mechanical torpedoes which, when struck by a vessel, would explode by means of percussion or some other device.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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110 1855, having reported you as one of the officers who in their judgement should be placed on the retired List on leave-of-absence pay, and the finding of the Board having been approved by the President, it becomes my duty to inform you that from this date you are removed from the active Service List and placed on the Retired List on leave-of-absence pay.

You are, however, not detached from the Naval Observatory. I avail myself of the authority of the law to direct that you continue on your present duty.

2em

"This Board", says Maury, "could only have given an average of ten minutes' 'careful examination' to the merits and demerits of each one of the 712 officers in our Naval Service. This Board met in secret, kept no record of proceedings, called no witnesses, and heard no arguments. They commenced their sessions on the 20th of June, and adjourned on the 26th of July. They lost several days by absence of members, and five days on account of Sundays.

Their sessions commenced at 10 and lasted until 3  The Board was required by the Act of Congress to make a careful examination into the efficiency of every officer. Their whole working time was less than 140 hours, during which period they adjudicated upon the claims of 712 officers, so that the 'careful examinations' amounted to an average of about ten minutes for each, the result of which was to seal the fate of many a good fellow who had served his country long and faithfully."

Loud complaint was also made of the action of the Board in declaring incompetent, unworthy of promotion, and an incumbrance upon the Navy, the very men who for many years past and up to the present time had done and were doing so much for the interest and reputation of our country. Reference was particularly made to the case of Lieutenant Maury:—"There


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120 The following letter, from an officer of his own rank, will serve to illustrate the feeling in the Navy of officers who were not under the influence of jealousy. It is written after hearing that Maury had applied for sea-service during the Mexican War:—

It was my thought and purpose to have written you this letter a year ago, just before leaving the country, at a time when rumours reached me of efforts being made to supersede you in the charge of the National Observatory; and now that I hear of the possibility or probability of your going to sea, I desire to place upon record my own feelings and humble opinion on that point.

Having been to sea on active service a very large portion of my life, I presume I attach as much importance to the merits and claims of sea service as anyone, having, in fact, but little claim to consideration on any other score, and knowing little about anything else but ships of war and their uses; but I conceive that the services rendered by you in the great results obtained at the Observatory to the service, to the country, and to the world at large, as so far surpassing, in their value and importance to mankind, anything you could possibly accomplish in the sea line of our profession, that it would be with extreme regret I should hear of your relinquishing the charge of that institution voluntarily, or by compulsion—sentiment, I am sure, which would be heartily responded to by scientific men at home and abroad.

For my estimate of your services I do not rely upon my own judgment or opinion, but upon the verdict of the world, literary and scientific, as I have read it in the journals, foreign and native, throughout Christendom.

I am thankful for the honour you have conferred upon my country and profession, with which I am identified as a citizen and member, and as an American I feel more proud


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Rh seems to have been, on the part of the Board, a feeling which induced its members to take advantage of their irresponsible power to strike down almost every officer who had in any way distinguished himself by his scientific attainments; and in doing this they all took very good care to look out for No. 1, as will be evident from the following statement, which any one may verify for himself by examining the Naval Register. Of the officers whom the Board were called upon to scrutinize, there were 362 on the Naval List ranking above the youngest lieutenant on the Board, while below were 322."

The press of the country rose almost as one man, and demanded the reinstatement and promotion of Maury. The New York Journal of Commerce said:—"Lord Nelson lost both an eye and an arm, yet his name as mighty in battle. Our officers have lost neither arms nor eyes, it is true; but they stand on the records of their country disgraced. Although Messrs. Mallory and Clayton deny that any action of the Senate can wipe this disgrace off, we must beg to differ. Let these officers be restored to their former positions, and then if any charges rest against them on the records of the Navy Department, let them be tried, and, if found guilty, condemned. But it is absurd to believe that 50 per cent of the Navy has been for years inefficient, immoral, and worthless. And if 15 officers of the Navy decide that one-half are unfit for active service, it is more than probable that the other half are no better. The papers have already spoken in loud tones against the proceedings of the Board,


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 these concepts and the various definitions of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be found in W. B. Frankland, The First Book of Euclid’s Elements (1905). Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a straight line standing upon another straight line so as to make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a right angle is termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle, and between an angle and two right angles the supplement of the angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement is treated in the article. A solid angle is definable as the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in a common point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between three trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral. A spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and the centre of the sphere.

The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr. , on both sides,  , convex) or cissoidal (Gr.  , ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr.  , a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr.  , a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave. ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-devil (Lophius piscatorius), a fish well known off the coasts of Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body and its singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the “monk,” a name which more properly belongs to Rhina squatina, a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad, flat and depressed, the remainder of the body appearing merely like an appendage.

The wide mouth extends all round the anterior circumference of the head; and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impediment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round its head and also along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action of the jaws is automatic and depends on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is distensible in an extraordinary degree, and not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3 ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60° N. lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second species (Lophius budegassa) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third (L. setigerus) the coasts of China and Japan. ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, 1st (1614–1686), British statesman, son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (cr. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr. 1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln’s Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde, now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in concluding a treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell’s parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides was on the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father’s death he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish peerage, and on the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king’s administration in parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July 1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill “for the encouragement of trade,” on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign commodities being greater than the export of home goods, “it must necessarily follow that our silver will also be carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money.” He especially disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January

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Rh He was asked to continue his advocacy of that route, with the assurance that the enclosure was a mere earnest of what they would pay for it. 'Please to look at this,' he said; 'these people seem to think money the chief object of all endeavour.' He returned the cheque at once in a courteous note of thanks because he could not admit personal interest into his discussions of measures for the general good of the people."

In a letter to Jno. Locke, Esq. (read before the Royal Dublin Society, January 28th, 1857), Maury said:—"The real question for future protectors of lines of submarine telegraph is not how deep, or how boisterous, or how wide the sea is, but what are the electrical limits to the length of submarine lines." The following letters will be found interesting in this connection:—

The mails this morning, notwithstanding my protestations of yesterday, have changed my plans, by tempting me to Newfoundland. The company insists upon my going and bringing the whole family with me. It was a struggle between duty and inclination before; and now I think, considering the part that I have taken in the submarine telegraph, I should not be true to myself if I slighted this opportunity. Yours truly,.


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User talk:Bonafide2004

— billinghurst  sDrewth  01:31, 2 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bonafide2004


text: A Picturesque Tour of the Island of Jamaica


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Portal:Jamaica

Other

 * Hakewill, J., A Picturesque Tour of the Island of Jamaica (1825)
 * Jamaica, Land We Love
 * Jamaica Anansi Stories
 * Haile Selassie, Address to House of Parliament in Jamaica (1966)
 * Protocol on the establishment of the trade representation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Jamaica
 * Protocol on the establishment of the trade representation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Jamaica
 * Protocol on the establishment of the trade representation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Jamaica

title: Portal:Jamaica


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 and in 76° 45′ west longitude from London. It is about 150 miles in length, and on a medium of three measurements, at different parts, about forty miles in breadth; and contains, according to Robertson’s survey, made in 1801, 2,724,262 acres. It is divided into three counties—Middlesex, Surry, and Cornwall.

Middlesex contains nine parishes:—St. Catharine, St. John, St. Dorothy, St. Thomas-in-the-Vale, Clarendon, Vere, Manchester, St. Mary, and St. Ann.

SurrySurrey [sic] contains seven parishes:—Kingston, Port Royal, St. Andrew, St. David, St. Thomas-in-the-East, Portland, and St. George.

Cornwall contains five parishes:—St. Elizabeth, Westmorland, Hanover, St. James, and Trelawney.

The subjoined statement will furnish the best account of the produce of the island.

To this may be added, as a proof of the immense value of these possessions to the commerce and manufactures of England, the Official Value of Imports and Exports from and to the West-Indies:—

The returns of 1825 made the slave population 317,138. The free-coloured and white inhabitants may each be estimated at about 25,000.


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162 Jahé, ginger, zingiber officinale.

Jahil, arabic, malicious, mischievous, disposed to do harm. See Maringkil. Jahil maringkil, maliciously disposed. (جَاهِلٌ, Jâhil, ignorant, stupid. Cf. mûdah Skr. and Bal. stupid. Jav. Mal. Young and foolish.

Jahir, unreasonable, unjust.

Jahudi, arabic, a Jew. Jewish. (يَهُوِي)

Jajadén, derived from Jadi which see. Persons or things which have become metamorphosised, a metamorphosis or transformation. As men who have been turned into Tigers or other wild beasts. In a certain degree, spectres, ghosts. The reincarnation of a dead person.

Jajah, to go about and examine, as a chief does his district, to inspect a country.( Jajah, Jav. to tread on the ground; to go over and through something, to go about to seek for something. Gericke.)

Jajahan, in the neighbourhoadneighbourhood [sic] of, in the environs of. District, province, territory. Jajahan Bogor, in the neighbourhood of Buitenzorg. The district of Buitenzorg.

Jajal, to try, to test anything or weapon; to take a trial to see if anything answers its object. To make an attempt, test, trial or experiment. Gobang na di jajal ka na daging maung he tried his gobang on the flesh of a tiger; of course on a dead one, to see if the gobang would cut, as the natives believe that iron is like some men, afraid, and you cannot be sure till you try, whether it would cut such a fierce thing as a tiger. So also they are fond of trying their Krisses. (Jav. id.)

Jajantung, the heart (anatomically); the heart of a vegetable, the core. (Mal. Jav. id.)

Jajar, a row, rank, arrangement. Di jajar, to set in a row, to arrange. See Pajajaran.

Jajar, to put together to see if they fit; said of carpentry or other work in hand.

Jajaruman, to sprout, to begin to come up, as fresh planted paddy. To show like a Jarum or needle.

Jajawarikěn, extraordinary, surprising. (From or  Juwara, Jawara Jav. جوار Mal!)

Jaka, an unmarried youth, a name for a young man of good family. In little use now adays. Derived from Ja, birth. See Jata C. 209 born, produced; a child, offspring. Jataka, C. 209, born, produced; of which our Jaka appears to be a contraction.

Jakatra, a town in the island of Java, on the site of which the city Batavia was founded about the year AD. 1619. The district bore the name of Sunda Kalapa. Marsden Page 103. A part of the present old town of Batavia still retains this name. Jakatra is compounded of Jaya, C. 206, victory, conquest, and Karta, which on Java usually means peace, but is a past participle of Karanawa, to do, and means


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User:Aditya.er

Halo... nama saya Aditya Eka Ramadhan, berdomisili di Bandung, sekarang bekerja di sebuah konsultan IT yang cukup terkemuka. Dan.. sekarang saya tertarik dengan proyek : Truth in Number Beasiswa Jalan Jakarta

title: User:Aditya.er


text:
User talk:MRidwan

Lokasi dan nama jelas
Halo Mas M Ridwan, langsung diberitahu saja lokasinya dimana biar panitia dapat memperhitungkan/menyiapkan, skoring bisa dilihat di halaman ini. Tiga hari tidak menyunting dianggap gugur yah. Siska.Doviana (talk) 08:33, 2 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Hai, Perkenalkan namaku Ridwan,
 * Saya berusia 22 tahun
 * Alamat Jl. Yossudarso Gg. Jaya kecamatan Rumbai Pesisir, Pekan Baru
 * kontak saya di ridwanmyid@yahoo.com yaa. ;)

Gugur
Halo Ridwan, Anda dianggap gugur karena tidak menyunting selama tiga hari dan tidak menyunting kamusnya: Special:Contributions/MRidwan. 06Ivonne (talk) 02:49, 6 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:MRidwan


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Rh at this moment of the great achievements you have made scientific research, and especially of the attractive and comprehensive manner in which you have presented them to the world (so that a plain man like myself can read as he runs), than of those of any man living, in whatever labours he may have been engaged, and I wish here, and now, to enter my humble protest against your resigning a post, for any consideration whatever, which you have distinguished by such extraordinary services.

I am here in the midst of a large fleet of foreign vessels of war, of many different nations, in daily intercourse with their officers, many of them highly accomplished and superior men, and I find, without exception, that our sentiments and views are in common upon this subject, for it is often discussed.

These remarks, in my judgment, are applicable to yourself alone, and to no other officer in our service; and it is solely upon the ground that you are performing more important services to the country, and to the profession, where you are, than you could do at sea, that I say, as a single individual member of that profession, I will, as far as I can, do your part of that work and fighting at sea, if you will continue to work as you have done for us on the land.

I hope the Government will keep you where you are while God spares your life and reason, and that the country will bestow upon you its highest honours, of which you are so justly deserving, whilst you advance in life and in the great work you have undertaken.

You cannot possibly mistake my motives in addressing you this letter, as there is no way on God’s earth that you can serve me, and my acquaintance with you, for twenty years past, has been almost entirely interrupted, never having seen you on my many visits to Washington.

I beg you to be assured, my dear sir, of the very high respect with which I am,

Your obediant servant,


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126

engaged on those labours at the Washington Observatory which will immortalize his name, Maury frequently ventilated his ideas and the results of his ripe experience in periodical literature.

In 1843 he wrote on the subject of "Lighthouses on the Florida and Gulf Coasts, and showed just where they ought to be placed. In another paper, in the same year, he begged that a competent officer of the navy might be sent to Memphis, or elsewhere on the Mississippi River, to make systematic observations on the rise and fall of the water in that river and its tributaries. For this purpose Lieutenant Marr was selected, and directed by Maury to make an accurate cross section of the river opposite to the navy yard, and to observe for 365 consecutive days the velocity of the current near the surface and bottom, for the purpose of ascertaining the volume of water passing that point daily; also to take daily a measured quantity of water, evaporate it, and note the amount of silt or solid matter it contained.

He was to observe daily the temperature of the air and water, the amount of evaporation and precipitation. The first year the continuity of the series was broken, and he had to begin again and go over the work, so as to have a complete series of observations for one year. "These observations, patiently and carefully made and afterwards digested by


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Rh No, my dear cousin, I am not seeking to make slave territory out of free, or to introduce slavery where there is none. Brazil is as much of a slave country as Virginia, and the valley of the Amazon is Brazilian.

I am sure you would rejoice to see the people of Virginia rise up tomorrow and say, from and after a future day—say 1st January, 1855—there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in Virginia. Although this would not strike the shackle from a single arm, nor command a single slave to go free, yet it would relieve our own loved Virginia of that curse. Such an act on the part of the State would cause slave owners generally either to leave the State with their slaves, or to send them off to the Southern markets. But they would be still slaves in our own country. We must take things as we find them, and if we would be practical and do good, we must deal with mankind as they are, and not as we would have them.

If you will read my article published in the Southern Literary Messenger against the "Right of Search", which article was sent in the proof-sheets to Lord Ashburton, and commended to him as containing a plan which if carried out would be most effective in breaking up the slave-trade. . . . You will see that my plan was adopted exactly as I proposed it, and we have now a squadron on the coast of Africa for the suppression of the slave-trade.

. . . . Now for the last two years I have been urging the Government to make a treaty with Brazil, and to remind her in that treaty that we are her best customers for coffee; that nearly all she produces is consumed in the United States, where it is admitted duty free, and of course the consumption is largely increased thereby. I have urged that we should say to Brazil in that treaty, stop the African slave trade, or we will put a duty on that coffee, and thus lessen the demand for the fruits of slave labour, and so take away from you the interest in the Tariff Act. . . . Brazil is a slave country, and all the travelers who go there, I am told, say


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Rh in gold, and 474 passengers, besides a crew, all told, of 101 souls—total, 575.

She touched at Havana on the 7th Sept. last, and put to sea again at nine o'clock on the morning of the 8th. The ship was apparently in good order, the time seemed propitious, and all hands were in fine health and spirits, for the prospects of a safe and speedy passage home were very cheering. The breeze was from the trade winds quarter at N.E.; but at midnight on the 9th it freshened to a gale, which continued to increase till the forenoon of Friday, Sept. 11th, when it blew up with great violence from N.N.E.

Up to this time the ship behaved admirably; nothing had occurred worthy of note, or in any way calculated to excite suspicions of her prowess, until the forenoon of that day, when it was discovered that she had sprung a leak. The sea was running high; the ship was very much heeled over on her starboard side, and laboured heavily; the leak was so large, that by 1 P.M. the water had risen high enough to extinguish the fires on one side, and stop the engine.

Baling gangs were set to work, the passengers cheerfully assisting, and all hands were sent over on the windward side to trim ship. Being relieved, in a measure, she righted, and the fires were relighted; but there was a very heavy sea on, and, in spite of pumps and baling gangs with their buckets, whips, and barrels, the water gained upon them, until it reached the furnaces and extinguished the fires again, never to be rekindled. This was Friday.

The ship was now at the mercy of the waves, and was wallowing in the trough of the sea like a log. She was a side wheel steamer, with not a little top hamper, and therefore an ugly thing to manage in such a situation. The storm-spencer had been blown away, and the fore-yard was cut down during the night. Attempts were made to get the ship before the wind, but no canvas was stout enough to stand the raging of the storm. After the head sails had been blown away, the Captain ordered the clews of the fore sail to be lashed down to the deck, thinking to hoist the yard up only a little way, show canvas, and get her off; but by the time the yard was well clear of the bulwarks, the sail was taken


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Rh him with a message for her also, but his utterance was choked. Tell her." Unable to proceed, he bent down his head and buried his face in his hands for a moment as if in prayer, for he was a devout man and a Christian.

In that moment, brief as it was, he endured the great agony; but it was over now. His crowning thoughts no doubt had been of friends and home—a beloved wife and lovely daughter dependent upon him alone for support. God and his country would care for them now. He had resolved to go down with his ship.

Calm and collected, he rose up from that short but mighty struggle with renewed vigour, and went with encouraging looks about the duties of the ship as before. He ordered the hurricane deck to be cut away and rafts to be made. The life preservers were also brought up and distributed to all who would wear them. Night was setting in, and he directed Frazer, the second officer, to take charge of the arm chest and send up a rocket every half hour.

Van Rennselaer, his first officer, was also by him. Herndon has spoken of him to me in terms of esteem and admiration, and Van Rennselaer proved himself worthy of the last of these commendations.

Side by side they stood at their post, and perished together with their harness on.

After the boat which bore Mr. Payne,—to whom Herndon had entrusted his watch—had shoved off, the Captain went to his stateroom and put on his uniform. The gold band around his cap was concealed by the oil silk covering which he usually wore over it. He took the covering off, and threw it on the floor; then, walking out, he took his stand on the wheelhouse, holding on to the iron railing with his left hand. A rocket was set off, the ship fetched her last lurch, and as she went down he uncovered.

A cry arose from the sea, but not from his lips. The waves had closed about him, and the curtain of night was drawn over one of the most sublime moral spectacles that the sea ever saw.


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Rh One of his daughters says:—"When I can first remember him he walked with a limp, although without a cane, and his locks had become few." In manner he was most affable and courteous; in conversation he was always evolving great ideas—as Mr. Calhoun said of him, "He was a man of great thoughts," and, when not conversing, he was either writing or walking up and down the room as on a quarterdeck, studying out some problem to be soon placed before the world for its good.

But whether writing or thinking, no noise of the children, no invasion of visitors, was ever an interruption. In the midst of his most interesting pursuits, on which he was concentrating his powers, he would lay down his pen and join in the laugh at a good joke, and encourage the mirth to go on. He had an ever-active sense of humour; but scandal and gossip he would not allow in his presence, and he would never pass over any violation of high principle. He made loving companions and friends of his children—in his walks, in his talks, in his work, in his recreation, he was always one of them. He invited their confidence, and freely gave them his; in that household there were no secrets—any step that was about to be taken, any journey made, or any work projected, was fully and freely talked over and discussed in family conclave. And yet his word was law, that no one ever dreamt of disputing; so he was always the last to speak in these family councils, and gave the "casting-vote," as he used to say; the youngest voting or giving their opinion first on the matter under discussion.

Most of his voluminous writings were thus freely submitted to the family council, or copied by them, and each one invited and encouraged to criticise; and thus, not only were they made familiar with the workings of his mind, but were taught to express their own thoughts.

He wrote or composed and dictated his greatest books in


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User talk:Aditya.er

— billinghurst  sDrewth  05:15, 2 July 2012 (UTC)

Lokasi
Halo Aditya, bisa diberitahu nama jelas dan lokasi? Agar langsung dapat diidentifikasi oleh panitia agar dapat memperhitungkan/menyiapkan, skoring bisa dilihat di halaman ini. Tiga hari tidak menyunting dianggap gugur yah. Siska.Doviana (talk) 08:33, 2 July 2012 (UTC)

Proofread
Halo Aditya, Tolong jangan mengubah status halaman menjadi proofread dulu kalau halamannya belum tepat seperti naskah aslinya. Karakter spesial seperti èéĕě juga harus dimasukkan, begitu juga dengan kata yang bercetak miring. 06Ivonne (talk) 06:15, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Gugur
Halo Aditya, Anda dianggap gugur karena sudah tiga hari tidak menyunting sama sekali Special:Contributions/Aditya.er. 06Ivonne (talk) 02:51, 6 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aditya.er


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Page:Popular Science Monthly Volume 75.djvu/7

JULY TO DECEMBER, 1909


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Copyright, 1908,

PRESS OF THE THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY LANCASTER, PA.


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COMMON observations early indicated that individuals of all animal species, and of the human species especially, were very unequally subject to disease. This elementary fact is impressed every day upon the thoughtful and has been, from the earliest times, the object of much ingenious speculation. Even to-day, and in spite of the acquisition of a wealth of new facts in physiology and pathology, we are not able to define fully the conditions that make for or against disease. However, the new knowledge which has been acquired enables us to see much more deeply and clearly into the complex mechanisms of disease than could be seen half a century ago; but unfortunately our insight has not been strengthened as regards all diseases, but almost exclusively in relation to the infectious diseases. In respect to the other class, or noninfectious or chronic diseases, among which are Bright's disease, vascular disease, malignant tumors, the gains in fundamental knowledge are far less great.

It may be axiomatic to state that all actual progress in unraveling the complicated conditions of disease depends upon precise knowledge of its underlying causes; and yet in an age in which comparative ignorance still requires that a certain amount of practise shall be empirical, it is well to bear in mind this notion, so that what is undertaken through knowledge may be kept distinct from what is adventured through ignorance. It has been to the lasting credit of the medical profession of an early period, when actual knowledge of the underlying causes of disease had not, and in the then state of development


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6 of the physical sciences could not, have yielded a single concrete fact, that one method—vaccination—and the most perfect one yet discovered of preventing a disease, and two drugs—quinine and mercury—specific for two other infectious diseases, should have been found and so successfully applied. But in contrast to this slow, painful and halting advance in practical means for the relief of suffering, is to be placed the body of robust facts, acquired in a quarter of a century, during the present or bacteriological era in medicine, which enables us to view in some measure the mechanisms of disease and defense against it, and which has pointed the way to efficient modes of prevention, and, in a few brilliant instances, to the production of biologically perfect means of combating certain infectious maladies. To produce a means, as has been done through the perfection of curative sera, that shall strike down myriads of living parasitic organisms, within the interior of the body, amid millions of sensitive and even sentient cells of the organs, without inflicting on them the smallest injury, is indeed a great accomplishment. And if I am successful to-day in placing before you the main facts, now revealed, of the body's manner of defense to parasitic invasion, you will, I think, come to see that it has been by imitating nature's methods and by augmentation of the natural forces of defense, that good has been achieved.

The facts laboriously acquired, on which this presentation will rest, have been drawn from the study of spontaneous disease—so-called natural disease—among man and animals, and from experimental diseases produced in animals. I need scarcely point out that there is really no unnatural form of disease any more than there is a really natural one; in all instances we are dealing with natural laws of health and disease, the difference merely being that in one case we are often ignorant of the time and manner of entrance of the infecting germs into the body, and in the other they are purposely introduced, in a predetermined efficient manner, in a pure state into the animal body. Since we are so often ignorant of the precise manner of ingress of the germs in the non-experimental forms of disease, we conclude from the identity of the conditions present in the experimental and non-experimental forms of the disease, that in effect they are identical. This power exactly to reproduce at will, by pure bacterial cultures, infectious disease in animals has been of inestimable benefit in investigating disease.

To escape disease is not merely to remain without the zone of influence of the germs of disease. To do this in all cases is impossible, because with certain germ diseases—tuberculosis, for example—the germs are ubiquitous; and with several other diseases the germs are constant if not naturalized inhabitants of the body. Thus we carry on our skin surfaces constantly the germs of suppuration; on the mucous membranes of the nose and throat the germs of pneumonia, and sometimes those of diphtheria, tuberculosis and meningitis. The intestinal


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Rh mucous membrane supports a rich and varied bacterial flora among which are several potentially harmful species and sometimes, even under conditions of health, the bacilli of typhoid fever, of dysentery, and in regions in which cholera is endemic, or during its epidemics, of cholera bacilli.

It is obvious, therefore, that it is practically impossible to escape the dangers of bacterial infection, and withdrawal absolutely from other human beings and from all human habitations would be powerless to accomplish this result. It is equally obvious that with such constant and universal exposure to bacterial infection the body must, for the greater part, easily defend itself against this class of its enemies. It is now known that this defense is not merely by exclusion of the bacteria from the interior of the body, although in itself this is an important means of protection for which special mechanisms are provided, but that constant small escapes of bacteria into the blood are taking place from the mucous membranes chiefly, and that there rarely ensues disease from this cause.

On the other hand, there is another class of disease germs that do not regularly inhabit the body and whose influence is occasional only. Some of these germs are exquisitely infectious, as, for example, those causing small-pox, measles and scarlet fever; and others require an intermediate agency to inoculate them as in malaria, yellow fever, and possibly bubonic plague. And yet, excluding small-pox, which in ante-vaccination days overlooked few if any persons in infected regions, a great diversity of susceptibility to infection has been noted again and again among exposed persons and animals. This variability of infectivity affects difference in species, race and individuals and constitutes one of the fundamental problems of disease. Certain diseases are naturally limited to certain species and can not at all, or can only with great difficulty, be transferred to another, although related, species; other diseases appear among several species widely separated from each other; still other diseases choose by preference or are quite restricted to certain breeds of a species; and finally, individuals of a homogeneous species exhibit wide differences of susceptibility to infection. A worked-out theory of infection to and immunity from disease would include and explain, all these, and many more, diversities which have been observed. I need not offer an apology for this at present unattained ideal.

It was early apparent that bacteria must sometimes escape into the blood and yet that infection did not follow. It was observed that frequently at death the interior of the body was free of bacteria and might remain so for many hours and until signs of putrefaction began to be apparent. The deduction from this observation was to the effect that the blood and organs must protect themselves during life and for a period after death from bacterial development. The remarkable anti-bacterial power of the blood was demonstrated directly by injecting


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8 putrescent fluids into the veins of rabbits and noting that not only might they survive the infections and remain quite normal, but that the blood drawn soon after the injection was made need not, when carefully collected, undergo putrefaction. This fundamental experiment, performed before pure cultures of bacteria were available, left no doubts that the body possesses internal means of ridding itself of large numbers of bacteria.

It is apparent that the body possesses two possible distinct ways of freeing itself of these bacteria: it might remove them through the excretory organs—the kidneys or liver; it might rid itself of them by destroying them inside the body. It was with the rise of modern bacteriology that proof was brought that the blood and certain other body fluids—peritoneal, pleural, pericardial transudates—possess a remarkable power of destroying bacteria. This power resides in shed blood, in the other fluids withdrawn from the body, and even in the fluids deprived of all their natural cellular constituents. Here was then a concrete fact: the fluids of the interior of the body are capable of killing large numbers of bacteria. It could now be shown that the bacteria introduced in large numbers into the blood of a living animal are not excreted but are destroyed within the body. This power of the blood is, however, not indefinite and is not exercised equally against all kinds of bacteria. Even with bacteria that readily succumb a very large number may exceed the blood's capacity to destroy, so that survival and multiplication would result; and certain bacterial species proved highly resistant to this blood destruction. Moreover, it was observed that the blood of all animals tested did not produce the same effects on given kinds of bacteria, that this power to destroy bacteria was lost spontaneously in a few days by the fluids removed from the body and was destroyed immediately by a temperature of 60° C. It is, therefore, a highly labile quality.

Apparently the way was opened up for the detection of the conditions which underlie infection and immunity and the various peculiarities determined by species, race and individual. Unfortunately, there proved to be no sharp relation between the bactericidal powers of shed blood and immunity from or susceptibility to infection. And important as these blood-phenomena proved to be, in accomplishing protection from infection, they do not in themselves account for all observed conditions.

The factors upon which the bactericidal properties of the blood depend have now been clearly ascertained. The chief substance has been called alexin or defensive substance, but in reality the alexin is a compound and consists of a sensitive body—complement—and a more stable substance—intermediary body. Bacteria are killed and disintegrated when the intermediate body can attach itself to them and bring them under the influence of the complement—a digestive enzymotic element, to which the intermediary body also attaches itself.


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Rh Moreover, it is now quite certain that of the two principles the intermediary body alone is a fixed, native element of the blood plasma, and the complement is subject to considerable fluctuations in quantity. The origin of the intermediary body has not been determined, while it is quite established that the complement is yielded by the white corpuscles, or leucocytes, of the blood. This matter of the origin of the complement is very important because the protective value of the blood fluid is determined by the quantity of complement available at any one time and not so much by the more constant intermediary body which is usually in excess of the complement. The complement would appear to arise from the leucocytes partly as a secretion; but the quantity derived in this way would not appear to be considerable. It also arises from leucocytes which are brought by any cause to degeneration and disintegration, and this would seem to be a richer source than the other. Leucocytes are constantly being worn out by physiological use and as constantly yielding up their complement to the blood as they go to pieces. It would appear, then, that the very essential complement which exists in the circulating blood and passes from the blood into the lymph and serous cavities, will be more or less determined in quantity by the number of blood leucocytes and the conditions to which they are exposed, and as they are brought to slower or faster degeneration; and it is extremely probable that the secretion of complement is influenced also by the nature of the stimuli to which even the living leucocytes are exposed. It has been shown beyond peradventure that the blood plasma contains less complement than blood serum, as would now be expected since the origin of complement from degenerating leucocytes has been abundantly shown, and because in the clotting of the blood the leucocytes are so greatly disintegrated. But I do not think that even the most ardent adversaries of the view that the fluids of the interior of the body do not exert direct bactericidal effects, have been able to show that the plasma contains no complement. The complement is such a labile body that doubtless it is constantly used up physiologically and must therefore as constantly be renewed, and it is highly probable that the balance between production and destruction may not always be maintained, whence a considerable fluctuation may occur even in health. Whether the fluctuations ever synchronize with intending infections in such a manner as to promote them is not really known, but is not impossible.

It is, however, patent that the naturally operative defensive mechanisms against bacterial invasion must contain other factors than these humoral ones. We are all now prepared to admit that in the phagocytes, or the devouring white corpuscles of the blood, the body possesses another defensive system of high efficiency. The motile nature of these cells and their presence in the circulating blood accord them a high degree of mobility, so that they can be quickly dispatched to any part of the body threatened by invaders, and are hardly behind the fluids of


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10 the blood in this ability to be massed or delivered where needed. The phagocytic mechanism of defense operates through all the orders of the metazoa; and while it can hardly have been developed originally as a protective system against parasites, and doubtless represents a mechanism for disposing of effete and useless particulate matter in the body by a process of intracellular digestion, yet it has reached through evolutionary selection a high state of perfection and must have exercised no small influence in protecting from extinction certain living species.

There is good reason to believe that in the final disposal of bacteria intruded into the body the phagocytes play the terminal rôle: i. e., under favorable conditions they are attracted through chemical stimuli furnished by the bacteria to which they respond to englobe them, after which the bacteria are often disintegrated. But there is equally good reason to believe that, with few exceptions, this engulfing can not take place until the bacteria have been acted on by certain plasmatic constituents that prepare the bacteria to be taken into the body of the phagocytes. The further the phenomena of bacterial destruction in the body are probed the more certain does it become that there is no single and uniform process of their disposal. The humoral doctrine of bacterial destruction contains much of fact, the phagocytic doctrine much of fact, and it is quite certain that the practical defensive activities of the body constantly imply the use of both mechanisms.

And when we push the analysis of the manner in which bacteria injure the body and enumerate the various bactericidal substances which have now been determined as existing in the plasma and in the cells, we find that this interaction must be supposed to take place. Plasmatic bactericidal action and phagocytic inclusion are cooperative functions; plasmatic antitoxic action and phagocytic detoxication are cooperative functions; plasmatic opsonization and phagocytic ingestion are complemental functions; plasmatic agglutination and phagocytic engulfing are also complemental, although less essential functions. And although in intending infections the toxic action of the bacteria to be dealt with is less a matter of great consequence, yet in principle the disposal of a few bacteria is not different from the disposal of many; and in dealing with the poison or toxic elements of bacteria, the plasma possesses distinct power of direct neutralization as the phagocytes possess distinct ability to transform poisonous into non-poisonous molecules.

I desire now to refer again to the subject of racial and species immunity for which the humoral factors of bacterial destruction afforded an imperfect explanation, in order that I may point out that the introduction of bacteria, incapable of causing infection, into immune species is followed by immediate phagocytic ingestion and destruction of the microorganisms. The rapidity and perfection of the phagocytic reaction in insusceptible animals are very impressive and might readily lead to the decision that they suffice to explain the resistance or


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Rh immunity. However, the matter does not permit of such summary disposal, since there appear to be other factors that enter into the phenomena. The frog that does not become tetanic when inoculated with tetanus bacilli or poison, develops tetanic spasms when the temperature is raised somewhat; the hen that does not respond to an anthrax inoculation develops the infection when the temperature is lowered somewhat. Even for the final ingestion of bacteria by the phagocytes of alien and insusceptible species the plasma principles are required.

Undoubtedly the phenomena of racial and species immunity are affected by phagocytosis. But our present knowledge does not justify us in disregarding other possible and contributing agencies. We are still so little informed of even the grosser features of the body's metabolism that it would be premature to deny to it influence on susceptibility to infection. Between the metabolism of birds and mammals there is such wide disparity that an influence could easily be conceived; but the metabolic disparity is less between the herbivora and carnivora, and still less between some closely related species which yet show marked differences in susceptibility to bacterial infection; and as between individuals of the same species it could only be the finer intramolecular variations that conceivably could come into play.

Although the properties of the defensive mechanisms of the blood have not been exhausted, yet they have been defined in such detail as to suffice for the moment and to permit us to turn attention, for a brief space, to some of the properties of the intending invading bacteria. It is matter of common experience, which each of us has suffered, that the elaborate mechanisms provided for our protection from bacterial infection do not always suffice, and now it becomes necessary to explain why they do not. In the first place, there are very great differences between the bacteria which seek to enter the body. Some species are never very harmful and are readily combated, excluded or destroyed; other species often possess only a moderate degree of virulence or potential power of doing injury and can also, as a rule, be overcome; while these second species sometimes acquire such highly virulent or invasive powers that the defenses prove quite inadequate to exclude or combat them. During the prevalence of great bacterial epidemics it is probable that this factor, virulence, plays a considerable rôle. Of course in epidemics the bacterial causes are by the exigencies of the situation more widely diffused than at other times, so that more individuals come under their influence; but with even such a common bacterium as the diplococcus which causes pneumonia and the bacillus which produces influenza, there arise conditions in which severe and often very extensive outbreaks, or localized epidemics, occur which are probably to be attributed to an accession in virulence of these germs, although the precise causes leading to the increase may not be discovered.

Now this quality of virulence, which is often evolved so quickly


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12 and apparently so mysteriously is expressed biologically in various ways besides in that of greater infective power: virulent bacteria may prove incapable of being charged with opsonin so that they can not be ingested by phagocytes; they may show unusual power to resist plasma or serum destruction; they may drive away or repel or act negatively in respect to chemical attraction on the phagocytes; and being thus unopposable they tend to multiply quickly and with little restraint and thus still further to break down and render ineffective the normal defensive mechanisms, and ultimately to damage seriously the sensitive cells of the organs. This constitutes disease.

Another power resides in the body that should be regarded, namely, the power to neutralize or destroy poisons as distinct from parasites; for the body is exposed to the deleterious action of poisons generated by living parasites that do not themselves penetrate within the body. Some of these poisons are generated away from the body, as is the case with certain food poisons; some by bacteria in the intestinal canal that do not seek to invade the blood; some by bacteria, like the diphtheria bacillus, that first kill tissue, usually of the mucous membranes, and then develop in the dead tissue and send the poison into the body. And besides this every bacterial disease resolves itself ultimately into a process of poisoning—of intoxication. In typhoid fever, in pneumonia, in meningitis and in the multitude of other bacterial invasive diseases of man and the lower animals, the severe symptoms are caused by the poisons liberated through disintegration of the invading bacteria which, however, continue by multiplication to recruit their numbers.

The condition of susceptibility to poisons varies with different races and species, very much as bacterial susceptibility does. The cold-blooded animals are indifferent to poisons that are very injurious to warm-blooded animals, but not all cold-blooded animals behave alike. Tetanus toxin is alike innocuous for the frog and the alligator; but by raising the temperature artificially the frog develops tetanus, but the alligator does not. Sometimes the effects depend merely upon the mode of entrance of the poison into the body. Tetanus toxin, diphtheria toxin and snake venom have no effect on mammals when swallowed unless the intestinal epithelium has been injured. These poisons can not pass through the epithelium to reach the blood, where alone they can exert their action. The toxin of the dysentery bacillus passes readily in the rabbit from the blood into the intestine, which it injures, but can not pass from the intestine into the blood. Tetanus toxin can be injected into the circulation of the hen but does no harm. Injected into the brain it produces tetanus. Introduced into the blood it remains there for many weeks, hence the failure to act can not be due to destruction, but probably is due to inability to pass through the blood vessels in order to reach the cells of the central nervous system in a sufficient state of concentration. The physiological state of the animal also exerts an influence: certain hibernating species are


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Rh to tetanus poison in the summer but not during the winter sleep. There exist, therefore, different mechanisms for excluding poisons from the sensitive and reacting cells and among them are certain quantities of neutralizing, or antitoxic substances, normally contained in the blood. We know at least one such definite antitoxin, namely, the diphtheria antitoxin, which exists in minimal quantities in the blood of man and the horse.

The absence of numerical relation between the mechanism which destroys bacteria and neutralizes poisons sometimes works sad havoc for the body. The two capacities may differ naturally or are enhanced in different degrees by artificial means. The matter is one of great importance because almost without exception all bacterial diseases are examples of poisoning. The mechanical obstructions produced by the bacterial bodies are relatively unimportant. The body is more readily defended from the invasion of bacteria, with very few exceptions, than from the effects of their poisons. The capacity to dispose of typhoid and cholera bacilli is more easily produced than the power to neutralize or otherwise render innocuous the poisons liberated by the dissolved bacilli. It is precisely because we have not yet learned how to overcome this class of bacterial poisons within the body that we have not mastered the bacterial diseases as a whole. There are, however, certain bacterial poisons for which adequate antidotes are readily produced, thus, for example, for the diphtheria, tetanus, botulism and possibly the dysentery poisons. Here the poisons can be more easily neutralized than the bacilli can be got rid of, but by neutralizing the poisons we succeed in arresting the multiplication of the bacteria and often in curing the disease.

The normal body possesses a mean resistance to bacterial invasion and to bacterial poisoning which, while somewhat fluctuant, is of high value except under certain exceptional conditions in which infection readily develops. We know that certain general states of and influences exerted on the body are associated with a rise or a fall of this mean value. But we are not equally informed of the physical basis of this rise and fall. This particular topic is peculiarly difficult because of the large numbers of factors which enter into it. We know from observation that proper clothing, wholesome food, good hygienic surroundings, avoidance of over fatigue and of depressing psychic impressions, and that physical care of the body, all contribute toward maintaining health as the reverse conditions predispose to establishing disease. In seeking the physical basis of this difference we must avoid confusing cause with effect. Good hygienic surroundings may act chiefly by excluding the sources of infection rather than by enhancing resistance. Yet there is experimental as well as observational foundation for the belief in these general influences to affect the disposition to acquire or escape infectious disease. Animals which are made to fast, to over-exercise, are made anæmic, are given excessive quantities of


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14 alcohol and other poisons, or are exposed to abnormal cold by shaving of the skin, are more subject to certain infections than animals not so treated. If, now, it were found that the blood factors governing resistance fluctuated with these influences, became smaller and less conspicuous when the influences were bad and larger and more efficient when the influences were good, we should then have established an important concrete fact.

But the alexinic activity of the blood varies normally within such wide limits that only maximal changes could be regarded as significant, and it appears that it is only as the fatal termination of certain severe infections are reached—such as experimental anthrax and pneumococcus infections, for example—that the alexinic power falls greatly or disappears altogether. The determination of phagocytic activity outside the body has not thus far been carried out in such a manner as to indicate a functional depression which either precedes immediately or develops in the course of severe infections; although certain infections which take a severe course are characterized by a persistent reduction in the number of leucocytes in the circulating blood. This latter phenomenon must, however, probably be regarded as an effect and not as the cause of the infection. There is, however, known at least one example where paralysis of the phagocytes leads to a fatal infection under conditions in which the normal phagocytes are entirely competent to prevent infection. If to a guinea-pig a small dose of opium be administered and this is followed by the injection of a non-lethal quantity of a culture of the cholera bacillus, death will ensue because the sensitiveness of the phagocytes to the chemical stimulus exerted by the cholera poison has been diminished by the narcotic influence of the opium.

The mean phagocytic value of the blood can, however, be definitely raised by certain agencies, that are at the same time and through the rise in the number of phagocytes produced, useful in warding off and sometimes even in overcoming infection. The means employed to bring about an increase of leucocytes, or to establish a hyperleucocytosis, suffice to maintain the high value for short period relatively only, unless the stimulus is frequently repeated. A cold bath, a sun bath, the injection into the circulation of a number of simple chemical substances—peptone, albumose, nucleinic acid, spermin, pilocarpine—are all followed under physiological conditions by hyperleucocytosis and by a temporary state of increased resistance to bacterial invasion. Moreover, in certain experimental infections, at least, there can thus be aroused a heightened power to overcome established infections—those caused, for example, by the cholera, meningitis and pneumococcus germs. Perhaps the most striking example of the protective influence of hyperleucocytosis is afforded by the experimental infection described under the name of cholera peritonitis of the guinea-pig. If a fatal quantity of cholera germs be injected into the peritoneal cavity of a


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Rh guinea-pig, symptoms of poisoning quickly set in and death results in a few hours. A study of the conditions present in the peritoneal cavity shows that the bacteria have developed freely, that some have been broken up and disintegrated, and that very few preserved phagocytes can be found. Examination of the blood reveals that the number of leucocytes in the general circulation has been reduced; and all the evidences point to the conclusion that not only has phagocytosis not taken place, but that there has been a general destruction of leucocytes produced by the cholera poison. If, however, there be introduced into the peritoneal cavity of a guinea-pig twelve to twenty-four hours prior to the inoculation of the cholera bacilli, a small amount of sterile salt solution, or bouillon, or one of the other chemicals mentioned, which procedure will bring into the peritoneum a considerable number of leucocytes at the same time that it causes a rise of leucocytes in the circulating blood, then the cholera germs are quickly taken up by the phagocytes, multiplication is prevented, and the animal escapes severe illness.

The value of hyperleucocytosis as a defensive measure against infection must, probably, always remain greater than its value as a cure for established infection. There are several reasons that make this conclusion probable: the capacity of the blood is increased in the direction of destroying bacteria without being augmented at the same time in the direction of neutralizing bacterial poisons; the organism that is already severely poisoned by infection reacts less certainly to the chemical agents that provoke hyperleucocytosis than the uninfected organism. And yet we may see the operation of the benign influence of hyperleucocytosis, associated with an increased passage of alexin-containing lymph through the vessels, upon certain local infections at least, in the results of measures that determine an augmented supply of blood to a diseased part; in the mechanical hyperemias produced through posture or superheated air; the influence (in part) of tuberculin injections; and the effects of poultices and embrocations, of counter-irritants, and of certain of the phenomena of local inflammation.

The facts at our command point to the great potential power of the normal organism to resist infection and indicate that the normal body possesses the capacity, on demand, to increase this power beyond the mean value, chiefly by opposing intending infection by hyperleucocytosis and also, probably, by the strengthening of its plasmatic defensive action through the additional soluble alexin substances thrown off by the augmented leucocytes. This defensive mechanism acts in the same manner on all bacterial invaders and is not specially adapted for any one or group of bacteria. The form of activity is strictly non-specific.

Let us now ask ourselves if in overcoming infectious disease, which luckily the organism is frequently able to accomplish, the mechanism put into operation is similar and only more intense than the one we have considered for warding off infection? The answer to this question


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16 is that recovery from infection consists in the bringing into being of a new set of phenomena that gradually reinforce the resistance; that recovery from infection is accomplished through a process of immunization. The evidences of this condition of immunization are found in the appearance in the blood some time between the fourth or fifth to the tenth day of the disease, and somewhat later than they have appeared in the spleen and bone marrow, of chemical substances which are directed in a specific manner to the neutralization of the poisons having been and still being produced by the bacterial causes of the disease, to the destruction of the bacteria themselves either outright by the plasmatic fluid which has now been enriched by a new quantity of intermediary substance of high potency that may bring the bacteria more readily under the dissolving influence of the complement, or by the phagocytes to which they are exposed in greater measure through the production of opsonins of higher strength and stability. As recovery progresses these immunity substances continue to increase until at the termination of the disease they are present in quantities that suffice often, by a passive transfer to another individual, to protect other animals more certainly from an infection, or to terminate abruptly an infection already established in them.

When the infectious disease is the expression not of the combined effects of poison and bacteria but of the poison chiefly which enters the blood, the bacteria remaining without as in diphtheria, then the blood changes characterizing the immune state are simpler and consist in the accumulation there of antitoxins that constitute the most perfect antidote to poisons that are known. The condition of immunity produces no demonstrable change in the properties of the phagocytes through which they are better enabled to overcome the poisonous bacteria. They do become, in course of the immunization, more sensitive to positive chemotactic stimuli; but it is still an unsettled question whether they are altered qualitatively by the immunization, or whether the plasmatic changes do not really react upon them and thus increase their efficiency.

It must now be patent that between what may be termed the process of physiological resistance and what is termed the condition of immunization, a wide distinction exists. The one is non-specific in its action, the other highly specific in its effects; the one is subject to a limited augmentation, the other may be carried to a high degree of potency and perfection; the one often fails to protect the organism in which it is developed, the other suffices to protect both itself and another organism. If therefore we were to be asked in what manner can the animal organism best be reinforced against infection, we should be compelled to answer by passing safely through the infection itself. This conclusion, which has been reached by purely experimental biological methods is supported on every side by common observation and experience with


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Rh the acute infectious diseases of which one attack protects from a subsequent attack of the same disease.

It may conduce to clearness if we should enumerate the factors that have been described and assigned on the one hand to natural resistance, and on the other hand to acquired resistance or immunity. We can tabulate the factors in the following manner:

This tabulation exhibits the distinction between the physical basis of physiological resistance and of the state of immunity. There is another difference between them; any increase that can be called out beyond the mean of physiological resistance is accomplished in a few hours; and having been called out to meet a particular condition of need of the body and the effect having been exerted, it passes off very soon. It is rare that the effect of a hyperleucocytosis can be detected for more than three or four days after it has appeared. The development of the state of immunity, on the other hand, is a slow process relatively and depends upon the setting into motion of certain cell functions, through which new substances are produced, which, being first retained within the cells producing them, eventually are passed into the blood. Hence it is that these new substances can be detected at an earlier period of the infection in the spleen than in the blood. But once they have been produced, the substances endure either for an indefinite period, or the capacity to produce new ones of the same sort is retained by the organism often for years. The blood may grow weak in the typhoid immunity principle in the course of years following an attack of typhoid fever, or a rabbit immunized with typhoid bacilli may show after a time a great diminution of the blood agglutinins for typhoid bacilli; but the typhoid immunity persists in the one, as in the other-minimal quantities of typhoid bacilli will bring out, and without the original delay, a new production of agglutinin that will restore the lost amount.


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— billinghurst  sDrewth  05:28, 2 July 2012 (UTC)

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18 The facts on immunity which I have presented to you constitute the physical basis, also, of all artificial methods which are being pursued so successfully in preventing certain infections through vaccination, and in curing them through the use of immune serum products. The facts also account in an eminently satisfactory manner for the suppression of small-pox by cow-pox vaccination. The "vaccines" so-called for bacterial diseases, which are, I might say, at present being employed chiefly in protecting animals from epidemic infectious diseases to which they are much exposed, consist for the most part of bacteria either killed outright by heat or chemicals or of bacteria whose virulence has been diminished by special methods of cultivation or treatment. In human beings this method of vaccination has been employed only when large numbers of persons have been exposed to infections from the zone or focus of which they could not be removed, or from which, owing to the peculiar circumstances surrounding the infections, they could not readily or at all be protected by the suppression of the diseased germs at their sources. Thus it has been found advantageous in a few instances to employ vaccination against cholera and bubonic plague, on those especially exposed to these epidemic diseases, and against typhoid fever on troops going in time of war into heavily infected endemic zones of that disease.

In a few instances this method of vaccination has been successfully carried out in animals with infectious diseases in which the germs causing them have not been discovered. Thus it is possible to vaccinate cattle against the destructive rinderpest of Africa, the Philippines and other tropical countries, by employing the bile of animals which have succumbed to the infection, which contains the parasite of the disease somewhat modified by certain immunity principles contained within it along with parasites. In fact, this method of conjoint vaccination with the parasite of the disease and the blood containing immunity principles is one that offers a considerable field of practical application. On the one hand, there is accomplished a passive immunization of the body that becomes operative immediately and, on the other hand, a vaccination that after the usual interval leads to the production of a state of active immunity that rises to a higher level and is far more enduring than the passive state.

Incidentally we have discovered from this process of mixed or conjoint vaccination that immune sera prepared for bacteria or other parasites which are not toxin producers in the manner of the diphtheria bacillus, but which contain endotoxin, act not especially by neutralizing toxins, or by destroying outright the bacteria, but by exercising an efficient protective control over the injury which these parasites or their poisons tend to inflict on certain sensitive body cells. For example, if cattle are inoculated on one side of the body with virulent blood from animals dying of rinderpest, and on the other side with blood serum taken from animals that have recovered from the


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Rh disease and subsequently have had their immunity intensified by injections of highly virulent blood, the cattle so vaccinated will develop rinderpest in a mild form and will subsequently on recovery be also immune; and yet during the process of immunization their blood contains highly virulent parasites so that if a little of it be introduced into non-protected and healthy cattle, they will be given rinderpest and will die of it.

The reaction of the body to the bacterial vaccines injected is out of proportion to the quantity of culture introduced. Thus two milligrams of dead cholera bacilli injected under the skin of human beings will yield enough of the specific immunity substance for these bacilli to bring about the destruction of 60,000 or more milligrams of the culture. There can be, therefore, no direct transformation of the cholera bacilli into immunity bodies, but they must exert a stimulus on certain cell functions through which the immunity. principles are produced; and the quantity of their formation depends not on the weight of crude bacilli introduced, but on the strength of the stimulus impressed upon the sensitive cells to which they react in a specific and remarkable manner.

Is it possible in the course of an established infection to reinforce the resistance of the body? I have already stated that it is not practicable to bring out at the height of an infection an efficient heightened reaction of physiological resistance; but from this it does not follow that under these conditions a special form of immunity reaction may not be elicited. The tuberculin reaction, or that part of it which is specific, may be cited as an example of this kind of reinforcement; and whatever there is of value in the treatment of infectious diseases by means of dead cultures of their specific bacteria—"vaccines" so-called—must be of the nature of an intensified immunity reaction. What is sought to be accomplished in the latter case is the formation in certain uninfected localities—in the subcutaneous tissues, for example—of immunity principles that afterwards by escaping into the blood shall assist in the termination of an infectious process situated elsewhere in the body. Such local foci of immunity as it is designed to create in the subcutaneous tissue are not unknown. The pleura can be given a local immunity to the typhoid bacilli; the subcutaneous tissue to tetanus toxin, and it is highly probable that the normal resistances exhibited by our mucous membranes to the pathogenic bacteria they harbor are examples of such local immunities.

I fear that I have carried you far afield and into somewhat devious paths of immunity to disease. You will, I know, not complain and hold it to the detriment of medical science, that these paths have not been already converted into fine open roads. But you will prefer to recall how brief is the time since where the paths now are there were only wood and tangle.


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20

HE Brennan monorail car and the Schlick device for the prevention of rolling of ships at sea have recently attracted popular attention to the gyrostat, and gyrostatic action has recently become vitally interesting to a large group of men because an automobile-engine fly-wheel shows serious gyrostatic reactions when the automobile rounds a curve rapidly or rises suddenly upon a bump in the road. The following discussion will therefore be welcomed by many readers. Let no one imagine that gyrostatic action is mysterious and difficult to analyze; it is really quite simple and the discussion of Fig. 10 makes this action as clear, physically, as the simple inertia reaction of a heavily loaded wagon or boat. The formula for calculating the numerical value of the torque reaction of a gyrostat, as given at the end of this paper, is simple enough for any one to use.

The rotation of a wheel on an axis is called spin, and the axle upon which the wheel rotates is called the axle of spin. The spin of a wheel may be completely represented in both magnitude and direction by an arrow drawn parallel to the axle of spin, pointing in the direction in which a right-handed screw would travel if turned with the spinning wheel, and having a length which represents the number of revolutions per second of the wheel. Thus, the arrow S Fig. 1, represents the spin of the wheel WW. Let the arrow S', Fig. 2, represent the spin of a body, imagine a large turning force to act upon the body for a short time, and let the arrow S" represent the spin which would be produced by the turning force if the body had been initially at rest. The actual resultant spin


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Rh of the body will be represented in magnitude and in direction by the arrow R. That is to say, after the large turning force has acted for a short time the body will be found spinning about R as an axis, and the number of revolutions per second will be represented by the length of R. The geometrical relationship between the arrows S', S", and R is completely represented in the triangle OMN of Fig. 2, which triangle is shown by itself in Fig. 3.

A turning force is usually called a torque, thus the turning or

twisting force which is exerted upon a screw driver is a torque. A torque may be completely represented by an arrow drawn parallel to the axis of the torque, pointing in the direction in which a right-handed screw would travel if turned by the torque, and having a length which represents the magnitude or value Fl of the torque to scale. Thus the arrow T in Fig. 4 represents the torque due to the two forces FF.

The effect of an unbalanced torque upon a body is to produce a spin-velocity about the same axis as the torque, the amount produced

being proportional to the time the torque continues to act and inversely proportional to what is called the moment of inertia of the body, (a) The simplest case is where the axis of the torque is parallel to the axis of already existing spin as shown in Fig. 5, which represents a wheel and axle set spinning by pulling a cord which is wound around the axle. In this case the axle of spin remains stationary, and the magnitude of the spin increases steadily as long as the torque continues to act. (b) The general case is where the axis of the torque makes any angle whatever with the axis of the already existing spin. Thus, let the arrow S, Fig. 6, represent the already existing spin of


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22 a body, and let the arrow T represent a torque acting upon the body. Then the arrow ΔS represents the amount of spin produced by T during a short interval of time, and the diagonal arrow S' represents the actual spin of the body after the torque T has acted for a short interval of time.

(c) The case where the axis of torque is always at right angles to the axis of spin is the most important case, and this case is exemplified in the ordinary gyrostat, which is a wheel and axle supported in a

movable frame as shown in Fig. 7. By taking hold of the frame it is impossible to exert a torque upon the wheel except about an axis perpendicular to OS, friction at pivots being ignored. If the frame be suspended by a string as shown in Fig. 7 (side view), the pull of the earth combined with the pull of the string constitutes a torque as indicated by the arrow T in Fig. 7 (top view). The effect of this torque during a short interval of time is to produce a certain amount of spin, or spin-momentum, ΔS about T as an axis, and the resultant axis of spin

becomes S' as shown in the diagram Fig. 7. The unbalanced torque T, due to the weight of the wheel and frame in Fig. 7, causes the frame and wheel to sweep round and round in a horizontal plane about the supporting string as' an axis. This kind of motion of an axis of spin due to a torque which is at each instant at right angles to the axis of spin is called precession, and the axis PP, Fig. 7, about which the axis of spin rotates is called the axis of precession.


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Rh A familiar form of gyrostat is shown in Fig. 8. It consists of a spinning wheel mounted in a metal ring which rests on a pivot O. The pull of the earth on the wheel and ring produces an unbalanced torque about an axis which is at right angles to the axis of spin, and this torque causes the axis of spin to sweep around the pivot O as described in connection with Fig. 7. Precessional motion is illustrated

in the simplest kind of way by the ordinary top. Fig. 9 shows a top spinning about an inclined axis S. The weight of the top together with the reaction of the floor against the point of the top produces a torque the axis of which is at right angles to the plane of the paper

in Fig 9, and the effect of this torque is to cause the axis of spin to sweep around the vertical axis PP (the axis of precession).

The above discussion furnishes a sufficient basis for the consideration of the various practical aspects of gyrostatic action, but it is interesting to see how the precessional motion of the gyrostat in Fig.


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24 8 (sweeping of axis of spin about a vertical axis through O) brings about inertia reactions of the various particles of the spinning wheel which keep the wheel from falling under the pull of gravity; it is only necessary to show that to produce precessional motion there must act upon the gyrostat-wheel an unbalanced torque (the torque due to the pull of gravity upon the overhanging frame and wheel in Fig. 8). Fig. 10 represents a disk spinning in the direction of the curved arrows (in the front view), the spin being represented by the straight arrow S in the side view. Imagine the axle of spin to sweep slowly

 * width=220|Fig. 11.
 * width=220|Fig. 12.
 * }

around the vertical line CD in the direction of the curved arrows PP. This sweeping of the axle of spin about the line CD constitutes precessional motion, and CD is the axis of precession. Consider the front view of the spinning disk in Fig. 10; every particle in the upper half of the disk has a component of its velocity towards the right, and every particle in the lower half of the disk has a component of it» velocity towards the left. After a short interval of time the precessional motion moves the edge E of the disk forwards and the edge E' of the disk backwards in the figure, so that the velocity of every particle in the upper half of the disk is turned slightly backwards and the velocity of every particle in the lower half of the disk is turned slightly forwards, that is to say, every particle in the upper half of the


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Rh disk has received a slight backward component of velocity and every particle in the lower half of the disk has received a slight forward component of velocity. Therefore, during the short interval of time, every particle of the upper half of the disk must have been gaining velocity backwards and every particle in the lower half of the disk must have been gaining velocity forwards, so that unbalanced forces must have been pushing backwards on every particle in the upper half of the disk and pulling forwards on every particle in the lower half of the disk, or, in other words, a torque must have been acting about the line EE' as an axis as shown by the two arrows FF in the side view.

Figs. 11 and 12 show top views of an automobile, the curved dotted arrows represent the turning of the automobile around a curve, and the

straight arrows S represent the spin of the fly-wheel shaft. The arrow S in the vector diagram of Fig. 11 or 12 represents the spin-momentum of the fly-wheel at a given instant, the arrow S' represents the spin-momentum at a later instant, ΔS represents the increment of spin-momentum, and the arrow T represents the torque which must act upon the fly-wheel shaft.

To produce this torque the bearing a must push upwards on the engine shaft and the bearing b must push downwards on the engine


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26 shaft, or, in other words, the engine shaft must push downwards on the bearing a and pull upwards on the bearing b, so that the gyrostatic reaction of the fly-wheel causes the outer wheels OO of the automobile to be pushed against the ground excessively as the automobile turns round a curve.

Figs. 11 and 12 represent the case in which the top of the spinning fly-wheel is moving forwards, and Figs. 13 and 14 represent the case in which the top of the spinning fly-wheel is moving backwards. In Figs. 13 and 14 the gyrostatic action of the fly-wheel causes the inner wheels II of the automobile to be forced against the ground excessively, as may be seen by studying the vector diagrams in Figs. 13 and 14.

Figs. 15 and 16 represent the case in which the fly-wheel shaft is parallel to the length of the car. In Fig. 15 the car is represented as turning to the right, the arrow S in the vector diagram represents the spin-momentum of the fly-wheel at a given instant, S' represents the spin-momentum at a later instant, ΔS represents the increment of spin-momentum, and T represents the torque which must act upon the fly-wheel shaft. To produce the torque T, the bearing a must push upwards upon the engine shaft and the bearing b must push downwards on the engine shaft, or, in other words, the engine shaft must push downwards on bearing a and upwards on bearing b. Therefore the