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 That undertakes to describe the Curiosities and Productions of Nature and Art, in China. Here, the Author having premised something of the advantageous Scituation of China, and its Political Government; Calculated also both the Number of its Inhabitants, (which according to him, amount to 200 Millions of Men, besides Women, Children, Officers, and Eunuchs;) and the Annual Revenue of the Emperour (which he makes to be 150 Millions of Gold-Crowns;) he relateth many considerable productions and works of Nature in that Country; As

1. Mountains very odd for shape, burning, and raising of Tempests.

2. Isles, to the number of 99. all turned into one, under the same extent of space they had, when they were divided by water.

3. Lakes, some changing Copper into Iron, and causing storms, when any thing is cast into them; and others, sprung up by Earth-quakes.

4. Rivers, whereof one is said to be of a Blew colour in Autumn, and for the rest of the year Limpid: Another, to be cold at the top, and very hot beneath.

5. Fiery Wells, serving to boyl meat over: Perhaps of the same Nature with that here in England, we described above.

6. Plants, as 1. some Roses, changing their Colour twice a day: Whence the Author takes occasion to speak of that Plant, which grows at Rome, in the Garden of one Signior Corvino, call'd Viola Nocturna, changing its colour sensibly, according to the degrees of the rising and declining of the Sun; destitute of all smell in the day-time, but having a very fragrant one in the night. 2. A Farinaceous or Mealy Tree, serving to make Bread of it. 3. Leaves of certain Trees, standing on the side of a Lake, which falling into the water, become like black Birds: which he ascribeth to the Seminal parts of some Eggs, broken on those Trees, fill'd with Birds-nests. 4. The, and its wholesomeness, as to the suppressing of Vapours, and preventing the Stone. 5. A kind of Wicker-Tree, which, as if it were a Rope twisted by Nature, about an inch thick, creeps along upon the Earth, sometimes the length of 120 paces, much embarassing the way; but serving for Cables to Ships, Seats, Hurdles, Beds, Matts; enduring no Vermin; and being cool and refreshing in hot Seasons. 6. The Calamba-Wood; that it is esteem'd by some to be a kind of tiscum


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, by others, a sort of Terebinth, but of a nobler rank, by vertue of that Climat: which makes the Author suggest, that care should be taken to have it brought into Europe, and carefully cultivated there. 7. Rhubarb; of which he observes, that, because the vertue of its Roots, if they be exposed to dry hastily, soon evaporates; therefore the skilfull, lay them upon a Table within doors, and turn them several times a day, to incorporate and fix the Juyce the better, and then string them and expose them to the Wind, in a shade, altogether free from the Sunbeams. 8. Pine-Trees; of which he saith some are so big, that eight Men can hardly Fathom them. 9. Canes, so big, that they can make as many Barrels of them, as they have internodes or Joynts. 10. Trees, sweating a Gum, call'd Cie, like the droppings of Turpentine; which Gum, as long as tis not dryed, emits a very unwholsome and dangerous steam. To passe by the Polonie Tree, producing fruit without any blossoms, immediately out of its Trunk, as big as one man can well carry; and that kind of Fig-Tree, that bears Leaves as big as to wrap up a man in, &c.

7. Animals, Here he discourseth of the Murk Dear, and the several Compositions of Musk: the Sea-Horse, and Wild Men: Of some Birds, no where seen but in China (as he thinks) and among them a Wool-bearing Hen: Of Fishes, in Summer flying out of the Sea, seeking their food, like Birds, and in Autumn returning to the Sea: particularly of a Fish of a very exquisite taste, called Hoancio-yu, or the Croceous Fish: Further, of Sea-Cows, going often ashore, and fighting with the Land-Cows: Of Bats, of a vast bigness, eaten by the Chinese as a delicious meat: Of the Serpent, that breeds the Antidotal stone; whereof he relates many experiments, to verifie the relations of its vertue: Which may invite the Curator of the Royal Society, to make the like tryal, there being such a stone in their Repository, sent them from the East Indies. Again, of Silk Worms, spinning twice a year, and yielding a double Crop.

8. Fossils, where occurs the Relation, 1. Of an odd Specular stone, representing the figure of the Moon in all her Appearances, when exposed to Her. 2. Of an Earth called Quei, very Cosmetick, and abstersive of all blemishes of the face. 3. A Mineral cerusse, blended of Lead and Antimony. 4. Of Asbestus, that can be drawn and spun; the way of which he affirms to have described L. 12. Mundi sui subterranei. 5. The Matter that makes Porcellan, which he affirms to be nothing else but a transparent Sand, which

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 which they soak in water, and then reduce to a Masse or Dough, and so bake it. Not a word of the way of giving it the colour, which, it seems, they keep as a great secret. They have Gold and Silver Mines, but dig them not, pretending the danger and trouble in the work, and contenting themselves with the Filings and Dust of Gold, which they gather out of the Mud and Sand of Rivers and Fountains.

The Fifth Book contains an account of their Works of Architecture, and other ingenious Mechanick Arts. Where he speaks, 1. Of their stupendious Bridges, one of 360 Perches long, and 1½ Perch broad, without any Arch, standing upon 300 Pillars, with acute Angles on both opposite sides, all the stones being of an equal size and shape. Another, built from Mountain to Mountain by one only Arch, 400 cubits long, 500 cubits high (whence tis called Pons volans) from the surface of the Saffrany River, running under it. This is represented, for the satisfaction of the Curious, by Figure I.

2. Vast Towns, but whose Houses are generally but one Story high, and good reason therefore, the Towns should be very big. They are, for the most part, built of Timber.

3. Turrets very artificiall, whereof one is all of Porcellan.

4. The China Wall, 300 German Leagues long; 30 Cubits high, 12 (in some places 15) Cubits broad, so that 12 Horses can very conveniently go in front on it; built 215 years before Christ, by the Emperour Pius, a brave and most Warlike Prince, and dispatcht in the space of five years; commonly it is defended by a Million of men. A Pattern of this also was thought fit, to exhibit here, by Figure II.

5. The Channel, that passeth from one extream of China to the other, having some 24 Sluces, to retain water, when tis necessary; a work of incredible industry and extraordinary advantage.

6. Vast Bells, one whereof, at Pekin, weighs 120000 pounds; whereas that of Erfurd in Germany, hitherto esteemed to be one of the biggest in the World, weighs but 25400. pounds.

As for their ingenious Inventions, this Author mentions chiefly,

1. Their Vernice, of which he sets down some Receipts both for the Red and Black, together with the way of their Use and Application, as he received them both from an Augustinian Fryar; affirming, that it differs not at all from that of China.

2. Their way of Printing, invented long before that in Europe, giving a large description of the same. 3. Gun-


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 3. Gunpowder, which he also saith, they had before the Europeans.

4. Bell-sounding.

These are the principal Subjects treated of in this Book. We passe by severall Stories, which seem much to require confirmation. E. g. That of Sugar-Canes, eaten by an Elephant, and taking root in his stomach; that of Boys eating Serpents with as much greediness, as others eat Eels, or any good meat, &c.

Among the Cutts of this Volume, there is a Map of Asia, not un-instructive; delineating the way, the two Jesuits took in their Land-voyage from Pekin to Goa; as also that, which the Muscovian Ambassadors, not many years since, took in travelling from their Countrey, through the vast Tract of the Northern Tartary, to China, arriving on the North side of the China Wall at Pekin: Item, The Land-passage, heretofore made by B. Goes (described by Rigaultius) from Persia, by Lahor in the Mogols Empire, through the Kingdoms of Cabul, Zancut, &c. to Cataja, or (which is all one to this Author, as it is to several others) the Province of Pekin in China. Item, The passage of Paulus Venetus over Land, out of Europe into the same China: and lastly, That pretended one of St. Thomas, out of Palestina, through Syria, Mesopotamia, ' Persia, the Mogols Empire, the Pen-insul between the Bays of Cambaya and Bengala, to Maliapur, on the Coast of Coromandel, where the Name of the Christians of St. Thomas is still in request.


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Flying magazine/1931/Look Out, Lindbergh - Here I Come

Look Out, Lindbergh - Here I Come. I choose flying as a career and bump into some funny things. I recently flew more than twelve thousand miles in a little over a month, through rain, fog, wind and snow, over mountains, cities and deserts, in a three-year-old, second-hand airplane that had already traveled some five hundred thousand miles. During that time I never was very late for an appointment or put a single scratch on myself. And considering that I am hardly an expert pilot at nineteen years of age, I knew that these statements must prove something about modern commercial aviation. But what? Being pretty close to the picture, it in hard for me to see, but It does seem that it would show that aviation is for young people as well as the older and wiser generation. In fact, in New Jersey, a boy can get his pilot's license two years before he can get his driver's license. So this is aimed at the youngsters, hoping they won't take it too seriously, and those who have arrived at years of discretion, first as pure amusement because some darned funny and interesting things can happen in aviation and second, there is a concealed missionary purpose, to show that aviation has arrived as an industry. Not that it has much bearing on the story, but because people are always asking me, my name is really Eddie: I was christened that way. It isn't very dressy, but it serves the purpose. As for background, my grandfather was some kind of Scandinavian royalty and was thrown out of it for marrying a peasant girl. Dad had a butcher shop in Jersey City. The first time I was in the air was in Germany, from Hamburg to Hanover. My sister Alice was kind of nervous and decided she didn't want to make the flight after all and started to open the door to get out, not knowing that we had taken off and were in level flight. She changed her mind, you bet, and because there was so little motion she got to like it. Dad said, when he stepped out at the airdrome, that he wished he could always travel that way. We had had to coax him hard to get him to fly in the first place. Right then I did some planning. I wanted to learn to fly a ship more than anything I had ever wanted to do in my life, but several months went by, and in the meantime I went back to work in the bank, before I was able to do anything about taking up what I hoped would be my life work. The idea stuck and one Sunday night I went out to Roosevelt Field to find out all I could about it. We have Sunday dinner late in our house and it is a good two and a half hour trip by tube and train, although you can make it in few minutes by air. It was dark when I got there and they were just about to close up for the night when I arrived. I guess they thought I was having a brainstorm by the way I came madly dashing up and asked rapid questions. They didn't take me quite seriously as a prospective student and just merely tolerated me. I fooled them. Two days later I was back again and ready to fly. Bill Ulbrich took me up over the cemetery in Westbury and pointed down, saying. "See that place? Well, you will be there if you touch the controls," and had a piece of iron pipe in his hand to enforce what he said. I don't blame him for not wanting me to monkey with the controls before I knew what it was all about, but the remark seems funny in this day of teaching you to fly by applied psychology. Then he gave me the works, loops, barrel rolls, in fact at that time I had no idea what I was getting. At the end of twenty minutes of stunting he told me to take the controls and keep the nose of the ship going straight and on the horizon in level flight. I did my best, but it was hard because I was dizzy from all the unaccustomed motions. I liked and didn't like it, but was back the next day for more. I didn't want to drag out my period of instruction, but to go through in a hurry. Aviation was beginning to skyrocket. Everyone was interested and there was lots of activity on the field, but not much system, and there was still a good deal of war surplus junk around. One piece they hadn't gotten rid of yet was an old Tommy Horn scout plane. One day a pilot who hadn't flown in about a year took it up and after circling the field a few times made a perfect landing - about 50 feet up. After that he came down quickly and as the ship hit the ground the old rotary Le-Rhône motor kept right on spinning across the field. The wings folded up like those of a tired pigeon and the fuselage broke in three places and bent up like an old broken-down donkey. The wheels went up over the head of the pilot, who looked alarmed, but wasn't hurt. I learned something every day. Soon after I had started there a mechanic named Porter was cranking an OX Travel Air and forgot to look at the throttle to make sure it was closed. It was unfortunately half open and the minute the engine caught hold the ship started chasing him. I grabbed a wing tip, but that made it go in circles. The mechanic was too rattled to think about heading straight out, and kept just a few steps ahead of the whirling prop. Of course, it could have been a serious affair, but I can remember how funny he looked with a greasy rag that was half out of his pocket, streaming right out straight behind him and the prop almost catching it. He was swearing so hard and fast that that cut down his speed too. We would probably still be running around in circles if dear old Bill Ulbrich hadn't jumped in to cut the switch. My solo was just another solo. Bill climbed out and neither of us noticed that a landing gear strut was broken. Nothing gave way, though. I must have made my first good landings that day. Soon after I had made my solo flight another fellow, I don't know his name, as he was never called anything but the Great Dane on the field, was about to go up for his solo flight. The inspector told him to make a spot landing, that is, to come to a dead stop at a given point. Where? Oh, right where the inspector was standing then. He was very nervous about making an accurate landing and thought of nothing else. The inspector forgot all about it and stayed right whore he was. The first thing he knew the student had circled the field and was about to sit down on top of him. The student couldn't see the inspector on account of the engine out front being in his way and the inspector was too petrified to move for a minute. Then he hopped out of the way and immediately there was a wing where he had been. He was refused his license and couldn't apply for another for ninety days, which seem quite fair. They were trying to teach us safety and I don't doubt that we were a wild lot, and needed it. One day a fellow overshot the old Roosevelt Field and, passing over the gully between the two, came in at Curtis Field, a mile away. Another boy came in so fast downwind that he had to hook a wing around a telegraph pole and spin around to slow down. Strange enough, he didn't hurt either himself or the ship, but they grounded him for two weeks as a lesson in caution in watching the wind direction. They had initiated me when I arrived at the field, so when the next new student, a big Irishman named Melghan, came I was ready to give him his. He was about to step in the ship for his first flight when I went around front and began inspecting the prop very critically. He was, of course, interested in what seemed to be troubling me. I said I didn't think he ought to in the crate until someone got some more prop wash. He was off in a minute to see if he could find some. Prop wash is the name for the blast of air sent back by the whirling propeller. He want in the nearest hangar and asked for it. The guy in there knew it was as joke ans told him he couldn't have any without getting a requisition for it, so off he went down to the office. They must have smiled when they wrote it out, but he never caught on. Back he went to the hangar and the name fellow gave him a bucket to get it in and made believe to look for it and then he said he guessed there wasn't any left and that Melghan had better go down to Curtiss Field for it. So he hopped in his car and tried all the shops and hangars there. In the last one a mechanic told him to stand by the tail of a ship that was on the line while he started the motor and catch all the prop wash he could in his pail. When it all was explained to him and he had to come back with a bucket of air he surely wanted my scalp. One student soloed, was passed by the Department of Commerce, and bought. an old OX Travel Air. An OX is a wartime motor and hardly very reliable. He flew the ship until one day the motor conked on him and he was lucky enough to get down on a farm okay. He couldn't get out again even when he fixed his motor on account of trees on three sides of the field and a brick wall on the fourth. We all told him the best thing to do was to take the wings off and tow her over to a bigger field and take off there. He said no, she was rigged just right and he didn't want to mess with her. So he got an estimate on how much it would cost to rebuild the wall if he took it down. It was about three hundred dollars. He decided to take the bricks down himself and spent ten days doing it. He made an aperture several feet wider than his wing span. when he finally got in his ship to take off through the opening he had made he was so nervous that he ground looped the ship and headed straight for the part where the bricks were still standing. Tho farmer made him pay for the wall, you bet, and the ship was a total write-off. However, it was not only student pilots who made odd landings. Roger Williams at that time had been flying four or five years, but hadn't got the Transatlantic bug yet. This particular Sunday when there was a large crowd at the field he thought he would make such a short, landing that he would astound everybody at his ability to set a ship down on a small space. He did just that thing, only on the hangar roof. He would have passed over it neatly if a sudden up current hadn't shot his tail up, and the same thing happened as if you lifted up on one end of a seesaw, the nose went down. Jenny left both of her wings on the roof and Roger, awfully sore, went off muttering about his helluva fine landing. There was another peculiar crackup when Emil Burgin was through using the Exclamation Point for refueling the Three Musketeers and the Fokker was sold to someone who couldn't fly worth a darn. He started to land into the wind all right, but thinking he was going too fast, he began banking. When the wheels hit the ground he was crosswind and by the time he had lost most of his speed he was going downwind. Then he hit a series of bumps and the last one bounced him right over on his back. Newspaper photographers flocked all around shooting pictures and mechanics threw a rope over the tail to hoist the ship back right aide up again, and all this time no one had even thought about the pilot. I looked in and he was sitting in the cabin looking sort of puzzled-like. Even Bill, my instructor, had his forced landing down in Georgia. The only clear space was directly in front of a house, so he sat down there and didn't stop rolling until he was right up to the front porch. An old colored woman ran out the back door shouting. "Lawd, deliver me." He stayed in that town three weeks, but he never did see her again. With the kind of equipment they flew you wonder how there were relatively so few washouts. Most of the accidents were just comical, nobody ever seemed to be hurt. A hard landing in those days would scatter a ship with wooden longerons all over the field, whereas the same landing in an modern ship with good shock gear and steel tubing framework will just do a good healthy bounce. In the meantime I had learned to fly - somewhat. I could got around all right without doing any great, damage to the ship or myself, but I had not enough hours to be doing passenger hauling and hadn't the money to buy additional time. So I took up with the American Air Express as a grease monkey to help in washing down ships and doing general engine work. I found out a good many things about motors I was glad to know later on. Bud Clarke must have been crazy when he organized the outfit. His men weren't filers and naturally weren't much of a success at running it. They must have sunk about fifty thousand dollars in the proposition with buying a Loening and the Stearman that Bud cracked up four times, and all the necessary equipment. They barnstormed at Rye for a while and then petered out. Buddy got three baths in one day at New London the day of the Harvard Yale regatta and nobody could hate salt water worse than he does. He was celebrating because Yale won and he went to Yale. He had been anchored in the river and in taking off forgot the anchor rope. He was just over a motor boat when his rope tightened and he dove in. The floats hit the roof of the launch and sheared it off. A fellow inside who had bent over to the engine stood up and found he had nothing but sky over him. The men on a Coast Guard cutter helped him hoist his plane onto the davit of their boat. Buddy had forgotten something he needed and leaned over the side of the cutter to reach into the cockpit to get it when a swell coming down the river rocked the boat, and Buddy went on over. He managed to dry off somewhat and promoted himself a ride into New London in a speedboat. On the way the engine went dead and he volunteered to crawl out forward to see where the trouble was. As he reached the bow a “big ocean liner" as he called it, probably an excursion boat, passed and the bow of the speedboat buried itself in the wake and rose again. Buddy came up separately. The first thing the Swede who was running the boat asked was, "Did you fix the engine?" I had wanted a ship that I could fly around in whenever I wanted, but not having too much money, I couldn't think very seriously about it. When I did get one it was quite accidental how it came about. I was over in John Hay Whitney's hangar, talking to his mechanic, Carl Schneider, not a relative of mine, but a good friend, when Whitney's secretary, Edgar Woodhams, came in. We got to talking and he told me that he had flown during the war. He went on to say that he was doing a lot of traveling on business. The idea popped into my head that he might better be flying and I told him so: that he would spend less time than going by train and that new ships were much safer than those in which he had flown during the war. He said there was some sense to what I had told him and that he would think over the possibilities of using air transportation in his business. A week later he was back saying he had decided to got a ship of his own. I knew of a Spartan for sale over in Westfield, so I went over and picked it up and made him a demonstration. I don't know anything about salesmanship, but I gave him the ride of his life. He bought it and took me on as pilot. We went places and I worked in some cross-country and night-flying experience, but mostly I was giving him instruction, as he done any flying in over ten years and he had lost all sense of it. I was seventeen and he was a mere child of forty-six. I'll say I learned more about flying by teaching him than I did by doing it myself. Carl Schneider had also had some work during the war, but he was as rusty as Woodhams. I soloed both of them, although I had less than sixty hours myself. No other instructors other than those of Roosevelt School are allowed to use Roosevelt Field, so we did our flying over at the Aviation Country Club field in Hicksville, an Whitney is a member there. I'll never forget one thing I saw at Hicksville. You will probably remember reading in the papers that certain members of the New York police force were detailed to aviation work. One of the cops was over at Hicksville to practice deadstick landings away from the traffic at Roosevelt. He made a nice three-point landing with his motor off. The ship didn't roll far on the ground and he got out to crank it in order to taxi over to where he could take off again. But he forgot that he cut his motor by the switch and that the gas was still full on. When the engine caught the plane plunged at him. He ducked under the wing and tail as they went over him and then realized that the ship was liable to wind itself up in something, so off he went after it. It was quite a sight. Most of the cops were about equally successful as aviators. I've heard it explained that their feet were too big for the rudder pedals. Another day we had quite some excitement when Woodhams came out to the hangar with about two hundred thousand dollars worth of diamonds in his pocket and proceeded to lose them. He was taking them to John Hay from a jeweler so that he could select one for the ring for his fiancée. I don't know why the jeweler let him cart them away in the old tobacco sack like Bull Durham comes in, but let me tell you that there was a mad scramble until they were found. Woodhams wasn't very much perturbed, he said they weren't good enough stone anyway and in the end they didn't use any of them. The Spartan was built well enough, but she had a foreign motor, the Walters, which is built in Czechoslovakia, that did not have the power necessary for the ship. She would just sort of stagger up into the air and you were never quite sure she would make it although in the air she was sweet running. Then, too, the landing gear wasn't strong enough and would fold up. I'm not denying' that Carl and I didn't use her hard. They give it out that the Spartan won't spin. They mean she won't fall into an involuntary spin, but Carl and I wanted to see just what was what. We were up around a thousand feet. playing around and he put her in a vertical bank and then gave her bottom rudder and top aileron. We made three turns with the power on. Carl let go of the controls and she brought herself out easily, but we were right above the tree tops around the polo field. We washed out a wing panel and smashed a prop that we had borrowed from the Siemens-Haske man. and didn't know until we had ruined it that he had borrowed it from someone else, who had it loaned to him by someone who had borrowed it from Thea Rasche, who in tho meantime had gone back to Germany. It was terribly complicated and I don't know if it ever was ever straightened out. We painted the ship red and sold it. I found myself minus I job. I didn't, have time enough for my transport ticket and real airline work, so took what I could get, even if it was test-flying. The insurance people say it is dangerous. I am inclined to agree with them. Anyway the unforeseen can be relied on to happen. It came about this way: a man in the wicker furniture business came to the conclusion that a Jennie's wings were no marvel of efficiency. We all knew that. The only difference was that he did something about it. He persuaded the Sikorsky factory which makes a good wing, to build one for Jenny that would take the place of both her old ones. By changing her from a biplane to a monoplane he hoped to change all the performance characteristics. He was right. She climbed like no one had ever seen a Jenny climb before. She was fast. She was controllable with one finger now where you had to fight her with two hands before. I liked her fine until I tried a whipstall. There was a crack and a bang and she shuddered all over. So did I. I worked all the controls and found them to be still operative. I worked up nerve to try the same maneuver again. The name splintering, crashing noise came again. That was plenty for me and I came down without delay. The moment the wheels hit the ground something struck me in the back of the head. It was the door to the tool compartment, which no one had told me was loose. Why it didn't strike my head when it open in the air I don't know. The old crate in still over at the field though and people come over on Sunday and try to figure out what brand of airplane it is. If I am going to do any more test-flying I would just as soon do it on new planes. I always felt sorry for Charlie Levine. He had a hangar on the field, too, but no one took him seriously. Them are unpleasant things that can be said about him, as there can be about most anybody. But it took a heck of a lot of nerve for him to go across and you have got to admit that. And he did a good deal for aviation if spending money on it counts. He had heard a lot about the ability of a group of French engineers and set them set out to design the Uncle Sam. He incidentally let himself in for a gypping. It cost him a half million dollars before he was through with them. There are, as most people know. different wing curves. Some are best for speed, others for climb and others for general efficiency. So it in not unusual for a fine plane to embody several curves. But the Uncle Sam employed eighteen in each wing and quite a few in the fuselage, making it difficult and very costly of construction. Most airplane builders use standard parts in many places on their machine, but everything that went into the Uncle Sam was made for that job alone. When it was finished it was a huge, heavy plane, supposed to be suitable for carrying a great load for a long distance. But there wasn't a pilot who cared to fly it. Charlie Levine wanted Bill Stultz to fly it, but Bill didn't act interested at all as he was only offered a hundred dollars to do it. Bill could act very independent and did, and he wouldn't leave the ground in it for less than a thousand. Charlie pleaded and argued but he didn't get any place. The next day he came back and said a thousand was all right. Bill wouldn't do it until he had a check. Levine gave him a check. No, it had to be certified before he would accept it. By that time it was too late to take it to the bank to have it certified and then had to wait until the next day. Bill finally deposited the money in his account and then took it up. He was in the air just six minutes and you could tell by the way he didn't do much with her. He came down and Levine was wild. He didn't consider that the ship had been properly tested. But. Bill had seen all he wanted of it and was frank about saying so. Levine asked him if there were any changes he would advise making and Bill said, "Yes, put some more gas in the tanks and touch a match to it." I guess the way of progress is full of heartbreak like that. ''Next month Eddie tells us of his coast-to-coast trip which broke the Junior Transcontinental Record. Don't fail to read this interesting account.''


text: Guatimala or the United Provinces of Central America in 1827-8/4


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Red Wing

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Red Wing


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakeley, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakeley, Frederick


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakeley, Herbert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakes, Hildebrand


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakes, John Wright


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakley, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakley, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakley, Octavius


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oakman, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oasland, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oastler, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oates, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oates, Titus


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Beirne, Thomas Lewis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Braein, Tighearnach


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Brian Ruadh


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Conchobhar


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Conor (d.1539)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Daniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Domhnall


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Donat Henchy


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Donogh Cairbrech


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Donough (d.1064)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Lucius Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Matthew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Murrough (d.1551)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, Murtough


text: Talk:Flying magazine/1931/Look Out, Lindbergh - Here I Come


text:
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raton

RATON, a city and county seat of Colfax county, New Mexico, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, and about 193 m. N.E. by rail from Santa Fé. Pop. (1890) 1255; (1900) 3540 (337 foreign-born); (1910 census) 4539. Raton is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Saint Louis, Rocky Mountain & Pacific, and the Santa Fé, Raton & Eastern railways. The city lies immediately W. of the Raton Mountains, from which it derives its name, and has an elevation of 6400–6650 ft. above the sea. Among its institutions are a miners' hospital, maintained by the state, and a picturesque public park. The city lies within the Raton coal field, a southern continuation of the field of the same name in Colorado, and the richest coal-producing area in New Mexico. In 1907 70% of the total coal product of New Mexico came from Colfax county, in which this field is situated. Ores of gold, silver and lead have been mined in Colfax county. South and east of the city there is good farming land. Raton is a place of railway origin, and owes its development to its extensive railway shops, as well as to the proximity of mines. It was incorporated in 1891.

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raton


text:
Author:Wolfgang Kosack

Works

 * Die Legende im Koptischen. The legend in Coptic. Studies on Folk Literature of Egypt. Habelt, Bonn 1970
 * Historisches Kartenwerk Ägyptens. Historical cartography of Egypt. Habelt, Bonn 1971, ISBN 3-7749-1126-6.
 * Alltag im alten Ägypten. Daily life in ancient Egypt. From Egypt Museum's collection. City Museum, Freiburg 1974
 * Lehrbuch des Koptischen. Textbook of Coptic Part I:. Coptic grammar Part II:. Coptic reading pieces Academic Printing and Publishing Institute, Graz, 1974. ISBN 3-201-00889-3.
 * Antike Kultur auf Münzen von Qarara. Ancient Civilization on coins of Qarara. Municipal Museums, Freiburg 1977
 * Der medizinische Papyrus Edwin Smith. The medical Edwin Smith Papyrus. The New York Academy of Medicine, Inv. 217; 31-3, transferred to New Hieroglyphics, translated and edited: Berlin 2011, Christoph Brunner, Basel, 2012, ISBN 978-3-033-03331-3. Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
 * Der koptische Heiligenkalender. The Coptic calendar of saints German-, Coptic-, Arabic for the best sources of newly edited and published entirely with index Sanctorum Coptic saint, index of names on Coptic, Coptic Patriarch list, Geographical list. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-9524018-4-2. Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
 * Die altägyptischen Pyramidentexte. The ancient Egyptian pyramid texts in new German translation;. Fully processed and edited by Wolfgang Kosack Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-9524018-1-1. Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
 * Ägyptische Zeichenliste I. Egyptian LIST I. Basics of hieroglyphic writing. Definition, design and use of Egyptian characters. Preparatory work for a font list. Berlin 2013, publisher Christoph Brunner Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-0-4
 * Ägyptische Zeichenliste II. 8500 Hieroglyphen aller Epochen. Lesungen, Deutungen, Verwendungen gesammelt und bearbeitet.Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2013,ISBN 978-3-9524018-2-8.
 * Schenute von Atripe De judicio finale. Papyruskodex 63000.IV im Museo Egizio di Torino. Einleitung, Textbearbeitung und Übersetzung herausgegeben von Wolfgang Kosack. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-5-9.
 * Die altägyptischen Personennamen. Ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte Aegyptens. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-7-3.
 * Kurze Sprachlehre des Mittelägyptischen. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-8-0.
 * Wenz, W., Spanz, B. & Kosack, W., "Blick in die Vergangenheit: Ägyptische Mumie im Röntgenlicht," Der Radiologe 15, 1975, 45-49.
 * "Antike Touristen in Aegypten," Armant 13, 1974, 3-20.
 * "Zwei koptische Texte aus der Bonner Universitätsbibliothek," Muséon 85, 1972, 419-424.
 * "Koptische Kultur" (Delta, Mittelägypten, Oberägypten). Bearbeitet, gezeichnet und kommentiert, Bonn 1971.
 * "Der Gattungsbegriff "Volkserzählung"," Fabula, Berlin-New York 12, 1971, 18-47.
 * "Koptische Kirchenlieder der Osterzeit," Armant 7, 1970, 5-44.
 * "Ein altaegyptisches Hausbuch der Tiermedizin," Armant 3, 1969,172-184.
 * "Hieroglyphen - die Entzauberung ihres Geheimnisses," Armant 2, 1968, 69-100.
 * "Ein satirischer Briefwechsel zwischen Hori und Amenemope," Armant 2, 1968, 104-112.
 * "Eine neue Droge in der altägyptischen Medizin," Armant 1, 1968, 2-10.
 * So viel zum Thema Moses...: Neue Fragen zum Alten Testament. Die Schlechte und die Gute Nachricht. Für Juden, Christen, Moslems. Books on Demand. Norderstedt, 2013. ISBN 978-3-9524018-6-6
 * So viel zum Thema Islam: Neues von der Botschaft Muhammads, über das "Buch, was man lesen muss", für Juden, Christen, Moslems. Books on Demand. Norderstedt, 2013. ISBN 978-3-7322-3240-6
 * Koptisches Handlexikon des Bohairischen. Koptisch - Deutsch - Arabisch. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-9524018-9-7.
 * Shenoute of Atripe "De vita christiana": M 604 Pierpont-Morgan-Library New York/Ms. OR 12689 British-Library/London and Ms. Clarendon Press b. 4, Frg. Bodleian-Library/Oxford. Introduction, edition of the text and translation into German by Wolfgang Kosack / Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2013. ISBN 978-3-906206-00-4
 * Essen und Trinken im alten Aegypten: Bildliche Darstellungen, hieroglyphische Texte und die Bearbeitung der Quellen. Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-03-5.
 * Basilios "De archangelo Michael": sahidice Pseudo - Euhodios "De resurrectione": sahidice Pseudo - Euhodios "De dormitione Mariae virginis": sahidice & bohairice : < Papyruskodex Turin, Mus. Egizio Cat. 63000 XI. > nebst Varianten und Fragmente. In Parallelzeilen ediert, kommentiert und übersetzt von Wolfgang Kosack. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Berlin 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-02-8.
 * Novum Testamentum Coptice. Neues Testament, Bohairisch, ediert von Wolfgang Kosack. Novum Testamentum, Bohairice, curavit Wolfgang Kosack. Neue Ausgabe. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-04-2.
 * Ost-Märchen. Gedanken und Erinnerungen an eine längst vergangene Zeit. Berlin, zum 60. Jahrestag der Republik – (für Westler) 7. Oktober 2010. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-05-9.
 * Geschichte der Gnosis in Antike, Urchristentum und Islam. Texte, Bilder, Dokumente. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-06-6.
 * Collectanea Aegyptiaca. Aufsätze und Studien zur Kulturgeschichte des Alten Ägyptens. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-08-0.
 * Hallo, ihr Lebenden auf der Erde! Teil I + II. Lebensberichte aus der Pharaonenzeit auf Gräbern und Denksteinen. Gesammelt, übersetzt und kommentiert. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-09-7.
 * Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen. Geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen. Deutsch – Kufi – Arabisch. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-10-3.
 * Die koptischen Akten der Konzile von Nikaia und Ephesos. Textfragmente und Handschriften in Paris, Turin, Neapel, Wien und Kairo. In Parallelzeilen herausgegeben, bearbeitet und übersetzt. Koptisch - Deutsch. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-07-3.
 * Berliner Hefte zur ägyptischen Literatur 1 - 12: Teil I. 1 - 6/ Teil II. 7 - 12 (2 Bände). Paralleltexte in Hieroglyphen mit Einführungen und Übersetzung. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-11-0.
 * Geschichte der Gnosis II. Jesus und das neue Testament. Eine Botschaft Christi. Für Juden, Christen, Moslems. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-12-7.
 * Collectanea Coptica. Die titellose gnostische Schrift „Traktat vom Urvater Sêtheus“ aus dem Codex Brucianus. Nag Hamadi Codex VI, 48-51, 23 Platons Politeia in koptischen Übersetzung Schenute oder nicht? (Pierpont-Morgan-Library/New York + Univ. Michigan) Die koptischen Psalmenkonkordanzen. Lesen und Schreiben im Ägypten der Spätantike. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-13-4.
 * Hiera Grammata. Beiträge zur Entstehung ägyptischer Hieroglyphen. Neue Ausgabe, Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-15-8.
 * Aegyptologie im Umbruch. - Eine Streitschrift. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-16-5.
 * Kurze Geschichte der Kopten. Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-17-2.
 * Ein zweiter Rembrandt: "Die Staalmeesters" - Kunsthistorische Studie -  Christoph Brunner, Basel 2015, ISBN 978-3-906206-14-1.

title: Author:Wolfgang Kosack


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cornwall (England)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Brien, James (1805-1864)


text:
Page:Popular Science Monthly Volume 75.djvu/627

Rh {|
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2 |NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS ARE PRINTED IN SMALL CAPITALS.
 * PAGE
 * Adventure and Science
 * align="right"|414
 * Immigration and the Future American Race
 * align="right"|586
 * Animal, Living, How Much of it is Alive?
 * align="right"|289
 * Arraignment of the Theories of Mimicry and Warning Colors,
 * align="right"|550
 * Astronomical Superstitions,
 * align="right"|469
 * Astronomy, The Future of,
 * align="right"|105
 * Atlantic Forest Region of North America,
 * align="right"|370
 * Axis, Earth's, Shifting of the,
 * align="right"|417
 * colspan=2|
 * Astronomical Superstitions,
 * align="right"|469
 * Astronomy, The Future of,
 * align="right"|105
 * Atlantic Forest Region of North America,
 * align="right"|370
 * Axis, Earth's, Shifting of the,
 * align="right"|417
 * colspan=2|
 * Axis, Earth's, Shifting of the,
 * align="right"|417
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|

 * Mental Inheritance
 * align="right"|458
 * Biologist's Standpoint, Life from the,
 * align="right"|174
 * British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Winnipeg Meeting of
 * align="right"|207
 * British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Winnipeg Meeting of
 * align="right"|411
 * Brittany, the "Druid Stones" of, J
 * align="right"|124
 * Another Mode of Species Forming
 * align="right"|264
 * colspan=2|
 * Brittany, the "Druid Stones" of, J
 * align="right"|124
 * Another Mode of Species Forming
 * align="right"|264
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|

 * Cambridge, Darwin Commemoration at
 * align="right"|206
 * Camping and Collecting Afoot,
 * align="right"|274
 * Canals, Abandoned, of the State of New York,
 * align="right"|297
 * Capacity of the United States for Population,
 * align="right"|209
 * Geographical Influences in the Development of Ohio
 * align="right"|479
 * Census, The Last, and its Bearing on Crime,
 * align="right"|398
 * Collecting and Camping Afoot,
 * align="right"|274
 * College, and the Student
 * align="right"|99
 * "and the Medical School
 * align="right"|614
 * Colors, Warning, and Mimicry, Arraignment of the Theories of,
 * align="right"|550
 * Peale's Museum
 * align="right"|221
 * Commemoration, Darwin, at Cambridge
 * align="right"|206
 * Creation Myths, Medieval,
 * align="right"|610
 * Crime, The Last Census and its Bearing on,
 * align="right"|398
 * colspan=2|
 * align="right"|550
 * Peale's Museum
 * align="right"|221
 * Commemoration, Darwin, at Cambridge
 * align="right"|206
 * Creation Myths, Medieval,
 * align="right"|610
 * Crime, The Last Census and its Bearing on,
 * align="right"|398
 * colspan=2|
 * Crime, The Last Census and its Bearing on,
 * align="right"|398
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|

 * Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge
 * align="right"|206
 * Darwinism, in the Theory of Social Evolution,
 * align="right"|75
 * "The World of Life as Visualized and Interpreted by,
 * align="right"|452
 * Darwin's Influence upon Philosophy,
 * align="right"|90
 * Astronomical Superstitions
 * align="right"|469
 * Decimal System of Numbers,
 * align="right"|490
 * Dentistry, A Revolution in,
 * align="right"|49
 * Desert Scenes in Zacatecas,
 * align="right"|435
 * Development, Individual, The Theory of,
 * align="right"|239
 * Darwin's Influence upon Philosophy
 * align="right"|90
 * Diseases, Infectious, Natural Resistance to, ana its Reinforcement,
 * align="right"|5
 * The Variational Factor in Handwriting
 * align="right"|147
 * The Last Census and its Bearing on Crime
 * align="right"|398
 * Druid Stones of Brittany,
 * align="right"|124
 * colspan=2|
 * align="right"|90
 * Diseases, Infectious, Natural Resistance to, ana its Reinforcement,
 * align="right"|5
 * The Variational Factor in Handwriting
 * align="right"|147
 * The Last Census and its Bearing on Crime
 * align="right"|398
 * Druid Stones of Brittany,
 * align="right"|124
 * colspan=2|
 * Druid Stones of Brittany,
 * align="right"|124
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|

 * Earth's Axis, Shifting of the,
 * align="right"|417
 * Effectors,' Appropriation of by the Nervous System,
 * align="right"|65
 * Effectors,' Appropriation of by the Nervous System,
 * align="right"|137
 * Effectors,' Appropriation of by the Nervous System,
 * align="right"|253
 * Effectors,' Appropriation of by the Nervous System,
 * align="right"|338
 * Medieval Creation Myths
 * align="right"|610
 * Emmanuel Movement from a Medical View-point,
 * align="right"|358
 * Environment and Productive Scholarship,
 * align="right"|597
 * Eugenics Laboratory of the University of London
 * align="right"|309
 * Evolution, Social, Darwinism in the Theory of,
 * align="right"|90
 * "Organic, The Argument for, before "The Origin of Species,"
 * align="right"|499
 * "Organic, The Argument for, before "The Origin of Species,"
 * align="right"|537
 * colspan=2|
 * Eugenics Laboratory of the University of London
 * align="right"|309
 * Evolution, Social, Darwinism in the Theory of,
 * align="right"|90
 * "Organic, The Argument for, before "The Origin of Species,"
 * align="right"|499
 * "Organic, The Argument for, before "The Origin of Species,"
 * align="right"|537
 * colspan=2|
 * "Organic, The Argument for, before "The Origin of Species,"
 * align="right"|537
 * colspan=2|
 * colspan=2|

 * Natural Resistance to Infectious Diseases and its Reinforcement
 * align="right"|5
 * }
 * }


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468 twelve or fifteen, can we wonder that at present the candidate for an advanced university degree has often passed his thirtieth birthday? We should rather marvel at the elasticity of the mind's response to new needs. We know that Quaternary man sometimes possessed artistic ability—perhaps as great ability as the modern European; but what a difference in the product. We can not conceive a medieval musician—to go no further back—producing or comprehending our operas and symphonies; but who would say that native ability in music has grown in the meantime? Are we not then driven to the admission that no principle of selection has for a long time been sufficiently active to raise the level of mental endowment? We live on capital gathered and hoarded by the race. Suppose that we turn spendthrift! Francis Galton reckons that England at its best falls two grades below the highest intellect of Athens; that England produces one man of supreme eminence where the older culture produced two hundred. Suppose that by improving the breed our mental endowment should recover those two grades. The effect, direct and indirect, upon the race is not easily estimated. It is conceivable that it should give to every generation a Homer or a Dante or a Shakespeare, and to each of the European states and America a dozen Newtons and Darwins. Eugenics rests upon a scientific basis and it proposes a well-considered program for future activity. Whatever differences of opinion we may hold regarding the probable success of its methods, we must agree that civilized man may not indolently regard himself as "God's domestic animal"; that he will, on the contrary, do well to examine and to estimate the hereditary factor in his own mental development and to seek to combine for his improvement the conjoint forces of nature and nurture.


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Rh

HE great majority of our superstitions had their birth in attempts to interpret natural phenomena from erroneous ideas which consist of fancies suggested by the imagination. In other words, most superstitions are attempted short cuts to explain phenomena while omitting natural causation. The average man loves superstition, loves the fictitious, both loves and fears the supernatural and is fascinated by the incomprehensible. From the infancy of the human race men have attempted to explain things according to their external appearances, and whatever was strange or vast, especially if it had visible motion, impressed the beholder with the fear of invisible powers. During September, 1908, a score of people called the writer by telephone to ask about a brilliant star that had appeared in the eastern morning sky. They had been informed that it was the star of Bethlehem, which appears only once every 300 years. They generally seemed disappointed when told that it was not the star of Bethlehem, but the planet Venus, which instead of becoming visible only once in 300 years, regularly appears twice in a period of 584 days. On attempting to impart further information it soon became evident that their interest was in the mystery of the star of Bethlehem and not in any facts relating to Venus.

Fashionable society will enthusiastically discuss telepathy, astrology, christian science, psychic force, palmistry, spiritualism, etc., but if one should introduce a subject relating to astronomy or physics, he would be regarded as a pedantic bore. Du Maurier illustrated the indifference of society to science by a drawing in Punch entitled "Science and Music at an Evening Party." The scene was in a large London drawing room. In the foreground was a professor earnestly talking to a gentleman, while at the back of the room all the rest of the company were eagerly crowding around a piano. Chesterfield wrote to his son:

While it is true that there is but a small circle of people interested in what is called physical science, yet that science now rules the world and is nearly as despotic as nature herself. Human progress is almost entirely scientific and even our industrial progress is based on applied science.


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470 Even before man essayed to group the stars into constellations he naturally raised the question of the origin, and the manner of the production of the world itself. He then believed it to be flat and immovable, and its seagirt disk supported the sapphire vault above. Gods, men, monsters and heroes familiarly associated and acted their parts, before man had learned to judge by evidence and to place a limit on probability. The sun, the moon and the earth were living beings filled with demons, and sorcery governed belief. Under these conditions there arose no astronomical or geographical difficulties, for where superstition rules evidence becomes useless.

The astronomical ideas of primitive people have been similar the world over. The cosmogony of the Mahometans, as presented in the Koran, is so puerile as to be unworthy of serious consideration. It teaches that the earth is flat and floats in the sea. It is kept in balance by the mountains, and the sky is supported above by a huge dome so perfect that it is impossible to discover a crack in it. Above are the seven heavens, ranged one over the other, the uppermost being the abode of God, which does not rest on the earth, but is supported by winged animals. Meteors are red-hot stones thrown by angels at bad spirits, when they approach too near the seventh heaven. Of the many creation myths, the Jewish story is the one most familiar to us. According to this narrative the universe was miraculously created in six days. The earth is the fixed center enclosed in a great hemisphere called the firmament, which divides the seas above it from those below. More space is devoted to describing the creation of the firmament—now known to be an optical illusion—than to the creation of man himself. The sun, moon and stars were made "to give light upon the earth," and the whole universe was purely anthropocentric, that is, man was the preordained center and aim of all creation. This anthropocentric dogma is closely connected with all three of the great Mediterranean religions, Mosaic, Mohammedan and Christian, hence it has for centuries dominated the beliefs of the greater part of the civilized world.

Many of the most charming legends of Greek and Roman mythology were drawn from astronomical subjects. There is no more beautiful illustration of Roman superstition than that shown in Guido's familiar fresco of "Aurora." Why this picture is called Aurora and not Apollo is difficult to explain. The noble sun god is the most important figure of the picture, and he dominates all the rest. He is surrounded by the light tripping Hours, each a very queen of loveliness. Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, leads the throng. From the crown of her beautiful head to the soles of her rosy feet, she is grace incarnate. As she flies she scatters flowers and dew from her hands upon the verdant fields below.

The Roman child was taught that the sun was the actual wheel of Apollo's chariot. In the morning this god arose from the eastern sea


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Rh driving his four wonderful horses across the heavens; in the evening he descended into the western sea; at night he slept in a golden boat which was borne along the northern edge of the earth to the rising place in the east. The moon was the abode of the lovely goddess Luna, sister of Apollo, who guided its course in the heavens.

Thus mythology explained astronomical phenomena; the sun, moon, planets, clouds, dawn, and night with its black mantle bespangled with stars, became animated things. The sun, when setting in the brilliant evening clouds, then became Hercules in the fiery pile.

While mythology obstructed scientific progress by finding sacred explanations for every natural event, there were a few gifted, inquisitive minds among the Greeks that sought for knowledge behind the painted curtain of superstition. Thales of the sixth century was the father of Greek astronomy. He taught that the earth is spherical and that the moon receives her light from the sun. Anaxagoras ascribed eclipses of the moon to natural causes and taught the existence of a creative intelligence. He fell a victim to the superstitions of his age. Sentence of death was passed on him and his family, which required all the eloquence of his friend Pericles to commute to banishment.

Pythagoras of the fourth century B.C. was a most assiduous enquirer. He is said to have been the first to propose the system of a globular earth and of planets, revolving around the sun. When the Church condemned the theory of Copernicus the indictment was that it was heathenism and Pythagorean.

Modern astronomy may be said to have arisen in the third century under the patronage of the first king of the Greek dynasty, at Alexandria, Egypt. Euclid, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and Ptolemy were among the illustrious astronomers of the Alexandrian era. It was in the second century A.D. that Ptolemy published his great work on astronomy called the "Almagest" which during the following


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472 centuries was universally regarded as a kind of astronomical bible.

One of the curious astronomical superstitions that originated with the Chaldeans, and which persisted almost to our own times, was that of the crystalline spheres. The idea of a spherical universe was a very natural one. It was difficult to see how thousands of bodies could revolve around the earth for generations, without change in their relative positions, unless there was something to retain them in their places. It was believed that the planets and stars were set in a series of concentric orbs or spheres, each so perfectly transparent that bodies in the outer ones were visible through all the intervening ones. The drawing shows the order of the spheres and the system of the universe according to Ptolemy. The earth is in the center enclosed by the sphere of the moon, beyond are the concentric spheres of Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Outside of all are the crystalline heavens and the abode of the blessed.

The revolution of the spheres was supposed to produce the most exquisite music which filled all celestial space, but such was its refined quality that it was inaudible to mortal ears. One of the most sublime passages of Shakespeare describes this music:

 Sit, Jessica. Look how the floor of heaven Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold. There is not the smallest orb which thou beholdest But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubims: Such harmony is in immortal souls; But while this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we can not hear it.

The following parallel lines are from Milton's "Arcades":

 In deep of night when drowsiness Hath lock'd up mortal sense, then listen I To the celestial Sirens harmony, That sits upon the nine infolded spheres. Such sweet compulsion doth in music lie, To lull the daughter of Necessity And keep unsteady Nature to her law, And the low world in measured motion draw After the heavenly tune which none can hear Of human mould, with gross unpurged ear.

Astronomy has always been the favorite science of the poets. The frame-work of Dante's "Paradise" is constructed on the Ptolemaic system. His ten heavens are arranged in the exact order of those shown in the drawing. The crystal orbs are rotated by angels. He says:

 The virtue and motion of the sacred orbs, As mallet by the workman's hand must needs By blessed movers be inspired.

It may be said that during the Christian era, up to the thirteenth


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Rh century in which Dante lived, there had been no progress in scientific knowledge. He still held to the four elements of the Greeks:

 Thou sayest, the air, the fire I see, The earth and water, and all things of them Compounded, to corruption turn and soon Dissolve.

Although Shakespeare was not born until twenty years after the death of Copernicus, all allusions made by him to the heavens are either astrological or Ptolemaic.

The tendency of a superstition to persist even after closely allied phenomena have been explained on a purely natural basis, is illustrated in the belief that planetary motion was due to "blessed movers." Although Copernicus discovered that the planets revolve around the sun instead of the earth, he still believed that their motion was controlled by guiding spirits. Galileo conclusively confirmed the correctness of the heliocentric theory, but faith in the supernatural motion of the planets was undisturbed. Not until the genius of Newton had discovered and formulated the law of universal gravitation and provided a mathematical foundation for Kepler's laws, were these conducting spirits dismissed. It required the discoveries of three men of genius and two centuries of time to overthrow the foolish superstition of mediocre man.

From the end of the fourth to the beginning of the fifteenth century superstition had given to society a form that prevented the man of genius from being heard. Buckle says that from the sixth to the tenth century there were not in all Europe more than three men who dared to think for themselves, and through fear of punishment even they were obliged to veil their meaning in mystical language. The remaining part of society was sunk in degrading ignorance. Progress became possible only when science essayed to explain observed phenomena by depending on natural causation.

For ages the superstitions of astrology ruled the world by the terror that they inspired. The figure of a man, with entrails exposed, in the front of the family almanac is a survival of Egyptian astrology. Around the figure are the twelve signs of the zodiac with lines extending to the parts of the body supposed to be influenced by the celestial signs. Aries the head, Leo the heart, Capricornus the knees, Pisces the feet, etc. Faith in the influence of the signs of the zodiac remained unshaken in spite of knowledge that the inconstant stars were shifting from one sign to another by the precession of the equinoxes. When the pyramids were built, what is now known as the pole star was so far from the celestial pole that the Egyptians saw it rise and set in the Mediterranean. The Southern Cross was then visible not only in northern Egypt but throughout Europe as far north as London.

Coincidences have ever been mistaken for causes. Owing to the


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474 unparalled brilliancy of the Dog Star, astrologists assigned to it powerful influences, and because it rose just before the sun, at the season when the Nile overflowed, it was supposed to be the mystic cause of the inundation. They gave it the name of Sirius, from the river Nile, which was called Siris in their hieroglyphics. They also called it the Dog Star because, like a faithful watch-dog, it warned them of the approaching overflow, and they waited for its appearance with deep solicitude, for on the overflow of the river depended agricultural prosperity or blighting drought. They computed the length of the year from the heliacal rising of the Dog Star and this is still known as the Canicular year. The Romans were equally solicitous and were accustomed to sacrifice a dog to Sirius, to render his influence beneficent to agriculture. Virgil says:

 Parched was the grass, and blighted was the corn: Nor 'scaped the beasts; for Sirius from on high, With pestilential heat infects the sky.

The time of the year when the Dog Star rose with the sun and appeared to combine its influence with the solar heat they gave the name "dog days" (dies canicularis) which began August 4 and ended September 14. Owing to the displacement of the constellations by precession, the time of the heliacal rising of the Dog Star is continually accelerated, hence modern dog days have no connection with this star, and furthermore, recent study of rabies proves that more dogs go mad in winter or early spring than in summer time.

A favorite prediction of astrologers was of cataclysms that would destroy all mankind. Such a catastrophe was foretold to occur in 1186, and a universal deluge was predicted for the year 1542. In the latter year there was to be a conjunction of three planets in the watery sign of the "Fishes." The prophecy was generally believed and the terror was wide-spread. A Noah's ark was built at Toulouse, but the year was distinguished for its drought.

Ridicule is sometimes more efficacious than argument in overthrowing false theories. A skit by Dean Swift discredited astrology, in England, more than all the evidence of science. Swift published a satirical pamphlet under the title of "Predictions for the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.," in which he predicted the death of a well-known astrologer and almanac maker by the name of Partridge. He claimed to have consulted the stars and calculated the exact hour of the astrologer's demise. This was followed by a letter to a man of rank, giving complete particulars of Partridge's death on the day and almost at the very hour foretold. The angry astrologer denounced the pamphleteer, employed a literary friend to write up proofs of his existence and published his almanac for the year 1709. Swift answered all of the arguments, claiming that the denial of death was spurious, and that the deceased was a gentleman who would never have used the


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Rh abusive language employed; as for the almanac, everybody knew that almanacs were frequently published under the names of people who had long been dead.

An adequate account of the superstitions of astrology would make a volume, and it would be easy to compile a list of one hundred lunar superstitions that still govern the actions of the uninformed. For example, the new moon if first seen over the right shoulder will bring good luck. If seen over the left shoulder, bad luck. Meat killed when the moon is waning shrinks in the pot. Whatever grows above ground must be planted when the moon is waxing. Whatever grows underground must be planted when the moon is waning. One of the commonest lunar superstitions is that the changes of the moon, at the quarter, affect the weather, and many of our almanacs still publish so-called "Herschel's weather tables," for foretelling changes of the weather, not only throughout all the lunations of the year, but for all future time. We are assured by the almanac makers that the tables are the result of careful consideration of the attractions of the sun and the moon "and so near the truth as to seldom or never fail." Belief in the moon's influence over terrestrial conditions is a mild lunacy by no means wholly confined to the ignorant. A tabulated meteorological record, kept at Greenwich running back for forty years, shows that there are no constant relations between the moon's columns and those recording the readings of the instruments. In other words, lunar meteorological influences are almost inappreciable. Idle fancies are still cherished that the mind and body are affected by the light of the moon, that the rays sometimes produce blindness by shining on the sleeper's eyes, and that death occurs at the time of the changes of tide.

When Copernicus published his work on the "Revolutions of the Heavenly bodies," in 1543, he was already on his deathbed. A few men of learning read it, the doctors of the church rejected it, and it received but little attention until the time of Bruno, Galileo and Kepler, half a century later. During the previous thirteen hundred years the astronomical system of Ptolemy had been regarded with superstitious reverence. It was natural that a geocentric and anthropocentric universe should be drawn, because these errors were conducive to man's interests, pleasing to his extreme egotism, and resulted in the apotheosis of himself. The anthropocentric dogma culminated in the belief that man was the preordained center and aim of all creation, while the new heliocentric mechanism of the planetary system relegated both the earth and man to subordinate positions.

In 1610 Galileo ascended the tall campanile of St. Mark's, in Venice, and with his newly devised telescope showed the assembled noblemen and senators that Venus was a crescent, Jupiter the center of a miniature Copernican system, the moon had tall mountains casting dark shadows across her surface, that the star cluster of the Pleiades


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476 contained not seven stars but thirty-six and that the milky way was powdered with stars. In reward for his discoveries the Venetian Senate doubled his salary of professor at Padua, and secured that position to him for life. He was made philosopher extraordinary to the grand duke of Tuscany, and the next year visited Rome, where he exhibited the wonders of the heavens to the eminent personages of the Pope's court.

But war on Galileo soon flamed forth. The spiritual authorities saw that established dogmas were endangered. He was accused of heresy and atheism. The story of his summons before the inquisition, his trial, conviction and suffering, has been told too often to be repeated here. The triumph of superstition over his astronomical discoveries was for the time complete. This great genius lived to see his works expelled from all the universities of Europe, their publication prohibited, and he knew that he was doomed to face all posterity as one who had committed perjury to escape torture.

Sixteen years previous to Galileo's first summons to Rome, poor Giordano Bruno was burned in that city. In his wanderings to escape persecution Bruno had visited England and while there published his exposition of the Copernican system. Prudence frequently obliged him to change his place of residence and it is not strange that he finally drifted to Venice. Here greater religious liberty was permitted than in other Italian cities, and here the stake had never been erected. It was at the Palazzo Mocenigo, on the Grand Canal, that emissaries of the inquisition finally ran him to earth. The first indictment of the inquisition charged him with teaching that there were innumerable worlds. He was burned to death in the Piazzo Campo di Fiore in the year 1600. Galileo's greatest contemporary was Kepler, who discovered the laws of planetary motion which paved the way to the greater discoveries of Newton. Kepler was abused, imprisoned and warned that he must bring his theories into harmony with the scriptures. Astronomy was then so poorly patronized that to increase his meager income he was obliged to pay homage to the astrological superstitions of Rudolph II. and Wallenstein.

One of Kepler's most terrible experiences arose from the prevailing superstition of sorcery. His aunt and his mother were charged with being witches and sentenced to be burned alive. Through Kepler's indefatigable efforts, and the influence of powerful friends, his mother was saved, but the suffering which she endured during more than a year's imprisonment resulted in her death a few months later. Kepler's aunt was burned at the stake.

The writings of all ages up to the eighteenth century show that comets were believed to be dire messengers of woe. Stars and meteors were generally thought to foretell happy events, especially the birth of heroes and great rulers. Eclipses expressed the distress of nature over terrestrial calamities, while comets portended greater woes than all the


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Rh other celestial signs combined. Those who did not recognize them as warnings from God were stigmatized as atheists and Epicureans. John Knox believed them to be tokens of the wrath of heaven, others saw in them warnings to the king to extirpate the Papists. Luther declared them to be the work of the devil and called them harlot stars. Milton says that the comet "from its horrid hair shakes pestilence and war." Whole nations from the king down to the lowest peasant were frequently plunged into the direst alarm by the appearance of these messengers of misery. The comet that appeared the year after the assassination of Cæsar was supposed to be his metamorphosed soul armed with fire and vengeance. It is said that the comet of 1556 had a powerful influence in causing the Emperor Charles V. to abdicate and retire to the monastery of San Yuste. Queen Elizabeth, in 1580, issued an order of prayers to avert God's wrath, and referred to comets, eclipses and heavy falls of snow as evidences of His great displeasure. The periodic comet known as Halley's probably caused more consternation than any other within historic times. One of its early appearances was the year of the Norman Conquest and it was supposed to presage the defeat of the Saxons and the death of Harold. At the South Kensington Museum is a copy of the Bayeux Tapestry on which may be seen the comet of 1066. Its return in 1456 spread a wider terror than was ever known before. The belief was general that the judgment day was at hand. People gave up all hope and prepared for their doom. Again in 1607 it alarmed the world by its appearance and the churches filled with terror-stricken multitudes. Kepler, who was then imperial astronomer at Prague, quietly traced its course and discovered that it was outside of the moon's orbit. Tycho had made the same observation respecting a bright comet that appeared thirty years earlier. The announcement of Kepler's discovery caused a great outcry because it attacked the very foundations of the cometary superstitions. It also assailed the dogma of the crystalline spheres, because the motion of a superlunar comet would send it crashing through the spheres. It was hard for superstitious man to give up the "signs of the heavens" that had so long misguided him. As late as the latter part of the seventeenth century a book was published by Father De Angelis, of the Clementine College, Rome, in defense of the old cometary faith. He claimed that comets originate in our atmosphere below the moon. Everything heavenly is eternal. We see the beginning and ending of comets, hence they are not heavenly bodies. They are emanations of dry, fatty matter from the air and may be ignited by sparks from heaven or by lightning. Every one knows that they cause war, pestilence and famine. He had observed a comet at Naples which was so close that its tail almost touched Vesuvius, and it would have destroyed Naples but for the blood of the martyr Januarius.

People were so wedded to ancient errors that it required one hundred years of telescopic work to bring the Copernican system out of


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478 the realms of hypothesis. For generations the universities taught both the geocentric and the heliocentric systems, leaving the student to decide which was right. During more than a thousand years previous to Galileo's discoveries, superstition and unreason had prevented all human progress. They were the source of untold mischief and suffering and are still man's greatest enemy, while science and reason are his greatest friends. Modern superstitions are often the best comment on ancient astronomical errors.

Newton's astrophysical discoveries placed the solar system on a mechanical basis and dispensed with the planetary guiding angels. Empirical science has since shown that every phenomenon has its mechanical cause, while Darwin's "Descent of Man" has shattered the dogma of anthropocentricism. In the operation of cosmic forces it may now be said that events occur by mechanical necessity regardless of man's interests. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, by the telescopic study of the vast and the microscopic study of the small, a splendid record of accumulated truths was attained. The discoveries of the laws of the indestructibility of force and matter, the unity of nature, the mechanical theory of heat; inorganic and organic evolution and the universality of law, have explained many mysterious phenomena, and forced them out of the darkness of the supernatural to the light of the natural. It has been said that mystery has now been driven from the universe. Belief in the miraculous and the transcendental rests on the assumption that outside and beyond the natural world active forces exist that have no material basis, and of which we can learn nothing by experience, or by any natural means. Such dualistic beliefs are purely idealistic and are evolved from the activity of the brain called emotion. Emotion has nothing to do with the attainment of truth and all doctrines, or opinions, are to be suspected, that are favored by our passions.

Philosophy is the science of which all others are but branches, hence philosophy lies in the province of physical science and not in that of letters. Haeckel says: "All true natural science is philosophy and all true philosophy is natural science." The astronomical errors of the past have arisen from attempts to explain the cosmos out of the inner consciousness, rejecting all scientific methods and substituting faith. While faith may supplement observation in the search for truth, we must not confuse supernatural faith with the natural faith of science. Mark Twain has defined the former as "believing something that you know is not true." The natural faith of science and of practical life is drawn from experience. Kant, Hume, Huxley and Haeckel agree that all knowledge of the reality of phenomena is limited to that revealed to us by experience. Belief must rest on evidence. That belief which is not founded on evidence is both illogical and immoral.


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HIO leads the states in its clay products, and its workable clays are practically inexhaustible. Ohio leads also in the number of presidents furnished the union, with unimpaired prospects for the future. Both ratings are consequences of geographic causes, as will appear in later discussion.

This state lies between 38° 27', and 41° 57' north latitude; it is bounded by the meridians reading 80° 34' and 84° 49'. For its width in latitude and its lack of great range in altitude, it has a marked range in mean annual temperature; in southern Ohio the mean annual range is 54°, while in northern Ohio it is 49°; its range in average temperature is about 40°. Lake Erie exerts an appreciable influence on climatic conditions for the northern part of the state.

The Ohio River bounds the state for 436 miles, and the lake shore I gives it 230 miles more of natural boundary. About one half of the! state line is artificial.

A rock section of the state gives in its lower half a predominance of limestone and shale formations; above this are wide-spread horizons of sandstone and conglomerate. These more resistant formations, belonging to the late Mississippian and early Pennsylvanian periods, are registered in the relief by a mild escarpment or cuesta sweeping to the south and west from the northeastern corner of the state. The northern and western parts consist of shale and limestone formations. There is slight relief particularly in the shale areas. The region of the limestone extends across the western portion of the state coinciding in longer axis with the orientation of the Cincinnati anticline. The drainage pattern resulting from this arching has given the west and southwest part of the state much more relief than would be the case with more horizontal strata.

The general dip of these formations is to the south and east. It is probable that the original consequent streams flowed in this direction. It would be futile, however, at the present time to attempt to sketch the drainage history of Ohio from the Pennsylvanian period, since which time the area has been continuously subject to stream work. Diastrophic movements have introduced some complexity. Several erosion cycles have been inaugurated, but there is evidence that few were


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480 normally terminated. The distribution of the Pennsylvanian formations coincides with the most irregular topography of the state. The average altitude is about 770 feet, and the range in altitude is approximately 1,100 feet.

The present watershed crosses the state from east to west, trending slightly to the south, at an altitude of about 1,100 feet. Drainage lines have divided the upland portion into north-south trending blocks progressively more widely spaced towards the west. These low tracts have been used by the canals and railroads connecting Lake Erie and Ohio River.

The larger part of Ohio is an almost completely severed portion of the Allegheny plateau, extending westward from the northwestern part of Pennsylvania like a great spit into the Mississippi lowlands; the broad valley of the Ohio resembles a bay between this spit and the f western slopes of the Appalachians. This somewhat peculiar relationship of topography is the combined result of drainage adjustments due to stratigraphy, and slight diastrophic movements.

Using natural boundary lines, it would be difficult to divide North America into many states. Where such lines do exist, they have not always been utilized. Lake and river, however, form over half the border of Ohio. In general, a water boundary is an asset to a commonwealth; it may be a protection from disputes, and a transit to trade. The reaction varies with other natural boundaries: high altitudes, sometimes barriers, may impose aloofness, or almost complete isolation, whereas water boundaries invite commercial relations. Geographically Ohio is the back door of the middle and north Atlantic states. This relationship has been of reciprocal value to both areas; as population became more and more dense in the early settlements, and knowledge of the broad lands across the Appalachians spread, a movement in that direction was natural. The easiest route for the more northern of the Atlantic states was through New York via the Mohawk valley, out and along Lake Erie; for the more southern states, through passes in the mountains. Possibly on account of the narrow coastal lands to the south, or possibly because of the greater enterprise there in watching the movements of the French, the southern routes were first explored, and the earliest movements into the Ohio valley came either by way of Pittsburg or by the course of the Cumberland road.

A gross classification of the factors in the development of any region is (1) internal and (2) external. The external include the boundary itself in case the region is a natural one; but geographic situation is frequently very important. When avenues of travel and traffic converge and pass through a state benefit follows. Advantage always comes from proximity to great centers of business or culture


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Rh whence energy radiates. Contiguity to activity is an incentive to endeavor. We can scarcely find an area of the earth so void of possibilities as not to experience some stimulation from without. The internal factors in this development are generally obvious. Mineral wealth, energy-producing waterfalls, broad rich fields, varied uplands, a gently blending topography, constant rivers, and a range of climate, make a state [self-assertive. Ohio has never been conspicuous for mineral resources: in the early days relative importance might be granted its output of iron ore; the annual production of bituminous coal, while of great advantage to the state, has never been very large, and even now its rank is fourth; natural gas and petroleum have been of much importance to the state, but these resources are always temporary; the supply of clay was great enough even under partial exploitation to stimulate the manufacture of clay products in which the state will be apt to hold a permanent position; in the coarser abrasives, as grindstones and pulpstones, Ohio has always been a foremost producer; with the increasing use of concrete for structural work, greater importance will be given still other natural resources.

But the human responses to natural resources and to geographic environment vary with the people. The same inorganic conditions have elicited a variety of reactions under shifting populations; this variation may after all be the best testimony of geographic influences. Move a people into a different physiography and for some time they will still be the children of their former surroundings. Adaptation is slow, but the law is relentless.

When population becomes too dense for the economic development of a people, the more sturdy among them are the first to emigrate. With few exceptions the earlier settlers in the Ohio area represented the very best colonizing material of the seaboard states. These hardy volunteers in a contest with unbroken lands and unfriendly Indians led to the foundation of one of our most important commonwealths. Among them were not only yeomen, but the enlarged outlook of the land between the lake and the river attracted many of the best schoolmen of the thickly-settled parts. These pioneers not only cherished and perpetuated the place names of New England, but transplanted also the New England zeal for education. In testimony of this spirit among its founders, Ohio possesses more institutions of higher learning than any other state of the union. There was a time in the development of our frontiers when many centers of higher education were needed. Travel was difficult, money was scarce and barter to quite an extent entered into financing these primitive college courses; the colleges and seminaries in Ohio were once even more numerous than now. Advanced standards in education, by a process akin to natural selection, have eliminated many. But the cumulative results of about a century of opportunity for


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482 culture must be reckoned among the assets of this state; its dozens of small colleges made it possible for thousands to obtain a training they otherwise would not have received. This inheritance of the better eastern culture, which was stimulated and nurtured by the natural advantages of the region their ancestors were geographically guided into for settlement, accounts for the position won by Ohioans in public life as well as in arts and letters.

The geographical development of any state is usually a complicated problem. Some light, however, is generally thrown on the question by accounting for its particular city that leads all other centers of population. Sometimes the metropolis shifts; if so, a geographic law is always involved. For several decades Ohio was an agricultural community, pure and simple. Wealth increased slowly because there were no ready markets for disposing of products. The first important outlet for farm products came with the introduction of steamboats on the Ohio River v in 1810. Naturally the river town that was the most accessible to the agricultural areas became the shipping port. Cincinnati was the earliest clearing house for products that Ohio had to sell. Buying and selling are correlative transactions. A ready market stimulated a desire for things that were counted luxuries in the primitive days, consequently Cincinnati became a manufacturing town, and ever since it has been the leading manufacturing city of Ohio.

Until recent years there has never been any doubt as to which city was the metropolis of Ohio. In the vicinity of what is now Cincinnati a settlement, the second in the state, was made in November, 1788; the next month another handful of men built their cabins on the north bank of the Ohio opposite the mouth of the Licking; this became Cincinnati, whose location assured its growth; on the river, the shipping facilities were considered excellent, and, buttressed by the river flats, the farming lands of the Miami valleys, their development into a city of trade and manufacturing, was speedy and permanent. Before the middle of last century it was stated that:

The trade of Cincinnati embraces the country from the Ohio to the lake, north and south; and from the Scioto to the Wabash, east and west. The Ohio River line, in Kentucky for fifty miles down, and as far up as the Virginia line, make their purchases here. Its manufactures are sent into the upper and lower Mississippi country.

Cincinnati attained city rank in 1820; during the next decade it became the eighth city in size in the union; from 1830 to 1850 it ranked sixth; by 1880 it had dropped again to eighth place, and at the last census to the tenth place.

The greatness of Cincinnati and the assurance of even marvelous progress in the years to come was prophesied by the editor of the Toledo Blade, in 1841:


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This thought now sounds extravagant, but at that time there was ample reason for feeling sanguine about the future of Cincinnati. No one dreamed that railroads to Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York would in a few years handle the commodities then passing through Cincinnati. Sir Charles Lyell visited this metropolis of Ohio in May, 1842; his explanation of the commercial basis of the city, and its culture is worth repeating:

However great may be the commercial initiative of frontier peoples, as an asset of the nation their value is largely contingent upon the means of trade and social intercourse. The construction of highways by governments was an old idea in Europe though not widely practised. In this country its advantages to the seaboard states appeared at once upon the drift of population into the trans-Appalachian region. After long agitation the federal government undertook the construction of a roadway westward from Cumberland on the Potomac River; the Chesapeake and Ohio canal later reached this point, and the road became a traffic-feeder to the canal. On the other side of the Ohio River, the government continued this highway across Ohio; this is known as the "national road." Its advantages were obvious, and were duly appreciated. Commodities that had usually passed down the Ohio River were seen on the wharves at Baltimore. News traveled more rapidly along this highway; residents along or near it were envied; the towns it passed through were enlivened; the equipages of aristocracy took this route through the state. Cambridge, Zanesville, Columbus and Springfield each owed something of their rating in that day to the advantage^ of their location on the national road.

The canal-digging fever struck Ohio shortly after its outbreak in Atlantic states. In 1817 its legislature considered the matter of constructing waterways; the subject came up regularly in the following years, culminating in 1825 in a law that commenced operations. In this same year Clinton's "ditch" tapped Lake Erie. The Ohioans,


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484 therefore, did not wait for proof positive of the advantages of improved waterways. The evidence was forthcoming had it been necessary, for at once after the Erie canal had wedded the lake and the ocean northern Ohio felt a new throb of commercial life. Lake trade was stimulated, harbors were improved, wharves and warehouses constructed; and prices advanced on all commodities that could be conveniently reached. The Ohio legislature had taken the initiative without these evidences. In seven years the Ohio canal, connecting Portsmouth on the river at the mouth of the Scioto with Cleveland on the lake, 306 miles long, was completed. The Miami canal joining Cincinnati and Toledo was commenced in the same year, reached Dayton in 1830, but was not completed to the lake till 1845. Along either canal route trade activity shortly developed the sleepy villages into thrifty towns and cities. Later adjustments have left some of these places only a retrospect; the canal period was their heyday. Others, however, as Newark, Coshocton, Massillon, Akron, Hamilton, Troy and Defiance, have continued to prosper under the conditions incident to the transfer of shipping from the canals to railroads.

The Ohio canal, the course of which was controlled by other considerations than merely joining the river and the lake, makes an ascent of almost 500 feet. Its construction, relative to its length, was much more expensive than the Erie canal which ascends only 445 feet. The maintenance of the Ohio canal also involved greater expense. For this reason, with the extension of railroad lines in the state, we find that by 1856 the canals of Ohio ceased to earn running expenses. During about twenty years, however, these canals were of great commercial importance to the contiguous parts of the state. Even upon the opening of the canal from Dresden to Cleveland the price of wheat advanced from $.25 to $1.00 per bushel.

When we speak of railroads to-day we at once think of one or another of the great through lines. In the early days of railroad construction no one dreamed of even a trans-state road. Until recent years a through line always meant the consolidation of short independently owned segments. Local interest in railroad building in Ohio was lively from the start. Thrifty commercial relations emphasized the inadequacy of boating facilities. The efficiency of the Lake Erie and Erie canal route was not questioned, but there were few canals in Ohio to give access to the lake. The first steam road to operate in the state (1836) had one terminus on the lake at Toledo, the other being at Adrian, Mich. Sandusky had no canal, but by 1839 it


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Rh several miles of a railroad, "The Mad River and Lake Erie," towards Dayton, which point it reached in 1844. Ohio capital and enthusiasm for railway construction were abundant, as shown by the fact that in 1837 forty-three railroad companies were organized by state charters. Many of these roads were never built, but some of them have become the best lines in the state. By 1846 a road was completed from Cincinnati to Springfield, and by 1848 through steam connection was made between Cincinnati and Sandusky. Columbus and Cleveland were connected in 1851, and during the same year a railroad was finished between Cleveland and Cincinnati. The next year a line was opened from Cleveland to Pittsburg.

Geographically Ohio needed transverse railroads; the lake and the river were its natural thoroughfares to markets; the wide, fertile major valleys of the state trend north-south, and its products move almost by gravity to one outlet or the other. Ohioans, except the immigrant ancestors, never gave further thought to the "Appalachian Barrier"; heir commercial friends on the seabooard looked after building the east-west lines.

The rivalry of the Atlantic ports in establishing through railroad transportation to the Mississippi basin was thus an advantage to Ohio. The Hudson-Mohawk valley made the construction of a line a child's task for New York, but the Appalachians imposed on Baltimore and Philadelphia a herculaneanherculean [sic] undertaking; the former city early recognized the limitations of canals. A citizen of Baltimore in urging the undertaking said:

In 1828 construction was commenced at Baltimore on a line headed for the Ohio valley, but twenty-five years elapsed before this destination was reached by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the difficulties of construction having been underestimated.

The next year, 1854, the Pennsylvania line reached Pittsburg, with which city Cleveland had been joined the preceding year. In 1852 a road was opened from Buffalo to Cleveland; the same year, one from Toledo to Chicago; and the next year through traffic was made possible


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486 from Buffalo to Chicago. In 1857 a road across southern Ohio and on to St. Louis was completed; this was practically a continuation of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. By 1860 Ohio had what was considered in that day very ample railway facilities, a condition that contributed largely to the position the state at once took in manufacturing.

Ohio ranks fifth among the states in the gross value of its manufactured products. The state has always been quick in appreciating the demands of its trade environment. Its waterways, natural and artificial, before the period of steam roads, gave it an advantage. No state responded more promptly and effectively to the era of railroad construction. A study of the evolution of railways in this country shows that the network pattern first appeared in Ohio. Manufacturing is invariably stimulated by shipping facilities. Excellent transportation service for decades has been available for producers in this state. Furthermore, the geographic center of population, now in Indiana, has been in and near Ohio for sixty years. Convenience of raw material, accessibility of markets through shipping facilities for finished products, and stability in the supply of labor insured by a normal equilibrium between wages and the cost of reasonable living are essential conditions to a state's maintaining its rank in manufacturing.

The first blast furnace in Ohio was built in 1804 in Mahoning County. The number of furnaces gradually increased throughout the area of the Logan and Pottsville formations which contain the meager iron ore. Limestone is also quite liberally distributed in this same region. Charcoal was used in these furnaces for over two decades, after which coal slowly supplanted wood. Local demands for cooking stoves and other simple necessities stimulated the initial working of these ores. To some extent, the finished product was shipped outside the state. Ohio, ever since these early days, has continued to give an annual output of iron ore, but the supply ceased years ago to be of relative importance.

While fertility of soil insuring a cheap food-supply, and easy topography inviting modern transportation methods, and mobility of labor sustaining manufactories, are of prime importance to industrial growth, nevertheless environment has had much to do in the development of states. The environment here referred to involves the extent to which adjacent commonwealths have either responded to their physiography >r have made progress in spite of it. Up to the present time, however, ,' Ohio owes but little of its development to mere geographic situation. But extraneous influences will be of increasing importance in the commercial future of the state. I refer especially to the midway position that Ohio's lake ports occupy in reference to its own and the Appalachian coal fields, and the Superior iron areas. At the present time Ohio stands second only to Pennsylvania in its annual output of steel and