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Rh front wheels FF of the automobile are pushed against the ground with excessive force by the gyrostatic reaction of the fly-wheel in Fig. 15. When the automobile is turning to the left, as shown in Fig. 16, the gyrostatic reaction of the fly-wheel causes the rear wheels BB of the automobile to be pushed against the ground with excessive force.

When an automobile runs over a bump in the road, no gyrostatic action is produced if the engine shaft is crosswise of the car, but very severe gyrostatic action may be produced if the engine shaft is fore and aft, as shown in Fig. 17. In the vector diagram of Fig. 17,

S represents the spin-momentum of the fly-wheel at a given instant, S'represents the spin-momentum at a later instant, ΔS represents the increment of spin-momentum, and the arrow T represents the torque which must act upon the fly-wheel shaft. In order to produce the torque T, the bearing a must push the front end of the engine axle to the left (with reference to the driver), and the bearing b must push the rear end of the engine axle to the right (with reference to the driver); or, in other words, the front end of the engine axle pushes to the right against the bearing a, and the rear end of the engine axle pushes to the left against the bearing b. Thus, there is a tendency for the front end of the car to be suddenly thrown to the right, when the car rises upon the bump, and the supporting springs of the car body are subjected to a skew action which is apt to break them.

There has been designed and placed upon the market an automobile in which the engine shaft is vertical. This obviates all gyrostatic action in the turning of curves, but it does not reduce the severe gyrostatic reactions when the car runs over a bump.

Fig. 18 is a top view of a side-wheel steamer which is represented as turning to the right as indicated by the curved dotted arrow. The arrow S in the vector diagram represents the spin-momentum of the paddle wheels and shaft at a given instant, S' represents the spin-momentum at a later instant, ΔS represents the increment of


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28, and the arrow T represents the torque which must act upon the paddle-wheel shaft. To produce this torque the bearing a must push upwards on the crank shaft, and the bearing b must push downwards on the crank shaft, or in other words, the crank shaft must push downwards on bearing a and upwards on bearing b, so that the gyrostatic reaction of the paddle wheels and crank shaft causes the boat to list, sinking the side OO of the boat deeper into the water as it turns round in the direction of the curved arrow in Fig. 18.

Fig. 19 is a side view of a boat driven by a steam turbine and propeller. The most serious gyrostatic action occurs in this case when the boat is pitching violently in a rough sea, and Fig. 19 is intended to represent the bow of the boat as rising as represented by the curved dotted arrow. Under these conditions the arrow S in the vector diagram represents the spin-momentum of the steam turbine and propeller shaft at a given instant, S' represents the spin-momentum at a later

instant, ΔS represents the increment of spin-momentum, and the

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Rh arrow T represents the torque which must act on the propeller shaft. This torque is exerted upon the propeller shaft by the bearings as indicated by the arrows FF' in the top view, Fig. 20. The high speed and great weight of the rotating parts of a steam turbine represent a very great spin-momentum (arrows S and S' in Fig. 19

very long) so that the increment of spin-momentum ΔS which corresponds to a given angular movement of the ship is very considerable, and the torque T is great. Therefore the forces FF' in Fig. 20 may be very great. These forces are transmitted to the bearings of the propeller shaft through the hull of the vessel from the middle and forward parts of the vessel, and therefore excessive stresses may be brought into existence in the hull. It is supposed that the loss of the

British torpedo boat Viper several years ago in a rough sea was due to this action.

Figs. 21 and 22 represent the details of the gyrostatic action of a high-speed steam engine, such as is used for driving dynamos on board ship, the shaft of the engine being athwartship. In Fig. 21 the ship is represented as rolling in the direction of the curved dotted arrow, and T in the vector diagram represents the torque which must act upon the engine shaft. The details of this torque action are shown in Fig.


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32 it with its side flat against the air. This may be shown by dropping a thin paper disk through the air or by blowing a blast of air against a disk which is pivoted about a diameter as an axis. Fig. 25 represents

a thin metal disk DD which is thrown in the direction of the arrow V and at the same time set spinning in the direction of the curved arrow S, the thrower standing at MM. Figs. 26 and 27 are top views

of the disk. Fig. 26 shows the disk starting to glance to the right (with reference to the thrower at M), and Fig. 27 shows the disk starting to glance to the left (with reference to the thrower at M). This glancing action of the disk causes the air to exert upon the

disk a torque about a vertical axis in Figs. 26 and 27, which torque is represented by the forces FF in Fig. 26 and by the forces F'F' in Fig. 27. This torque would turn the disk flatwise against the air if the disk were not spinning, but the effect of the torque on the spinning


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Rh disk is to cause precession, the axis of spin of the disk in Figs. 26 and 27 turns towards the vertical, bringing the right-hand side (with reference to the thrower) of the disk in Fig. 26 upwards and bringing the left-hand side of the disk in Fig. 27 upwards.

Fig. 28 represents a propeller-wheel boomerang. In the following discussion the propeller is supposed to be right-handed, that is to say, if it were set spinning in the direction of the curved arrow S in Fig. 28, it would blow air towards the reader like a desk fan. Fig. 28 represents the boomerang as it leaves the hands of the thrower, who is supposed to be standing at MM, V being the direction in which the boomerang is thrown, and the curved arrow S representing the direction in which the boomerang is set spinning. The upper vane of the

boomerang in Fig. 28 is traveling forwards at a greater velocity than the lower vane, because the forward velocity of the upper vane is the velocity of forward motion of the boomerang plus a forward velocity Sr which is due to the spinning motion of the boomerang, whereas the forward velocity of the lower vane is the forward velocity of the boomerang minus Sr. Fig. 29 is a top view of the boomerang as it leaves the hand of the thrower at M, V is the velocity of forward motion of the boomerang, and the arrow S represents the spin of the boomerang. The arrow F represents the force with which the air pushes sidewise against the upper vane because of propeller action. A force pushes sidewise in the same 'direction on the lower vane because of propeller action, but the sidewise force on the upper vane is the greater because of the greater velocity of the upper vane. The inequality of these forces constitutes a torque upon the boomerang, and this torque is represented by the arrow T in Fig. 29. The effect of


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 the right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction of their  leaders ” At Benavente one of Napoleon’s best cavalry leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoëttes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget’s last service in the Peninsula. His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to 1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented almost continuously up to his father’s death in 1812, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of Napoleon’s return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Quatre Bras to Waterloo on the 17th of June, and on the 18th gained the crowning distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D’Erlon’s corps d’armée (see ). Freely exposing his own life throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.

In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against Queen Caroline made him for a time unpopular, and when he was on one occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout “The Queen,” he added the wish, “May all your wives be like her.” At the close of April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws, to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed to those of the government. He saw clearly that the time was come when the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey’s administration in November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on the difficult subject, and in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education, the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement he remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of government. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his advancement to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years before, he exchanged his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons which he had held over forty years, for that of the Royal Horse Guards. He died on the 29th of April 1854.

The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two sons and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters by the second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate; but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd, 4th and 5th marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in 1905, when the title passed to his cousin.

Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army and the navy. Of the first marquess’s brothers one, (1778–1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy; another, General  (1775–1849), won great distinction by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna, and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the marquess’s sons by his second marriage, (1811–1895), became an admiral; another,  (1818–1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea. In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871 lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean journals were published in 1881. ANGLESEY, or, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor, is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits (Afon Menai), over which were thrown Telford’s suspension bridge, in 1826, and the Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with slight risings such as Parys, Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e. “chair of the monastery”; there is a Nanner, “convent,” not far away) and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility, and there are few industries.

As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the surface in three areas:—(1) a western region including Holyhead and Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Trefdraeth, and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough, Caerwen and Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses carboniferous rocks are found. The carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangefni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron

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34 this torque during a short interval of time is to produce an increment of spin-momentum AS, and the addition of this increment of spin momentum to the previously existing spin-momentum S gives a resultant spin-momentum S'. That is to say, the effect of the torque T is to cause the axis of spin to sweep around in the direction of the curved dotted arrow.

Fig. 30 shows a view as seen from above of an actual flight of the boomerang. The boomerang leaves the thrower at M with its plane approximately vertical, and the effect of the torque T of Fig. 29 is to cause the axis of spin of the boomerang to sweep about a vertical axis as represented by the curved dotted arrow in Fig. 29, thus tending to make the boomerang glance around a circular horizontal path. At the same time the boomerang acts more or less like a disk as represented in Figs. 25 and 27, and this action slowly brings the axis of spin of the boomerang into a vertical position (plane of boomerang horizontal). As the plane of the boomerang comes into an approximately horizontal position toward the end of its circular flight, the torque which is produced by propeller action (see Figs. 28 and 29) produces precessional motion which tends to raise the forward edge a and lower the backward edge b of the boomerang, thus causing the boomerang to tend to glance upwards. This tendency of the boomerang to glance upwards is helped by the propeller action of the boomerang, that is to say, the


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Rh boomerang, spinning in the direction of the arrows SS, Fig. 30, tends to climb upwards through the air. The result is that the curve of flight as shown in Fig. 30 is approximately a horizontal circle, the drooping of the curve of flight which would normally be produced by

gravity being counteracted by the tendency of the boomerang to glance upwards and the tendency of the boomerang to climb upwards as specified.

Fig. 31 represents a spinning wheel hung upon a vertical axis from a hinge which permits the axis to swing to and fro in the plane of the keel of the ship (plane of paper in Fig. 31), the lower end of the axle being guided between two parallel bars. If the spin-momentum of the wheel were sufficiently great, all rolling motion of the ship could be eliminated, and the ship would heel over into a position for which the average heeling or rolling torque would be equal to zero; thus, the


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36 spin-momentum produced by an unbalanced torque T' would be completely absorbed by the precessional motion of the spinning wheel as its axis of spin turns in the direction of the curved dotted arrow P', and the spin-momentum produced by an unbalanced torque T" would

be completely absorbed by the precessional motion of the spinning wheel as its axis of spin turns in the direction of the curved dotted arrow P".

To completely hinder the rolling motion of a ship in this way would require the use of a very large wheel rotating at high speed. Thus a rolling torque (T' or T" in Fig. 31) equivalent to 200 tons placed 10 feet to one side of the axis of the ship and continuing for only one tenth of a second would represent the whole amount of spin-momentum


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Rh contained in a solid steel disk 2 feet thick, 10 feet in diameter and rotating at a speed of 144 revolutions per minute; and therefore this amount of rolling torque continued for one tenth of a second would bring the axle of such a wheel into a horizontal position so that any further continuation of the torque would cause the ship to roll.

The rolling motion of a ship, however, is largely an oscillatory motion which is slowly built up by a succession of waves in synchronism with the proper period of rolling motion, and excessive rolling may therefore be prevented by an action which tends to hinder the oscillations by friction. A very considerable amount of frictional damping may be produced by a moderately small gyrostat arranged as shown in Pig. 32 (plane of paper in Pig. 32 is a vertical plane containing the keel of the ship). In this case the rolling motion of the ship causes the pendant wheel and axle to oscillate to and fro in the plane of the keel, and these oscillations are hindered by the motion of a piston in a dash-pot as indicated in the figure.

Before discussing the Brennan gyrostatic mechanism for maintaining the equilibrium of a monorail car, let us consider the action of the apparatus shown in Figs. 33 to 36, a gyrostat wheel mounted in a frame aa which in turn is pivoted in a larger frame BB, the whole

being supported upon two legs, one behind the other, as seen in the figures. Standing in the position shown in Fig. 33, the framework is acted upon by the unbalanced pull of the earth which produces a torque; the spin-momentum which is continually produced by this torque is absorbed by a precessional motion P of the gyrostat wheel as it


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38 turns from the position shown in Fig. 33 to the position shown in Fig. 34, and the reaction of this precessional motion produces the two forces FF, Fig. 33, which keep the frame from falling over. When the gyrostat wheel reaches the position shown in Fig. 34, however, the precession ceases and the frame-structure falls over. Standing in the position shown in Fig. 35, the framework is acted upon by the unbalanced pull of the earth, which produces a torque, the spin momentum which is continually produced by this torque is absorbed by the precessional motion P' of the gyrostat wheel as it turns from the position shown in Fig. 35 to the position shown in Fig. 36, and the reaction of this precessional motion produces the two forces F'F', Fig. 35, which keep the frame from falling over. When the gyrostat

wheel reaches the position shown in Fig. 36, however, the precession ceases and the frame-structure falls over. Suppose the handle h in Figs. 33 and 34 to be forcibly turned in the direction of the precessional motion P. This hastened precession causes the reactions FF to be more than enough to hold the inclined frame in position, and the result is to bring the frame into a vertical position, or, if the precession is hastened sufficiently, to throw the frame-structure over into the reverse position as shown in Fig. 35, thus starting the reversed precession P'. This hastened precession is the essential feature of the Brennan gyrostatic mechanism and it is brought about automatically as explained in the following discussion.

The essential features of the Brennan mechanism are shown in Fig. 37. The car body BB' supports a rocker-axle which is parallel to the rail or rope W upon which the car stands. A steel frame FFFF is supported upon the rocker-axle O, and the two gyrostat wheels are


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Rh carried in two smaller frames ff and f'f which are free to turn about the precession axles P and P. The axles of spin of the gyrostat wheels are ss and s's', and these axles project as shown at A and A'. The two gyrostat wheels spin in the direction of motion of the hands of a clock as seen from the outer ends of the axles of spin A and A', respectively. The precession axles P and P are geared together by sectors of gear wheels G and G'. The frame FFFF is hindered from turning about the rocker-axis by the tables H, L, H and L'; the tables H and L extend backwards from the plane of the paper, and the tables L and H extend forwards from the plane of the paper.

The action of this mechanism is as follows: Suppose side B' of the car body to be the heavier. The pull of gravity on this heavier side produces spin-momentum about the rail W as an axis, and this spin momentum is absorbed by the precessional motion of the gyrostat wheels, causing both ends of the axles of spin A and A' to move away from the reader in the figure. The unbalanced car, however, in tending to tip over (side B overloaded), brings the projecting axle A into contact with the table H, the rolling action of the axle A upon the table H hastens the precessional motion, and this hastened precession raises the side B and lowers the side B of the car-frame, as explained


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40 in connection with Figs. 33 to 36. This action continues until side B is heavier than side B′, when the reversed unbalanced condition of the car body causes a reversed precessional movement of the gyrostat wheels. This reversed precession continues steadily and unhastened so long as the heavy side B is balanced by the contact of the idle wheel i′ with the table L′, that is, until the projecting ends of the axles of spin A and A′ are brought forwards (in the figure) into the plane of the paper. Then the continuation of the reversed precession brings the axle A′ upon the table H′, the reversed precessional motion is then hastened, and this hastened precession raises the side B and lowers the side B′ of the car-frame, thus bringing the car-frame into its initial unbalanced condition (side B′ heavier than side B). The above-described action is then repeated, and so on.

The stability of the Brennan car is due to the hastened precession which is caused by rolling action of one or the other of the projecting axles of spin upon the tables H and H′, while the axles of spin are departing from a line at right angles to the length of the car, and to the steady and unhastened precession, while the axles of spin are moving towards a line at right angles to the length of the car. The hastened precession on the one hand quickly alters the condition of balance of the car so as to limit the departure of the axles of spin from a line at right angles to the length of the car, and the steady and unhastened precession, on the other hand, insures the complete return of the axles of spin to a line at right angles to the length of the car.

The hastened precession is accomplished with great friction losses by the rolling axles A and A′ in Fig. 37, and it is reported that Brennan is working upon an automatic motor-driven mechanism to produce the hastened precession without exhausting the energy of the gyrostat wheels.

Two devices like Fig. 37 with their rocker-axles at right angles to each other would hold a one-legged body in equilibrium; indeed, such a double mechanism would make it possible to use a one-wheeled car, but the wheel would have to have a deep double flange to make it roll along a rope or rail. Such a one-wheeled car, a sort of hyper-wheelbarrow car, would be of no value for practical use, and, indeed, most of us believe that Brennan's two-wheeled car is nothing more than a scientific toy.

Let n be the revolutions per second of a spinning wheel, P the revolutions per second (or the fraction of a revolution per second) of the axis of spin due to the precession, and K the moment of inertia of the spinning wheel in pound $$\times$$ feet squared. Then the torque reaction is equal to $$\scriptstyle 4\pi^{2}nPK$$ poundal-feet or $$\scriptstyle \frac{1}{2}\pi^{2}nPK$$ pound-feet.


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Rh

Catalysis, Colloids and Chemical Purity.—When chemical change can be produced in a system by the mere presence of small quantities of another substance which itself usually remains unchanged at the end of the process, such an effect is called catalysis and the agent employed a catalytic agent. Of the varied aspects of catalytic processes we have different examples in the decomposition of substances by the presence of finely divided metals like platinum or colloidal nickel, in the rapid evolution of oxygen from potassium chlorate when a small quantity of manganese dioxide is present, in the solution of insoluble chromic chloride through the mere presence of chromous chloride, in the inversion of cane sugar by acids, in the saponification of fats and esters, in the synthesis of indigo by oxidation of naphthalin, in the standard manufacture of sulphuric acid in the leaden chambers and the later improvements of the method through the presence of platinum or ferrous oxide, in catatyptic photography without light, in the reversible physiologic and therapeutic action of the animal and vegetable ferments and enzymes, in the synthesis of nuclein during the development of the embryo, and in the pathologic effects of poisons, venoms Mid the toxins of disease. Many theories of catalytic action have been advanced, of which the earliest and most original is that of Leibig. Liebig supposes catalysis to be due to the fact that the catalytic agent has power, like that of a tuning fork, to set up sympathetic molecular vibrations in the substance acted upon, producing chemical change. This theory has been proscribed by Ostwald because, being a figment of the mind, it is neither capable of proof nor susceptible of refutation, leading the subject into a blind alley, from which further scientific advance is impossible. It has therefore remained, like Hamlet's father, "quietly inurned," as a beautiful, imaginative hypothesis which we can neither prove nor disprove. Of other theories of catalysis the most important is that of Ostwald himself, summed up in his famous definition: A catalytic agent is one which modifies the velocity of a chemical reaction without appearing in its final process. This statement introduces two new ideas, the notion of infinite swiftness and infinite slowness in chemical change and the fact that catalytic change may be brought about by a series of intermediate reactions. It will be seen that Ostwald's definition is elastic enough to include as


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42 catalytic agencies such physical forces as light, electricity, extremes of heat or cold or the action of living tissues, and from this point of view the explosion of a cartridge or a charge of dynamite by percussion, the decomposition of water by electrolysis and its synthesis by the electric spark, the effects of light in photography and in healing disease, the wonderful thermodynamic effects of Henri Moissan's electric furnace, the occasional changes of food in cold storage, are further examples or analogues of catalytic action, and this is all we know of its physical nature. As to a dynamic explanation of how catalysis takes place, we have not got beyond the familiar jest of the laboratories: "Q. What is catalysis? A. Action by contact. Q. What is action by contact? A. Catalytic action." Gibbs's treatment of the subject is interesting as affording a mathematical criterion of what catalysis is and what it is not. It will be remembered that when the entropy of an isolated chemical system, say a bar of steel, has attained a maximum or its free energy a minimum value, the final state of the substance in question has been called by Gibbs a "phase of dissipated energy," implying that it has become physically and chemically inert, so that its equilibrium will not be sensibly disturbed by the presence of other substances or by such small physical agencies as an electric spark. But when the proportion of the proximate components of the substance in connection with its pressure and temperature is such that it does not constitute a phase of dissipated energy, the contact of a very small body or physical agency may produce energetic changes in its mass which do not stop short of complete dissipation. This is catalysis, and Gibbs's definition of a catalytic agent—one capable of reducing a substance to a phase of dissipated energy without limitation as to their relative proportions—is characteristic of the mathematician. A chemical system at constant temperature has several states of equilibrium corresponding to different minima of its isothermal potentials, and on the solid diagrams of Gibbs these minima are valleys at the bottoms of sloping curves. The effect of a catalytic agent on the diagram is to obliterate the ridge between two depressions representing different states of equilibrium on the free energy surface. This means that a system disturbed by a catalytic agent may pass from a higher to a lower minimum of free energy, but never from a lower to a higher unless acted upon by external forces of considerable magnitude. When the lowest minimum of free energy, indicated by the lowest depression on the diagram, has been attained, the substance can no more leave the final phase of dissipated energy than an inert body can be made to go up a hill without the intervention of external forces. On Gibbs's showing, the phase of dissipated energy is the criterion of catalytic action, the condition for which is that the substance acted upon should not have attained such a phase, while the forces operating flow, as in other mechanical, thermal, chemical or electric happenings, from higher to lower potentials. The accuracy of this reasoning is


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Rh borne out by Emil Fischer's researches in structural chemistry, which show that the intrinsic stability of chemical systems is usually such that it can not be disturbed by "intramolecular wobble," chemical change being brought about by extramolecular or catalytic influences. The mathematical treatment of catalysis gives us a deeper insight into phenomena which no one has as yet succeeded in explaining. "We have not," says Bancroft, "the first suggestion of an adequate theory of catalysis" so essential to a better understanding of chemistry and of life itself. A true theory of catalysis will enable us to solve the problem of the transmutation of the elements, of which we have already had examples in the substances derived from radium, and the recent derivation of tellurium from copper by Sir William Ramsay. The action of animal and vegetable protoplasm is probably catalytic and the chemist can now make some vegetable substances, such as indigo or alizarine, more cheaply and purely than the plants themselves do. Could we substitute inorganic catalyzers for the vegetable enzymes and ferments in all cases, we might, as Bancroft points out, duplicate everything except the plant itself. Recently Loeb has interpreted the fact that some eggs can be developed by osmotic pressure alone, while others require fertilization, by the explanation that, in the former class the nuclein synthesis, which is necessary for segmentation, is started within the nucleus as a catalytic process, one of the products of the reaction being the catalyzer itself; while eggs requiring fertilization are such that the necessary nuclein synthesis must be started by some external catalytic agency. Again catalysis is the key to the causes and treatment of infectious diseases, the toxins and antitoxins of which are probably colloidal catalytic agents. A few drops of such a colloid as cobra venom will rapidly reduce a living animal body to a definite phase of dissipated energy, as far as its vital activity (or "free energy ") is concerned, and such catalysts as colloidal metals, which Bredig has shown to act exactly like the ferments and enzymes, can themselves be "poisoned" or rendered inert by other substances, just as toxins, venoms and poisons can be neutralized by antitoxins or other antidotes. Gibbs did not discuss colloids explicitly, because substances of such indefinite or irregular formation do not admit of mathematical treatment as such, but the physics of what we know of their intimate structure is implicit in his chapters on chemical conditions obtaining at surfaces of discontinuity. Colloids are semi-solid substances, and colloidal solutions are "pseudo-solutions," being suspensions of minute, discrete particles of matter which are not true solutions, in that they obstruct the passage of light, while neither the freezing point nor the vapor tension of the solvent can be sensibly lowered. Graham thought of colloids as dynamic phases of matter, possessing internal energy, while crystalloids are static and inert. The former include reversible colloids like gelatine which, heated with warm water, will upon cooling solidify


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44 into a "gel," and redissolve upon heating into a colloidal solution or "sol"; and irreversible colloids, which, when heated with warm water, will coagulate at once into an unchangeable precipitate. Living protoplasm, as Darwin has shown in his experiments upon Drosera and other plants, acts exactly like a reversible colloid. Dead protoplasm, such as a coagulated blood clot, is an irreversible colloid consisting of a fixed network, the meshes of which contain the "sol." There is no evidence of internal structure in living protoplasm, and Hardy supposes that structure in dead protoplasm is produced by submortem or postmortem changes associated with coagulation. Whether the phase rule can be applied to colloids is still an open question bound up with the complex nature of bodies of which we know so little. But recently Siedentopf and Zsigismony have shown that colloidal metals, organic ferments and enzymes are systems in two phases of vast surface tension consisting of suspensions of ultra-microscopic particles acted upon by chemical, thermodynamic and electric potentials. Of such suspensions animal and vegetable bodies are largely made up, protoplasm being a sort of microscopic emulsion, the physiological action of which seems to be bound up with chemical, thermal, electric and osmotic changes between its semi-permeable membranes and surfaces of discontinuity and the various surface tensions and surface energies derived from the free energy of chemical or electric change. If we conceive of colloidal solutions as made up in this way, each tiniest particle being an ultramicroscopic furnace, retort or battery in itself and carrying a definite charge of electricity, we can understand how Liebig's theory of sympathetic vibrations might be applicable to colloidal catalysis at least, and how finely divided metals, serpent venoms or the excretions of microorganisms can produce the extraordinary effects they do. In close connection with the theory of catalysis is the nature of chemical purity and the fact that chemical changes rarely proceed directly to their final product, but usually pass through a series of intermediate stages. For a long time chemists have noticed that absolutely dry or pure substances will not interact directly upon each other, but the cooperation of a third substance is necessary for chemical change. Dried chlorine does not of itself act upon copper and other metals, but the presence of a little moisture will cause it to act upon them at once. A mixture of carbonic acid and oxygen is not explosive when thoroughly dry, but the slightest trace of steam will cause an explosion. The rapid solubility of zinc in sulphuric acid depends upon impurities in the former. Ebullition depends largely upon gaseous impurities in the boiling substance. Absolutely pure or distilled water has no digestive value, but, by its absorptive power, acts as an irritant or poison to the lining membrane of the stomach. Traces of moisture or other impurities have therefore a marked catalytic effect, a theory of catalysis which was first advanced as early as 1794 by Mrs. Fulhame in her "Essay


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Rh on Combustion." Where water is the impurity, thermodynamic change is supposed to be due to electrolysis: the moisture being the necessary third ingredient for producing a little Voltaic circuit and the electric shock precipitating chemical action as in catalysis. The phase rule, Bancroft reminds us, has taught us to look upon an absolutely pure substance, 100 per cent, strong, as the extreme case of a two-component system, in which the concentration of the second component approaches zero as its limit. Gibbs has shown that in a system of two phases, one component of which is very small, the chemical potential of the dilute component is proportional to the logarithm of its density. As the density of the smaller component becomes less and less, its potential tends to an infinite value, which means that, at the limit, when concentration becomes evanescent, "the removal of the last traces of any impurity would demand infinite expenditure of available energy." From the view-point of mathematical chemistry there are many chemical substances that are relatively and approximately pure, but absolute purity of a chemical nature is, in Whetham's dictum, a more often a pious dream than an accomplished fact."

Ideal Gases and Gas-Mixtures.—It is in the physics of gases that the application of the molecular theory has proved most successful and the laws and equations relating to gaseous states are of considerable accuracy owing to the fact that practically all gases act alike. Although Gibbs made no explicit assumptions as to molecular dynamics, his treatment of gaseous states agrees so well with the kinetic theory that Boltzmann thought he must have had the latter constantly before his mind in framing his fundamental equations. These equations are unique in that Gibbs subjected them to an unusual test of accuracy by comparing their calculated densities of gas mixtures with convertible components with the actual measurements for nitrogen peroxide, acetic and formic acids and phosphorus perchloride by Sainte-Claire-Deville, Horstmann and others. In the case of nitrogen peroxide the difference between the observed and calculated densities scarcely exceeded.01 on the average and was not greater than.03 in any case. The agreement between the theoretical and actual values was equally striking for the other gases, and these results are among the most accurate and satisfactory in the history of physical chemistry. Interesting features of this section of Gibbs's work are his interpretation of


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46 Dalton's law as implying that "every gas is as a vacuum to every other gas," his anticipation of van't Hoff's equation in the form of Henry's law for dilute solutions of gases in liquids and his genial discussion of gas-mixtures, known in Germany as,

The Paradox of Gibbs. —If two different gases which can be separated reversibly by quicklime or other process are allowed to mix, a certain definite amount of work or available energy will be gained; but if two gases, which are in every respect identical, are allowed to mix, they could not be separated by any reversible process and there would consequently be no gain of available energy in their mixing nor any dissipation of energy (increase of entropy). But if we suppose two gases which differ only infinitesimally to mix, the first condition would still obtain and there would still be a certain gain of available energy. The question arises, what will happen if we proceed to the limit? Maxwell explained this paradox by saying that our ideas of dissipation of energy depend upon the extent of our knowledge of the subject. Could we invoke Maxwell's demon and borrow his gift of molecular vision, we should perceive that when two identical gases mix there is in reality a complete dissipation of energy, which the demon's intelligence might turn into available energy if he liked; for "it is only to a being in the intermediate stage who can lay hold of some forms of energy, while others elude his grasp, that energy appears to be passing inevitably from the available to the dissipated state." In the reasoning of energetics, the paradox is explained by saying that the more nearly alike the gases are, the slower will be the process of diffusion, so that work or available energy might indeed be gained, but only after the lapse of indefinite or infinite time, if we have such time at our disposal.

Theory of Capillarity, Liquid Films and Interfacial Phenomena.—There are two important theories of capillary action, that of Laplace, based upon the assumption that the play of molecular forces in a liquid is only possible at insensible or ultra-micrometric distances, and that of Gauss, based upon the doctrine of energy. Gibbs's exhaustive discussion of capillarity, which takes up at least one third of his memoir, is the thermodynamic or chemical completion of the purely dynamic theory of Gauss. A capillary film or interfacial layer forms a new "phase" between the two substances on either side of it, and the mathematical condition for the formation of a new chemical substance at such an interface or "surface of discontinuity" is expressible as an algebraic relation between the surface tensions of the three layers of substance and the pressure of the three phases, the surface tensions


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Rh being functions of the temperature and the chemical potentials. The only stable substance which can be formed between two other phases will be the one having the least surface tension. The chemical equilibrium of solids in contact with liquids, including the delicate mathematical conditions for the formation of crystals in mother liquor, is treated dynamically as a matter of stresses and strains, and this together with the theory of interfacial formations and liquid films will embrace the possible physics of colloid substances. Gibbs gives for the first time a mathematical discussion of the mode of formation of liquid films and the conditions for their stability and his dynamic explanation of the black spots on soap films was proved quantitatively in 1887 by Reinold and Rücker's micrometric data of the relations between the thickness and surface tension of these films. The importance of liquid films in biology is obvious, and this phase of Gibbs's theory, which is capable of the widest development, has as yet received the slightest attention.

Electrochemical Thermodynamics.—One of the most important features of energetics is Gibbs's theory of the galvanic cell which shows the close interrelation existing between chemical, thermal and electric energy. The earliest pioneer in this field was Lord Kelvin, and, prior to 1878, physicists had accepted the Joule-Kelvin theory that the electromotive force of a galvanic apparatus is the mechanical equivalent of the total chemical energy liberated per unit strength in unit time. But this view, which implies that all the electric energy of a chemical cell is available, did not agree entirely with the experimental data of Boscha, Raoult and others. It was corrected and modified by Gibbs, who showed that the electromotive force of the cell is in reality its free energy per electrochemical equivalent of decomposition, from which it follows that neither solidification nor fusion of the metals at the temperature of liquefaction should cause any abrupt alteration of the electromotive force. In 1882, six years later, this important theorem was rediscovered from a different view-point by Helmholtz and brilliantly developed as to experimental confirmation. The Gibbs Helmholtz doctrine enables the physicist to trace out the variations in electromotive force due to chemical differences in different cells. In a letter to Professor Bancroft, now printed in the memorial edition, Gibbs connects the mathematical part of his theory of the electric cell with the fundamental principles of physical chemistry, the theories of van't Hoff and Arrhenius, Nernst's osmotic theory of the Voltaic cell


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48 and the equations of Ostwald and van der Waals. But perhaps his most important contributions to the theory of electricity are the two papers on electrochemical thermodynamics which he sent to the British Association in 1886 and 1888; Helmholtz, in his well-known formula for electromotive force, gives a relation such that if a cell be set up, and the reversible heat measured, the electromotive force need not be measured, but may be calculated from these data, or vice versa. In Gibbs's rendement of the perfect (or reversible) galvanic cell, both the electromotive force and the reversible heat can be predicted from his equation without the necessity of setting up any cell at all. "Production of reversible heat," says Gibbs, "is not anything incidental, superposed or separable, but belongs to the very essence of the operation." In discussing the matter in 1887, Sir Oliver Lodge raised the question whether Professor Gibbs was not regarding a galvanic cell as "too simply a heat engine" or assuming that the union of the elements in a cell primarily produces heat and secondarily propels a current. Gibbs replied that "in supposing such a case we do not exceed the liberty usually allowed in theoretical discussions" and proceeded to show, in an ingenious demonstration, that Helmholtz's equation flows as a natural consequence from his own earlier results. The accuracy of his reasoning is sustained by such developments of the subject as the "Peltier effect," in which it is demonstrated that the thermoelectric effect in systems of conductors, in which no chemical action takes place, is still proportional to the absolute temperature at any junction. In general the properties of a thermoelectric system are determined by the entropy function, and the entropy and energy in a thermoelectric network are not, as previously supposed, stored in the conductors, but, as we see in the electric transmission of motor power from a waterfall like Niagara to an engine or railway car, actually travel with the moving charge of electricity itself. In short, "entropy can be located in an electric charge."

Such are a few of the mathematical and physical consequences flowing from the single idea of entropy, and they are sufficient to define the position of Gibbs in the history of thermodynamics. In the establishment of the dynamical theory of heat, says Larmor, "The name of Carnot has a place by itself; in the completion of its earlier physical stage the names of Joule and Clausius and Kelvin stand out by common consent; it is, perhaps, not too much to say that, by the final adaptation of its ideas to all reversible natural operations, the name of Gibbs takes a place alongside theirs."


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Rh

AVE the dentists waked up? Some of them have. A new order of the "Knights of the Forceps" has been formed, called the "Orthodontists" (tooth straighteners). At last accounts there were sixty of them in America, as compared to 50,000 simple dentists. And what does it all mean? If I can compress a great deal of information into a limited space I can, perhaps, explain it and I think that it may be possible to make it clear why the movement is so important. Dr. Osier has said that the question of preserving the teeth is more important than the liquor question. When one reflects that a great deal of intemperance is caused by dyspepsia, with its mental and physical deterioration, and that the underlying cause of much of the generally prevalent dyspepsia is the decayed and defective teeth, which preclude complete mastication of the food (even if anybody in America had the time to eat properly), the solid truth of Dr. Osier's remark begins to dawn upon us.

Now the dentists, like the doctors, have begun to realize that their true mission is not "a general repairing business," but a systematic and well-considered effort to prevent and forestall the wholesale decay and loss of human teeth. Perhaps some idea of the very general use of false teeth may be gathered from the statement that 20,000,000 of them are exported from America to England every year. When we consider that probably not more than half of the inhabitants of that country indulge in the luxury of false teeth, no matter how many "grinders" they may have lost, these figures would seem to indicate that nearly every one in England suffers from defective or missing teeth. Observations so far as they have been carried in the United States show the same deplorable state of affairs.

A great many more or less ingenious explanations have been advanced from time to time, to account for this, as well as for the fact that so few Americans have regularly disposed teeth and well-shaped jaws. Our English friends have made much sport of our "hatchet faces," "lantern jaws" and the nasal tones of our voices. We are told that such an admixture of races, as is gradually taking place in our country, is the cause of our poor teeth. Nobody seems to know why it should be so. In fact, such a result is directly opposite to nature's beneficent course in admixtures of different races and species, where


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50 the tendency is to preserve the best and strongest features and eliminate the weak and faulty ones. I remember an elaborate article in some magazine, some years ago, which explained the great prevalence of poor teeth in America by saying, that they are caused by our habit of shaving our faces, while the orientals have sore and weak eyes because they shave their heads. The filth in which the latter live was not taken into account, nor the fact that the American women, who do not shave, have as bad teeth as the men.

A rather ingenious explanation of the marked disproportion between the size of the teeth and that of the jaw in many Americans, as for example, large teeth in small jaws, so that the former are crowded out of position and overlap one another, is that the big teeth are inherited from one parent and the small jaws from the other. This sounds plausible and since no systematic effort has, so far as I know, been made to find out the truth of the matter, it has been tentatively accepted for want of a better explanation of an exceedingly common phenomenon.

Recently some good observers, notably Dr. Sim Wallace and Dr. Harry Campbell, of England, have said that the trouble is not hereditary at all, but begins in each person's babyhood, and that our teeth are poor and irregular and our jaws contracted because we do not exercise these parts sufficiently from infancy to manhood; especially from weaning until six years of age, when the permanent teeth begin to erupt. In support of this statement they point out that the first set of teeth is practically never irregular, never overlaps and is very seldom defective. The beautiful lines of a baby's face are not distorted by irregular or protruding teeth, nor sunken by reason of the non-support of sufficiently wide jaws. The teeth of savages, Hottentots and Esquimaux are almost invariably excellent, and their jaws and tongues are wider and stronger than ours. This has been proved by the measurement of thousands of skulls as well as by observations upon the living inhabitants of the tropics and the arctic regions.

Dr. Campbell also points out that the frequent occurrence of adenoids in young children is caused by feeding them chiefly "pap." He calls this the "pap age." The good old-fashioned plan of chewing sufficiently hard and dry food to properly exercise and develop the jaws and teeth, seems to have been abandoned in our effete civilization. Instead of the honest "johnny cake" (called in the south "corn pone" or "hoe cake") upon which such sturdy characters as Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln were wont to subsist—and, by the way, the American negro had good teeth and practically escaped tuberculosis so long as he lived upon simple corn bread and bacon and the vegetables and fruits from the plantation. I started to say, however, instead of corn bread and Boston brown bread and rye and "injun" bread, the breads of our grandfathers, which required mastication and insalivation


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Rh before they could be swallowed, our children now are fed on "previously cooked" breakfast foods, infant foods and other starchy viands, which may differ in name and flavor; but agree in two characteristics, viz., that they pander to lazy housekeeping, by requiring very little preparation for the table, and, secondly, require little or no mastication, before swallowing. Wetted with milk or cream they "slip down" very easily, and are landed in a stomach not prepared for a deluge of unchewed and non-insalivated starchy food. Hence the common cry of "starch indigestion." This is not wonderful because the proper digestion of starchy food must begin in the mouth, and is impossible without complete mastication. We are told in Science that in feeding meal to calves, "it must be spread" thinly upon the bottom of the troughs so that it will be eaten slowly and insalivated." This is only one instance out of many where man's commercial instinct has taught him an invaluable truth in regard to the rearing of stock, that has a market value, but which it never seems to have occurred to him is just as important in connection with the rearing of his own children.

So far as the improper development or non-development of our teeth, jaws, tongues and lips is concerned, the trouble begins with the nursing bottle from which the infant gets its nourishment too easily and too rapidly, so that these important structures are all more or less undeveloped, and this non-development is a continuous performance up to adult life. Of course removal of adenoids, regulation of the teeth, boring out the nasal cavities and so on, are resorted to with great benefit, to obviate defects that should have been prevented by mothers nursing their babies and then making the children chew their food as nature intended them to do. If a child will not chew its food, the despised habit of chewing gum, now known to have prevailed among the Indians, should be encouraged.

Dr. Robinson, an English writer, calls attention to the development of the jaws of English boys who were taken out of the streets of London and sent into the British navy. He says "undoubtedly the most noticeable improvement in them, next to their superior stature and healthy appearance, was the total change in the shape and expression of their faces. On analyzing this, one found that it was to be mainly accounted for by the increased growth and improved angle of the lower jaw." This change was due to the rations of "hard tack" and "salt junk" upon which these lads had subsisted. A very satisfactory diet from an orthodontological point of view at least. It is plain enough that ninety per cent, of dental work might have been avoided; just as ninety per cent, of the sickness and premature death in the world is needless and could be prevented. The dentists have made the astonishing discovery that they can alter and enlarge the jaws of any child by simple means and they have found out, moreover, that the teeth


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The New International Encyclopædia/Synagogue

SYNAGOGUE (Gk. συναγωγή, synagogē, assembly, collection, from συνάγειν, synagein, to bring together, from σύν, syn, together + ἄγειν, agein, to lead; translation of Heb. beth-hak-keneseth, the house of assembly). The name applied to the place of assembly used by Jewish communities primarily for public worship. The origin of this institution is probably to be traced to the period of the Babylonian captivity, when religious needs in the absence of an official cult could only be satisfied by private assemblies for religious communion. The example set during the Babylonian Exile led to the establishment of synagogues in Palestine after the days of Ezra, and with the impetus then given to the study of the law a further factor was introduced which encouraged the institution of assembly-houses for prayer and study. Although express notices of the synagogues are not found in the literature till the last century B.C., all indications point to their existence in the towns and even villages of Palestine at the time of the Maccabees.

Synagogues were erected from the common funds or free gifts of the community and supported by taxes and donations. Regarding their architecture it would appear that in Palestine the Græco-Roman model of public buildings was followed, though with some essential modifications. Abundant ornamentation was a feature both of the exterior and interior. The larger synagogues were divided by rows of pillars into several aisles and some had porticoes in front. In later times in Europe the Romanesque style was adopted, and in more modern times Moorish architecture is frequently chosen as a model. Little is known of any special law respecting the construction of these buildings, save that the faces of the worshipers should be directed toward Jerusalem; that, in accordance with the verse in the Psalms, there should be a slight descent of a step or two on entering the edifice; that the building should stand, if feasible, on a slightly elevated ground, or be somehow or other made visible from afar. Within at the extreme eastern end was the holy ark, or chest (tēbāh) containing several copies of the Pentateuch, from which the periodical readings were chanted. In front of this was the stand of the public reader of the prayers, not far from which was suspended the everlasting lamp. On a raised platform in the middle of the synagogue was the place of the reader or preacher. The women, who were not counted as members of the congregation, sat separated from the men.

The affairs of the synagogue were administered by a board of ‘ancients’ or ‘elders,’ at whose head stood a chief or principal (Rōsh hakkeneseth, archisynagogos). The ‘chief’ was not a scribe, though taking rank immediately after the scribes. The officiating minister, whose office it was to recite the prayers aloud, was called shĕlīachṣibbūr, messenger of the community. The chazzān had general charge of the sacred place and its books and implements. He had to present the scroll to the reader, received it back after the reading was finished, rolled up the scroll and deposited it in the chest, and it was he who announced the advent of the Sabbath or of a holy day from the roof of the synagogue with a thrice repeated trumpet-blast. During the week-days he had to teach the children of the town or village. He had to be initiated by a solemn

of hands. The name of chazzān, however, at a later period, came to designate the officiating minister, and it has retained that meaning until this day. Almoners or deacons, who collected or distributed the alms, possibly the same as the baṭlanīm or ‘idle men,’ whose office in relation to the synagogue cannot be exactly determined now, but who had always to be ready for the purpose of making up the requisite number of ten worshipers, were further attached to the general body of officials. The third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day were the times appointed for daily worship; the more special days were Monday and Thursday, when the judges sat, and the villagers came to town, and Saturday, on which the forms of some of the prayers were altered according to the occasion.

The reading from the Scriptures, though in Hebrew, was coupled in the synagogues of Palestine and Babylonia with a translation or paraphrase in the current Aramaic idiom, and presumably in the synagogues of Egypt a Greek translation was employed, but the chief prayers were always pronounced in Hebrew, though the Talmud admits the use of other languages in worship. Besides the prayers and the readings, a feature of early synagogue worship was the exposition of the law or of the lesson of the day by a competent person. In course of time a more elaborate liturgy developed. The oldest complete ritual, known as siddur (‘arrangement’), dates from the year A.D. 880, and was compiled by a Rabbi Aniram. In the liturgy as finally evolved two distinct elements are discernible: the Shema‘ (‘Hear, O Israel,’ etc.), being a collection of the three passages, Deuteronomy vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and Numbers xv. 37-41, expressive of the unity of God and of His government over Israel, put together without any extraneous addition; and the Tĕphillāh or prayer, consisting of a certain number of supplications, with a hymnal introduction and conclusion, followed by the priestly blessing. The single portions of this prayer gradually increased to eighteen and the prayer itself received the name of Shĕmōnāh ‘eshëh (eighteen). For a long time the prayers were recited only by the reader, the people joining in silent responses and amens. These readers by degrees — chiefly from the tenth century — introduced occasional prayers of their own, and ultimately religious doctrine, history, saga, angelology, and mysticism, interspersed with biblical verses, are found put together in a mosaic of the most original and fantastic, often grand and brilliant, often obscure and feeble kind. The ritual differed in different countries. At the beginning of the nineteenth century a movement began in Germany for the reform of the ritual and gradually spread to other countries. At first the changes consisted in the shortening of certain prayers, the omission of others and the introduction of German, English, or French by the side of the Hebrew.

The synagogues contributed more than anything else to the steadfast adherence of the people to their religion and liberty as long as there was any possibility of keeping both intact. At the same time they gradually undermined the priestly and aristocratic element that gathered around the temple, its gorgeous worship and kingly revenues. Their importance as a place of

instruction as well as a place of worship was of profound influence on the development of Judaism. Both primary and advanced instruction in the Scriptures and subsequently in Talmudic literature was given in the synagogue, and in the early centuries of the Christian Era legal decisions were likewise announced there. The synagogue could also be used as the place of mourning for prominent members of the community, and there are instances on record of the use of synagogues for political gatherings. In Babylonia travelers were accommodated in the synagogue and ate their Sabbath meals there. In view of these various uses to which the synagogue was put, it is not surprising that it became in the Middle Ages the centre of the religious and intellectual life of the Jews and in a measure of their social life as well. The ‘reform’ movement within Judaism as well as the extension of the intellectual interests of the Jews has resulted in narrowing the influence and scope of the synagogue to purely religious affairs, though in orthodox Jewish communities in Eastern Europe and in the Orient the former status of the synagogue is still in large measure maintained.

Schürer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., London, 1886-90); Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1896); Grätz, History of the Jews, vol. i. (Eng. trans., ib., 1893). For the ritual, Leopold Löw, Der synagogale Ritus (Gesammelte Schriften, vol. iv., Szegedin, 1889); Dembitz, Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home (Philadelphia, 1899); Zunz, Der Ritus synagogalen Gottesdienstes, geschichtlich entwickelt (Berlin, 1855-59); a complete English translation of the Portuguese ritual may be found in Lesser's Prayer-book (Philadelphia, 1845); and a translation of the German ritual in Sachs's Machsar (Berlin, 1866).


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 their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its existence on the day of Worcester.

56. Inverkeithing.—While David Leslie organized and drilled the king’s new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire, the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell’s health again broke down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13, and on the 16th of July he began the execution of a brilliant and successful manœuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to Northferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a detachment of Leslie’s army at Inverkeithing on the 20th. Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across the firth. His contemplated manœuvre of course gave up to the enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon which to base his subsequent movements. On the 30th of July the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this place, the key to Leslie’s supply area, forced the crisis at once. Whether Leslie would have preferred to manœuvre Cromwell from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the young king and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched southward to raise the Royal standard in England.

57. The Third Scottish Invasion of England.—Then began the last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles II. expected complete success. In Scotland, vis-à-vis the extreme Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regiments under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists covered 150 m.—in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton’s ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.

But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in Westminster. The latter had called out the greater part of the militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into the strong places. On his part Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into his hands on the 2nd of August, and he brought back his army to Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the 15th, a few hours in front of Charles’s advanced guard. Lambert too, slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves be drawn into a fight, along the London road.

58. Campaign of Worcester.—Cromwell meanwhile, leaving Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence, marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat—with the country people carrying their arms and equipment—the regulars entered Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, Harrison and the north-western militia were about Congleton. It seemed probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell, Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. But the scene and the date of the denouement were changed by the enemy’s movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war, and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royalist movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was hoped that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was not an Independent faction but all England that took arms against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course, that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. Early on the 28th Lambert surprised the passage of the Severn at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert. The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.

59. The “Crowning Mercy.”—He took his measures deliberately. Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the enemy’s line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won his first victory in 1642) and attack St John’s, the western suburb of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but Fleetwood’s men would not be denied, and Cromwell’s extreme right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours’ hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break

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text: Category:User lt-3

title: Category:User lt-3


text: User:Vogone

title: User:Vogone


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croft, Herbert (1751-1816)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croft, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croft, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croft, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crofts, Elizabeth


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crofts, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croghan, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croke, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croke, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croke, John (d.1554)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croke, Richard


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Synagogue, The Great

SYNAGOGUE, (Heb. hakkeneseth haggēdōlāh). An alleged assembly or synod, said to have been founded and presided over by Ezra and to have controlled the national and religious fortunes of the Jews after the return from Babylon, c.450-200 B.C. Its membership is generally given as 120, but sometimes as 80. The palpable chronological discrepancies that occur in the early accounts about this synod, together with other doubtful points, have led modern scholars to deny its existence. It is not mentioned by Josephus or the Apocrypha and is only twice referred to in the Mishna (Pirke Aboth I., 1 and 2). Even according to the Talmudical notices the ‘great synagogue’ continued only for a single generation. According to these notices the men of the great synagogue secured the acceptance of certain books of the Old Testament (Proverbs, Canticles, Ecclesiastes); they promoted the work of copying the Torah, devoted themselves to the perfection of a daily ritual, and introduced certain changes into the Old Testament text in order to avoid misunderstandings. The notion that they collected the books of the Old Testament and fixed the canon had no authority in the Talmud, and indeed does not arise till the sixteenth century. Kuenen has traced the origin of the name to the ‘great assembly’ which is described in Nehemiah viii.-x.

This assembly was of a popular character, and no doubt marked an epoch in the history of post-exilic Judaism. An uncritical age made of this ‘assembly’ a permanent institution and attributed to it the various steps taken in the natural unfolding of that phase of Rabbinical Judaism which came to a temporary close when the canon of the Old Testament was definitely established. While some scholars (notably D. Hoffmann of Berlin) still cling to the traditional view, Kuenen's results have been accepted by the great majority. Consult his essay in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, pp. 125-160 (Freiburg, 1894); Hoffmann's reply will be found in the Magazin für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, vol. x. (1883), pp. 45-63. See also L. Krauss, “The Great Synod,” in the Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x. (1898), pp. 347-377.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croker, John (1670-1741)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croker, John Wilson


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croker, Temple Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jennings, Louis John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croker, Thomas Crofton


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crokesley, Richard de


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croll, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jennings, Patrick Alfred


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crolly, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Croly, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crombie, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crombie, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jenyns, Leonard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Crome, Edward


text:
Page:Household Cyclopedia 1881.djvu/4

 PROF. JAMES C. BOOTH, Chemist, Melter, Refiner, and Assayer, United States Mint, and Late Professor of Chemistry in Central High School, Philadelphia, and the Franklin institute, of Philadelphia.

C. W. CRESSON, M.D.

JOHN SARTAIN, ESQ. (Mezzotint Engraving), Philadelphia.

THEO. D. RAND, ESQ;

MESSRS. HINSHELLWOOD & MAIGNELLE, Of the Continental Bank Note Company New York.

JOHN FREAS, ESQ., Of the Germantown Telegraph, (Fish Culture and Angling)

The work, it is believed, will be found more reliable and thorough than any one of its class now in print. The miscellaneous department contains much valuable and interesting information. Some matters properly belonging under other heads, but received too late, have been transferred to it. The reader is especially requested to refer to the index when seeking information.

title: Page:Household Cyclopedia 1881.djvu/4


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jerrard, George Birch


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jervois, William Francis Drummond


text:
Page:Household Cyclopedia 1881.djvu/5

 == About this book ==

The Household Cyclopedia is a book of general knowledge printed in 1881. It was scanned and reproduced as a website by Matthew Spong in 1998, and converted to a printable file in 2005. See below for more notes on the recent history of this book.

January 2005

As you will read in the notes below, this book began it's life as an old leather-bound tome on a market stall, which l scanned into the computer and rendered as a web site. The site may still be online at http:/ /www.mspong.org/cyclopedia when you are reading this.

Although useful as a web site, I lately realised that what the book really wanted was to emerge into the real world again, to be printed out on paper. This didn't seem like too much of a problem, until I realised that the index would need to be redone.

I searched for a way to preserve all the links which I had constructed, to make the click able index when building the website, and turn those links into a n index with correct page numbers. At first l thought RTF was the correct format to convert the site to, and spent a lot of time in futility trying to get Microsoft Word to import my handmade RTF files. It turned out to be too clumsy and prone to errors. Then I remembered l5TEX. I first became aware of this system when visiting my friends Graham Mann a nd Waleed Kudos at UNSW. l noticed his odd choice of reading matter, from the spines of his manuals. "Hmmm, latex..." mused. He quickly explained that it was a document typesetting system, which took a text file and converted it to Postscript ready for the printer, with formatting. He mentioned that it did footnotes and indexing really well. So I started learning the language, and converting the site page by page into the document you now hold. I used PDF TEX because it used images in pdf files, which are much smaller than the Postscript that normal TEXdemands. used a short perl script to replace the anchor codes in the text with the matching entries from the index pages themselves. For the most part the index shows the same text as the index which was in the original book. In fact, I made some small logical fixes to the index, eliminating some sub-entries where there was only one sub and one main entry

hope you find this work informative and useful. It's well within the public domain, so you can do whatever you wish with the material.

Matthew Spong elric@zip.com.au

Note: The following notes date from the days when this book existed only as a website, and mostly refer to changes in the format or problems with hosting.

July 2003

I've embarked on another round of promoting this site through the newsgroups, so I expect a lot of new visitors. This site should be available at this address [http:/ /www.mspong.org/cyclopedia] for awhile, as I have actually paid for my web space this time, and own the domain. Mooching off friends servers and hosting with public portals isn't the right way to go about providing an important resource like this.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Johnson, Edwin Beaumont


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Johnson, George (1818-1896)


text:
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 I hope you find what you want to find here. Those with an interest in cooking will be interested to know that my next intended work to digitise is Mrs Beetons Book of Household Management, the famous reference work which is mostly a cook book. Very interesting Victorian artifact, most of the recipes involve the use of either a pound of butter or a pint of cream! Yum!

September 2001

Bastards! NBCi seems to have taken down every personal site hosted there. As mentioned before, NBCi bought Xcom and continued to host the personal sites. However, they seem to have totally dumped my Cyclopedia site, the site you are reading now, into the aether. Luckily my friend Sammy Ominsky has offered me some web space to host it here on Avoidant. This should be the final home and resting place for this resource, so please update your links and keep an eye out for future developments.

With access to proper CGI space I will be able to add several features you have been asking for. Specifically I mean the discussion board, and also individual articles for printing.

Instead of splitting the pages into myriad small files, l will develop a script to extract the relevant article from the source file. So, stand by for these developments, coming soon.

March 2001

You will have noticed that this site is no longer hosted by Xcom, but by NBCi.com. The company Xcom was bought out by NBC, but hopefully they won't change the terms of service. If they do, you will soon be able to find this site at an alternative venue, possibly privately owned. The original Xcom URL will continue to work for the foreseeable future.

Thank you for all the email, please keep it coming. Sometimes I don't get time to reply to it all, but I always like to see how people are using the knowledge contained in this book. Shout outs go to the many university students who are referencing this work in their papers. Be careful to make sure this site is still accessible when you hand your papers in - remember the net nowadays is more volatile and changes faster than it did in the days before all the morons stuffed it up looking for fast bucks.

I have a couple more works in the pipeline. The first, the Percy Anecdotes, has already been mostly scanned and corrected. It is a collection, in 4 volumes, of a series of anecdotes or short stories supposedly true, as published in several popular papers in London in the early nineteenth century. The second, Picturesque England, is only just being scanned. It is a product of the Victorian era's love of ruins and ancient British history, the account of a tour of all the most popular tourist sites of 19th C. England, illustrated in excellent woodcuts and watercolours. All that remains is to find a stable and trustworthy site to host them, and you will find links from here to them both. Also, my home page Sludge is no more. The replacement, Haunted Planet, is online with a lot more info about myself, and examples of my work. The best of the Sludge artwork is there too. Oh, sorry the message board is still a piece of shite. I can't be arsed getting a better one. Someday... Peace love and erudition,

Matthew Spong

March 1999

Hello again. Firstly thank you to the many people who have emailed me with their gratitude for this site. What I've noticed is that, many artists and crafts makers, especially the more experienced ones, have been having much trouble finding specific information about the techniques used in their field in the last century. For instance, some ceramics enthusiasts were very happy to find the instructions for making a clay pipe, saving them days of frustrating experiments as they tried to work out how a thin tubular stem could be made from clay! Many cooks have sent messages regarding the cooking sections, which contain, a part from the recipes, a lot of incidental information, such as the comments on the most favourable cuts of meat and to whom they should be served. Historians too.

title: Page:Household Cyclopedia 1881.djvu/6


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jones, Henry (1831-1899)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jones, Lewis Tobias


text:
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 are enthusiastic about the incidental comments which reveal so much about the society at the time this book was written.

There is also a sizable community of millenialists and Y2K experts, who sometimes seem to be preparing for a future similar to the Mad Max/Road warrior movies. To them I say; best of luck, l hope you are wrong, and if you are wrong, l hope you continue to maintain your self sufficiency While I don't believe that the world will grind to a halt, l do believe that practicing and relearning the skills that once enabled people to live without the infrastructure our society provides - the utilities, the shops, the ready made products - can only be a good thing. The site has just been updated, much of the work has been carried out beneath the surface, but you will notice a few new items. There will soon be a message board, so that readers can post queries and answers. There are many other additions I would like to add, when I have the time. Currently I'm working on an intranet site for a government department, which is a hard slog and leaves me with little taste for working on pages when I get home.

Also, thanks to Xoom.com for providing the best free web hosting on the net today I know they are soon introducing a banner system, and I hope they get it right. I used to have a site on Fortune City but moved it because of their terrible banners which ruined the look of my pages, especially the narrow frames. Anyway along with the banner comes unlimited storage, which will be very handy should I decide to do another book. Sitting on my bookshelf right now is the 3 volume Popular Educator of 1887. Someday soon, when l get the time...

August 1998

One day while wandering through the Saturday markets in Glebe, Sydney I spotted an interesting book on one of the stalls. Bound in decaying leather, with loose pages spilling from within, and "The Household Cyclopedia" in faded gold on the frayed spine. The text inside was small, but quite legible. The pages where only slightly splotched with stains. It was only $10 I paid.

What a bargain! It was soon evident that this was no ordinary book. It was the sort of book a pioneer of the old west would have packed carefully into his covered wagon before heading off for a boondock town. It was a book for people who need to be able, if the circumstances demand, to amputate a limb, grow their own fibre for material, take care of their horses, give birth to children, and build houses, concoct medicines, all with the minimum of help from others.

I work as a web designer, freelancing, and recently my clients have often left me hanging for weeks without notification. This is not a good thing, if you are a nail chewing workaholic like me. Games, even excellent ones like Descent, Doom or Sim City, only satisfy me for so long. They leave no tangible residue, for all the effort they demand. There had to be something better to do, to stop from going mad. One day, looking around for something to justify the time I was spending with an idle computer and perfectly good net account, I noticed the Cyclopedia again. How good it would be, l thought, if the contents of this noble tome were freely available to the world...

So l started work. Whenever there was a free hour or two, I'd slap the book (gently) on the scanner, shoot a few pages, and feed them through my crappy OCR software, carefully editing out as many mistakes as l could spot. Daily the text files grew, and as each chapter was finished, it was converted to HTML and linked into the site. Many more hours were needed to add the hundreds of anchors around each recipe heading, and I'm still linking in the index pages to the existing chapters, even as I'm still scanning in pages of text.

One person whom I must thank for her charity patience and love, is Michelle Walker, my girlfriend. Too often she has had to talk to my unresponsive back, as l struggled with difficult parts, and she has also had to deal with my other personality (the teutonic, obsessive, monomaniacal one that emerges when I need to beat a difficult problem). As Michelle possesses these qualities herself, she sympathized with my cause, and helped where she could. This is why l love her.

I would also like to thank my father, Neill Spong, who kindly proof-read much of the text before it was uploaded. Thanks Dad!

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jones, William Basil


text:
Page:Household Cyclopedia 1881.djvu/9

 Contents 1 AGRICULTURE 1 1 The Modern Theory Of Agriculture 1 2 Wheat. 1 3 Drainage. 1 4 Sugar 1 5 Cotton And Tobacco 1 6 Directions For The Rearing Of Silk Worms 2 HORTICULTURE 2 1 Budding And Grafting 2 2 Keeping Fruit 2 3 Flower Gardening. 2 4 Insects 2 5 Illustrations 3 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY 3 1 To Manage A Dairy 3 2 Bees And Their Management. 3 3 Insects 3 4 Illustrations. 4 FARRIERY 4 1 Dogs 4 2 Cattle 4 3 Hogs 4 4 Sheep 4 5 Illustrations 5 MEDICINE 5 1 Diseases 5 2 Accidents. 5 3 Wounds. 11 11 35 65 69 70 71 81 84 117 120 123 124 131 132 141 151 155 157 174 175 178 178 184 189 189 219 219

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Jowett, Benjamin


text:
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 == CONTENTS ==

5 4 Fractures 5 5 Dislocations 5 6 Amputation 5 7 Poisons 5 8 Miscellaneous Articles 5 9 Medicines For indigestion 5.10 Cholera 5.11 Diseases Peculiar To Females 5.12 Management And Diseases Of Children 5.13 Useful Domestic Medicines 5.14 Hygiene - Salutary Cautions 5.15 Preservation From Drowning And Shipwreck 5.16 General Rules For Preserving Life And Health 5.17 The Teeth 5.18 illustrations

CULINARY ARTS
6 1 Plain Cookery 6 2 Cookery 6 3 Confectionery 6 4 Pickling 6 5 Carving 6 6 Qualities of Food

BREWING
7 1 Fermentation 7 2 To Make Cider 7 3 Wines

DISTILLATION
8 1 Essential Oils 8 2 Waters 8 3 Vinegar And Acid Liquors 8 4 Artificial Waters 8 5 Fixed Oils 8 6 Animal Oils And Fats

BLEACHING AND SCOURING
223 226 228 230 234 243 247 250 256 262 270 272 277 282 284 311 311 334 374 383 387 398 403 403 420 422 441 459 463 469 473 476 477 481 491

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 == CONTENTS ==

DYING
11.1 Staining

METALLURGY
15.1 Assaying Of Metallic Ores. 15.2 Parting 15.3 Alloys, Or Compound Metals 15.4 Foils 15.5 Electro-Metallurgy 15.6 Gilding, Silvering, And Tinning 15.7 Iron And Steel 15.8 Illustrations

PYROTECHNY
16.1 Matches for Instantaneous Light

GLASS
PHOTOGRAPHY 21.1 Photo lithography ENGRAVING 22.1 Lithography. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 23.1 Specific Gravity 23.2 Gas Meters. 23.3 Value Of Coins. CHEMICAL RECEIPTS 24.1 Preventing And Removing Boiler Incrustations 24.2 Artificial Cold. 24.3 Antiseptics And Disinfectants

501 515 521 539 567 575 575 582 583 590 592 595 602 606 609 612 615 621 627 637 651 664 667 673 679 685 686 689 693 695 696 697

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 WEATHER PROGNOSTICS

ANGLING 26.1 The Culture Of Fish 26.2 Illustrations

MISCELLANEOUS 27.1 To Tie Knots 27.2 Knitting 27.3 Management Of Canary Birds 27.4 Dogs 27.5 To Destroy Insects 27.6 Petroleum 27.7 Electro-Magnetic Telegraph 27.8 Book-Keeping 27.9 On Preparing Copy And Marking Proof. 27 10 The Art Of Rowing 27 11 Macadarnized Roads 27 12 Miscellaneous Medical Receipts. 27 13 Dialysis 27 14 Riding 27 15 Decalcornania 27 16 The Cattle Plague, Or Rinderpest 27 17 Miscellaneous Illustrations 27 18 Illustrations of Electrical Machines 27 19 Illustrations of Military Weapons

IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE

705 711 714 716 719 719 721 722 722 723 725 726 727 727 729 730 738 743 744 745 748 753 762 765 769

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text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 6.djvu/40

ⅹⅹⅹⅳ At length they ventured once more to set out, and, mounted on fleet camels, reached Yarib in safety. Three days after they were joined by Ali, who had been allowed to leave after a few hours’ imprisonment.

This was the celebrated Higrah or 'flight,' from which the Mohammedan era dates. It took place on June 16, in the year of our Lord 622. The city of Yarib was henceforth known as Madînat en Nebî, 'the city of the prophet,' or simply El Medînah.

Once established at El Medînah, Mohammed proceeded to regulate the rites and ceremonies of his religion, built a mosque to serve as a place of prayer and hall of general assembly, and appointed Bilâl, the Abyssinian slave who had been so faithful throughout the former persecutions, as crier to call the believers to the five daily prayers.

His next care was to reconcile, as far as possible, the various opposing parties of the city, and this was by no means an easy task. The two tribes of El ʼAus and El ʿHazrag could not be made entirely to lay aside their ancient rivalry, but they united so far as to make his their common cause. For this they were honoured with the title of Ansâr or 'helpers of the prophet.' The refugees from Mecca were called Muhâgerûn, and to prevent any ill feeling rising up between these two classes, each of the Meccan immigrants was made to take to himself one of the Medînah Muslims, to whom he bound himself by an oath of brotherhood. This institution was, however, abolished a year and a half later, after the battle of Bedr. Of the inhabitants of Medînah, who had not joined in the invitation to Mohammed to sojourn amongst them, some left the town and went over to the Meccans; others remained behind, and though they yielded to the tide of popular opinion, and gave in their formal allegiance to the prophet, they were not completely won over to Islâm, but waited to see how matters would go, ready, as they did on several critical occasions, to desert him should his fortune show signs of a reverse. This disaffected class is spoken of in the Qurʼân by the name of Munâfiqûn or 'hypocrites,'