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 trust to his sword. He served first as a private archer and man-at-arms in Italy, with Bayard for his captain, fought all through the wars of Francis I., and was knighted on the field of Cérisoles (1544), to which victory he had brilliantly contributed as adviser to the young duke of Enghien. Having apparently enjoyed no patronage, he was by this time a man of middle age. Thenceforward, however, his merits were recognized. His chief feat was the famous defence of Siena (1555), which he has told so admirably. When the religious wars broke out in France, Montluc, a staunch royalist, held Guyenne for the king. Henry III. made him in 1574 marshal of France, an honour which he had earned by nearly half a century of service and by numerous wounds. He died at Estillac near Agen in 1577. Montluc’s eminence above other soldiers of his day is due to his Commentaires de Messire Blaise de Montluc (Bordeaux, 1592), in which he described his fifty years of service (1521–1574). This book, the “soldier’s Bible” (or “breviary,” according to others), as Henry IV. called it, is one of the most admirable of the many admirable books of memoirs produced by the unlearned gentry of France at that time. It is said to have been dictated, which may possibly account in some degree for the singular vivacity and picturesqueness of the style.

 MONTLUÇON, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement, and the most important industrial centre in the department of Allier. Pop. (1906), 31,888. It is situated on the Cher, 50 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orléans railway. The upper town, on an eminence on the right bank, consists of steep, narrow, winding streets, and preserves several buildings of the 15th and 16th centuries; the lower town, traversed by the Cher, is the seat of the industries, which embrace the manufacture of glass, chemicals, mirrors, sewing-machines, and iron and steel production. The Commentry coal-mines and Néris, a town with thermal springs, are a few miles distant to the south-east. Of the churches, Notre-Dame is of the 15th century, St Pierre partly of the 12th and St Paul modern. The town-hall, with a library, occupies the site of an old Ursuline convent, and two other convents are used as college and hospital. Overlooking the town is the castle rebuilt by Louis II., duke of Bourbon, and taken by Henry IV. during the religious wars; it serves as a barracks. Montluçon is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a lycée. The town, which formed part of the duchy of Bourbon, was taken by the English in 1171, and by Philip Augustus in 1181; the English were beaten under its walls in the 14th century.

 MONTMORENCY, the name of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in France, derived from Montmorency, now in the department of Seine-et-Oise, in the immediate neighbourhood of Enghien and St Denis, and about 9 m. N.N.W. of Paris. The family, since its first appearance in history in the person of, sire de Montmorency in the 10th century, has furnished six constables and twelve marshals of France, several admirals and cardinals, numerous grand officers of the Crown and grand masters of various knightly orders, and was declared by Henry IV. to be, after that of the Bourbons, the first house in Europe. , sire de Montmorency, received in 1138 the post of constable, and died in 1160. His first wife was Aline, the natural daughter of Henry I. of England; his second, Adelaide or Alice of Savoy, widow of Louis VI. and mother of Louis VII., and according to Duchesne, he shared the regency of France with Suger, during the absence of the latter king on the second crusade. had an important share in the victory of Bouvines (1214), and was made constable in 1218. During the reign of Louis VIII. he distinguished himself chiefly in the south of France (Niort, La Rochelle, Bordeaux). On the accession of Louis IX. he was one of the chief supports of the queen-regent Blanche of Castile, and was successful in reducing all the vassals to obedience. He died in 1230. His younger son, Guy, in right of his mother, became head of the house of Montmorency-Laval. (q.v.), so named, it is said, after his godmother Anne of Brittany, was the first to attain the ducal title (1551). His eldest son, de Montmorency (1530–1579), was married to Diana, natural daughter of Henry II.; another son, de Montmorency (1534–1614), who became duc de Montmorency on his brother’s death in 1579, had been governor of Languedoc since 1563. As a leader of the party called the Politiques he took a prominent part in the French wars of religion. In 1593 he was made constable, but Henry IV. showed some anxiety to keep him away from Languedoc, which he ruled like a sovereign prince. (1595–1632), son of duke Henry I., succeeded to the title in 1614, having previously been made grand admiral. He also was governor of Languedoc. In 1625 he defeated the French Protestant fleet under Soubise, and seized the islands of Ré and Oléron, but the jealousy of Richelieu deprived him of the means of following up these advantages. In 1628–1629 he was allowed to command against the duke of Rohan in Languedoc; in 1630 he defeated the Piedmontese, and captured Prince Doria, at Avigliana, and took Saluzzo. In the same year he was created marshal. In 1632 he joined the party of Gaston, duke of Orleans, and placed himself at the head of the rebel army, which was defeated by Marshal Schomberg at Castelnaudary (Sept. 1, 1632); severely wounded, he fell into the enemy’s hands, and, abandoned by Gaston, was executed as a traitor at Toulouse on the 30th of October. The title passed to his sister, princess of Condé.

From the barons of Fosseux, a branch of the Montmorency family established in Brabant in the 15th century, sprang the seigneurs de Boutteville, among whom was the duellist François de Montmorency-Boutteville, who was beheaded in 1627. His son, François Henri, marshal of France, became duke of Piney-Luxemburg by his marriage with Madeleine Charlotte Bonne Thérèse de Clermont, daughter of Marguerite Charlotte de Luxemburg, duchesse de Piney. Charles François Frédéric, the son of the marshal, was created duke of Beaufort in 1688 and duke of Montmorency in 1689. In 1767 the title of duke of Beaufort-Montmorency passed by marriage to another branch of the Montmorency-Fosseux. This branch becoming extinct in 1862, the title was taken by the duc de Valençay, who belonged to the Talleyrand-Périgord family and married one of the two heiresses of this branch (1864). There were many other branches of the Montmorency family, among others that of the seigneurs of (q.v.), a cadet branch of which received the title of duke of Laval and settled on the estate of Magnac in 1758. It is to this branch that Mathieu, duc de Montmorency (1767–1826), diplomatist and writer, and tutor of Charles X.’s grandson, Henri, duke of Bordeaux, belonged.

 MONTMORENCY, ANNE, (1493–1567), constable of France, was born at Chantilly, and was brought up with the future King Francis I., whom he followed into Italy in 1515, distinguishing himself especially at Marignano. In 1516 he became governor of Novara; in 1520 he was present at the Field of Cloth of Gold, and afterwards had charge of important negotiations in England. Successful in the defence of Mézières (1521), and as commander of the Swiss troops in the Italian campaign of the same year, he was made marshal of France in 1522, accompanied Francis into Italy in 1524, and was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525. Released soon afterwards, he was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Madrid, and in 1530 reconducted the king’s sons into France. On the renewal of the war by Charles V.’s invasion of France in 1536, Montmorency compelled the emperor to raise the siege of Marseilles; he afterwards accompanied the king of France into Picardy, and on the termination of the Netherlands campaign marched to the relief of Turin. In 1538, on the ratification of the ten years’ truce, he was rewarded with the office of constable, but in 1541 he fell into disgrace, and did not return to public life until the accession of Henry II. in 1547. In 1548 he repressed the insurrections in the south-west, particularly at Bordeaux, with great severity,

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 few remaining relics of the days of French rule. This ancient building is now used for the offices of the Order of Sulpicians, founded by the Abbé Olier in the early half of the 17th century. This zealous enthusiast had sent out Paul de Chomedy, sieur de Maisonneuve, in 1641 to establish the missionary enterprise which afterwards developed into the city of Montreal, and six years later the Abbé de Quelus, with three devoted companions, landed at Ville-Marie de Montreal and laid the foundations of the future powerful Order of Sulpicians. The seigneury of Montreal, acquired by Olier in 1640, is still held by the Sulpicians, and as they have retained large blocks of land in the heart of the city as well as elsewhere on the island, these “Gentlemen of the Seminary,” as they were locally called, rank among the wealthiest societies in America. The head offices of the Bank of Montreal face Notre Dame church, on the north of the Place d’Armes, and several other of the leading banking institutions of the city have their quarters in the immediate neighbourhood. In the Place d’Armes itself stands a striking figure in bronze erected to the memory of the founder of Montreal, Maisonneuve. At the base are a series of bas-reliefs setting forth historical incidents connected with the early history of the town. The monument is the work of a Canadian sculptor, Louis Philippe Hébert, C.M.G. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St James stands upon Dominion Square. It is an almost exact reproduction, reduced to one-half the scale, of St Peter’s at Rome. The building, projected by the late Archbishop Bourget to replace the old church on St Denis street destroyed in the great fire of 1852, was begun in 1868. On the west of the square stand the Windsor Street station of the Canadian Pacific railway; St George’s (Anglican) church, which possesses a fine chime of bells; and the Windsor Hotel. A statue of Sir John Macdonald occupies the centre of the square. Close to the historic Bonsecours Market stands the church of Notre Dame de Bonsecours, founded by Sister Marguerite Bourgeois in 1673 as a sanctuary for a miraculous statue of the Virgin. The original church was burned in 1754, and the present building, erected in 1771, an example of Norman architecture transplanted to the New World, narrowly escaped destruction to make room for a railway station. Curiously enough, it remained for a number of English Protestants to secure the preservation of this relic of the French period. Jacques Cartier Square, adjoining Bonsecours Market, is notable for its column and statue of Nelson, erected in 1808. As the Roman Catholic cathedral owes its existence to the energy and enthusiasm of Archbishop Bourget, so Christ Church cathedral must always be associated with the name of the first resident Anglican bishop of Montreal, Dr Fulford. The church is a fine example of the Early English style of architecture. Beside it stands a memorial of Bishop Fulford, modelled after the famous Martyr’s Memorial at Oxford.

The mixture of races and creeds, which is so striking a characteristic of Montreal life, has not only endowed the city with many beautiful churches, but also with varieties of philanthropic institutions. Each of the several national societies—St George’s, St Andrew’s, St Patrick’s, and that of the French-Canadian patron saint, St Jean Baptiste, to mention no others—looks after the welfare of its own adherents. Of the several hospitals, the most venerable is the Hotel Dieu, founded in 1644 by Mme de Bouillon, a French lady of high rank. The original building, in the early days of Ville Marie, stood without the fort, and was fortified to withstand the attacks of the Iroquois. The site is now covered by a block of warehouses on St Paul Street. The present buildings, completed in 1861, contain both a hospital and nunnery. The Order of the Grey Nuns, founded by a Canadian lady, Mme d’Youville, in 1737, cares for hundreds of foundlings and aged and infirm people in the great hospital in Guy Street. The Montreal General hospital was founded in 1819 by public subscriptions, and the Royal Victoria hospital is a monument to the generosity of Lord Strathcona and Lord Mount-Stephen. Besides these should be mentioned the Notre Dame, the Western and the Children’s Memorial hospitals. Separate hospitals for contagious diseases are maintained both by the Roman Catholics and Protestants.

Montreal provides for the education of its young people through two distinct systems of public schools, one for Roman Catholics, the other for Protestants, each governed by a board of commissioners. The schools are maintained by an annual tax based upon the assessment, two-fifths of 1% being levied upon the Protestant section of the community for the support of the Protestant schools, and one-quarter of 1% upon the Catholics for their schools. Unlike the neighbouring provinces of Ontario, Quebec makes no provision for a state university. But James McGill (1744–1813) left property, valued at the time of his death at £30,000, for the foundation of a university, one college of which was to bear his name. A royal charter conferring university powers was obtained in 1821. During early years slow progress was made, but with the appointment of Sir William Dawson as principal, in 1855, the institution entered on a career of prosperity. It now embraces five faculties: arts, applied science, law, medicine, agriculture, and comprises the following: McGill College, Montreal, the original foundation; the Royal Victoria College for Women, Montreal, built and endowed by Lord Strathcona; four affiliated theological colleges in Montreal; the Macdonald College, erected and endowed by Sir William C. Macdonald, at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. from the city; the McGill University College of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.; and three affiliated colleges: Stanstead Wesleyan College, Stanstead, P.Q.; Victoria College, Victoria, B.C.; Alberta College, Edmonton. The finely-equipped Macdonald scientific laboratories, with the Redpath Museum and University Library (114,000 vols. in 1907), form part of a noble group of buildings on the campus in Montreal. Disastrous fires in April 1907 wiped out two buildings and destroyed the splendid medical museum, but the plans for rebuilding provided for further extension and improvement. Previous to the fires the property of the university in buildings in Montreal, including equipment and endowment, was valued at $6,000,000.

The French university of Laval, the chief seat of which is in the city of Quebec, also maintains a branch at Montreal, established in 1877. It embraces the faculties of arts, law, medicine and theology, the latter conducted through the Seminary of St Sulpice. The college library has been enriched by a rare collection of Canadian books and manuscripts, bequeathed by Judge Louis François Georges Baby (1834–1906), of Montreal. The medical school, which now occupies a portion of the university building, formerly held its sessions in the historic Château de Ramesay, built by the Chevalier de Ramesay, governor of Montreal, in 1704, and occupied after the conquest by the British governors of Canada, until the stoning of Lord Elgin and the burning of the Parliament Buildings in 1849 brought about the removal of the seat of government from Montreal. The Château de Ramesay is now the fitting home of a public collection of historic relics. Of other educational institutions in the city the most important is St Mary’s College, founded in 1848 by the Jesuits, and removed to the present building in 1855. The archives boast a notable collection of early Canadian manuscripts, upon which Francis Parkman drew in preparing his histories of New France.

Montreal’s position as the chief doorway of the outgoing and incoming trade of the Dominion is largely due to the foresight of her great merchants. With the gradual opening up of means of communication by land and water, and the development of her facilities for handling the exports and imports of the country, the city has increased rapidly in importance, until to day one-third of the imports of the Dominion come through Montreal, and nearly 30% of the exports. In shipments of grain Montreal has outstripped all her rivals on the continent except New York and New Orleans, and the building of the Georgian Bay canal will, by materially shortening the distance between the western grainfields and European markets, give her a very considerable advantage over both these ports. In dairy produce she is already the chief export centre of the continent. Montreal is also the financial centre of Canada, and in it are to be found the head offices of more than 25 important banks, of the leading insurance companies, and of the two greatest railways of the country.

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EDUCATION, Negro. See .


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 18th-century type, who saw and attempted to see nothing except that Bavaria had always been threatened by the house of Habsburg, had been supported by Prussia for purely selfish reasons, and could look for useful support against these two only from France, who had selfish reasons of her own for wishing to counterbalance the power both of Austria and Prussia in Germany. As late as 1813, when Napoleon’s power was visibly breaking down, and Montgelas knew the internal weakness of his empire well from visits to Paris, he still continued to maintain that France was necessary to Bavaria. The decision of the king to turn against Napoleon in 1814 was taken under the influence of his son and of Marshal Wrede rather than of Montgelas, though the minister would not have been influenced by any feeling of sentimentality to adhere to an ally who had ceased to be useful. In internal affairs Montgelas carried out a policy of secularization and of administrative centralization often by brutal means, which showed that he had never wholly renounced his opinions of the time of the Enlightenment movement. His enemies persuaded the king to dismiss him in 1817, and he spent the remainder of his life in retirement till his death in 1838. He had married the countess von Arco in 1803, and had eight children, in 1809 he was made a count.

MONT GENÈVRE, a very easy and remarkable pass (6083 ft.) between France and Italy, which is now considered by high authorities to have been crossed by Hannibal, as it certainly was by Julius Caesar, Charles VIII., and in the war of 1859. An excellent carriage-road mounts in 7 m. from Briançon, at the very head of the Durance valley, to the pass. On the French side of the divide is the village of Bourg Mont Genévre, and on the Italian side that of Clavières, both inhabited all the year round, as the pass runs east and west, and is thus sheltered from the north wind. A descent of 5 m. leads down to Césanne in the Doria Riparia valley, which is followed for 5 m. more to Oulx (17 m. from Briançon), on the Mont Cenis railway.

MONTGOMERIE, ALEXANDER (c. 1550–c. 1610), Scottish poet, was the second son of Hugh Montgomerie of Hessilhead, Ayrshire, and was born about the middle of the 16th century. He spent some part of his youth in Argyleshire and afterwards lived for a time at Compston Castle, in Galloway. He was in the service of the regent Morton; thereafter, on the regent’s demission of office in 1578, in that of the king, James VI. In 1583 the grant by the Crown of a pension of 500 marks was confirmed; and three years later he set out on a tour through France, Flanders and other countries. He appears to have got into trouble, to have been imprisoned abroad, and to have lost favour at the Scottish court, and (for a time) his pension. We have no record of his closing years.

Montgomerie’s chief poem is the Cherry and the Slae, first printed in 1597 (two impressions). It was frequently reprinted in the 17th and 18th centuries, and appeared twice in Latin guise in 1631, in Dempster’s Cerasum et sylvestre prunum, opus poematicum. It is included in the collected edition of Montgomerie’s Poems, by David Irving (1821), and by James Cranstoun, for the Scottish Text Society (1887). The text in the latter is a composite of 930 lines from the second impression of 1597 (u.s.) and 666 lines from the version in ’s (q.v.) Ever Green (1724); but a better text, from a MS. in the Laing collection in the university of Edinburgh, has been prepared (1907) for the Scottish Text Society by Mr George Stevenson. The poem, written in the complicated alliterative fourteen-lined stanza, is a confused allegory—the confusion being due to the fact that sections of the poem were written at different times—on Youth’s choice between a richly laden cherry-tree on a high crag and a sloe “bush” at his feet. His other poems are: The Flyting betwixt Montgomery and Polwart (1629; 1st ed., 1621), which reproduces the literary habit of the Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie; a series of 70 sonnets; a large number of miscellaneous poems, amatory and devotional; and The Mindes Melodie, Contayning certayne Psalmes of the Kinglie Prophete Dayvid, applyed to a new pleasant tune (Edinburgh, 1605). The formal value of Montgomerie’s verse was fittingly acknowledged by James VI. in his early critical essay Ane Schort Treatise conteining some reulis and cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie, where the author makes three quotations from Montgomerie’s poems, then in circulation in manuscript. Montgomerie had written a sonnet to his majesty, which is prefixed to the Essayes of a Prentise.

Montgomerie stands apart from the courtier-poets Ayton, Stirling, and others, who write in the literary English of the South. He carries on the Middle Scots tradition, and was not without influence in the vernacular revival, in Allan Ramsay and his successors.

MONTGOMERY, GABRIEL, SEIGNEUR DE LORGES, (c. 1530–1574), French soldier, became a lieutenant in the king of France’s Scottish guards, of which his father was captain, and engaged in police operations against the Protestants. Having inadvertently caused the death of King Henry II. in a tournament (June 30, 1559) he was disgraced and retired to his estates in Normandy. He studied theological questions and espoused the cause of the Reformers. In 1562 he allied himself with the prince of Condé, took Bourges, and defended Rouen from September to October 1562 against the royal army. In the third War of Religion he occupied Béarn and Bigorre (1569). Escaping from the massacre of St Bartholomew, he went to England and returned with a fleet for the relief of La Rochelle (1573), but soon had to withdraw to Cornwall. Returning to Normandy in 1574, he defended Domfront, which was being besieged by Marshal de Matignon, but was forced to capitulate on the 25th of May. He was sentenced to death by the parlement, and beheaded in Paris on the 26th of June 1574.

MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771–1854), British poet and journalist, son of a Moravian minister, was born on the 4th of November 1771, at Irvine in Ayrshire, Scotland. Part of his boyhood was spent in Ireland, but he received his education in Yorkshire, at the Moravian school of Fulneck near Leeds. He edited the Sheffield Iris for more than thirty years. When he began his career the position of a journalist who held pronounced views on reform was a difficult one, and he twice suffered imprisonment (in 1795 and 1796). His Wanderer of Switzerland (1806), describing the French occupation, attracted considerable attention. The author was described by Lord Byron in a footnote to English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, as “a man of considerable genius,” whose Wanderer of Switzerland was worth a thousand “Lyrical Ballads.” The book had been mercilessly ridiculed by Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review (1807), but in spite of this Montgomery achieved a wide popularity with his later volumes of verse: The West Indies (1810); The World Before the Flood (1812); Greenland (1819); Songs of Zion (1822); The Pelican Island (1826). On account of the religious character of his poetry, he is sometimes confounded with Robert Montgomery, very much to the injustice of his reputation. His verses were dictated by the inspiring force of humanitarian sentiment, and he was especially eloquent in his denunciation of the slave trade. The influence of Campbell is apparent in his earlier poems, but in the Pelican Island, his last and best Work as a poet, he evidently took Shelley as his model. His reputation now rests chiefly on his hymns, about a hundred of which are still in current use. His Lectures on Poetry and General Literature (1833) show considerable breadth of sympathy and power of expression. A pension of

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 informants to Velasquez. At the last moment one of the traitors betrayed the plot, and stern punishment befell his companions. The priest, by virtue of his office, was spared, but the two ringleaders were hung, and the pilot was condemned to lose his feet. "Would that I had never learned to write!" exclaimed Cortés, as he signed the death-warrants of his men.

For the first time Cortés was depressed. He realised that he must make the soldiers feel that their only course was to go forward. Never would he conquer Mexico while his turbulent men might at any time frustrate him by retreat. Daring and drastic was his solution of the difficulty. The ships should be destroyed! The army stranded on the shores of Mexico!

The work of destruction must be done secretly, for the men would never consent to such a desperate expedient. Bidding Alvarado lead the troops to Cempoalla, Cortés, aided by a few of his most faithful and trusted followers, dismantled all the ships save one of sails, cordage, and iron, and then remorselessly sank them to the bottom of the bay.

When the news reached the army it seemed for a moment that they would turn and rend this man who had so betrayed their confidence. "Our general," they clamoured in fury and despair, "has led us like cattle to be butchered in the shambles!"

"Fellow-soldiers!" cried Cortés, in the tone of mingled authority and comradeship so dear to his men, "the ships were mine, the only property I possess in the world, so their destruction is my 98


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1. Of him as of burning fire goeth the vehemence (?); likewise, as it were, shall he crying out go away from me; some other one than us let the ill-behaved one seek; homage be to the heat-weaponed fever.

2. Homage to Rudra, homage be to the fever, homage to king Varuṇa, the brilliant (tvíṣīmant), homage to the sky, homage to the earth, homage to the herbs.

3. Thou here who, scorching greatly, dost make all forms yellow—to thee here, the ruddy, the brown, the woody takmán, do I pay homage.

1. These three earths (pṛthivī́) that there are—of them earth (bhū́mi) is the highest; from off their skin have I seized a remedy.

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 day in the month in which the sentence expires would be excluded.

 MONTHOLON, CHARLES TRISTAN, (1782–1853), was born at Paris. He was trained for a military career, and in his tenth year shared in the expedition of Admiral Truguet to the coast of Sardinia. Entering the army in 1798, he rose with rapidity and avowed himself, when chef d’escadron in Paris at the time of the coup d’état of Brumaire (November 1799), entirely devoted to Bonaparte. He served with credit in the ensuing campaigns, and distinguished himself at the battle of Aspern-Essling (May 1809) where he was wounded. At the end of that campaign on the Danube he received the title of count and remained in close attendance on Napoleon, who confided to him several important duties, among others, a mission to the Archduke Ferdinand at Würzburg. At the time of the first abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau (April 11, 1814), Montholon was one of the few generals who advocated one more attempt to rally the French troops for the overthrow of the allies. After the second abdication (June 22, 1815) he with his wife accompanied the emperor to Rochefort, where Napoleon and his friends finally adopted the proposal, which emanated from (q.v.), that he should throw himself on the generosity of the British nation and surrender to H.M.S. “Bellerophon.” Montholon afterwards, at Plymouth, asserted that the conduct of Captain Maitland of the “Bellerophon” had been altogether honourable, and that the responsibility for the failure must rest largely with Las Cases. Montholon and his wife accompanied the ex-emperor to St Helena. To Montholon chiefly, Napoleon dictated the notes on his career which form so interesting, though far from trustworthy, a commentary on the events of the first part of his life. Montholon is known to have despised and flouted Las Cases, though in later writings he affected to laud his services to Napoleon. With Gourgaud, who was no less vain and sensitive than himself, there was a standing feud, which would have led to a duel but for the express prohibition of Napoleon. Las Cases left the island in November 1816, and Gourgaud in January 1818; but Montholon, despite the departure of his wife, stayed on at Longwood to the end of the emperor’s life (May, 1821). In a letter written to his wife he admitted that Napoleon died of cancer, though he afterwards encouraged the belief that death was due to a liver complaint aggravated by the climate and by the restrictions to which Napoleon was subjected. After that event Montholon and Bertrand became reconciled to (q.v.); but this did not prevent him, on his return to France, from vilifying that much abused man. Colonel Basil Jackson found him very frank as to the politique de Longwood which aimed at representing Napoleon as a martyr, and Sir Hudson Lowe as his persecutor. Montholon admitted that an “angel from heaven as governor would not have pleased them.” Montholon had to spend many years in Belgium; and in 1840 acted as “chief of staff” in the absurd “expedition” conducted by Louis Napoleon from London to Boulogne. He was condemned to imprisonment at Ham, but was released in 1847; he then retired to England and published the Récits de la captivité de Napoléon à Ste Hélène. In 1849 he became one of the deputies for the Legislative Assembly under the Second French Republic. He died on the 21st of August 1853.

 MONTH’S MIND, in medieval and later England a service and feast held one month after the death of anyone in his or her memory. Bede speaks of the day as commemorationis dies. These “Minding days” were of great antiquity, and were survivals of the Norse minne or ceremonial drinking to the dead. “Minnying Days,” says Blount, “from the Saxon Lemynde, days which our ancestors called their Monthes mind, their Year’s mind and the like, being the days whereon their souls (after their deaths) were had in special remembrance, and some office or obsequies said for them, as Orbits, Dirges.” The phrase is still used in Lancashire. Elaborate instructions for the conduct of the commemorative service were often left in wills. Thus, one Thomas Windsor (who died in 1479) orders that “on my moneth’s minde there be a hundred children within the age of sixteen years, to say for my soul,” and candles were to be burned before the rood in the parish church and twenty priests were to be paid by his executors to sing Placebo, Dirige, &c. In the correspondence of Thomas, Lord Cromwell, one in 1536 is mentioned at which a hundred priests took part in the mass. Commemorative sermons were usually preached, the earliest printed example being one delivered by John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, on Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, in 1509.

 MONTILLA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 32 m. S. of the city of Cordova, by the Cordova-Bobadilla railway. Pop. (1900), 13,603. The oil of the district is abundant and good; and it is the peculiar flavour of the pale dry light wine of Montilla that gives its name to the sherry known as Amontillado. Montilla was the birthplace of “The Great Captain,” Gonzalo or Gonsalvo of Cordova (1453–1515), and contains the ruined castle of his father, Pedro Fernandez de Cordova.

 MONTLOSIER, FRANÇOIS DOMINIQUE DE REYNAUD, (1755–1838), French publicist, was born at Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 16th of April 1755, the youngest of a large family belonging to the poorer nobility. He was returned in 1791 to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat on the Royalist side, and he emigrated on its dissolution in September 1791. He was received into the emigrant army at Coblenz after some protest against the Liberal leanings he had shown in the Assembly. After the cannonade of Valmy, he withdrew to Hamburg, and thence to London, where he avoided English society, moving exclusively among the French exiles. In his Courrier de Londres, published in London, he advocated moderation and the abandonment by the exiles of any idea of revenge. He was recalled to Paris in 1801, with permission to publish his paper in London. The Courrier was soon suppressed, nevertheless, its editor being compensated by a comfortable sinecure in the ministry of foreign affairs. Next year he sold his pen to the government to edit the violent anti-English Bulletin de Paris. At Napoleon’s request he undertook an account of the ancient monarchy of France, which should serve as a justification for the empire. After four years’ labour Montlosier submitted his work to a specially appointed committee, by which it was rejected because of the stress laid on the feudal limitations of the royal authority. The work De la monarchies française ou recherches sur les anciennes institutions françaises  et sur les causes qui ont amené la révolution  appeared in 1814 in three volumes, a fourth and supplementary volume in the next year containing a preface hostile to Napoleon. His views were no more acceptable to Louis XVIII. than they had been to the emperor, and he devoted himself to agriculture until he was roused by the clerical and reactionary policy of Charles X. His anti-clerical Mémoire à consulter sur un système réligieux, politique (1826) rapidly passed through eight editions. He had no part in the revolution of 1830, but supported Louis Philippe’s government and entered the House of Peers in 1832. He died on the 9th of December 1838 at Blois. Ecclesiastical burial was denied him because he had refused to abjure his anti-clerical writings.

 MONTLUC (or ), BLAISE DE LASSARAN-MASSEN-CÔME, (c. 1502–1577), marshal of France, was born about 1502, at the family seat near Condom in the modern department of Gers. He was the eldest son, and his family was a good one, but, like most gentlemen of Gascony, he had to

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, National Systems of

EDUCATION, National Systems of. The system of education maintained by any nation must be the result of three groups of factors; (1) a group of national ideals; (2) a group of fundamental conceptions of the relationships of citizens in their economic, political, social and religious activities, and (3) an accepted attitude toward childhood and a group of accepted views with reference to the nature of educational processes. All of these may be vague and ill defined or they may be clearly formulated, — the result of a philosophy of life, consciously worked out in a more or less scientific way. The first two groups of factors are most influential in determining a nation's educational aim and in guiding the selection of the content, or material to be taught; the second and third groups contribute most to the form of organization perfected for carrying on educational work; to the third group we look for the explanation of the methods of instruction employed. In order to fully understand a nation's education, then, there must be taken into account facts with reference to its history, industrial life, government — particularly in its legislative and administrative phases — temperament of the people, organization of society, religion, and, finally, the degree to which scientific principles have been developed and applied to problems of education.

Such completeness is impossible here. With these facts in mind, however, we may in a general way characterize the leading national educational systems of the present by presenting their most prominent characteristics and indicating the conditions upon which they depend. France, Germany and Great Britain, because of their size and importance, deserve the

fullest treatment. We shall treat them first, following with very brief sketches of other European nations, then of the two principal nations of the far east, China and Japan, and finally, of Latin-American countries.

France. — France possesses a national system of education in the truest sense. Its most marked characteristic is centralization. Politically, the country is made up of 89 “departments,” each under a prefect appointed by the President, a small advisory council and a general council of elected members. Each department is divided and subdivided again into “arrondissements,” “cantons” and “communes.” For educational purposes the country is marked off into 17 “academics.” The authorities in all these divisions, both political and educational, play a part in carrying into effect the educational laws, all of which are national. Some of the characteristics of the system resulting from these laws are (1) opportunity for free elementary education; (2) compulsory attendance; (3) absence of religious instruction in public schools; (4) required instruction in morals; (5) a completely organized system of normal schools; (6) recognition of teaching as State service and provision for teachers' pensions.

Administration centres in a government department under a Minister of Public Instruction. Assisting him are four directors; one each for elementary, secondary and higher education and one for accounts, under each of whom are a number of bureaus with special functions. In each academy except Paris a rector has charge of educational affairs in general, though prefects hire elementary teachers on recommendation of academy inspectors, and certain other affairs are left to a departmental council of teachers, inspectors and general councillors. In the academy of Paris the Minister is nominally rector, but a vice-rector performs the duties of the office. Inspection of the system is organized to the last detail. For example, in case of primary education there are general, academy, departmental and arrondissement mspectors, each of whom must possess special qualifications.

Instruction may begin at a very early age in the maternal schools (écoles malernelles), where children from two to six years of age attend. Infant classes for children from five to seven years are provided in some places. Schools of primary and secondary grade are not closely co-ordinated. The former are practical and are directed toward life work; the latter (the lycées and collèges) are pointed more in the direction of higher training.

Lower primary schools, adapted to fit the compulsory school period (ages 6 to 13), are organized wherever possible as elementary, intermediate, and higher grades. The fundamental elementary subjects are taught, stress is put upon manual work, and the teaching of morals is compulsory. Special classes are organized in many places for backward and subnormal children. Where necessity warrants it, books, pencils and even food are provided. Supplementing the primary instruction described above are various courses. There are: (1) the “supplementary courses” (cours complémentaire) provided in some places; (2) the “higher primary school,” which is a separate school with a practical course; (3)

schools offering special instruction, as agriculture; and (4) continuation schools which are somewhat similar to the evening classes in American cities.

A normal school for each sex in each department, except where departments are allowed to combine their efforts, provides a three-year course for training elementary teachers. The work includes theoretical pedagogy and practice teaching. A higher normal for men and one for women are provided for the preparation of teachers to supply the departmental normals.

Secondary instruction is given in the state institutions called lycées, and in the communal colleges, which may receive state aid. Both may charge tuition fees. They admit boys at the age of 10 or 11 years and give courses of seven years. Most have preparatory schools for boys under 10 associated with them, so they do not draw their attendance, ordinarily, from the primary schools. The first “cycle” of four years is arranged to allow a choice of a classical course or a modern language and science course. The second “cycle” of three years offers four possibilities: (1) a Greek-Latin; (2) a Latin-modern language; (3) a Latin-science, and (4) a science-modern language course. Completion of any course of the four gives a baccalaureate degree. Teachers in these institutions must have special training along both academic and pedagogical lines. Secondary instruction for girls is carried on in lycées and collèges for girls, but the course is of five years instead of seven. They too have their own preparatory schools.

For higher education a university has been established in each of 15 of the academies, but they do not all have the complete four faculties. Appropriate degrees for higher work are given in the name of the state. There are also some special institutions, among which are the Collège de France, which dates from 1530, certain private institutions, and some “free faculties” of the Roman Catholic Church. Private institutions may not take the name of university.

Great Britain and Ireland. — England, Scotland and Ireland may best be treated in a group because all are more or less directly under the control of Parliament and all receive contributions from parliamentary money grants. Let us take them up in the order given above.

England's education is best understood when approached from the historical viewpoint. Its organization has been slow and only in recent times has begun to warrant the use of the term “system.” The leading universities and some of the secondary schools are several centuries old, and still maintain curricula which suggest the Renaissance. They have always been the fitting schools for the best classes of English society. For a long period the education of the common people was, in accordance with accepted views, the business of the Church. Schools were controlled by ecclesiastical authorities. Two or three centuries of change along industrial, social and political lines, however, brought a change of view. Education began to be thought of as the business of the state, as is shown by various bills presented in the Parliament, appropriations and the appointment of a special committee for administering educational grants. But the first of a

series of really effective measures was the educational act of 1870.

Under this act, existing voluntarily established denominational schools were to be recognized as public elementary schools and receive apportionments from parliamentary grants on condition that they (1) conform with regulations of the education department, (2) submit to government inspection, and (3) reserve religious instruction for hours outside those of the regular school day. They might charge fees but could not share in any local tax. The act provided further for a school in every district not already supplied, provided the electors requested it. Such a school was to be established by a local elective school board, and came to be designated a “board school.” It might, on meeting government requirements, receive support from both parliamentary grants and local taxes. Thus was laid the foundation upon which has been built England's dual system of schools, supported by moneys from fees, endowment incomes, parliamentary grants and local taxes. A summary of some of the most important characteristics resulting from legislation since 1870 would include (1) compulsory attendance; (2) abolition of fees for elementary instruction and provisions for free tuition; (3) the right of voluntary (denominational) schools to participate in local tax funds; (4) abolition of the old committee and organization of a central board of education; (5) elimination of local boards and placing of local school affairs in the hands of the “county councils”; (6) extension of government support and inspection to include secondary schools of all classes. Government schools are now called “provided” schools, while others are called “nonprovided” schools. Supervision is left to supervisory boards, and in case of “nonprovided” schools a majority of the members may represent the Church under which the schools were established. Secularization is therefore not complete.

In the elementary schools, the lower grades, or “infant schools,” for children of five or less to eight years of age, lead up from play exercises to easy reading, writing and number work. Upper grades, for ages 8 to 15, carry work in the usual elementary subjects. Additional classes for vocational training may be organized under certain conditions. Where a need for them exists, “higher elementary schools” of three grades may be established for the continuance of instruction along the lines of elementary subjects with special vocational training added. Children who attend must be 12 years old and must have completed at least two years of elementary school work. They may not remain after completing the third year of the course nor after attaining the age of 16, except to complete a grade.

Technically, among secondary schools are included all day and boarding schools maintaining courses of wider scope and more advanced degree than elementary schools and attended by scholars up to and beyond the age of 16, Pupils may enter as early as the age of eight or nine. These schools may charge fees but also receive parliamentary aid on meeting government requirements. Breadth of training is insisted upon and Latin may be omitted from the course only with the consent of the school board. Considerable variation in organization

and means of support exists. The best known types are the classical “grammar schools” and “public schools,” many of which rest upon very old endowments. (“Public school” does not mean free to the public. It is the designation for secondary boarding schools like Rugby, Harrow, etc.). These schools fit boys from the best classes of society for the university. Secondary schools for girls are very modern institutions. During the last few decades many have been established with financial foundations and study courses similar to those in institutions for boys.

Elementary and secondary schools are not closely co-ordinated. Most children who attend the broader secondary schools prepare under tutors or in special preparatory schools, then enter at an early age. Some pupils go from elementary to the secondary schools, but the number is small, and there has been official expression of the opinion that preparation in elementary schools for transition to the secondary is a “subsidiary object.” When made, the transition should be early, not at the end of the course. That is to say, the two groups of schools differ in aim and are designed to meet the needs of different classes of society. Most children who go through and beyond the elementary schools enter day or evening continuation schools or vocational or technical schools.

Universities, university colleges and higher technical and professional schools provide for advanced training. They are not free institutions, but may receive government financial aid.

Teachers in secondary schools usually come from the universities. Elementary teachers get their training through a kind of apprenticeship known as “pupil teacher training,” or by a method of “student teacher training” in which secondary training to the age of 16 or 17 is followed by a year of practical work and one to four years in teacher training colleges which are maintained in connection with universities or may be established by county or city councils.

Scotland's education is under supervision of a separate board of education, with committees for secondary education in large educational districts and local elective school boards. Elementary education is generally free. Compulsory attendance is demanded of children between the ages of 5 and 14. Practically all types of schools may receive parliamentary aid on compliance with government standards.

Primary schools (infant, junior and senior divisions) carry the child to the age of 12, when a “qualifying examination” is given. Beyond this he may enter a supplementary course or he may begin an intermediate course. The latter is a kind of lower secondary course of three years, broader in scope than the primary and including a foreign language. On completing it a child receives an intermediate certificate. A secondary school parallels the intermediate course and adds two more years, and may give a choice of more than one course. On completing such a course a child receives a “leaving certificate.” Higher training is given in the universities and technical institutions.

Teachers prepare under the direction of committees for the training of teachers, of which there are four, and must take work in both academic and professional subjects,

in selected institutions, not in separate normal schools.

The educational history of Ireland is similar in some respects to that of England. A group of voluntary elementary schools has been placed under control of a National Board, which administers education, supervises inspection of schools and distributes parliamentary grants of money. Elementary education is free and compulsory. Religious teaching is permitted, but may not be enforced by any denomination upon a child against the wishes of his parents. Teacher training is provided for in denominational colleges. Little progress has been made in providing higher elementary schools. Most secondary schools, known in Ireland as intermediate schools, are endowed, private or denominational. These have been brought partly under supervision of an intermediate board, which cares for distribution of grants of money to those schools which conform with government standards and submit to inspection. Denominational contentions have retarded the progress of higher education. However, there are a number of denominational colleges, and reorganizations of rather recent origin have resulted in the combination of some colleges into universities with a view to securing greater financial aid from parliamentary appropriations.

Germany. — Germany is a federation of some 25 states, in which are included monarchies, grand duchies, duchies, free city republics and small principalities. The King of Prussia holds the title of Emperor. Imperial legislation covers only affairs with which the states are jointly concerned. Other affairs, — and education is included among them, — have been left largely to the control of individual states. Education is sometimes affected by actions of imperial authorities, but there has never been an imperial educational code. There has therefore been no “system” of education in the empire, but systems, provided and administered by the several states, with consequent lack of uniformity in methods of providing and supporting schools. On the other hand, there has been similarity though not identity of educational aims; other states have tended to follow the example of Prussia; and since the historical background has been nearly the same for all, their schools bear remarkable similarities of content and organization and serve the various classes of society in much the same way.

Some states have series of educational laws, others only general legislative provisions supplemented by ordinances or decrees of central authorities. Administration has been highly centralized, particularly in Prussia. Most of the larger slates combine education with religion under one ministry. This is true in Prussia, Bavaria, Würtemberg and Saxony. Some others include education in the Interior or in the Department of Justice. Central authorities may be assisted by local bodies, sometimes civil authorities, sometimes special provincial and local school councils.

Military training is universal, but the requirement decreases with increase in educational accomplishment. School attendance is compulsory, usually to the age of 14. Religion is taught in elementary schools. Much has been

done to raise efficiency of teaching and to induce persons to make it a life work. Pensions for aged teachers are common. Great progress has been made along the lines of hygiene and the sanitation of school buildings.

As stated, schools are similarly organized in the several states, though there are variations. Those of Prussia come nearest to being typical, and may be briefly characterized as follows: A longitudinal separation prevents continuity and keeps distinct the schools patronized by different classes of society. A child's school and the length of his course is determined almost entirely by the class of society into which he is born. Transition, after the first two or three years, is very difficult.

The “Volkschule,” or people's school, is a free school of eight grades admitting children at the age of six, in which are taught the elementary subjects and religion. It is patronized by the lower classes of society. Most children go from here into industrial life. Supplementary courses in evening or Sunday “continuation schools” exist in many places, and there has been a movement in the direction of making attendance a requirement, up to the age of 18, wherever possible. Teacher training is thorough, including three years in preparatory classes above the Volkschule, three in a normal school, and then practical work, aside from the passing of various examinations.

Secondary institutions are tuition schools of nine grades, or classes, admitting boys (girls very rarely) at the age of nine or 10 years. Preparation for entrance is either privately or in a special preparatory “Vorschule.” There are three types: (1) the “Gymnasium,” characterized by its strictly classical course; (2) the “Realgymnasium,” with a Latin — modern language — science course; and (3) the “Oberrealschule,” with a science — modern language course. A special examination at the close of the gymnasial course (the Abiturientenpruefung), if successfully passed, fulfils the requirements for entrance to the university, in part the requirements for state service, and in addition secures certain privileges with reference to army service. The same is true for the courses in the “Realgymnasium” and “Oberrealschule,” except that language deficiencies must be made up in order to enter certain university courses. Communities unable to maintain nine-year courses have six-year courses, paralleling the first six years of the schools just described, under the names, “Progymnasium,” “Realprogymnasium,” and “Realschule.” Secondary schools for girls, similar in organization to those for boys, but with less extensive courses, are found in many places. Secondary schools are patronized only by the aristocracy and the professional classes. Secondary school teachers must have thorough training, including university work and special pedagogical training, both theoretical and practical.

Between the lower and the secondary schools are the “middle schools,” with courses somewhat longer than that of the lower, or people's school. They are somewhat exclusive, charge tuition and are attended by children of the middle classes. But they do not articulate with the secondary schools.

Universities and higher technical institutions are state institutions, controlled by the state and maintained largely by state funds.

Austria and Hungary. — The educational systems in these countries are very similar to those of the larger German states. Hungary has included denominational schools under an arrangement similar to that in England, but in both these countries the organization of classes and the curricula in elementary, secondary and higher institutions parallel very closely those in the schools of Germany.

Denmark. — Administration of schools in Denmark is in the hands of the Minister of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs, with a school council in each county and a school board in each local subdivision. There is also a group of inspectors, assisted by the bishops of the state (Evangelical Lutheran) church. Education is free and compulsory between ages seven and 14 years. Religion is taught.

The school system includes (1) the elementary school (“Folkeskole”) for children of six to 14 years, supplemented by continuation schools; (2) the middle school (“Mellemskole”), with a four-year course which may he entered from the elementary school after the age of 11, and supplemented by a “real class” leading into a group of “middle professional schools”; (3) the three-year “Gymnasium,” offering three courses based on the classics, mathematics and modern languages, and leading to the higher technological schools and the university. The university is considered a part of the state system. Schools above the elementary are not free. Middle and secondary schools for girls exist, but they are fewer than those for boys. Normal schools, both public and private, give courses of from one to three years for the training of elementary teachers. Teachers are considered as in state service, and teachers' pensions are provided on a graded scale. Denmark deserves the credit for originating the special supplementary school for adults known as the “people's high school.” It gives a short course, for men in winter, for women in summer, for which a tuition fee is charged, but there are no examination requirements.

Sweden. — Education in Sweden is controlled through the ecclesiastical department of the government, working in co-operation with the popular assembly.

Elementary education is compulsory for children from seven to 14 years of age. Schools are subdivided into “infant schools” (ages 7 to 9, and elementary schools (ages 9 to 14). Teachers are prepared in training colleges with four-year courses. Continuation schools, held usually in the evenings, “higher elementary schools” and “people's high schools,” modeled after those of Denmark, supplement the elementary schools.

Secondary institutions are (1) the practical six-year “realschool”; (2) the four-year “gymnasium” for boys, offering both classical and modern courses; (3) the higher girls' school, usually a private school with preparatory classes attached; (4) the special technical school. A lower secondary examination is given at the close of the realschool course, and a higher secondary examination at the close of the gymnasium course. Children may go from elementary to realschool, also from this to the gymnasium at the end of the fifth year of the course. “Middle schools,” in some communities, give a practical four-year course which

may include the work of the higher elementary school.

Three state universities and two private universities, known as high schools, provide for higher training.

Norway. — In Norway schools are under general control of the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, but much control is left to county and local school boards in which the state (Lutheran) church is well represented. Primary education is free and compulsory to the age of 14 and religious instruction is required. A well co-ordinated system allows continuous progress from primary school through, first, a lower secondary school of four classes (“Middelskole”), and a higher secondary school of three classes (“Gymnasium”), to a higher professional school or a university. Secondary schools may be state, municipal or private. Most of them are coeducational. Continuation schools supplement the primary schools. Lower secondary courses articulate with technical courses of lower professional schools. Training colleges are provided for preparation of teachers. A number of special state institutions provide for abandoned and delinquent children and for defectives.

Netherlands. — Administration here is under the Minister of the Interior, under whom are ranged groups of general, district and arrondissement inspectors. Some local affairs are regulated by local civil authorities and communal school boards.

Classed as elementary schools are: day schools for children 7 to 13 years old — the compulsory school age, — continuation schools and evening schools.

Secondary institutions are both public and private. They include burgher schools with a two-year practical course, higher burgher schools with a five- and a three-year course, agricultural schools, industrial and technical schools, and a group of very special training schools. Higher burgher schools are the only ones giving broad training. They close with a State examination giving admission to higher institutions and to various kinds of state service.

Gymnasia, with courses for ages 12 to 18, and fitting for the university, are classed along with the university as higher institutions.

Training of teachers is carefully supervised and the law provides for minimum salaries of elementary teachers and for pensions in cases of disability and long service.

Belgium. — Belgium, like a number of other European nations, has had a long denominational struggle. There is an educational department under the Minister of Science and Art, who is assisted by general directors and a corps of inspectors, but in each commune there is a board possessing considerable authority, and in these denominational influence is considerable. Local independence accounts for considerable variation in the schools. Above the elementary schools, there are lower and higher secondary schools. The lower are practical schools maintained by the government and give courses of three years. Separate schools for boys and girls are established. The higher are seven-year schools (the athénées and a few collèges), and lead up to the university. Aside from these two groups, secondary schools may be established by local authorities. Higher

education is provided for in four universities, two of which are state institutions, and in numerous special institutions.

Switzerland. — Because each of the 25 Swiss cantons controls its own educational affairs there results considerable lack of uniformity in the school system. Free education is provided for in the constitution. Some cantons provide free books and material. Compulsory education is common, sometimes for seven, sometimes for eight years, beginning usually at the age of 6½ or 7 years. Continuation schools are provided in all cantons. Various kinds of schools above the elementary grade exist, some giving general, others technical courses. Commercial education is stimulated by giving federal grants. The universities, of which there are seven, and the “Federal Polytechnikum” are institutions known world wide for their standards of work.

Italy. — Administrative machinery for control of Italian education is very complex. Under the Minister of Public Instruction are an undersecretary of state for public instruction and a higher council with the Minister as chairman. A vice-president of the council is appointed by the king. The council is divided into different permanent and special committees. There are also a number of special bureaus. In each province there is a special administrative head and an educational council. Some localities have a degree of independent control.

Elementary schools vary in number of grades from two to six, and may or may not be free. Under certain conditions they may receive state aid. Attendance is compulsory to the age of 12, or, in communities with the poorer schools, through the grades which are provided. Many evening and Sunday schools for illiterate adults have been established.

Secondary schools provide classical, technical, nautical and normal training in courses ranging from two to five years in length. An examination, for which a fee is charged, admits children to secondary schools at the end of the fourth elementary year. Few limits are placed upon the establishment of secondary schools, but government credit may be had only by taking the government examinations.

Universities are state institutions with separately organized administration and government. Various other higher special schools and institutes for higher training may receive contributions from state funds.

Spain. — The Spanish government seems to have taken over for inspection and support many schools, whether founded by the state itself, the provinces, towns or religious corporations. These it controls through a general director, who, with an advisory council, is under the Minister of the Interior. A number of inspectors are employed, and in each province and town there is a school board which has considerable authority.

Attempts have been made to classify the elementary schools, but they are poorly graded, except in a few cases, and in such a state of transition that few definite statements concerning them may be made. “Institutes” admitting boys at the age of 10 and giving courses leading to the bachelor's degree, and “colleges” with shorter courses from which boys may go into the “institutes,” are classed as secondary

institutions. Secondary and university education are closely related, the two being under the control of “rectors,” of which there is one for each “university district.” Professors in both types of institution are appointed by the king and must be university graduates. Education of girls has been for the most part in private schools or in convent schools.

Oriental Countries. — Oriental education was for centuries characteristically memoriter, imitative, nonprogressive. The two most important nations, Japan and China, have for a number of decades been making a transition to a more progressive education, largely on account of western influences.

Japan started the movement first. For about half a century she has been busy with the problem of modernizing and “westernizing” her education. At present education is controlled entirely by the state, through a Minister of Education who is a member of the Cabinet, and an educational council. Much of the regulation is by means of imperial ordinances.

Parents are compelled to send their children through a primary school, which it is the duty of the community to provide. Above the primary schools are middle schools and secondary schools of various types. The former are practical and lead toward technical schools or toward the secondary. The secondary schools are pointed toward the university, special colleges, or other higher institutions. Some provision has been made for the education of girls in special girls' higher schools. The problem of the proper co-ordination of the various institutions is not yet completely solved. A fairly well organized system of normal schools for training elementary teachers has been developed, and also a method of certification, either on graduation from one of these schools or by examination.

China's transition has been made almost within the present century. An ancient educational system consisting for the most part of memorization of a group of Chinese classics and the passing of a series of state examinations has been overthrown. A system modeled somewhat after the western systems has been put in its place, but many of the problems are yet unsolved. Teachers educated under the old system tend to fall back into a memorization method, disregarding the teaching of the meaning of material. Governmental changes and the changes incident to rapid adaptations being made make definite statements difficult. In general it may be said that China is fast developing elementary, middle and secondary, and higher institutions to meet ihe needs of education throughout the nation.

Both China and Japan find difficulties arising out of the nature of their written language (a character for each word), and both meet the difficulty of finding the proper place for the classical Chinese, which bears a similar relation to their modern life that Greek and Latin do to the modern life of western nations.

Latin-American Countries. — Space permits only a general characterization of education in Latin-American countries. In all of them the development of public educational systems has been slow. The causes for this are found in their extended territory, scattered rural population, differences in the grade

of culture of the several classes of inhabitants, and the tendency to patronize private institutions. Early schools were almost entirely those of the Catholic Church, and there is still a large measure of Church control. With the acquisition of independence and establishment of republican forms of government, most of these countries began building systems of public education. The majority of them have provided ministries of education, although education may be administered, in individual cases, through the Department of Interior or Department of Justice. Usually much power lies in the hands of provincial and local authorities, but in Chile there is government support of all classes of schools and the control is highly centralized under a system somewhat similar to that of France. Many of the countries have taken steps to provide free elementary education, and there have been a few partially successful attempts at compulsory attendance. Co-education is not the rule, even in elementary schools, but exists in the lower grades of government schools in a number of cases. Elementary education is liable to be of a low standard in rural districts, but in the larger cities, and especially in the government capitals, much has been done to build up model institutions and stimulate the development of efficient schools. Normal schools have also received much governmental attention. In practically all of the leading countries some form of government secondary school may be found, supported by national, provincial or municipal funds, but much of the secondary education is carried on in private or Church schools. Secondary schools are liable to articulate poorly or not at all with the elementary schools, as is the case in some European countries. Universities are also found in most countries, although in a few cases higher training has been given by special faculties — of medicine, law, etc. — the instructors being professional men who gave part time only to teaching. The influence of the world's modern industrial development has been felt in these southern countries, and the old literary and classical tendencies have tended to give way to more practical education, as is shown by the efforts of educational ministers to introduce reforms into the school systems. Education of North American and European countries have been studied, sometimes by special commissions, and in some cases scholarships have been provided to allow young men to study abroad. See.

United States, in Relation to Other Nations. — In both the period of their establish lish ment and the later periods of development the schools of the United States have been greatly influenced by the educational situations in the various European countries. Their aims, methods and forms of organization have in a way been echoes of those in the countries whose people first settled America. The development of our Federal government, however, with its characteristic democratic spirit, has made for an educational system in which the paternalism and social distinctions characteristic of so many nations in Europe are almost entirely lacking. And so it is that the business of education is left for the most part to the several States, and is only indirectly influenced by the Federal government. The way in which all of the States have set themselves the task

of providing a co-ordinated system of elementary, secondary and higher institutions through which any child of ability may go is remarkable. Schools which parallel the “middle schools” of European countries have been slow in coming, but in recent decades have been making their appearance rapidly, as have also those similar to European “lower” or “middle technical schools.” What will be their effect upon American life and society is a question full of interest and deserving careful thought. A similar and perhaps more vital problem arises from a tendency present in many quarters to push specialization down into the elementary grades.

The Present Situation. — Practically every nation's educational system is disturbed, even reorganized temporarily just at the present, as a result of the European War begun in August, 1914. Undoubtedly the outcome of that war will bring radical changes in many a nation's economic, political and social philosophy, followed by changes in both educational philosophy and educational practice. The foregoing statements are based upon conditions as they were at the beginning of the conflict and, in so far as known, as they have continued since. But habit is strong, and the probability is that any changes in national educational systems resulting from the war will be in the nature of modifications and gradual evolutions, not sudden breaks from the old habitual courses. The general outlines here given will probably in the main hold true, therefore, for a number of years after the conclusion of the just peace for which the world waits.


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vi. 21- 2. Thou art the most excellent of remedies, the best of plants; as Soma, lord (? bhága) in the night-watches (yā́ma), like Varuṇa among the gods.

2. O ye wealthy (revánt) ones, doing no violence, desirous to bestow ye desire to bestow; both are ye hair-fasteners, and also hair-increasers.

1. Black the down-track, the yellow eagles, clothing themselves in waters, fly up to the sky; they have come hither from the seat of righteousness (ṛtá); then, forsooth, with ghee they deluged the earth.

2. Ye make the waters rich in milk, the herbs propitious, when ye bestir yourselves, O golden-backed Maruts; do ye lavish (pinv) both sustenance and good-will there, where, O manly Maruts, ye pour honey.

3. Water-swimming [are] the Maruts; send ye that rain which shall fill all the hollows; the gláhā shall bestir itself, like a girl that is thrust, thrusting the éru, like wife with husband.

The text of this verse is hopelessly corrupt, and all attempts to make connected sense of the second half must apparently be (like that of Pischel in Ved. Stud. i. 81 ff.) forced and unsuccessful. ⌊Baunack, KZ. xxxv. 532, may also be consulted.⌋ The version of

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text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 21

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pflanzer-Baltin, Karl, Freiherr von

PFLANZER-BALTIN, KARL, (1855-), Austro-Hungarian general, was born at Pécs in Hungary in 1855. He served in the cavalry and on the general staff, but in 1914 found himself, on account of precarious health, unattached, and it was only in the autumn of that year, when Rumania appeared to be turning against the Central Powers, that he was charged with the defence of Transylvania. But when the Russians at this period crossed the Carpathians, and there was immediate danger of their eruption into the plains of Hungary, Pflanzer-Baltin, with a division improvised by his brilliant talent for organization out of next to nothing, threw himself on this enemy, and conducted the defensive in the form of a series of daring offensive movements. After fighting with varying success in the southern part of Eastern Galicia and in the Bukovina the VII. Army under his command was driven back by Brussilov's offensive in June 1916, whereupon he was relieved of his command. In the summer of 1918 the Austro-Hungarian front in Albania yielded before the attack of the Entente army. Pflanzer-Baltin, entrusted with the command in this theatre of operations, won back, after a brief and powerful attack, the old positions southwards of Fjeri and Berat — the last considerable success which fell to the Austro-Hungarian army in the field. (A.-K.)


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baden, Free State of

BADEN, FREE STATE OF (see ). — The population of the Free State of Baden, Germany, was, according to the census of 1919, 2,208,503.

Political and Constitutional History. — Baden was, till the

revolution of 1918, a constitutional monarchy; the sovereign bore the title of Grand Duke. The Diet (Landtag), which was composed of two Chambers, had indeed the right of legislation and of voting taxation, but the ministers were appointed by the Grand Duke at his own discretion. The government had always been conducted in a liberal spirit; Baden had in Germany the reputation of being the model of a diminutive Liberal country (ein Liberales Musterländle), though the population was preponderatingly Catholic. There was certainly a powerful Clerical minority in the second Chamber of the Diet. When at a general election there was a danger that a Clerical-Conservative majority would be elected, the two Liberal parties (the National Liberals and the Progressists) concluded an alliance for election purposes with the Social Democrats, thus constituting the so-called “grand bloc.” The result was that the Social Democrats held a considerably different position in Baden from that which they occupied in the empire. But in Baden, too, the line was drawn at allowing Socialists to become members of the Government. The Social Democratic party nevertheless endeavoured to place as few difficulties as possible in the path of the Government, and it did not, as elsewhere, vote against the budget. When the World War broke out in 1914, the leader of the Baden Social Democrats, Ludwig Frank, at once enlisted as a volunteer and fell in one of the earliest battles.

The Liberal sympathies of the Baden dynasty were maintained during the war. The heir to the throne, Prince Max of Baden, tried to exercise his influence in favour of a peace by understanding and of Liberal reforms in the internal policy of the empire. When in Oct. 1918 William II. at last decided to agree to the reform of the constitution by which the parliamentary form of government was introduced for the empire, Prince Max was appointed imperial chancellor. It was too late. He could not arrest the progress of the revolution. When the monarchy fell in the empire, it could not be maintained in Baden, although there was in this instance no reason for complaint on the score of misgovernment. On Nov. 10 the revolutionary Provisional Government was formed, containing representatives of the Social Democratic, the two Liberal parties and the Catholic Centre. On Nov. 22 the Grand Duke therefore definitely abdicated, with the assent of the heir to the throne, Prince Max.

The Provisional Government of Baden issued as early as Nov. 20 an ordinance by which elections were instituted for a National and Constituent Assembly. This representative body met on Jan. 15 1919 and at once began to discuss the draft of the constitution which had been submitted to it by the Government. On May 21 1919 the new constitution was passed by the National Assembly. Baden was thus the first German state which put an end to the lawless revolutionary situation. The consequence, it is true, has been that the Baden constitution has in several points been nullified by the constitution of the Reich, which was enacted at a later date; for the independence of the German Territories, as the states united in the Reich are designated, was considerably curtailed by the constitution of the Reich of the year 1919. Nor is there any room in the constitutions of the Territories for provisions regarding the “Fundamental Rights of the People,” since the constitution of the Reich has settled these Fundamental Rights.

(Author:Wilhelm von Blume)


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Badeni, Kasimir, Count

BADENI, KASIMIR, (1846-1909), Austrian statesman, was born Oct. 14 1846 at Surachovo in Galicia, his family being of Italian origin. He studied law and served some years in the Ministry of the Interior and from 1879 at Cracow as lieutenant of the governor of Galicia. He resigned the Government service in 1886, but two years later was appointed governor (Statthalter) of Galicia, where he ruled the Ruthenians with a strong hand. In Sept. 1895 he was appointed Austrian prime minister, and his attitude was at first satisfactory to the German-Austrians. In 1897, however, in order to gain the support of the Czechs for the new Ausgleich with Hungary, he made certain important concessions in respect of the official use of the Czech language in Bohemia. This was done by ordinance, without parliamentary sanction, and met with violent opposition from the German deputies, some of whom were imprisoned. The storm of indignation aroused among the German-Austrians by this policy, which led to imposing demonstrations in the streets of Vienna, led to Badeni's downfall on Nov. 28 1897. He died July 9 1909.

 * (Author:Carl Brockhausen)


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Badoglio, Pietro

BADOGLIO, PIETRO (1871-), Italian general, was born at Grazzano (Alessandria) Sept. 28 1871. He received his commission in the artillery, and thence passed to the general staff. During the Italo-Turkish War he served in Tripoli on the staff, receiving special promotion to major after the battle of Zanzur in June 1912. In the spring of 1915 he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and on Italy's entry into the World War he held the post of sub-chief-of-staff of the II. Army under Gen. Frugoni. In quick succession he acted as chief-of-staff of the 4th Division, and commanded the 74th Infantry Regiment on Monte Sabotino. In July 1916 he received another step, and as colonel commanded the “Sabotino Sector.” He planned and carried out the successful attack on Monte Sabotino which preceded the fall of Gorizia (Aug. 1916). For this success he was once more promoted. After serving as chief-of-staff of the VI. Corps and commanding the Cuneo Brigade, he became chief-of-staff of the so-called “Gorizia Zone” under Capello, with whom he remained when the command of the “Gorizia Zone” was extended to the whole II. Army. On the eve of that army's offensive in May 1917, Capello, dissatisfied with the artillery preparation in the sector of the II. Corps, obtained the appointment of Badoglio as interim commander of the corps (May 12). After the capture of Monte Kuk and Monte Vodice this appointment was confirmed, and he received another step of promotion. He commanded the II. Corps at the beginning of the August offensive but when the XXVII. Corps on the extreme left of the attack failed to make the progress expected he was sent to take over the corps. This time, however, the endeavour to make up for lost time was unavailing. At the battle of Caporetto, Badoglio commanded the same corps, the left wing of which was broken by Otto von Below's attack from the Tolmino bridgehead. On the reorganization of the Italian Supreme Command (Nov. 1917) he was appointed as one of the two sub-chiefs-of-staff then nominated, the other being Gen. Giardino. From Feb. 1918, on Giardino's transference to Versailles, Badoglio acted as sole sub-chief-of-staff under Diaz. He conducted the Armistice preliminaries at Villa Giusti, and signed the Armistice on behalf of Italy. In Nov. 1919 he was appointed to the rank of army general and from Diaz's resignation to Feb. 1921 he was chief of the general staff in succession to Diaz.

Badoglio's rapid rise was explained by the qualities which he showed in a special degree: determination, energy, and thoroughness. These qualities, joined to a natural military instinct developed by much study and backed by a powerful ambition, marked him out early and brought him very quickly to the front. He was blamed in various quarters for his disposition of the XXVII. Corps before the Austro-German attack in Oct. 1917, but the Caporetto Commission of Inquiry rejected most of the criticisms made upon him.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baeyer, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von

BAEYER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM ADOLF VON (1835-1917), German chemist (see ), died at Munich Sept. 5 1917. Up to within a year of his death he continued in full active work as one of the best-known teachers in the world of organic chemistry.


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 HENRY MORGENTHAU American Ambassador at Constantinople from 1913 to 1916


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Serjeanty

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Serjeanty


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6 Independent of the refutation of erroneous impressions, there seems to me something interesting in this last act of a pious and learned man, who was held in high estimation by some of the most distinguished men of his time. He was the friend of Isaac Vossius, and published his literary correspondence in folio, 1690. Fabricius gave a collection of his minor pieces, under the title of Pauli Colomesii Opera, Hamburgh, 1709, in 4to. Des Maiseaux printed several times his Mélanges Historiques, under the title of Colomesiana, and it is probable that the story of his secret marriage had its origin with him. La Monnoye gave an edition of his Bibliothèque Choisie, with notes; and Vigneul Marville (i.e. Dom Noël d'Argonne), in his Mélanges, says,—

"On voit régner dans les écrits de Colomiés l'air d'un honnête homme, qui fait justice à un chacun, sans avoir égard à la différence des religions. Les ouvrages que j'ai vu de lui sont remplis d'une érudition curieuse, et de fort bon goût."

Mickleham.

The late Mr. Edward Vernon Utterson, the editor of the two well-known volumes of Early Popular Poetry (8vo., 1817), had, as is also well known, a private press in his house of Beldornie, in the Isle of Wight; by means of which he reprinted a variety of highly curious poetical tracts, of dates between about 1590 and 1620. Although he never struck off more than from twelve to twenty copies of each (registering the number in type, or in his own handwriting), he was kind enough to present, I believe, all of them to me, aware of the interest I have taken in our early literature. They were either from unique, or from very rare copies, in public or private libraries; and, in some instances, I have not been able to collate my reprints with the originals. It was my general rule to do so; and I am sorry to say that, the service Mr. Utterson thus rendered to the students of our old poetry, was in some degree neutralized by inaccuracies I discovered. The mistakes, I am aware, grew out of the circumstance, that he usually employed a scribe to copy the original; who (like most scribes with whom I have had to do) was not as accurate as he ought to have been, and Mr. Utterson trusted too much to his fidelity. Many allowances ought, in such cases, to be made: I have transcribed not a few MSS. and printed books with my own hand, in order, as I fancied, to be secure upon the point; and, in going over them afterwards, I have been astonished at my own blunders. Of course, the printer too was now and then in fault, and I do not think that Mr. Utterson engaged a very good compositor. Those are commonly the best compositors who have most to do; and the person or persons who put together the letters for a private press, were not very likely to have enough work to keep them in constant employment. Hence they did not acquire a habit of accuracy.

It may seem a little ungracious in me to point out errors of this kind: it is, as our proverb well expresses it, "Looking a gift-horse in the mouth." But as Mr. Utterson's sole object was to benefit others by the communication of valuable materials, within the reach of few, I am confident that his first wish would have been that defects of the kind should, as far as possible, be cured; and when I have formerly made him aware of their existence, he always expressed his obligation and his regret: adding a desire, that if I ever made any public use of his little volumes, I would take care not to omit the correction of errors. In my intercourse with him, I always found him kind, liberal, and disinterested.

I will begin with Richard Barnefield's Cynthia; with certaine Sonnets, and the Legend of Cassandra, which was originally published in 1595. The name of the author will be familiar to most of your readers, because poems by him were inserted by W. Jaggard, in The Passionate Pilgrim, as the compositions of Shakspeare. Mr. Utterson printed from the copy in Malone's Collection at Oxford; and I was the more obliged to him for the reprint of Cynthia, because it contains the twenty sonnets, which were addressed by Barnefield to a person he calls Ganymede. Most of these are of a questionable character, and were cancelled by Mr. Utterson, after they had been composed by his printer; so that, at least, twelve of the copies struck off were without them. Moreover, unusual mechanical care was evinced about them,—a circumstance which may be attributed to the fact, that Mr. Utterson himself looked over the press, before he decided that he would not insert them. He sent them to me with a separate note, and wrote "cancelled" upon them.

We meet with a singular mistake on the threshold, where Barnefield's address to his readers, just after the mention of Spenser, is made to terminate thus:—

"I leave you to the reading of that, which I so much desire may need your delight."

Here "need" ought, of course, to be breed; and it is only by mishearing on the part of the scribe, or the compositor, that we can account for the blunder. Again, in the body of the book (Sign. B. 3. b.), we meet with this line:

"I mixe disdaine with loves congealed & new."

This is evidently nonsense, and the emendation is snow for "& new":

"I mixe disdaine with love's congealed snow."

Here the letter s, in snow, must have been mis-


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 10 use the Roman Catholic liturgy, the Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Syrians, Maronitcs, and Protestants.

The empire is partitioned into thirty-one departments called Vilayets. These are subdivided into provinces (Sanjaks), and these in turn into districts (Kazaks), and these again into subdistricts and communities. The Governor of a Vilayet is called a Vali, and is assisted by a Provincial Council. The provinces, districts, etc., are governed by authorities, and the names of the Governors of sub-districts and of communes—Mudir and Muktar—have lately become familiar. The making and carrying out of Turkish law have not yet come to such a state of perfection that foreigners feel like giving up their own consular courts, which they retain, and by means of which are urnlet the same laws as in their respective countries. Cases between foreign and Turkish subjects, however, are tried in the Ottoman courts. Through the prevailing dishonesty, foreign governments are also compelled to maintain their own postoffices in Turkey. Yet, by England at least, Turkish government is apparently thought good enough for unarmed Christians, since, in spite of solemn obligations incurred eighteen years ago, no one thing has the British government done to succor those Christians.

The Turks today are still nomadic. Their agriculture is backward, not so much from soil-sterility in Albania or in Asia Minor as from the apathy of the inhabitants to settled vocations. In Macedonia and in Thrace the soil is fertile, but the same poverty is seen. The people have ruthlessly destroyed their forests. Their mines are unworked despite


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440

The heavy rains, sometimes as much as an inch in a few hours, run off with great rapidity through the drainage channels and twenty-four hours later the sides of the mountains and the footslopes appear as if not having known a rain in six months. Here and there in the bottoms of the cañons a pocket in the rock holds a gallon or two of sweet pure water, and out upon the plain pools may linger for a few days on the clay.

Here the summer months are the months of rain, but in most months of the year a little rain may be had. As springtime advances clouds may be seen along the distant slopes and among the peaks with a trailing haze of rain beneath. Though in the summer-time the rain clouds are partial to the highlands, yet more often do they wander out across the plain. Scarce a day of summer passes but showers may be seen falling on some part of the landscape, but the amount falling on any particular area is relatively small.


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 Rh the gold, silver, copper and salt known to exist abundantly. With an empire possessing every kind of soil and climate, vegetable, animal anti mineral product, the Ottomans are bankrupt; they seem as alien as when, six hundred years ago, they emerged from obscurity.

Armenia is a country lying about Mount Ararat as a central point. The country is now partly in Russia, partly in Persia, partly in Asia Minor. Turkish Armenia is about the size of New England; it is a mountain land, some of the Taurus peaks rising over 10,000 feet. There are a few valleys in which scant rice and cotton may be grown, but the high plateau is mostly a grazing place. As in the rest of the Ottoman Empire, agriculture is in a pitifully primitive state, and, though there are abundant deposits, mining does not exist. The climate is one of extremes of cold and heat. The sources of the Euphrates and Tigris are in Armenia, and there is also Lake Van, a salt lake. The roads are nothing but bridle-paths: they are infested with brigands, and there are no inns. Geographical isolation is not the least of the hardships in the present crisis.

The Armenians represent an ancient civilization, and have kept their individuality through all ages. Their name comes from an early king, Haik, a descendant of Japhet. Armenia is mentioned several times in the Old Testament; for instance (2 Kings xix, 37), when the sons of Sennacherib are said to have escaped thither. The best known Armenian king, Tigranes I, was an ally of Cyrus the Great, and in Xenophon's


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 through the agencies of law and order, reestablishes on a higher plane the principles of justice and progress.

For, as a rule, a nation emerges stronger, morally and spiritually, from a revolutionary upheaval. With this single exception, however, all the movements of the world that sought to establish, by the dagger, the sword, the bayonet, the machine gun, or even by peaceful communities, a utopia on earth, have been doomed to failure.

The extremists, no matter how long and brilliant their temporary success, have gone the way of all political despots and all religious impostors. And their culpability is not in plunging a nation into anarchy and crime, but in debasing the ideals of utopia, by yoking them with the destructive agencies of negation in a people.

This is true of the ancient as well as the modern world, as I shall endeavor to show in these chapters, tracing the more prominent movements in history against the existing order of things. The only

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