text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Smuts, Jan Christian

SMUTS, JAN CHRISTIAN (1870-), S. African statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at Cape Town in 1870, the son of J. A. Smuts, member of the Legislative Assembly for Malmesbury, Cape Colony. He was educated at the Victoria College, Stellenbosch, at the Cape University, and then went to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took a “double first” in the Law Tripos in 1894. In 1895 he returned to Cape Town and practised as an advocate of the Supreme Court of the Cape till the end of 1896, when he went to Johannesburg to practise as an advocate there. The rapidity of his success is shown by his appointment as State Attorney to the Transvaal Republic in 1898. Thus before he was 30 his remarkable ability was acknowledged and, though he was opposed to the policy of President Kruger, his hand is to be recognized in the State documents of the Transvaal during the critical period which ended in the sending of the ultimatum to Great Britain and the outbreak of the S. African War of 1899-1902. During that war Smuts served throughout with Boer forces, rising during its latter period to the rank of general, and to the authority among his own people of one who had shown the possession of gifts as a leader in the field as brilliant as those which he was known to possess in the realm of the law. Thus when the negotiations for peace began Smuts stood out as one of the recognized Boer leaders.

With Gen. Botha, he threw his influence during the negotiations into the scale for peace, and when, in 1907, responsible government was granted to the Transvaal, Smuts became the right-hand of Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Transvaal, in the Ministry which he then formed. As colonial secretary the bulk of the administrative work of the new Ministry fell to him, and his success as an administrator was then proved beyond subsequent doubt. He brought to his task an intellect of the first calibre keen, quick, penetrating. His industry was untiring. Already a man of the world, he commanded the admiring devotion of his subordinates. These gifts would have secured for Smuts a position of great influence in any Ministry. They were no more than one of Smuts' many claims to such a position in the Botha Cabinet. He showed at once that he had high parliamentary ability. His rapid brain made him a master in debate. The complexities of legislation had no

for him. His mind had a natural bent towards compromise on unimportant points, and he showed again and again an almost uncanny gift for producing at a moment's notice the form of words that would give body to such compromises. His loyalty to, and affection for, Gen. Botha strengthened an influence thus already very strong, and when in 1909 the S. African National Convention met to draft an instrument for the union of the four S. African colonies, Smuts went to it as a delegate from the Transvaal with a reputation for ability and capacity second to that of no other delegate. High as it was, this reputation was enhanced by his work at the Convention. He had gathered round him a staff of experts, had thought out a scheme of union, had worked out its details, was prepared to put this framework before the first meeting. Such foresight had its reward, the more because it was buttressed during the debates of the Convention by the same readiness in debate, the same clear recognition of essentials, the same natural disposition towards compromise on details, and the same quickness in producing verbal formulae, as Smuts had already shown in the Transvaal Parliament.

When union was accomplished Smuts became for S. Africa what he had been for the Transvaal the right-hand of Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister of the Union. His success, both administrative and parliamentary, in the Transvaal was repeated as a minister of the Union. As Minister of the Interior, of Mines, and of Defence, he bore the lion's share of the early administrative work of the Union. His Defence Act, passed in 1912, was a model of organization, and the speech in which he moved its second reading in the Union House of Assembly established his reputation throughout S. Africa.

Thus on the outbreak of the World War in 1914, when Gen. Botha declared for the most loyal support of the British Government, the bulk of the burden of organizing the military forces of the Union fell upon Smuts. It was sustained with complete success. The expedition against German S.W. Africa, and the crushing of the rebellion in the Union in 1914, both bore testimony to his capacity as an organizer of victory. He took command of the Union columns invading German S.W. Africa from the S. and carried through that part of the campaign with great boldness of strategy and complete success. Then Botha and Smuts turned to other fields of war. Expeditionary forces were organized against German E. Africa and to take part with the Allies in the fighting on the western front in Europe. In Feb. 1916 Smuts was appointed by the British Government commander-in-chief of the Imperial forces operating in German E. Africa. He had been offered the appointment in Nov. 1915, but had then declined. When he took command, the operations against German E. Africa had reached a state of stalemate. He conducted his campaign with great vigour, exacting from his troops heavy sacrifices of long marching in that trying climate, and before the end of 1916 he had reduced the German forces to the position of fugitive bands. Then another duty called him away from E. Africa. At the end of 1916 Mr. Lloyd George became Prime Minister of Great Britain and at once summoned the Imperial War Cabinet. General Smuts went to it as the representative of S. Africa. So useful did he prove himself to be in that position that he became the only permanent Dominion member of the Imperial War Cabinet. With Botha he represented S. Africa at the Peace Conference in Paris, and returned to S. Africa after peace was signed, only to lose Botha almost immediately and to find himself, by the sudden death of his leader and close friend, Prime Minister of the Union in Sept. 1919.

The political position in S. Africa was menacing. The Nationalist agitation, led by Gen. Hertzog, had grown among the Dutch-speaking people during the war. Resentment at being involved in the quarrels of Europe had fed it. The old passion of the Dutch of S. Africa for peaceful isolation had revived in full strength. Smuts speedily made up his mind that the sense of the country must be tested by a general election. It took place in the spring of 1920 and left Smuts and his party without the semblance of a clear majority in Parliament. Smuts

held office by the grace of the Unionists. He had no doubt as to the needs of his position. S. Africa required an established Government; it must be formed by combination between his followers and one of the other parties. His natural impulse was for reconciliation with the Nationalists, and he sought reconciliation with them, but on one clear condition. They must repudiate their Republican aims; and S. Africa must remain willingly a state of the British group of nations. This condition the Nationalists refused. Then Smuts turned to the Unionists, who throughout the war had supported the Botha Ministry as the one safeguard of membership for the S. African state of the British Commonwealth of Nations. With ready self-sacrifice the Unionists accepted his invitation. The two parties were joined into one, the Unionists becoming members of the S. African party, which had been Botha's party and was now led by Smuts. The general election of March 1921 followed, and gave the new party a decisive victory at the polls and a clear and substantial majority in the Parliament of the Union.


text: China: Its State and Prospects/Introduction

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Smoot, Reed

SMOOT, REED (1862-), American politician, was born at Salt Lake City, Utah, Jan. 10 1862. He was educated in his native town and at the Brigham Young Academy, Provo, Utah. He amassed considerable wealth as a banker and woollen manufacturer. In 1895 he was appointed one of the presidency of the Utah Stake of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon), and in 1900 was made an apostle. He was elected to the U.S. Senate from Utah in 1902 and reëlected in 1908, 1914, and 1920. In 1903 attempts were made to prevent his entering the Senate because of his connexion with the Mormon church, and on the charge that he personally favoured polygamy and even that he himself was a polygamist. He was allowed to take his seat; but the matter was placed in the hands of the Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections for further investigation. In June 1906 the Committee by a vote of 7 to 5 recommended that he be unseated; but as the personal charges against him had not been proved the Senate in Feb. 1907 by a vote of 42 to 23 refused to remove him. In 1919 he was chairman of the Republican Senatorial Campaign Committee. In 1921 he was a leading advocate of the adoption of a sales-tax, but failed to obtain its acceptance by the Senate, though the movement was widely favoured in business circles.


text: China: Its State and Prospects/Chapter 1


text: China: Its State and Prospects/Chapter 2


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/71

Rh with precipitous cliffs cut us off from it; the snow slope, too, which existed in the preceding year on the Piedmontese side of the pass, was now wanting, and we were unable to descend the rocks which lay beneath. A fortnight afterwards the mountain was ascended for the first time by Messrs. Mathews and Jacomb, with the two Croz's of Chamounix. Their attempt was made from the southern side, and the ascent, which was formerly considered a thing totally impossible, has become one of the most common and favourite excursions of the district.

We returned crest-fallen to Abries. The shepherd, whose boots were very much out of repair, slipped upon the steep snow-slopes and performed wonderful, but alarming, gyrations, which took him to the bottom of the valley, more quickly than he could otherwise have descended. He was not much hurt, and was made happy by a few needles and a little thread to repair his abraded garments; the other man, however, considered it wilful waste to give him brandy to rub in his cuts, when it could be disposed of in a more ordinary and pleasant manner.

The night of the 14th of August found me at St. Veran, a village made famous by Neff, but in no other respect remarkable, saving that it is supposed to be the highest in Europe. The Protestants now form only a miserable minority; in 1861 there were said to be 120 to 780 Roman Catholics. The poor inn was kept by one of the former, and it gave the impression of great poverty. There was no meat, no bread, no butter or cheese; almost the only things that could be obtained were eggs. The manners of the natives were primitive; the woman of the inn, without the least sense of impropriety, staid in the room until I was fairly in bed, and her bill for supper, bed, and breakfast, amounted to one and sevenpence.


text:
Page:China- Its State and Prospects.djvu/76

 {| align="center"
 * Dynasty. ||| Emperor. ||| Year of reign. ||| A.D. ||| Population. || colspan="2"| Authority.
 * Ming ||| Tae-tsoo ||| 27 ||| 1393 ||| 60,545,811 || ||| Kang-këen-e-che.
 * Tsing ||| Shun-che ||| 18 ||| 1662 ||| 21,068,600 ||rowspan="3"| ||| Ta-tsing-hwuy-tëen,
 * " ||| Kang-he ||| 6 ||| 1668 ||| 25,386,209 || | old edition, extracted
 * " ||| " ||| 49 ||| 1710 ||| 23,312,200 || | by the author.
 * " ||| " ||| 50 ||| 1711 ||| 28,605,716 ||rowspan="4"| ||| Ta-tsing-hwuy-tëen,
 * " ||| Këen-lung ||| 18 ||| 1753 ||| 102,328,258 ||| new edition, extracted
 * " ||| " ||| 57 ||| 1792 ||| 307,467,200 ||| by Dr. Morrison and
 * " ||| Këa-king ||| 16 ||| 1812 ||| 361,221,900 ||| his son
 * }
 * " ||| " ||| 50 ||| 1711 ||| 28,605,716 ||rowspan="4"| ||| Ta-tsing-hwuy-tëen,
 * " ||| Këen-lung ||| 18 ||| 1753 ||| 102,328,258 ||| new edition, extracted
 * " ||| " ||| 57 ||| 1792 ||| 307,467,200 ||| by Dr. Morrison and
 * " ||| Këa-king ||| 16 ||| 1812 ||| 361,221,900 ||| his son
 * }
 * " ||| " ||| 57 ||| 1792 ||| 307,467,200 ||| by Dr. Morrison and
 * " ||| Këa-king ||| 16 ||| 1812 ||| 361,221,900 ||| his son
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The above items are taken from regular Chinese works, and depend on the authority of official documents. By these, it will be seen, that before the Tartar conquest, when the Chinese dwelt under their native emperors, the population amounted to 60,000,000: and that after the invasion of the empire, by the rulers of the present dynasty, the population suddenly fell off to twenty or thirty millions; at which state it continued for fifty years, when it gradually rose, till it reached a hundred, and, subsequently, three hundred and odd millions. In order to account for this, it may be necessary to observe, that the wars which took place on the transfer of the empire into new hands, greatly diminished the number of the people: that, for scores of years, a great part of the empire remained unsubdued, on which account, the Tartars could not reckon on the inhabitants of the southern and western provinces as their subjects; and that, at the commencement of the present dynasty, the revenue was levied in the shape of a capitation tax, which, of course, led a great number to evade enrolment, lest they should be held responsible for the impost demanded by the government officers. Hence, it is not difficult to account for the great falling off in the population, during the first years of the


text: China: Its State and Prospects/Chapter 3


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/73

Rh about seventy feet high, which had been produced by the action of the weather, and, in all probability, chiefly by rain. In this case a "block of euphotide or diallage rock protects a friable limestone;" the contrast of this dark cap with the white base, and the singularity of the form, made it a striking object. These natural pillars are among the most remarkable examples of the potent effects produced by the long-continued action of quiet-working forces. They are found in several other places in the Alps, as well as elsewhere.

The village of Ville Vieille boasts of an inn with the sign of the Elephant; which, in the opinion of local amateurs, is a proof that Hannibal passed through the gorge of the Guil. I remember the place, because its bread, being only a month old, was unusually soft, and, for the first time during ten days, it was possible to eat some, without first of all chopping it into small pieces and soaking it in hot water, which produced a slimy paste on the outside, but left a hard untouched kernel.

The same day I crossed the Col Isoard to Briançon. It was the 15th of August, and all the world was en fête; sounds of revelry proceeded from the houses of Servières as I passed over the bridge upon which the pyrrhic dance is annually performed, and natives in all degrees of inebriation staggered about the paths. It was late before the lights of the great fortress came into sight; but unchallenged I passed through the gates, and once more sought shelter under the roof of the Hotel de l'Ours.


text:
Help:Page scans

The Workspace
Wikisource uses "namespaces" to separate different types of page. For example, the page you are reading now is in the "Help:" namespace.

Wikisource uses two namespaces for its page scans. These are the "Index:" namespace and the "Page:" namespace. Together, they are sometimes called the "Workspace". The workspace is the backroom where works are proofread from the scans. It is not supposed to be the place where readers will read the finished work (although they can if they want to). Finished works end up in the "Main" namespace (the only namespace that does not use a prefix like "Help:") through a process called "transclusion".

The Index namespace
This namespace holds "indexes" for all the works. Indexes are high level pages that:
 * Link to all of the individual pages in the work
 * Link back to the page scan files (in the "File:" namespace)
 * List some simple metadata (such as title, author etc)

The Index can be modified to show the original page numbers and replicate the Table of Contents from the work (if available). For more information, see Help:Beginner's guide to Index: files and Help:Index pages.

All index pages are sorted in Category:Index.

A sample index can be found at Index:Cinderella (1865).djvu.

The Page namespace
This namespace is used to display individual page scans. On each page, the text is shown side-by-side with scanned image. This allows transcription of the original text. You can zoom in on the page image by clicking and scrolling on the image in the right-hand pane.

Page scan numbers are indicated in the pagename by a forward slash followed by a number after the file name. For example, Page:Sketch of Connecticut, Forty Years Since.djvu/27 displays the 27th page of the file. This number is the number of the page in the page scan file and not the page number in the book or any other type of work.

The text on the left can be modified in edit mode, only the contents of the edit box are displayed on the main namespace.

A sample page can be found at Page:Cinderella (1865).djvu/5.

Browsing
Depending on the skin that you are using, there will be either buttons or text labels appearing for navigating and editing the Page: namespace
 * Wikisource previous page button.png previous page
 * Wikisource next page button.png next page
 * Wikisource navigate to index button.png the Index for the page
 * Wikisource show hide header footer button.png show/hide the interface for editing the header and footer
 * Wikisource vertical horizontal layout button.png vertical/horizontal layout
 * Wikisource zoom out button.png zoom out on scan
 * Wikisource zoom in button.png zoom in on scan
 * Wikisource reset zoom original size button.png reset zoom

Header and footer
Some text and formatting may be placed outside of the main "body" edit box. There are two other edit boxes, the "header" and "footer" edit boxes, that are not normally visible in edit mode. Any text typed into these edit boxes will only appear in the Page namespace. It will not be transcluded to the main namespace. This is used for things like page numbers which will make the text unreadable if they were included in the final product.

The header and footer edit boxes can be made visible clicking the button, which is in the "Proofread tools" toolbar, hovering in the upper left corner of the page image. Clicking the button again will hide the header and footer.

If you would like the header and footer to always be visible whenever you access the Page namespace, there is an option in you preferences. Select the "Editing" preferences and find the "Show header and footer fields when editing in the Page namespace" option under the list of advanced options. Make sure this option is ticked and save the changes. Once this option is saved, the header and footer will start visible by default; clicking the button will still toggle visibility on and off.

In technical terms, the header and footer are automatically placed inside  tags which prevent transclusion of their contents into any other page.

An example is Page:Cinderella (1865).djvu/5 which hides the title, repeated on every page, and the page number.

When editing, certain markup including table syntax must be balanced (equal numbers of opening and closing tags) across the combination of the Header, body and Footer, or self contained with in each section.

 * See also: this discussion re: tricks for dealing with even and odd page numbers.

The main namespace
This namespace is not part of the workspace. It is sometimes also called the "mainspace". It is the final stage for proofreading: this is where readers are expected to find, access and read the text produced in the workspace.

The text is "transcluded" into the main namespace from the Page namespace. Usually a chapter or section is transcluded to a page in the mainspace, although sometimes an entire work can be transcluded to one page. Links floating at the left of the page link back to the Page namespace (these are usually page numbers, using information from the Index page). The "Source" link at the top of the page links back to the Index namespace.

Only the text in the "body" edit box from the Page namespace is transcluded into the main namespace. The text in the header and footer of the Page namespace is not translcuded.

A sample mainspace page can be found at Cinderella, or the Little Glass Slipper (Dalziel).

title: Help:Page scans


text:
Help:Formatting conventions

The following conventions are considered best practices for pages in the Page: namespace (DjVu, PDF and other files which use the ProofreadPage extension). For general article formatting conventions and guidelines see Style guide.

Running headers
A scanned page's header and footer often include page number and titles, which are not transcluded. Place this information in the header and footer edit boxes, accessed by clicking the which appears above the edit window, in the Proofread tools section.

The RunningHeader template is useful for formatting these headers, and is used as follows:
 * Text in the left, center, or right parameters will appear on the same line.
 * Five-entry style headers, such as those that appear in certain encyclopedias and dictionaries can also be entered with RunningHeader.
 * Five-entry style headers, such as those that appear in certain encyclopedias and dictionaries can also be entered with RunningHeader.

Line breaks

 * Remove end-of-line hyphens and line breaks.

 ...this is the end of one paragraph.
 * To start a new paragraph, MediaWiki pages use two line breaks (i.e., press return twice and leave one line blank):

This is the start of the next paragraph...

 * Poetry and other texts presented on a line-by-line basis should have their line breaks preserved. See H:POEM for how to format them.

Hyphenated end of page words

 * When a word is hyphenated onto two consecutive pages of the scans, the software will automatically remove the hyphen and join the words together when transcluded into the main namespace.
 * First page:
 * Second page:
 * Final result: "Sometimes words are hyphenated across page breaks."
 * Note: Some older works use the templates hws and hwe: these are no longer required for newly created pages.
 * If you wish to keep the hyphen (e.g., in the word "over-eager"), use peh (a.k.a. page end hyphen) and the software will not remove it:
 * First page:
 * Second page
 * Final result: "Sometimes removal of hyphens is over-eager: you wish to keep the hyphen."
 * If a link goes across a page break, use lps and lpe. See the documentation of those templates for the various cases that they support.
 * If a hyphenated word is bold or in italics, and the hyphen is not to be kept, put the hyphen outside the bold/italic markup:
 * First page:
 * Second page:
 * Final result: "Sometimes hyphenated words are italic or bold."

Paragraph ending at the bottom of a page

 * If a paragraph ends at the bottom of a page scan and a new paragraph in the same chapter will start on the next page, add nop at the bottom of the page (on its own line) to force a break in the text. Otherwise, when the pages are transcluded the separation between the two pages will be treated as a single space rather than a new line. Example: (Page:Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc.djvu/476 and Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc/Book III/Chapter 14).

Binder's marks

 * If a binder's mark appears at the bottom of a print page do not reproduce it. These are an artefact of the publishing process for print books. As our works are digital, such marks are not relevant. The marks take various forms, but all indicate the sequence in which printed sections of pages should be bound together.

Templates

 * Using standard templates instead of other types of markup, gives Wikisource protection from undesirable external changes. e.g., Use right instead of.
 * If you need to indicate a word/phrase should be in, use the small-caps template.
 * If you need to indicate a word/phrase should be in a smaller (or larger) font, use the smaller template. Similarly, the xx-smaller, x-smaller, larger, x-larger, xx-larger, and font-size templates can be used to modify text size.

Obsolete markup
Some markup is obsolete in modern HTML and will eventually be removed from browsers and MediaWiki. This is not a MediaWiki or Wikisource decision: the HTML constructs are deprecated by the official web standards body, the W3C.

Generally, there are two kinds of deprecation:
 * Obsolete tags (tags look like ) that represent "non-semantic" content and are more correctly done using semantically-meaningful tags and styles via CSS
 * Obsolete attributes on tags (attributes look like ) which encode stylistic information that is more correctly implemented in CSS

In some cases, for example, in EPUB exports, such deprecated HTML can cause client problems and the exporter will attempt to strip the problematic code and replace with a best-effort replacement. This does not always work.

Some deprecations that are common, and their resolutions

 * Obsolete HTML tags. Use of these tags triggers linter errors.
 * : use center
 * : use larger
 * : use smaller
 * : use templates like blackletter, red, etc., as appropriate
 * : use monospace, Alternatively, if it's a supported language,

 * The use of the  attribute is also deprecated and should be replaced with CSS:
 * For table positioning
 * : use
 * : use  (the margin is on the "blank" side of the table)
 * : use  (this allows surrounding content to "flow" around the table)
 * For text alignment (e.g., in table cells) :
 * : use
 * The use of the  attribute should be replaced with CSS :
 * All other table-specific attributes on tables are deprecated :
 * : use CSS
 * : use CSS
 * : use CSS  on the cells, and set
 * : use CSS  and do not   (both apply to the table, not the cells)
 * : use CSS
 * : use CSS  on the cells, and set
 * : use CSS  and do not   (both apply to the table, not the cells)
 * : use CSS

If there are a lot of similar rows (such as a work with numerous tables showing numerical statistical data), consider creating specfic CSS for that work, which should be placed as an Indexstyle for that work.

Tagging
Some, but not all, deprecations are automatically tagged by an edit filter. If your edits are so tagged, you may wish to adjust the content to avoid a deprecated construction. You do not have to do so, but it will avoid creating a backlog if/when such deprecations cause technical issues in the future. Recent changes with this tag can be seen here. Sometimes, your edits may be tagged not because of your contributions, but because of pre-existing deprecated markup.

title: Help:Formatting conventions


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/15

1860

CHAPTER I.

.

Pages 1-13 CHAPTER II.

.

CHAPTER III.

.


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/16

x CHAPTER IV.

.

1862

CHAPTER V.

.

1863

CHAPTER VI. .


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/307

 ''six divisions of infantry and two divisions of cavalry, shall not exceed 50,000 men. It shall be maintained at the expense of the country occupied''. The army of occupation will preserve its communications with Russia not only through Roumania, in accordance with arrangements to be concluded between the two States, but also through the ports of the Black Sea, Varna and Bourgas, where it may, during the period of occupation, organize the necesary depôts.

The period of the occupation of Eastern Roumelia and Bulgaria by the Imperial Russian troops is fixed at nine months from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of the present Treaty. The Imperial Russian Government undertakes that within a further period of three months the passage of its troops across Roumania shall cease, and that Principality shall be completely evacuated.

XXIII. The Sublime Porte undertakes scrupulously to apply to the Island of Crete the Organic Law of 1868, with such modifications as may be considered equitable

Similar laws adapted to local requirements, excepting as regards the exemption from taxation granted to Crete, shall also be introduced into the other parts of Turkey in Europe for which no special organization has been provided by the present Treaty.

The Sublime Porte shall depute special Commissions, in which the native element shall be largely represented, to settle the details of the new laws in each province. U 2


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/74

 {| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
 * width=320px|Page 074 - Scrambles amongst the Alps - Whymper.jpg
 * width=320px|Page 074 - Scrambles amongst the Alps - Whymper.jpg

 * }

THE MONT CENIS—THE FELL RAILWAY—THE GREAT TUNNEL THROUGH THE ALPS. say that the pass of the Mont Cenis is dull. It is long, certainly, but it has a fair proportion of picturesque points, and it is not easy to see how it can be dull to those who have eyes. In the days when it was a rude mountain-track, crossed by trains of mules, and when it was better known to smugglers than to tourists, it may have been dull; but when Napoleon's road changed the rough path into one of the finest highways in Europe, mounting in grand curves and by uniform grades, and rendered the trot possible throughout its entire distance, the Mont Cenis became one of the most interesting passes in the Alps. The diligence service which was established was excellent, and there was little or nothing


text: Index:Plates illustrating the natural and morbid changes of the human eye.djvu


text: Page:Plates illustrating the natural and morbid changes of the human eye.djvu/8


text: Page:Plates illustrating the natural and morbid changes of the human eye.djvu/10


text:
Page:Plates illustrating the natural and morbid changes of the human eye.djvu/11

originals, from which the chromolithographs are copied, were painted by Mr R. Schweizer (13, Myddleton Place, St John's Street Road, Clerkenwell), to whose talent as painter, and to whose skill in the use of the ophthalmoscope, I am indebted for their correct representation. Each chromolithograph shows the parts as they appeared when examined with the ophthalmoscope indirectly. They are, therefore, represented inverted: for example, what in the chromolithograph appears as the upper margin of the optic disc is in reality the lower margin, &c. The shape of the optic disc in each case is represented correctly, while the size exceeds more or less that observed with the ophthalmoscope.

Much delay has been occasioned in the publication of the plates by my having had to reject chromolithographs from two different sources.

The lithographs (Plate I. to IV.) were made by Mr E. Erxleben, 2, Coram Street, Russell Square, and Messrs Day and Son, London.

The drawings representing the instruments which are most frequently used in operations on the eye, are copies of the excellent instruments manufactured by Messrs Weiss & Son, Surgical Instrument Makers, 62, Strand, London.

The Plates are published separate from the book, because the time of their completion was uncertain; and also for the purpose of facilitating their study, as well as to allow the plates to be purchased without the book.


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)


text:
Page:Plates illustrating the natural and morbid changes of the human eye.djvu/12

Section of a portion of healthy retina. The section was made parallel with the optic nerve fibres, and about one-sixth of an inch horizontally inwards from the optic disc. The object of this Plate is to show the fibres of the connective tissue of the retina ("the radial fibres") and their connection with the inner membrana limitans.

(1.) The inner membrana limitans.

(2.) Granular matter between the inner membrana limitans and the optic nerve fibres, occupying the place where the membrana limitans has become detached from the nerve fibres.

(3.) Layer of optic nerve fibres.

(4 ) Fibres of the connective tissue of the retina,—so called "radial fibres."

(5.) The part of the retina occupied by the "layer" of ganglion cells.

(6.) Granules.

Section of a portion of healthy retina. The section was made parallel with the optic nerve fibres, and taken from a part of the retina situated above, and about one-eighth of an inch from, the optic disc.

(1.) Granules.

(2.2.) Fibres of the framework of the retina—"radial fibres."

(3.) The outer membrana limitans.

(4.) A bulb.

(5.) A rod.


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/75

Rh to be gained by travelling in a more expensive manner. The horses were changed as rapidly as on the best lines in the best period of coaching in England, and the diligences themselves were as comfortable as a "milord" could desire. The most exciting portion of the route was undoubtedly that between Lanslebourg and Susa. When the zig-zags began, teams of mules were hooked on, and the driver and his helpers marched by their side with long whips, which they handled skilfully. Passengers dismounted, and stretched their legs by cutting the curves. The pace was slow but steady, and scarcely a halt was made during the rise of 2000 feet. Crack! crack! went the whips as the corners of the zig-zags were turned. Great commotion among the mules! They scrambled and went round with a rush, tossing their heads and making music with their bells. The summit was gained, the mules were detached and trotted back merrily, while we, with fresh horses, were dragged at the gallop over the plain to the other side. The little postilion seated on the leader smacked his whip lustily as he swept round the corners cut through the rock, and threw his head back, as the echoes returned, expectant of smiles and of future centimes.

The air was keen and often chilly, but the summit was soon passed, and one quickly descended to warmth again. Once more there was a change. The horses, reduced in number to three, or perhaps two, were the sturdiest and most sure of foot, and they raced down with the precision of old stagers. Woe to the diligence if they stumbled! So thought the conductor, who screwed down the breaks as the corners were approached. The horses, held well in hand, leant inwards as the top-heavy vehicle, so suddenly checked, heeled almost over; but in another moment the break was released, and again they swept down, urged onwards by whip, "hoi," and "ha" of the driver.

All this is changed. The Victor Emmanuel railway superseded a considerable portion of Napoleon's road, and the "Fell" railway


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/76

48 has the rest. In a few years more the great tunnel of the Alps will be completed, and that will bring about another change.

The Fell railway, which has been open about eighteen months, is a line that well deserves attention. Thirty-eight years ago Mr. Charles Vignolles, the eminent engineer, and Mr. Ericsson, patented the idea which is now an accomplished fact on the Mont Cenis. Nothing was done with it until Mr. Fell, the projector of the railway which bears his name, took it up, and to him much credit is due for bringing an admirable principle into operation.

The Fell railway follows the great Cenis road very closely, and diverges from it either to avoid villages or houses, or, as at the summit of the pass on the Italian side, to ease the gradients. The line runs from St. Michel to Susa. The distance between those two places is, as the crow flies, almost exactly equivalent to the distance from London to Chatham; but by reason of the numerous curves and detours the length of the line is nearly brought up to the distance of London from Brighton. From St. Michel to the summit of the pass it rises 4460 feet, or 900 feet more than the highest point of Snowdon is above the level of the sea; and from the summit of the pass to Susa, a distance less than that from London to Kew, it descends no less than 5211 feet!

The railway itself is a marvel. For fifteen miles and three quarters it has steeper gradients than one in fifteen. In some places it is one in twelve and a half! An incline at this angle, starting from the base of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, would reach the top of St. Paul's Cathedral if it were placed at Temple Bar! A straight piece of railway constructed on such a gradient seems to go up a steep hill. One in eighty, or even one in a hundred, produces a very sensible diminution in the pace of a light train drawn by an ordinary locomotive; how then is a train to be taken up an incline that is six times as steep? It is accomplished by means of a third rail placed midway between the two ordinary ones, and elevated above them. The engines are provided


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/78

50  character, and a good pace is maintained. The first severe piece is about two miles up, where there is an incline of one in eighteen for more than half-a-mile;—that is to say, the line rises at one step one hundred and sixty-four feet. From thence to Modane the gradients are again moderate (for the Fell railway) and the distance—about ten miles and a half from St. Michel—is accomplished without difficulty in an hour. Modane station is 1128 feet above St. Michel, so that on this easy portion of the line there is an average rise of 110 feet per mile, which is equal to a gradient of one in forty-eight; an inclination sufficiently steep to bring an ordinary locomotive very nearly to a halt.

Just after passing Modane station there is one of the steepest inclines on the line, and it seems preposterous to suppose that any train could ascend it. A stoppage of ten minutes is made at Modane, and on leaving that station, the train goes off at the hill with a rush. In a few yards its pace is reduced, and it comes down and down to about four miles an hour, which speed is usually maintained until the incline is passed, without a diminution of the steam-pressure. I say usually, because, if it should happen that there is not sufficient steam, or should the driver happen to make a slip, the train would most likely come back to Modane; for, although the break-power on the train is much more than sufficient to prevent it running back, the driver could hardly start with the breaks on, and the train would inevitably run back if they were off.

After this incline is passed, the line mounts by comparatively easy gradients towards Fort Lesseillon; it is then at a great height above the Arc, and as one winds round the faces of the cliff out of which the Napoleon road was cut, looking down upon the foaming stream below, without a suspicion of a parapet between the railway and the edge of the precipice, one naturally thinks about what would happen if the engine should leave the rails. The speed, however, that is kept up at this part is very gentle, and


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/80

52 accomplished, and then the tremendous descent to Susa is commenced. This, as seen from the engine, is little less than terrific. A large part of this section is covered in, and the curves succeed one another in a manner unknown on any other line. From the outside the line looks more like a monstrous serpent than a railway.

Inside one can see but a few yards ahead, the curves are so sharp, and the rails are nearly invisible. The engine vibrates, oscillates, and bounds; it is a matter of difficulty to hold on. Then, on emerging into the open air, one looks down some three or four thousand feet of precipice and steep mountain-side. The next moment the engine turns suddenly to the left, and driver and stoker have to grip firmly to avoid being left behind; the next, it turns as suddenly to the right; the next there is an accession or diminution of speed, from a change in the gradient. An ordinary engine, moving at fifty miles an hour, with a train behind it, is not usually very steady, but its motion is a trifle compared with that of a Fell engine when running down hill.

It may be supposed from this that travelling over the Fell


text: Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/82


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Abbreviations


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Executive Summary


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/84

54 steam down against them. Theoretically, this ought not of course to occur; it only happens occasionally, and ordinarily the train goes down with the steam shut off, and with the centre rail breaks screwed up moderately. When an average train—that is, two or three carriages and a luggage-van—is running down at the maximum speed allowed (fifteen miles an hour), the breaks can pull it up dead within seventy yards. The pace is properly kept down to a low point in descending, and doing so, combined with the knowledge that the break-power can easily lessen it, will tend to make the public look favourably on what might otherwise be considered a dangerous innovation. The engines also are provided with the centre rail break, on a pattern somewhat different from those on the carriages, and the flat sides which press against the rails are renewed every journey. It is highly desirable that they should be, for a single run from Lanslebourg to Susa grinds a groove into them about three-eighths of an inch in depth.

Driving the trains over the summit section requires the most constant attention, and no small amount of nerve, and the drivers, who are all English, have well earned their money at the end of their run. Their opinion of the line was concisely and forcibly expressed to me by one of them in last August. "Yes, mister, they told us as how the line was very steep, but they didn't say that the engine would be on one curve, when the fourgon was on another, and the carriages was on a third. Them gradients, too, mister, they says they are one in twelve, but I think they are one in ten, at the least, and they didn't say as how we was to come down them in that snakewise fashion. It's worse than the G. I. P., mister; there a fellow could jump off; but here, in them covered ways, there ain't no place to jump to."

The Fell railway is of the nature of an experimental line, and


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/86

56 would be no doubt it might become a thoroughly practical and profitable one. Let us now turn to the great tunnel of the Alps, the completion of which is to be death to the Fell railway.

When M. Medail of Bardonnêche—thirty years ago—pointed out that a shorter tunnel could be constructed beneath the Alps between his village and Modane than at any other place in the Sardinian States having a similar elevation above the level of the sea, neither he, nor any other person, had the least idea how the project could be executed.

The first step was taken by the geologists Signor Sismonda and M. Elie de Beaumont. They pointed out, about twenty years ago, that calcareous schists and quartzite rocks would form a large proportion of the strata through which the tunnel would pass. It takes a miner one hour and a half to two hours to make an ordinary hole for blasting (28 inches deep) in the calcareous schist, and not less than eight hours to make one 20 inches deep in the quartzite. When would the tunnel have been finished if the ordinary processes had been alone employed?

The ordinary processes were clearly unavailable. The tunnel would be not only of prodigious length, but it would have to be constructed without shafts. At no place where a shaft would have been of any use would it have been possible to make one less than 1000 feet deep! If one had been made about midway between the two ends, it would have been no less than 5315 feet deep. "I


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/88

58 which was put in motion by steam. The machine was imperfect, and while experiments were being made with it (by means of compressed air), M. Sommeiller invented the boring-machine which is now used in the tunnel."

"The problem then appeared to be solved. The inventors joined themselves to M. Ranco—who had taken part in their experiments on the Genoa Railway—prepared a scheme, and presented it with confidence to the government, after having found out that they could compress air to a high pressure, that this air could be led from closed reservoirs and transmitted to great distances without a sensible diminution of its pressure, and that it could be employed to move the boring-machine which was intended to make the holes for blasting. A commission was appointed to examine the project, and its members satisfied themselves that the scheme was feasible. The Act of August 15, 1857, authorised the government to construct the section of the Victor Emmanuel Railway between Susa and Modane. MM. Grandis, Grattoni, and Sommeiller, were appointed to direct the works."

"M. Medail indicated the general direction of the tunnel between Modane and Bardonnêche. M. Maus drew his line a little more to the east, nearer to Modane. The engineers who direct the work have approached the latter course, and have selected that which seemed to them to be the shortest, the most easy to come out at, and, especially, the most convenient to lay out."

"It is needless to insist on the importance of the tracing of the course of the tunnel. It was necessary—1st, To establish upon the mountain a sufficient number of marks in order to determine the vertical plane passing through the axis of the gallery; 2. To measure exactly the distance between the two mouths; 3. To determine the difference of level between the two mouths, in order to arrange the gradients of the tunnel."

"These delicate operations were entrusted to MM. Borelli and Copello. M. Grandis undertook the control of the work."

"After the two mouths had been determined upon, they set out


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Factual Information


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/90

60, and mists or clouds concealed the points at the moments they wished to observe them. A single fact will give some notion of the nature of their work. Seven angles had to be measured from the summit of La Pelouse, 10,170 feet above the sea. The observers—who were lodged in the chalets of La Rionda, had to ascend to the summit for seven successive days, and it was seldom possible to measure two angles in the same day."

"The importance of these observations is readily comprehended, and I have described them at some length, because they form the base of the enterprise. One thing is notable. It is the personal care that the engineers have taken. M. Grandis directed the tracing of the line, the triangulation, and the levellings; he assisted at these operations; he selected the bases and points at which 'signals' were to be placed; and all was done under his eye by the engineers, Borelli, Copello, Mella, and Mondino."

On account of the peculiar situation of the ends of the tunnel, two small, connecting, curved tunnels will have to be made. "The construction of these terminal curves is naturally neglected for the establishment of the two false mouths in the direction of the general line."


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/92

62 navvies) undoubtedly is, it is difficult to believe one sees all the material that has been extracted from more than two miles and a half of tunnel. It is interesting as showing the greatest angle at which debris will stand. Its faces have, as nearly as possible, an angle of 45.°

During four years the ordinary means of excavation were alone employed, and but 1300 yards were driven. In this time the machines were being constructed which were destined to supersede a large part of the manual labour; at the beginning of 1861 they were sufficiently complete to be put to work, and in the summer of that year I went to Bardonnêche to see them in operation.

The clocks of the Oulx had just struck twelve on the night of the 16th of August, as the diligence crawled into the village from Briançon, conveying a drunken driver, a still more intoxicated conducteur, and myself. The keeper of the inn at which we stopped declined to take me in, so I sought for repose in a neighbouring oatfield, and the next morning mightily astonished a native when I rose enveloped in my blanket-bag. He looked aghast for a moment at the apparition which seemed to spring out of the ground, and then turning round in a nervous, twitching manner, dropped his spade and fairly bolted, followed by hearty shouts of laughter. Bardonnêche—a little Alpine village whose situation is not unlike that of Zermatt, was about an hour distant. A strange banging noise could be heard a long way off, and a few minutes after my arrival, I stood in one of the shops by the side of the machine which was causing it, and by the side of M. Sommeiller, the inventor of the machine. They were experimenting with one of his famous "perforatrices," and a new form of boring-rod, upon a huge block of rock which


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/94

64 pipe of leather is secured to the cheek by means of a metal washer, and, pressed down by the compressed air on the end of the ordinary pipe, makes the joint sufficiently air-tight, although it does not hinder the advance or the retreat of the pipe. In the tunnel itself—where the temperature is not subject to such fluctuations—these precautions are not necessary, and the pipes are carried along the walls, supported by brackets, as far as the end of the finished work. Through these pipes highly compressed air is conducted, and is delivered at the end of the "advanced gallery" where the boring-machines are at work, with only a slight diminution in its pressure, notwithstanding the escapes which occur at the joints.

On entering the tunnel one is struck by its size. The Italians, with a magnificent disregard of expense, or from regard to the future, have constructed it not only with two pairs of rails, but with a footpath on each side. From the rails to the crown of the arch its height is just 20 feet, and its width is 26 feet 6 inches. The next thing that is noticed is that it is almost everywhere lined with masonry; a small fraction only of the rock is left unsupported. The stone that is used is not obtained from the tunnel itself, but is quarried several miles away, near to St. Michel. Not observed,


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/96

 clouds of smoke, the light of an ordinary miner's lamp could not be perceived at the distance of five or six yards, and respiration was difficult, for the atmosphere was vile. This was the end of the finished work: it is from hence that the air is drawn by the pumping-engines at the mouth, and it is hereabouts that all the foul vapours naturally accumulate and hang. The great vault was no longer overhead, but the way was reduced to a drift eight or nine feet wide and scarcely as much high, encumbered with waggons filled with débris, between which and the walls one could barely pass. In a hundred feet or so, we emerged—comparatively speaking—into a blaze of light. Two hundred greasy, smoky, but still light-giving lamps, hung from the walls. Drops of water flashed past them like gems. Two hundred men toiled at the enlargement of the gallery—bearded, grimy men, some on their backs, some on their sides, some working overhead, some half naked, some quite naked—all tapping laboriously at their mining-rods, and all perspiring profusely. The temperature had risen to 81½°. The multitude of the lights, the crowd of men, and the obscurity of the smoke, help to make the tunnel look an immense size—in fact, at this part, it is sometimes but little less than 30 feet high and 35 feet wide; for not merely has the rock to be removed at the top and sides, which is afterwards replaced by masonry, but it is occasionally excavated for an inverted arch, which is placed wherever it is necessary.

The temperature is, as nearly as possible, the same at the roof of the gallery as it is on the floor; for jets of compressed air are let off above. The work of the masons would otherwise be unendurable.

There was a difference then of 18° between the temperature at the mouth and at the end of the finished work. In winter this amount would be trebled or quadrupled. How much of the increase is due to the lights, men, and horses, and how much to the natural temperature of the rock? If the heat increased in the tunnel,


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/98

68 pounds. The terrific din that these 1800 strokes per minute, given with such force, make in a rock-chamber that is only 8 ft. 3 in. high, and 9 ft. 2½ in. wide, can hardly be imagined; neither can an adequate idea be given of the admirable manner in which the machines accomplish their work. In spite of the noise and the cramped position in which the men necessarily toil on account of the limited space, the work goes steadily forward day and night. Each man knows his part. The foremen direct by signs rather than by words; the labourers guide the chisels; the workmen regulate the supply of air; the machinists are ready in case of accident; slim boys, with long-nosed cans, oil the machinery. Order triumphs in the midst of apparent confusion. One sees now the results of years of perfecting and of practice. Things were very different at the beginning. Then, says M. Conte, "everything was new, not only to the workmen, but also to those who had the direction. . . . The work of perforation was commenced at Bardonnêche on January 12, 1861, but for several days only a single perforatrice was in action, then a second was added, and by the 20th a certain amount of useful work had been done. On the 26th the number of the perforatrices was increased to four, and by working eight hours per day, 10 or 12 holes were made about a yard in depth. On the 12th of February they had perfected about 32 yards of the advanced gallery, which had been left unfinished, and then arrived at the front of the attack. The whole difficulty was there. The number of the machines was again increased, but during ten days there was little result. On the 22d February the works were suspended, in order to make alterations suggested by experience; and it was recommenced on the 2d of March. During the first half of this month an advance of half-a-metre was accomplished in two days, by working seven hours a-day; but towards the end of the month the work had become more easy, and it was possible to perform the whole of the operation in a single day, and to obtain a daily advance of 18 inches to two feet."


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Analysis


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/100

70 rock, the ordinary form of chisel is found best. Almost all the details of the machinery, the size of the gallery, the dimensions and number of the holes, and the manner of firing them, have been changed since the beginning; the general principles alone remain unaltered. The present system is as follows. A hole 4¾ inches in diameter is made to a depth of about a yard, towards the centre of the drift, but rather nearer to the floor than to the roof. Fifty to sixty holes, according to circumstances, of less diameter, but of about equal depth, are then driven into the remainder of the face. All the holes are then dried and cleaned by a jet of compressed air, the "affût" is withdrawn behind strong iron-bound doors, and six of the small holes nearest to the large are charged and fired. The force of the explosion goes in the direction of least resistance, that is towards the central hole, and a breach is made such as is indicated in the longitudinal section by the thick dotted line. The remaining holes are then charged and fired in sets of six or eight at a time, those nearest to the breach being exploded first. This system has been found more economical than firing a larger number


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/102

72 are unclothed. They work readily enough for their three francs a-day, and take to their labour cheerfully; very few skulkers can be seen in the Mont Cenis tunnel. The following table shows how small is the risk to life. It will be seen from this that one-half of the fatal accidents have arisen from men being run over by waggons. This has chiefly come from the impossibility of making the miners walk on the footways at the sides of the tunnel. They will walk. on the rails. The result is that they are not unfrequently killed, although the greatest precautions are taken with the waggons descending with débris. The total is insignificant when one considers the number of men engaged and the length of time over which it is spread, and it compares favourably with almost any other enterprise of similar magnitude.

The waggons laden with débris run down, on the French side, by their own weight, on account of the gradient, and so did the truck on which I descended with my guide—the courteous engineer who directs the works. Fresh relays of miners were entering, and those whom they relieved were coming out with their arms around each others' waists "in the manner of schoolboys and lovers." The air seemed chilly, although it was a bright summer day; and our nostrils, for hours after leaving the tunnel, yielded such supplies of carbon as to suggest that the manufacture of compressed soot might be profitably added to the already numerous industries of the works.


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/104

74 the expense of the whole of the machinery and of the exterior works. This amount does not seem extravagant when we remember that for every yard of advance, never less—and frequently more—than seventy cubic yards of rock have to be excavated, and to be carried away (at the present time) a distance of three miles; that about twenty-five cubic yards of masonry have to be built, the stone for which is conveyed twelve miles in a mountainous country; that all the machinery employed has been constructed and invented expressly for the tunnel, and that the creation of two small towns has been necessary. The strata which have been pierced agree very satisfactorily in their nature and in their thickness with the indications of the geologists. Table of the strata which have been pierced on the French side of the great tunnel of the Alps:— On the Berdonnêche side the tunnel passes through schist alone. The engineers therefore believe that no greater difficulties will be encountered than those which have been overcome. Remarkably little water has been met with: the miner's dreaded enemy seems to have fled before the engineer who has utilised its power. I have not entered into a description of the manner in which this has been accomplished, because it has been frequently done before; but there is nothing more interesting in regard to the tunnel than


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/106

76 Will the two ends meet? The engineers are confident that they will. One important fact remains to be pointed out. The two sides have not advanced with equal rapidity. On the Italian side the summit is nearly gained—before these pages are published it will have been passed; but on the French side they are nearly 2000 yards short of it. The work is still to be carried on simultaneously, and, consequently, on the Italian side they will shortly begin to descend. M. Conte mentioned that one of the reasons which influenced the engineers to drive the tunnel to a summit, was, that by so doing, any error in the determination of its length, or in the levels, would be negatived. It was only necessary that the two ends should be driven in the same line,—they would be sure to meet sooner or later. This was on the supposition that the two gradients would be maintained until the two ends met. The whole of this advantage is going to be sacrificed. If there is any material error in the determination of the length or of the levels, the two ends may not meet. One has not to go farther than the summit of the Mont Cenis pass itself to show that errors may creep into trigonometrical work, even when it is conducted by distinguished engineers. The height of that pass has been obtained by two independent surveys; one, carried through Trance from the level of the sea, and the other carried through Italy from the level of the sea; yet the Italians make the summit 59 feet higher than the French.

When the great tunnel of the Alps is completed, will it be a useless marvel? or will locomotives be able to work in it? Will the trains arrive at the ends with cargoes of asphyxiated passengers who will have to be revived with draughts of compressed air? or will there be no trouble on account of ventilation? It must not be argued that because it is impossible for locomotives to work in the tunnel at present, it will be impossible for them to work in it when it is completed. The temperatures of the two sides will frequently be different, and that alone will produce considerable


text:
Page:Whymper - Scrambles amongst the Alps.djvu/108

78 our coal-fields, which recent inquiries have placed at a more distant date than was expected a few years ago, is a thing that is inevitable sooner or later. Actual exhaustion is not so much to be feared as inability to compete with foreign producers. The question is adjourned, but it will presently be forced upon public attention again. When it becomes too pressing to be neglected, then, possibly, there will be a chance of the condition of our miners being ameliorated; but it is improbable so long as gigantic public subscriptions pay for the effects of private neglect, which actually tend to perpetuate what they are intended to cure, that the chief sinners will take proper action. When they take alarm, then perhaps there will be salvation for the pitmen. The fact that two hundred of their men lose their lives every year by fire-damp explosions will not move British pit-owners so readily as the disagree-able truth that the time is rapidly approaching when they will be unable to compete with foreign markets, unless they work with greater economy. We have heard times without number that miners are careless; that they will smoke their pipes where they ought not; that they will carry forbidden matches, or even break open their safety-lamps to get a light. It is useless to combat such habits by repressive enactments, and childish to talk of double-locking lamps because single-locked ones are found ineffectual. The more difficulty there is in obtaining a light, the more men will struggle to get one. The only way to prevent explosions is to render them impossible, and that can be accomplished, to a large extent at least, by better ventilation. Coal can be got more economically, and the ventilation can be improved, by the use of one and the same means. Steam machinery cannot be used in coal-pits for the same reason that it could not in the great tunnel of the Alps; but machines moved by compressed air can. A machine for coal-cutting worked by compressed air was patented so long ago as 1861, and has been successfully at work in a pit in Yorkshire for a long time. Its action is an imitation of that of the miner's pick; it cuts


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/132

 Treasury is raised to 150,000 purses, commencing from the month of March in the year 1866, at the rate of 100 piastres to a pound Turkish, that is to say, to 750,000 pounds Turkish annually .

My Imperial Iradé having issued in order to put into execution the preceding conditions, the present Firman, bearing at its head my Imperial writing, has been drawn up by my Imperial Chancery, and delivered to thee.

Thou, on thy part, with the loyalty and zeal which characterize thee, and profiting by the knowledge thou hast acquired of the state of Egypt, shouldst devote thy care to the good administration of that country, shouldst labour to ensure to its population complete tranquillity and security, and, in recognition of the value of the proof I have just given thee of my Imperial favour, shouldst carefully observe the conditions above laid down.

Written the 12th day of the month of Moharem, in the year of the Hegira 1283 (27th May, 1866).

Firman addressed by the Sultan to the Viceroy of Egypt, settling the mode of appointing a Regency, in the case of His Highness dying before his son should attain the age of 18 years, 15th June, 1866.

(The text of this Firman is omitted, as relating to a question of no general interest, now regulated by the Firman of 1873.)

Firman addressed by the Sultan to the Khedive of Egypt, confirming the privilege of hereditary succession, and the right to conclude commercial and other treaties, having no political significance, 8th June 1867.

To my illustrious Vizier Ismaïl Pasha, who now holds the rank of Grand Vizier, with the title of 'Khidev' of Egypt, and


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Conclusions


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Recommendations


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Investigation and Hearing


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcript


text: Korean Air Flight 801 - Aircraft Accident Report (NTSB)/Flight Safety Foundation Study Recommendations


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/133

 ''who is decorated with the Orders of the Medjidié and Osmanié of the First Class in Diamonds. May God perpetuate his glory and increase his power and prosperity.''

(After epithets applied to all Pashas holding the rank of Vizier:)

''Be it known on the arrival of this my Imperial Firman, that, as is also mentioned in my Firman granting the privilege of hereditary succession to the Viceroyalty (Kidiviet) of Egypt, those fundamental laws which are in force in other parts of my dominions shall be maintained and respected in Egypt. Now by fundamental laws are meant all those principles laid down in the Imperial Rescript of Gulhaneh . But, inasmuch as the internal administration of the province, and consequently its financial, material, and other ititerests are confided to the Government of Egypt, in order to preserve and extend those interests, it is permitted to that Government to frame such regulations as may seem necessary in the form of 'special Tanzimat for the Interior.' In like manner, whilst all the Treaties of the Sublime Porte must be respected in Egypt, an exception is made only as regards the customs duties, and as regards foreigners in matters relating to the police, postal, and transit services, for which full powers are given to thee to enter into special arrangements with foreign agents. But such arrangements must not take the form of Treaties or Conventions having any political signification or purport. And in the event of their being inconsistent with the principles laid down above, or opposed to my original sovereign rights, it will be necessary to hold them as null and void.''

Wherefore the question of conformity or non-conformity to these principles in matters where a doubt exists as regards Egypt must be referred to my Sublime Porte previously to such arrangements being concluded.

And when in the manner explained above any special arrangements are entered into concerning the customs duties in Egypt, information thereof must be transmitted to my Sublime Porte.

Also, when any Conference respecting Commercial Treaties takes place between my Government and other Powers, in order that the commercial interests of Egypt may be attended to, the opinions of the Egyptian Administration shall be consulted thereon.


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/134

 In proclamation of which this my Imperial Firman, dated 5 Sefer, 1284 (8th June, 1867), is now addressed to thee.

Firman addressed by the Sultan to the Khedive of Egypt, relative to the levying of taxes in the name of the Sultan, and to contracts for foreign loans being submitted to the Sultan for approval, 29th November, 1869.

(After the usual titles.)

''It is superfluous for me to say how much I have at heart the prosperity of the important Province of Egypt, and the increase of the well-being and security of its inhabitants. While giving serious attention to the maintenance intact of the internal privileges granted to the Egyptian administration, it is, at the same time, my duty to look to the strict accomplishment of the obligations of that Administration, whether towards my Crown or towards the inhabitants of the province.''

For this reason, I have accepted the explanations which thou hast given, and the engagements which thou hast taken relative to armaments and ships of war, as also resptecting the external relations of the province, in the letter of the 10th Djemazi-ul-Ewel, 1286, which thou hast written in answer to that which my Grand Vizier had addressed to thee on the 18th Rebi-ul-Akhir, 1286, by my sovereign order.

Still, as the financial question is a vital one for every country, if the rate of the taxes is beyond the means of the tax-payers, or if the yield of these taxes is absorbed in fruitless expenditure, instead of being employed for the real requirements of the country, there is undoubtedly a risk of losses and incalculable dangers.

''For this reason the Sovereign of the country has the sacred and unimpeachable right anxiously to watch over this important object; and in order that there should be no doubt or misunderstanding in this respect, I have decided to give thee the following explanations, which shall also be made generally known. According to the fundamental conditions, then, which form the basis ''


text:
Page:The European Concert in the Eastern Question.djvu/135

 of the Egyptian Administration, all taxes and dues should be assessed and levied in my name. ''I could not, therefore, in any way consent to the sums yielded by these taxes being employed otherwise than for the real requirements of the country, or to the inhabitants being burdened with new taxes without legitimate and recognized necessity. It is therefore my absolute decision that thy care and thy zeal should unceasingly be directed to these two important objects, as also to the necessity that my Egyptian subjects should be always treated with justice and equity.''

Moreover, as foreign loans pledge for many years the revenues of the country, I cannot permit that sums raised from the revenues of Egypt should be applied to the service of a loan, unless all the details of the reasons for having recourse thereto have been submitted to my Imperial Government, and unless my permission has been previously obtained.

It is therefore my desire that no loan should ever be made unless the necessity for having recourse to it be clearly established, and my permission previously obtained.

Thou wilt henceforth conform thy acts and thy conduct to the formal terms of my present Imperial Firman, which is in every particular in accordance with our respective rights and duties, as also to precedents.

The 22nd Chaban, 1286 (November 29, 1869).

Firman addressed by the Sultan to the Khedive of Egypt, cancelling the restrictions imposed hy the Firman of 29th November, 1869, and confirming the privileges accorded by the Firman of 8th June, 1867. 10th September, 1872.

The privileges granted to the Egyptian Government on the part of our Imperial Government, with, the object of developing the prosperity of Egypt, are connected with the entire accomplishment by the said Government of certain duties and conditions that have been laid down towards our Imperial Government,


text:
Page:While the Billy Boils, 1913.djvu/65

girl,' said Mitchell, continuing a yarn to his mate, 'was about the ugliest girl I ever saw, except one, and I'll tell you about her directly. The old man had a carpenter's shop fixed up in a shed at the back of his house, and he used to work there pretty often, and sometimes I'd come over and yarn with him. One day I was sitting on the end of the bench, and the old man was working away, and Mary was standing there too, all three of us yarning―she mostly came poking round where I was if I happened to be on the premises―or at least I thought so―and we got yarning about getting married, and the old cove said that he'd get married again if the old woman died.

'"You get married again!' said Mary. "Why, father, you wouldn't get anyone to marry you―who'd have you?"

'"Well," he said, "I bet I'll get someone sooner than you, anyway. You don't seem to be able to get anyone, and it's pretty near time you thought of settlin' down and gettin' married. I wish someone would have you."

'He hit her pretty hard there, but it served her 45


text:
Page:While the Billy Boils, 1913.djvu/66

 right. She got as good as she gave. She looked at me and went all colours, and then she went back to her washtub.

'She was mighty quiet at tea-time―she seemed hurt a lot, and I began to feel sorry I'd laughed at the old man's joke, for she was really a good, hard-working girl, and you couldn't help liking her.

'So after tea I went out to her in the kitchen, where she was washing up, to try and cheer her up a bit. She'd scarcely speak at first, except to say "Yes" or "No," and kept her face turned away from me; and I could see that she'd been crying. I began to feel sorry for her and mad at the old man, and I started to comfort her. But I didn't go the right way to work about it. I told her that she mustn't take any notice of the old cove, as he didn't mean half he said. But she seemed to take it harder than ever, and at last I got so sorry for her that I told her that I'd have her if she'd have me.'

'And what did she say?' asked Mitchell's mate, after a pause.

'She said she wouldn't have me at any price!'

The mate laughed, and Mitchell grinned his quiet grin.

'Well, this set me thinking,' he continued. 'I always knew I was a dashed ugly cove, and I began to wonder whether any girl would really have me; and I kept thinking on it till at last I made up my mind to find out and settle the matter for good―or bad.

'There was another farmer's daughter living close by, and I met her pretty often coming home from


text:
Page:While the Billy Boils, 1913.djvu/67

 work, and sometimes I had a yarn with her. She was plain, and no mistake: Mary was a Venus alongside of her. She had feet like a Lascar, and hands about ten sizes too large for her, and a face like that camel―only red; she walked like a camel, too. She looked like a ladder with a dress on, and she didn't know a great A from a corner cupboard.

'Well, one evening I met her at the sliprails, and presently I asked her, for a joke, if she'd marry me. Mind you, I never wanted to marry her; I was only curious to know whether any girl would have me.

'She turned away her face and seemed to hesitate, and I was just turning away and beginning to think I was a dashed hopeless case, when all of a sudden she fell up against me and said she'd be my wife.…And it wasn't her fault that she wasn't.'

'What did she do?'

'Do! What didn't she do? Next day she went down to our place when I was at work, and hugged and kissed mother and the girls all round, and cried, and told mother that she'd try and be a dutiful daughter to her. Good Lord! You should have seen the old woman and the girls when I came home.

'Then she let everyone know that Bridget Page was engaged to Jack Mitchell, and told her friends that she went down on her knees every night and thanked the Lord for getting the love of a good man. Didn't the fellows chyack me, though! My sisters were raving mad about it, for their chums kept asking them how they liked their new sister, and when it was going to come off, and who'd be bridesmaids and best man, and whether they weren't


text:
The Pearl/Volume 6/SUB-UMBRA, OR SPORT AMONG THE SHE-NOODLES.

(Continued.)

Nothing of moment occurred during the evening, after my visit to Mrs. Leslie, but I could see that Annie was rather, piqued because I had nothing to tell her, except that I thought the Colonel's lady a most charming person, and had been pressed to stay with her to luncheon before she would write a reply to my uncle's note.

Next day being the last representation of a celebrated piece at the theatre of the County Town, by a first-rate London company, papa expressed a wish that we should all go in the evening, but Annie and Sophie, giving me a knowing look on the sly, declared they had already seen it once and did not care to go again. For my part, of course, I had seen it half-a-dozen times in town, so it was finally arranged that Frank, Rosa and Polly only would go with papa and mama; they had a drive of more than an hour before them, so started at 6 P.M., and as soon as they were out of sight we three started for the bathing place at the lake. It was such a deliciously warm evening, and it would be just the place for our anticipated pleasures, as I had suggested to Annie and Sophie during the day.

Bolting the summer-house door on the inside as soon as we got in, I suggested first of all to stimulate our mutually ardent desires by a bottle of champagne; this so exhilarated the two lovely girls, that we indulged in a second bottle before stripping for a romp. Seven o' clock found us bathed in a flood of golden light from the declining sun, which now shone directly in upon us; this warned us to make haste and improve the opportunity, so each one assisting the others and at the same time indulging in many loving tricks and liberties, we were soon in Adam and Eve costume.

"Now," I exclaimed, "Annie dear, you won't be jealous if I make a woman of your sister, as we promised the other day," taking the youngest one up in my arms with my rampant cock throbbing against her belly, as I carried her to the lounge.

"What a naughty boy you are, Walter, anything or anybody for a change is what fickle men like, but I won't be jealous of Sophie, although I am of Mrs. Leslie. I know you had her yesterday; that sheepish tell-tale look, sir, when you met me on your return, was enough to confirm my suspicions of what would happen when you were tete-a-tete with that killing lady," she replied.

"For shame, Annie, darling, you told me yourself the other day love ought to be free everywhere; I don't deny my guilt, but will do my best to earn forgiveness now," I said, pushing Sophie back upon the soft yielding lounge, "help me to ease this darling of her troublesome virginity, and I will then repay your own longing cunny for all your love and forbearance; I am sure Mrs. Leslie would like to make you one of our party without any feelings of jealousy; there are so many ways of voluptuous enjoyment that if only one man to three beautiful girls it can be so varied as to give everyone the most intense delight."

At this both the girls gave me rapturous kisses, with every possible assurance that they never would be selfish, and would be only too happy to extend the circle of those they could be free and loving with, adding with special emphasis, "We are such noodles, dear Walter, we knew nothing till you introduced us to the arts of love, and as long as you can stay with us shall look to you to guide us in everything; we know it's wrong, but what heavenly pleasure there is in the loving mixture of the sexes."

Annie, taking my prick in her hand. - "Now, sir, I will show this gentleman the way into Sophie's cabinet of love; be firm, dear, he won't hurt you more than can be helped, and the after joy will soon drown all recollection of the first short suffering."

Sophie, opening her legs as wide as possible. - "I'm all on fire to taste the real tree of love, don't spare me, Walter, dear, I'd rather die than not have it now!"

The red head of "Cupid's Battering Ram" was now brought to the charge; Annie opened the rosy lips of her sister's cunt and placed my cock in the exact position, but her touches, together with the thoughts of the delicious titbit I was about to enjoy, caused me to spend in a moment all over her fingers and into the virgin passage in front. "Push on, push on; now's the time to gain your victory," she whispered; "that will make it easier to get him in," at the same time lifting up Sophie's buttocks with her disengaged hand, so as to make her meet my attack in a more favourable manner. My first lunge lodged the head of Mr. Priapus fairly within the tight folds of the victim's vagina, and I had already won the first outworks of the virgin's defences.

Poor Sophie moaned under the sharp pain of my assault, but biting her lips to repress any cries of pain she courageously placed one hand on the shaft of my prick, as if jealous of her sister's loving help, and anxious to have the honour of herself showing me the way to achieve love's dearest triumph, or perhaps it was for fear of my withdrawing before completely accomplishing my task.

"You love!" I exclaimed, enraptured by this exhibition of pluck, "I will soon make a real woman of you," then pushing fiercely on, on, I gradually forced the tight sheath to dilate. Every obstruction gave way to my determined energy, and with a final plunge, I was buried to the roots of my affair, and shooting at the same moment my warm spendings into her inmost vitals. This exhausted me for a few moments, and I lay supine upon the heaving bosom of the lovely Sophie, till I could feel Annie's fingers busy tickling my balls and feeling the shaft of my cock. Just at the same moment Sophie, who had almost fainted under the painful ordeal, opened her eyes, and with a loving smile pouted her lips as an invitation for a kiss, which I instantly responded to, almost sucking her breath away in my ardour. My excitement was now raised to the highest possible pitch by her sister's titillations, and the loving challenge of Sophie herself to renew my motions with her, by heaving up her bottom and nipping my prick in her cunny in the most delightful way imaginable.

This time I prolonged the pleasure as much as possible, beginning slowly, and often stopping to feel the delicious throbbings of cock and cunny in their delightful conjunction. "Ach! this is indeed love; it repays for all the pain I felt at first. Oh! oh! dear Walter, it feels as if my very soul was flowing from me in ecstasy!" she almost screamed out, kissing, biting, squeezing me with all her might at the moment of emission, which I again responded to with a flow of my own sperm.

I now declared we must refresh ourselves a little before going further, so she reluctantly allowed me to withdraw. A short plunge in the lake had a most invigorating effect. I felt as strong as a giant again, then another bottle of fizz renewed our loving ardour; the girls were handling my prick, which stood again as hard as ivory. So slipping on my shirt, as I intended to be the uppermost of the trio, I laid Sophie on her back, and then telling the obedient Annie to kneel over her sister and gamahuche her in return for Sophie's doing the same by her, I mounted up behind her, saying, "I've made a woman of your dear sister, and will now treat you, my darling, to a new sensation." But just at the moment Sophie, who had no idea of my intentions, seized hold of my cock, saying, "She must kiss the dear sweet thing, which had afforded her such exquisite bliss." Holding it tight in her hand, she took the head between her pearly teeth and kissed and treated him to such love bites that I soon spent in her mouth, which she greedily swallowed, with all the abandon of voluptuous enjoyment. Meanwhile, I had been frigging Annie's bottom with my two fingers, which I had managed to insert together, and that dear girl was sucking her sister's quim, and wriggling herself in the most excitable way possible.

Sophie was now going to insert my prick in her sister's cunt, but Annie, almost beside herself with excitement, exclaimed, "No, no, my dear, put him where Walter has got his fingers; I should like to try that, it is so exciting; the very thought of it makes me mad with desire to know what it is like. His fingers have given me such pleasures that I am sure the dear thing in your hand will greatly improve the sensation."

No sooner said than done; the obedient girl directed my cock to the beautifully wrinkled tight little brown hole of her sister's bottom at the very moment I withdrew my fingers. When I found they so thoroughly appreciated the idea I had resolved to initiate them into, being well lubricated and as stiff as possible, it soon passed the portals of Annie's second virginity. But, Heavens, what a delicious bout we had, she bounded about so with delight, that I had to hold tight round her neck to prevent being thrown out, whilst Sophie, below, gamahuched her delighted sister, and with her right hand continued to press my balls and prick, keeping time to every insertion in her sister's bottom. We all spent together, almost screaming with delight, and then lay in a confused heap, enjoying all the sensations of our delicious exhaustion.

As soon as they could kiss and persuade my rather enervated tool into renewed stiffness, Sophie declared I must oblige her with a taste of the new-found joy, and ravish her bottom as well as her sister's.

This was another delicious love engagement; the sisters gamahuching each other with the utmost erotic ardour, whilst my delighted prick revelled in the tight-fitting fundamental of the sweet girl, who wriggled and plunged about so excitedly that I had to hold fast to keep my place.

After this, we returned to the house, and passed the time very pleasantly till the return of the party from the theatre. I was anxious to hear Frank's account of how he had got on with Rosa during the evening, and especially as they drove home.

"Walter," he said, as we were once more alone in his room after all had gone to rest, "I've had a most enjoyable time of it since we started. Of course, as we went, it was daylight, so Rosa and I maintained a proper decorum, but at the theatre, papa and mama were separated from us by Polly, and we all five sat in the front row of the dress circle. How the sight of Rosa's swelling bosom (which her low-necked dress allowed me fully to see) made my prick stand at once; so I took her gloved hand and made her feel how hard and excited it was. As no one could see, she indulged me with quite a gentle frigging outside my trousers, till I spent profusely, to the great delight of the roguish beauty, as I could tell by the smile on her face and the excited looks with which she met my ardent gaze.

"'What a shame,'" she whispered in my ear. "'I know what you have done, you naughty boy. You should have reserved it for a more favourable opportunity.'"

"'Look out, darling, as we drive home; see if I don't repay your kind attentions,'" I whispered in return.

"Both papa and mama were rather sleepy before the conclusion of the last piece, and to make them go off, as soon as we were seated in the carriage, I offered them my flask of brandy to keep out the effects of the night air. It had a pretty good strong dose of narcotic in it, and they were soon sound asleep in their corners. Polly also pretended to be dozing.

"Rosa was on my lap directly, and my hands were at once groping their way to the seat of pleasure whilst she was equally busy unbuttoning my trousers and handling the staff of life.

"Our lips met in long-drawn rapturous kisses, which fired every drop of blood in our veins, and both were too impatient for the real business to prolong our toyings with each other's privates; besides, I felt she was already spending over my busy fingers. She had my cock in a glorious state of erection; so opening her delicious thighs as she raised her clothes, she was at once impaled on the spike she so burned to have thrust into her. It was quite equal to the first time I fucked her. The long evening passed in expectation of what I might be able to do on our return journey; it so added to the piquancy of my arduous longings that I seemed in Heaven itself, and swimming in a very ocean of love, we spent over and over again; our melting kisses and tongue-sucking continually stimulating us to renewed exertions, till the near approach to home warned us of the necessity of bringing our pleasures to an end for a time. Even now, I tell you, Walter, my cock keeps throbbing and standing at the very thoughts of the delightful pressures she treated me to; her cunt bites so deliciously."

(To be continued.)


text:
Page:While the Billy Boils, 1913.djvu/68

 suprised at their brother Jack's choice; and then I'd gammon at home that it was all true.

'At last the place got too hot for me. I got sick of dodging that girl. I sent a mate of mine to tell her that it was all a joke, and that I was already married in secret; but she didn't see it, then I cleared, and got a job in Newcastle, but had to leave there when my mate sent me the office that she was coming. I wouldn't wonder but what she is humping her swag after me now on the track. In fact, I thought you was her in disguise when I set eyes on you first.…You needn't get mad about it; I don't mean to say that you're quite as ugly as she was, because I never saw a man that was―or a woman either. Anyway, I'll never ask a woman to marry me again unless I'm ready to marry her.'

Then Mitchell's mate told a yarn.

'I knew a case once something like the one you were telling me about; the landlady of a hash-house where I was stopping in Albany told me. There was a young carpenter staying there, who'd run away from Sydney from an old maid who wanted to marry him. He'd cleared from the church door, I believe. He was scarcely more'n a boy―about nineteen―and a soft kind of a fellow, something like you, only good-looking―that is, he was passable. Well, as soon as the woman found out where he'd gone, she came after him. She turned up at the boarding-house one Saturday morning when Bobbie was at work; and the first thing she did was to rent a double room from the landlady and buy some cups and saucers to start housekeeping with. When Bobbie came home he just gave her one look and gave up the game