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ⅼⅹⅹⅳ On reaching Mecca he performs the legal ablutions, proceeds to the Sacred Mosque, and having saluted the ‘black stone,’ makes the tawâf or circuit of the Kaabah seven times, three times quickly and four times at a slow walk.

He then visits the Maqâm Ibrâhîm or Abraham′s station, and afterwards returns and kisses the black stone.

Passing through the gate of the haram leading to Mount Zafâ, he runs seven times between the summit of that hill and that of Merwah.

On the eighth day, called tarwî′h, the pilgrims assemble in the valley of Minâ, where they pass the night.

As soon as morning prayers are over they ‘rush tumultuously’ to Mount Arafât, stay there until sunset, and then proceed to a place called Muzdalifeh, where they again pass the night.

The next day is the ′Hîd al Az‘hâ, when the pilgrims again repair to the valley of Minâ, and go through the ceremony of throwing stones at three pillars, called Gamrah. This is in commemoration of Abraham, or, as some say, of Adam, who, meeting the devil at the same spot, drove him away with stones.

The next ceremony is the sacrifice of some animal, a camel, sheep, or goat, in Minâ; after which they divest themselves of the pilgrim garb and get themselves shaved, their nails pared, &c.

The pilgrim should then rest at Mecca for the three following days, the âiyâm et tasrîq or ‘days of drying up,’ scil. the blood of the sacrifices.

The sacrifice is said to have been instituted in commemoration of Abraham's proposed sacrifice of his son Ishmael (not Isaac as in the Bible) in accordance with the divine command.

The pilgrimage must be performed from the seventh to the tenth of the month u′l ‘Higgeh. A visit at any other time of the year is termed ′Homrah, ‘visitation,’ and though meritorious, has not the same weight as the ‘Hagg itself.


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12 heart-searching review of the past to be entered into, by one whose mind has ever been seriously impressed with the nature and importance of religious truth, without a desire arising to make the kind of dedication here alluded to; but it is one of the constant besetments even of the rightly intentioned, and often of the truly convinced, to put on this great work until some vaguely anticipated era in our existence shall have marked the season of dedication with peculiar solemnity, or stamped the resolution with additional force. How often this era proves in the end to be the hour of irremediable sickness, it is not my business here to inquire; but certainly, if the possibility of near and awful death—if the preparation for an event which in many cases has proved but a short passage to the grave—if a providential and merciful escape from the dangers of that trying hour—and if the important reality of entering at once, as it were, upon a new and two-fold existence,—if all these circumstances combined be insufficient to constitute an era so important as that which is required for the date of a solemn dedication of the heart and the life to God, it is scarcely likely that human experience will ever afford the opportunity desired; and the inquiry necessarily follows, in such a case, whether it is really desired at all.

It is by no means an unfrequent case, that as young people grow up, and find themselves either not quite so clever, or not quite so good as they expected and wished to be, they reflect either secretly or openly upon the management of their parents, who they believe might have made them better than they are. It is quite possible too that their parents may have been in fault; and that either from their own discrimination, or from the general advance of society toward a more enlightened state, they do actually see the defects of their own training, as those defects begin to tell upon their characters and conduct in riper years. All who have been led to think seriously on this subject, have probably felt this; but it is not all who have an opportunity of showing how such defects may be remedied, by training up others in a happier and wiser manner.

Again, we are all more or less beguiled into the belief that with us it is too late to make any serious alteration in

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Rh The truth-possibilities can be presented by schemata of the following kind ("T" means "true", "F" "false". The rows of T's and F's under the row of the elementary propositions mean their truth-possibilities in an easily intelligible symbolism).

A proposition is the expression of agreement and disagreement with the truth-possibilities of the elementary propositions.

The truth-possibilities of the elementary propositions are the conditions of the truth and falsehood of the propositions.

It seems probable even at first sight that the introduction of the elementary propositions is fundamental for the comprehension of the other kinds of propositions. Indeed the comprehension of the general propositions depends palpably on that of the elementary propositions.

With regard to the agreement and disagreement of a proposition with the truth-possibilities of n elementary propositions there are $$\sum_{K=0}^{K_n} {K_n \choose \kappa} = L_n$$ possibilities.

Agreement with the truth-possibilities can be Rh


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Rh The Kaabah is revisited before the pilgrim leaves Mecca, and the ceremony of the Tawâf again performed. From Mecca the pilgrim proceeds to Medînah to visit the tomb of the prophet. He is then entitled to assume the title of El ‘Hâgg (in Persian and Hindustani corrupted into ‘Hâgî).

It is worth remarking that the word ‘Hagg is identical with the Hebrew word used in Exodus ⅹ. 9, where the reason assigned for the departure of the Israelites is that they may ‘hold a feast (’hagg) unto the Lord’ in the wilderness.

Islâm inculcates the doctrine of predestination, every act of every living being having been written down from all eternity in the Lau′h el Ma′hfûth, ‘the preserved tablet.’ This predestination is called taqdîr, ‘meting out,’ or qismeh, ‘apportioning.’ The reconciliation of such a doctrine with the exercise of free-will, and the difficulty, if it be accepted, of avoiding the ascription of evil as well as good to God, have furnished materials for never-ending disputes amongst Muslim theologians, and have given rise to innumerable heresies. As the present introduction is only intended to furnish the reader with the necessary information to enable him to understand the Qur′ân and its system, I will not dwell upon these and kindred matters which belong to the later history of the creed.

One of the greatest blots on El Islâm is that it keeps the women in a state of degradation, and therefore effectually prevents the progress of any race professing the religion. For this Mohammed is only so far responsible that he accepted without question the prevalent opinion of his time, which was not in favour of allowing too great freedom to women, so that when he had ameliorated their condition by modifying the unjust laws of divorce, by enjoining kindness and equity upon his followers in the treatment of their wives, and by sternly repressing the barbarous custom of female infanticide, he thought, no doubt, that he had done enough for them. Similarly he provided for the better and kinder treatment of slaves, but it could never enter his mind that slavery was in itself a wrong or impolitic


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Rh the habits which mark our private lives. Indeed, the fact that they are habits, seems to stamp them with a kind of excusability, if I may be allowed the expression; though we lament over them in tones of contrition before our friends, and even believe in our sincerity when we pray to have them forgiven. But if we can thus excuse ourselves a few secretly-cherished faults, and if we are sometimes content to pursue our earthly pilgrimage under the pressure of the burden of which we still complain, surely the mother, in contemplating the future character of her child, will not allow herself to suppose that the same plea will be available here. No; neither ignorance nor habit, those two strongholds of the human soul under which it so often takes refuge, fondly believing that they will cover a multitude of sins; neither the one, nor the other, will serve the mother's purpose now. What she has condemned in the management of her parents, she is bound the more scrupulously to avoid in her own—what she has grown too old to correct in herself, she has Do excuse for not preventing in her child.

Beyond this, there is mixed up with many of the duties of advanced experience, a spirit of heaviness, a sense of depression owing to the many failures of youth's golden hopes—a fainting of the soul under the manifold conflicts it has had to wage, which, though by no means beyond the reach of religious consolation to soothe and to alleviate, has a deadening effect upon the exercise of energy, both in worldly and in spiritual things. Happily for the young life over which the mother watches, it knows no shadow from such clouds as these. Youth enters freshly and gayly upon its untried career, and not all the failures of the thousands, and tens of thousands who have already erred and strayed from the right path, have power to damp the ardor and the hope with which it eagerly pursues each object of desire. And how beautiful and encouraging to the time-worn parent is this fresh spring of existence when her own has lost its elasticity and power! To her it may sometimes appear that scarcely anything in the world is worth the effort necessary to obtain it. But to her child how different! Supply but a sufficient motive, and the energy is there; point out a course of action, and the

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14 is alive and present; direct to the attainment of an object, and the question never arises, as it does in after life, whether it is worth while. Why then should the mother not rejoice, when she has this new energy, this strong impulse, and this unquestioning ardor to work with, in preparing for the vicissitudes, as well as the enjoyments of after life? Why should the mother not rejoice, when all that has been exhausted in her own feeble frame, all that has been extinguished in her own waning mind, arises fresh and vigorous beneath her hand, and shoots forth into a new and hopeful existence, so bound up with her own, that while she gives direction to each faculty, she may also derive encouragement and gladness from its healthy and successful exercise?

There are then many causes, both in reason and in nature, why the mother should rejoice; and perhaps it is this very, rebounding of the heart back to all, and more than all it has ever enjoyed in life and love, that constitutes in some measure the temptation to which an affectionate nature yields, so as to rest satisfied with the mere bodily health of a fondly-treasured infant, with the amusements of the nursery, and with the first caresses of childhood, instead of looking beyond the present hour, or regarding it as a season of preparation for a future day. Thus time is trifled on. To avoid contradiction, and consequent distress, becomes the mother's only thought. The occupation of the hand seems to demand her whole attention, as another and another little body springs up to require her care; and the mind, the temper—in fact, the whole moral being is thus set aside a thing to be taken up again at some future time, when the child shall be sent to school, or committed to the care of a governess, to be made wise and good.

Now, it is quite evident to a mother of the meanest capacity, that if the food of her infant was to be withheld, or rendered unwholesome for a single day, the body of the child would suffer; and it is a fact which can not be too forcibly impressed upon all mothers, that the mind, even in its infant state, is depriving nourishment, either of a healthy or unhealthy nature, from everything around it. Let the different effect upon the spirits of a child between

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ⅼⅹⅹⅵ . The real fault lies in the unelastic nature of the religion: in his desire to shield it from change and to prevent his followers from 'dividing into sects,' the founder has made it impossible for Islâm to throw off certain customs and restrictions which, however convenient and even necessary to the Arabs at the time, became grievous and unsuitable for other nations at distant periods and in distant lands. The institution of the ʿHagg pilgrimage, for example, was an admirable one for consolidating the Arab tribes, but it is burdensome and useless to the Muslim communities now that they extend over nearly half the civilized world.

That Mohammed had a due respect for the female sex, as far as was consistent with the prevailing state of education and opinion, is evident both from his own faithful affection to his first wife ʿHadîgah, and from the fact that 'believing women' are expressly included in the promises of a reward in the future life which the Qur′ân makes to all who acknowledge one God and do good works.

The language of the Qur′ân is universally acknowledged to be the most perfect form of Arab speech. The Qurâis, as the guardians of the national temple and the owners of the territory in which the great fairs and literary festivals of all Arabia were held, would naturally absorb into their own dialect many of the words and locutions of other tribes, and we should consequently expect their language to be more copious and elegant than that of their neighbours. At the same time we must not forget that the acknowledged claims of the Qur′ân to be the direct utterance of the divinity have made it impossible for any Muslim to criticise the work, and it became, on the contrary, the standard by which other literary compositions had to be judged. Grammarians, lexicographers, and rhetoricians started with the presumption that the Qur′ân could not be wrong, and other works therefore only approached excellence in proportion as they, more or less, successfully imitated its style. Regarding it, however, from a perfectly impartial and unbiassed standpoint, we find that it


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Rh a dull and a cheerful nurse be duly considered, and this fact will appear more plain. I am not absurd enough to suppose that the mind of an infant must be treated like that of a mature and rational being. All I would maintain is, that there are little dawnings of intelligence at a very early age, indications of temper, and symptoms of peculiar temperament, which ought to be watched, and either cherished or restrained, with as much assiduity as is generally bestowed upon the animal frame.

It is common, too, with mothers of the humblest capacity, as well as with the more enlightened, to observe with the most scrutinizing attention the bodily health of their children, believing that even where no disease exists, there may still be tendencies in the constitution, and liabilities to certain ailments, which maternal love is ever quick to detect in their first appearance, and which the mother seldom spares either time or pains to arrest in their progress.

In a manner not the less certain, because it is less palpable, does the human mind bring along with it seeds of disease, individual tendencies, and peculiarities of nature, certainly not less important than those which belong more especially to the bodily frame. All these ought to be the care of the mother, to search for, to detect and to turn into a healthy course: for, as in her care of the animal frame, it is for the future that she watches, toils, and labors, in order that her offspring may be healthy, active, and fit for all the useful purposes of life; so it is for the future, and for one which extends far beyond what the body needs to be prepared for, that she has to cultivate the mind—the immortal nature of her child.

It is not for any of the purposes of to-day, or even of the coming morrow, that the infant is practised in the art of placing one foot before another, as in the act of walking. It is not for to-day that the child is encouraged to use its muscles, to grasp, and to appropriate whatever is within its reach, or at least whatever may be laid hold of without injury. If the present time was all we had to consider, most assuredly the less grasping, and the less appropriation, the more easy and pleasant would be the office of the nurse. Instead, however, of consulting her own ease, the

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16 mother devotes herself with unremitting assiduity to the cultivation of the bodily faculties of her infant, so that none of its organic functions may suffer from the want of exercise. If she discovers the slightest tendency to the contraction of a muscle, or the distortion of a limb, her whole being is absorbed by apprehensions of the most distressing kind, and all her energies are directed to the means of averting the evils she anticipates for the future. Is it thus, I would ask, on the first discovery of a tendency to impatience, to contradiction, or to revenge? It is but too probable that every positive exhibition of these wrong tendencies is followed by an act of punishment proportioned to the good or evil temper of the nurse, just upon the old-fashioned principle that naughty children must be whipped; but as to the philosophy of such punishment, as well might a crooked limb be forcibly set straight every time it was seen out of place, as the perverse child be simply punished every time it did wrong.

There is no woman blind enough to suppose that in the case of the body, mere momentary correction will be of any lasting use; and why then should the mind, or in other words, the moral character of the child, be treated with less reasoning, and less calculation than its animal frame?

It is possible, however, so far to extend our ideas into the future, as to lose sight of the intermediate space between the cradle and the grave. And where the mother is so deficient in knowledge of the world, and of human nature in general, as to be a stranger to that wide theatre of stirring interests which we call human life, it must of course be left lo circumstances to mould the characters of her children. The result of which, in all probability, will be, that the accidents of life to them will be so various and unexpected, as to surprise them into acting very differently from what their parents had intended.

We can not but suppose, however, that most women educated under ordinary circumstances, will have learned something of the world before being placed in the situation of mothers; and out of such knowledge arises a very natural and suitable inquiry, how the children under their care shall be best prepared for entering upon the world

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Rh expresses the thoughts and ideas of a Bedawî Arab in Bedawî language and metaphor. The language is noble and forcible, but it is not elegant in the sense of literary refinement. To Mohammed’s hearers it must have been startling, from the manner in which it brought great truths home to them in the language of their every-day life.

There was nothing antiquated in the style or the words, no tricks of speech, pretty conceits, or mere poetical embellishments; the prophet spoke with rude, fierce eloquence in ordinary language. The only rhetorical ornament he allowed himself was that of making his periods more or less rhythmical, and most of his clauses rhyme,—a thing that was and still is natural to an Arab orator, and the necessary outcome of the structure of the Arabic tongue.

It is often difficult to enter thoroughly into the spirit of the old Arab poets, Mohammed’s contemporaries or immediate predecessors, because we cannot completely realise the feelings, that actuated them or identify ourselves with the society in which they moved. For this reason they have always something remote and obsolete about them, however clear their language and meaning may be. With the Qurʼân it is not so. Mohammed speaks with a living voice, his vivid word-painting brings at once before the mind the scene he describes or conjures up, we can picture his very attitude when, having finished some marvellously told story of the days of yore, uttered some awful denunciation, or given some glorious promise, he pauses suddenly and says, with bitter disappointment, ‘ These are the true stories, and there is no god but God; and yet ye turn aside !’

To translate this worthily is a most difficult task. To imitate the rhyme and rhythm would be to give the English an artificial ring from which the Arabic is quite free; and the same objection lies against using the phraseology of our authorised version of the Bible: to render it by fine or stilted language would be quite as foreign to the spirit of


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ⅼⅹⅹⅷ the original: while to make it too rude or familiar would be to err equally on the other side. I have, therefore, endeavoured to take a middle course; I have translated each sentence as literally as the difference in structure between the two languages would allow, and when possible I have rendered it word for word. Where a rugged or commonplace expression occurs in the Arabic I have not hesitated to render it by a similar English one, even where a literal rendering may perhaps shock the reader.

To preserve this closeness of rendering, I have had in several instances to make use of English constructions which, if not incorrect from a strictly grammatical point of view, are, I am aware, often inelegant. Thus a peculiarity of the Arabic is to use the same preposition with a passive verb as the active and transitive verb required; for instance, ghaẓaba ′halâihi, ‘he was angered against him,’ in the passive, ghuẓîba. ′halâihi, ‘he was angered-against,’ and the preservation of this construction is often absolutely necessary to retain the force of the original.

An instance of this occurs in the Opening Chapter, where the words ellaîna an′hamta ′halâihim, ghâiral maghẓubi ′halâihim are rendered, ‘of those thou art gracious to, not of those thou art wroth with;’ in Sale′s translation, ‘of those to whom thou hast been gracious, not of those against whom thou art incensed;’ the placing the preposition before the verb gives a completely different ring to the English to that of the Arabic, to say nothing of the absence of that colloquial freedom which distinguishes the original.

I have, as far as possible, rendered an Arabic word by the same English word wherever it occurs; in some cases, however, where the Arabic word has more than one signification, or where it would distort the sense to retain the same expression, I have not scrupled to alter it.

Some of the Arabic words that occur in the Qur′ân are ambiguous, and have given rise to numerous differences of opinion among commentators. Thus the word istawâ is applied to God, and is interpreted in some passages to


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Rh such as it is?—not merely for becoming portions of the general mass, for mixing themselves in with the elements of discord too frequently found there, nor even for swelling the tide of popular feeling, whatever it may be. All this they would learn too readily, if left to take their own course. But the inquiry a mother has to make is, what are the prevailing evils now existing in the world; what are the good tendencies of the present state of society; and by what means can the mind be so moulded, and the habits so formed, that the child going through the process of education, shall be best enabled to assist in counteracting the one, and helping forward the other?

These are serious inquiries, well worthy a mother's attention, and requiring, in order to act upon them to any useful purpose, much of that observation and tact which has been already urged upon women at an earlier stage of their experience. And here I would venture to observe, that everything which appeared to me essential to a woman holding the relative situation of a daughter, appeared so more especially when contemplating the same character in that of a wife or a mother; nor could any faculty of the mind be recommended in its exercise to a young and single woman, which might not be made a hundredfold more valuable to her as a mother.

Whence then can have arisen that most absurd and infatuated notion, that woman, while young and unmarried, may with propriety cultivate her mind and improve her character to almost any extent; but that as a wile she has no need to advance any farther, and as a mother she will do very well if she can but superintend the dressing and undressing of a baby! If, as regards the female sex, there should ever have been ground for the establishment of so erroneous a belief, one would suppose that the simple fact of mothers having the training of boys, as well as girls committed to their care, might sometimes startle them into a consciousness of the vast amount of responsibility resting upon them. That single thought, so alarming in its spirit-stirring interest, —that all the statesmen of the rising generation, all the ministers of religion, all public and private gentlemen, as well as all men of business, mechanics, and laborers of every description, will have

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Rh mean ‘he directed himself by his will to the heaven’ (Lane), and in others to mean ‘he stood straight or erect’ (Lane). The expression occurs often in the Qurʼân as descriptive of God’s taking up a certain position with regard to the throne or highest heaven, and Muslim theologians have never ceased to debate concerning the exact nature of this position. El Ghazzâlî says that He ‘istawâ’ upon the throne in the manner he has himself described, and in the sense He himself means, but not by actual contact or local situation, while the throne itself is sustained by Him. To render it then by ‘sitting’ or ‘ascending’ would be to adopt a particular view of a very debatable question, and to give to the Arabic word a precision of meaning which it does not possess. The root of the word contains the notions of ‘equality of surface’ or ‘uniformity,’ of ‘making’ or ‘fashioning,’ and of ‘being or going straight.’ I have, therefore, adopted a rendering which has a similar confusion of significations, and translated it ‘made for,’ as in Chapter II, ver. 27, ‘He made for the heavens.’ Where no question can arise concerning its interpretation, as, for instance, when it is used of a rider balancing himself on the back of his camel, I have rendered it simply ‘settled .’

The notes that I have appended are only such as are absolutely necessary for understanding the text; for a full account of all the historical allusions, Arabic, Jewish, and Magian legends, with which the native commentators illustrate the Qurʼân, the reader is referred to the notes in Sale′s translation. The version of that eminent scholar fully deserves the consideration it has so long enjoyed, but from the large amount of exegetical matter which he has incorporated in his text, and from the style of language employed, which differs widely from the nervous energy and rugged simplicity of the original, his work can scarcely be regarded as a fair representation of the Qurʼân.

Rodwell’s version approaches nearer to the Arabic, but even in that there is too much assumption of the literary


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ⅼⅹⅹⅹ style. The arrangement of the Sûrahs in chronological order, too, though a help to the student, destroys the miscellaneous character of the book, as used by the Muslims, and as Mohammed's successors left it.

In my rendering I have, for the most part, kept to the interpretation of the Arabic commentator Bâidhâvî, and have only followed my own opinion in certain cases where a word or expression, quite familiar to me from my experience of every-day desert life, appeared to be somewhat strained by these learned schoolmen. Chapter ⅩⅫ, ver. 64, is an instance in which a more simple rendering would be preferable, though I have only ventured to suggest it in a note.

I am fully sensible of the shortcomings of my own version, but if I have succeeded in my endeavour to set before the reader plainly what the Qurʼân is, and what it contains, my aim will have been accomplished.

E. H. PALMER.

 March, 1880.


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Rh expressed by co-ordinating with them in the schema the mark "T" (true).

Absence of this mark means disagreement.

The expression of the agreement and disagreement with the truth-possibilities of the elementary-propositions expresses the truth-conditions of the proposition. The proposition is the expression of its truth- conditions.

(Frege has therefore quite rightly put them at the beginning, as explaining the signs of his logical symbolism. Only Frege's explanation of the truth-concept is false: if "the true" and "the false" were real objects and the arguments in ~p etc., then the sense of ~p would by no means be determined by Frege's determination.)

The sign which arises from the co-ordination of that mark "T" with the truth-possibilities is a propositional sign.

It is clear that to the complex of the signs "F" and "T" no object (or complex of objects) corresponds; any more than to horizontal and vertical lines or to brackets. There are no "logical objects". Something analogous holds of course for all signs, which express the same as the schemata of "T"and "F".

Thus e.g.

is a propositional sign.

(Frege's assertion sign " |- " is logically altogether Rh


text: The Qur'an (Palmer)

title: The Qur'an (Palmer)


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18 received, as regards intellectual and moral character, their first bias, and often their strongest and their last from the training and the influence of a mother, is a consideration which can Hot be too deeply impressed even upon the minds of the young, for it is the young more especially who have it in their power to profit by such thoughts; and though none could be more unwilling than the writer of these pages, to fill the imagination of a girl with premature ideas of her own importance, in reference to the future, yet I still believe, that a prospective view of their own responsibilities, properly placed before them, would tend very much to counteract the injurious effects of those trifling and vulgar anticipations of courtship and marriage, which too frequently interfere with the intellectual improvement of the young, and effectually destroy the true dignity of woman.

We know that the further a nation advances in civilization, in science, and in general knowledge, the more intelligence, wisdom, and forethought, are required of those who hold the reins of government, and direct the management of institutions for the public good; and what nobler ambition can fill the hearts of British women, than that the next veneration of their countrymen should be better grounded in the principles of true knowledge than the last? But, striking and impressive as this idea justly appears in its immediate, import, that of the education of daughters is at least as much so in its remoter tendency, because it is to women that we still must look for the training of future generations, and the formation of characters whose names may be surrounded by a glory, or stamped with a blot, in the history of ages yet to come.

And are not these profound and stirring thoughts for the mother, in her hours of retirement and repose? The human mind, naturally prone to wander beyond the sphere of actual knowledge, becomes lost in a cloud of vague uncertainties, whenever it takes too bold a flight; but here is a field for noble aspirations, in which it is not only lawful, but perfectly reasonable, to indulge; and not the loftiest ambition that ever fired a hero's breast, could be so ardent or so high as that which it is both natural and right for the fond mother to cherish in her "heart of hearts."

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Rh Yes, it is a great and glorious thought, that the being whose young life is now so tenderly bound up with hers, that not a chord of one can thrill with the minutest touch of feeling, but an answering tone is echoed by the other; that this frail and helpless being, so delicate, so pure, and so beautiful to her, may one day be swelling the ranks of the church-militant on earth, and may eventually join the anthems of triumphant joy which celebrate the admission of the saints to their eternal rest in heaven.

Thus far I have purposely confined my observations chiefly to a mother's thoughts. Beyond this, the outer court of the temple of maternal love, lies the inner sanctuary of a mother's feelings, whose holy secrets no inexperienced hand should presume to touch. It must be observed, however, that within this sanctuary, and out of these holy secrets, arises the natural spring of all her influence, and of all her power. Assisted only by the force of reason and of principle, a stranger might conduct the steps of childhood to maturity as well as the mother herself; but in the maternal bosom, as has already been observed, is lodged an instinct stronger than any other which is associated with animal existence; and the tendency of these pages will be to show, that wherever there is a strong feeling, there is, if rightly exercised, and under favorable circumstances, a proportionate degree of power,—and that wherever there is power, there is an equal amount of responsibility.

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text: The Mothers of England/Chapter II

title: The Mothers of England/Chapter II


text: The Qur'an (Palmer)/Introduction

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is a great point gained, in studying the true "science of life", to know when to be little and when to be great. In venturing to write upon the duties of woman as a wife, I have been charged with wishing to place her in too low a scale. Perhaps I have not been so fortunate as to make my ideas fully understood; for—although I still think that, as a wife, woman should place herself, instead of running the risk of being placed, in a secondary position—as a mother, I do not see how it is possible for her to be too dignified, or to be treated with too much respect.

Yet it is of the utmost importance to those who undertake the management of children, that they should have clear ideas of the difference between authority and influence, and of the necessary dependance of both upon example.

Although, strictly speakings there can be no such thing as authority without influence, yet when we speak of authority simply as such, we mean nothing more than that there exists, for the time being, a power in one party to enforce a Command, and a willingness in the other to obey. There are kind and gentle mothers who think that authority has little or nothing to do with the education of their children; and there are, on the other hand, persons educated in the old schools who consider authority as the only instrument they have to work with, in producing the effect which mental and moral discipline are desired to produce upon the young. It is common with individuals of the latter class to speak of "breaking the natural will," as if the will was an excrescence which had to be removed, or a branch which had to be lopped off, before any good could be expected to be done. Hence those horrible whippings of former times, those shuttings up in dark chambers, and those other varieties of mental and bodily punishment—all which had about as much efficacy in softening the natural temper, and subduing the spirit of pride, as the

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 fastening its little shoes. I had never been there before; and I was conducted up the dark staircase to the attics. Here I saw by the furniture that they had seen "better days." One tiny room was their sitting room, comfortably furnished; a bright clean fire, tea set, and the children's grandmother sitting primly attired to receive me. All this I saw, and it made me understand something more of the people at once. It would have done anyone's heart good to see the self-forgetfulness of these people; the five tiny little girls, the eldest only seven, each delighted to give place to one another; and as to Sarah, who is their half-sister, it was lovely to see how quietly she served everyone. They are earnest High-Church people; the baby is called Amy Herbert, after Miss Sewell's heroine, and also because Mrs. —— is so fond of George Herbert's poems. The tiny children all sang some hymns, "O let us be joyful," and others.

Sarah comes to my drawing class, and we had much talk about her lessons. Her mother means to read aloud to her these winter evenings, while she draws; and then she will read while her mother works. It is a brave faithful little home, and such as one loves to come upon; and I was much touched by their hospitable cordial reception of me. I thought you would like to hear thus much.

103, Milton Street, Dorset Square, November 27th, 1859. . Mrs. Browning has taught me so very much, or rather has been such a friend to me, saying precisely what I wanted to hear (first expressing my own feelings


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 so completely, and then carrying me on to the only hopes and thoughts that can satisfy one at such times), that it seems to me as if I knew her, and that she really had suffered and thought with me.…

Why is entering into other people's feelings, even sad, so restful? Is it not because we are meant to bear one another's burdens? So I've been reading authors who don't echo my own feelings so much, and trying more than ever to understand all kinds of people.…

I always feel so solemnly about my own birthday; … Your way of spending yours makes me ashamed, for … in the evening we shall have friends, who are far from being among the sad and poor.… I never have seen any but specially nice people on my birthday.

On the 5th, I shall take my drawing class to South Kensington which I shall consider also a kind of celebration of my birthday. About Arthur, I believe that the duty of a wife, even of a friend, is, with regard to a man's work, so terribly misunderstood. Mr. Ludlow says, "He sacrificed his wife to his Kound Table," not seeing that, as he loved her, had she been anything worthy of the name of wife, her highest joy and duty should have been to work for it with him; and that it was his great glory that he expected this of her. … And this is true, in part, of all relations and friends, the glory of each is not in demanding attention, but in love, sympathetic fellow-work, ready sympathy.… Tried by the precious test of facts near home, I say my theory is right; and I think you, of all people, believe it.


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 December 5th, 1859. .

Dear Miranda is deeply interested in her little Italian pupils, and longs much for nice English stories for them. She just wrote to beg us to send her all that remained of our childhood's stock. I never read them now ; they would be of real use there ; and I conquered my selfishness at last ; but I couldn't help a great pain in packing the dear books which Mrs. Howitt had given me so long ago. I remember well the night she gave me "Fireside Verses," and the many many happy hours it gave us as children. And now the books are gone, to do a little more blessed work ; but I have instructed Miranda to bring them carefully back with her.

Milton Street, December 5th, 1859. .

I am glad you have redeemed your birthday from melancholy, and consecrated it to charity, which, after all, is one of the most surely joyous things. I must read the St. Andrew's Day carefully ; but now I must give you an account of my birthday. It was a cold, bright day. I woke late ; it was post time as I left my room, no letters ; time went on, no letters. I was fairly disappointed ; but, half an hour too late, owing to frost, your letter and one from Miss Harris arrived. I was leaving the house for Dulwich, and so read them in the omnibus with thankful delight. I enjoyed my walk much ; the snow lay white on the long finger-like boughs of Ruskin's cedar, as I passed, and prayed God's blessing might rest on the house. I worked well, and then went to the College and did the same, thinking of many things. Dear Miss Sterling was most kind, and


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Rh meaningless; in Frege (and Russell) it only shows that these authors hold as true the propositions marked in this way.

"|-" belongs therefore to the propositions no more than does the number of the proposition. A proposition cannot possibly assert of itself that it is true.)

If the sequence of the truth-possibilities in the schema is once for all determined by a rule of combination, then the last column is by itself an expression of the truth-conditions. If we write this column as a row the propositional sign becomes: "(T—T) (p,q)" or more plainly: "(T T F T) (p,q)". (The number of places in the left-hand bracket is determined by the number of terms in the right-hand bracket.)

For n elementary propositions there are Ln possible groups of truth-conditions.

The groups of truth-conditions which belong to the truth-possibilities of a number of elementary propositions can be ordered in a series.

Among the possible groups of truth-conditions there are two extreme cases.

In the one case the proposition is true for all the truth-possibilities of the elementary propositions. We say that the truth-conditions are tautological.

In the second case the proposition is false for all the truth-possibilities. The truth-conditions are self-contradictory.

In the first case we call the proposition a tautology, in the second case a contradiction.

The proposition shows what it says, the tautology and the contradiction that they say nothing.

The tautology has no truth-conditions, for it is Rh


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vi be a sufficient apology for the many omissions and incongruities which may appear. The critic will perhaps survey with a lenient eye the productions of the foreign missionary, who, by his residence abroad, in regions where the human mind has been long stationary, has not been able to keep pace with the improving spirit of the age. Any observations, however, on his matter or manner, made in kindness and candour, will be thankfully received, and should the work reach a second edition, be carefully improved upon.

Some discrepancy may appear between the diffusiveness of the first few chapters, and the conciseness of other parts of the work; but it is honestly confessed, that, finding the matter grow upon his hands, the author was obliged to condense before he had reached the middle of the volume, and to leave out many interesting particulars regarding his own travels in the Malayan archipelago, in order to introduce what had more especial reference to the evangelization of China. Some difference of style will also appear between the descriptive and narrative parts of the publication; but it was thought better to give the views and impressions of the moment, than to abridge them of their interest by presenting them in a more laboured style.

As it is, with all its imperfections, the author commits his production to the candour of the benevolent reader and the blessing of almighty God; hoping that this feeble attempt will be instrumental in awakening an interest on behalf of China, and in promoting the


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 Emily and Willy were to lose their lessons. Willie said, "Well, Baby, what shall we do without lessings ? It's horrid!"

103, Milton Street, December 18th, 1859. .

… Last night we had the second practice of our men's and women's advanced singing class at the College. It was very delightful ; the mere singing was that ; arid then it was nearly the first united thing we have had, and so full of promise. When I contrasted the nervous shamefaced way our ladies behaved, seeming to think it would kill them if they happened to open the door of a room where there were only men, etc., etc., with the natural, free noble way in which you work among them, I was proud of you, and thankful too. …

We go down to Grandpapa's at Weybridge. But many other things are Christmas celebrations too. On the 28th, I am to be at a "Musical Evening" at the Boys' Home, where are about 50 destitute boys. The singing will delight them, I've no doubt. Then on the 5th we shall have a social party at the College ; Mr. Maurice and Mr. Hughes will be there and many other good and great people. Have you ever read Crabbe's life ? I think nothing can be nobler than Burke's behaviour ; and how fine Crabbe's letter to him is !

The Pines, Weybridge, Christmas Day, 1859. .

… I am particularly happy about my work. Ruskin is so pleased with it all. My four Dulwich


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Rh spread of the Gospel in that populous and interesting empire.

In conclusion, the author would gratefully acknowledge the assistance kindly afforded him by the Rev. Drs. Reed and Burder, of Hackney; while he would state the obligations he is under to the following works, which he has consulted in the course of his labours; viz.: Sadler's Law of Population, Milne's Retrospect, the Chinese Gleaner and Repository, Morrison's Dictionary, and View of China for Philological Purposes, Du Halde's History of China, and the Reports and Chronicles of the London Missionary Society.


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Rh unconditionally true; and the contradiction is on no condition true.

Tautology and contradiction are without sense.

(Like the point from which two arrows go out in opposite directions.)

(I know, e.g. nothing about the weather, when I know that it rains or does not rain.)

Tautology and contradiction are, however, not nonsensical ; they are part of the symbolism, in the same way that "0" is part of the symbolism of Arithmetic.

Tautology and contradiction are not pictures of the reality. They present no possible state of affairs. For the one allows every possible state of affairs, the other none.

In the tautology the conditions of agreement with the world — the presenting relations — cancel one another, so that it stands in no presenting relation to reality.

The truth-conditions determine the range, which is left to the facts by the proposition.

(The proposition, the picture, the model, are in a negative sense like a solid body, which restricts the free movement of another: in a positive sense, like the space limited by solid substance, in which a body may be placed.)

Tautology leaves to reality the whole infinite logical space; contradiction fills the whole logical space and leaves no point to reality. Neither of them, therefore, can in any way determine reality.

The truth of tautology is certain, of propositions possible, of contradiction impossible.

(Certain, possible, impossible: here we have an indication of that gradation which we need in the theory of probability.)

The logical product of a tautology and a  Rh


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Rh

Maury's arrival in England—Meeting with his family—The Maury testimonial—Instructing French officers in defensive sea-mining at Paris—Maury's Electrical Torpedo School—Defence of Wurtemberg by electrical mines—Maury's memorandum on the use of electrical torpedoes—Writing class-books on geography—Visits to Nottingham and to Wrottesley Hall—Arrival of his daughter, Mrs. Corbin—Maury's love for his grandchild—He joins the Church and is confirmed with his children—Made LL.D. at Cambridge—Accepts appointment as Professor at the Virginia Military Institute—Returns to America—Occupations at Richmond.

arrived in England—from Mexico—on the 29th of March, 1866. His wife and children had come from Birkenhead to meet him in London, and they were once more united at No. 30, Harley Street. But Maury was so completely altered by the sorrows, hardships, and anxieties of the years of separation, that none of his children knew him. His youngest daughter exclaimed when, he entered his wife's room—"This is not my papa! This is an old man with a white beard!" He had lost all his property in the States, and the failure of a banker caused him the further loss of all the money he had brought from Mexico.

The services of the great hydrographer to mankind were not, however, forgotten by his friends and his numerous admirers in Europe. A "Maury Testimonial" had been set on foot, and subscriptions to it were actively promoted by Commodore Jansen and by Dr. Tremlett, who visited


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 my work among people. The books are by Souvestre, an author whom I love already, from the little I know of him. It was very sweetly thoughtful of Ruskin to remember me.… Do you know the old Spanish proverb, "To him that watches, everything is revealed." It certainly is true; and how glorious it is to gaze backward upon the past, which, be it ever so dark, is fact and therefore God-permitted. And as one gazes one sees gradually the unbroken way in which our Father leads us towards Him, unbroken save by our own rebellious wills and by many sharp rocks which seemed hindrances; but now we see that they bridged for us many a dark gulf.

I have been reading the most beautiful book called "The Missing Link." It is an account of the Bible women of whom you may have heard. They are quite poor women, sent by ladies to sell Bibles, to teach and help and cheer the very poorest people. It is wonderful what they have done, and what lovely things they have seen. They have reached the very lowest class, seen and helped them in their homes. They give nothing away, but get people to buy beds and clothes, for which they pay gradually. They encourage women to take a pride in keeping their children and homes neat; and, living among them, can do so much. Mr. and Mrs. Maurice are so deeply interested in the plan, that they have lent me the book, to see if we cannot help at all.

December 10th, 1859. .

You cannot think how affectionately everyone at the Shaws took leave of Mama, and how sorry


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258 Holland and Sweden for the purpose of making its object known. Naval and scientific men in England and other countries also came forward. On the 6th of June a banquet was given in his honour at Willis's Rooms, and the illustrious American was presented by Sir John Pakington, who presided, with the "Maury Testimonial," consisting of a purse containing 3000 guineas in a handsome silver-gilt casket. Among the many distinguished men who were present on this occasion, were the Mexican, Danish, and Argentine Ministers; General Beauregard, of the Confederate Army; Earl Nelson; Admirals Sir John Hay, Halstead, and Young; Captain Cowper Coles, R.N.; General Sir Henry Lefroy, R.E.; Colonel Sir Henry James, of the Ordnance Survey; Commodore Jansen, of the Netherlands Navy; Admiral Boulaker, of the Russian Navy; Captain Klerker, of the Swedish Navy; Lord Richard Grosvenor, Mr. Beresford-Hope, M.P., Mr. Charles Babbage, General Walker, Professor Tyndall, Mr. J. Laird, M.P., the Rev. F. W. Tremlett, Honorary Secretary of the Testimonial Fund, the Hon. J. B. Vivian, and many others.

Almost immediately after his return to England, Maury set to work with his electrical torpedo; and during May and June he was in Paris, where he was employed by the Government of Napoleon III. His duty—for which he received suitable remuneration—was to instruct a board of French officers in his system of defensive sea-mining. He displayed before the Emperor the power and capabilities of the torpedoes which he had planted in the James River four years before. The French authorities were delighted. At St. Cloud, the Emperor himself made the circuit and exploded a torpedo, and Maury was invited to become a Frenchman, and accept service under Napoleon. "But," he wrote, "I would


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Rh much rather find occupation in the civil avocations of Old England."

On his return to London, Maury opened a school of instruction in electric torpedoes, and Swedish, Dutch, and other officers went through his courses between June and August, 1866. For this work he was adequately remunerated by the different Governments whose officers received instruction.

The following letter on the subject was addressed to the Consul-General for Wurtemberg, on the 30th of June, 1866:—

In reference to our conversation this morning, concerning the electric torpedo as a means of defence in war, I beg leave to state that I introduced it, on the side of the South, in the late war in America, and that the Federal Secretary of the Navy in his last Report (Dec. 4th, 1865) states that in that war their navy lost more vessels by torpedoes than from all other causes whatever; that in 1862, I mined the James River with them; that they destroyed every Federal vessel that attempted to pass them, and kept that powerful fleet at bay during the siege of Richmond by General Grant; that since that time I have made the study of them a speciality, and by a course of investigation and experiment have made such improvements in their use and application, both by land and water, as to take away the superiority over the defence which rifled guns, hollow shot, and ironclads appear to have given to the attack. Confining my remarks to the land, it is in the power of the military engineer to mine the way before an invading army, and to spring volcanoes under its feet at will.

With small cost, and at short notice, the mountain-passes and strongholds of Wurtemberg may be so effectually defended from invasion and attack as to drive an enemy back, or keep him at bay. The operator need not be stationed near the scene; he may be at the distance of several miles when he discharges the exploding spark. He can explode by


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260 the same touch, and instantaneously, any number that may be required.

He can at any time send a telegraphic message through his wires, and feel that the powder is dry and assure himself that all is well.

I have demonstrated the principles of this new means of defence, to one of the most powerful nations of the world, and it has been decided to introduce it there. I am now doing the same for others.

A copy of the following paper was given to the Swedes, one to Russia, one to Holland, and one to France. All these powers, and others, had sent agents to be instructed in the use of the Maury electrical torpedo for harbour, coast, and land defence.

2em "We have treated of the electrical torpedoes under water; before treating of them on the land, I beg to say a few words as to torpedo-boats and mechanical torpedoes, or those which explode by striking or catching against a vessel. The torpedo-boats used by the Confederates generally carried their torpedoes—say forty pounds of powder—at the end of a pole rigged out some twenty feet over the bow of the boat, and inclined downward so as to strike the enemy five or six feet at least below the water-line. Experiments showed that when the torpedo was exploded at three feet the men were liable to be blown out of the boat. In this plan the charge was ignited by the striking of the torpedo against the enemy, which set off a percussion, or broke a phial of acid, so arranged within as to ignite the charge.


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Rh "A torpedo-boat of steel, 33 feet long, was built at Mobile and sent to Charleston by rail. She was intended to go under the water and to carry a crew of nine men—one to manage, the others to propel. Under favourable circumstances she was expected to go four knots and remain below thirty minutes, coming to the surface at pleasure. Her plan was to run under the vessel and tow the torpedo after her, which, on coming in contact with the side, would explode.

"Lieutenant Payne and eight others volunteered to attack the blockading fleet off Charleston with her. As they were just ready to put out, the swell of a passing steamer sunk her, and all hands, excepting Captain Payne, were lost. She was raised, and he volunteered again, when, by another similar mishap, she was swamped again, and all hands except himself and two others were drowned.

"She was raised again, and sent round into the smooth water of the Cooper River for experiments in diving and coming up again. Her commander was on her. Ho and eight others went down in her and were all drowned. She remained at the bottom several weeks, and then was raised and fitted up again, under the command of Lieutenant Dickson, of the Confederate army. With her he attacked and sunk the sloop-of-war 'Housatonic'; but neither he nor any of his daring companions were ever heard of again.

"The best torpedo-boat, however, that was planned in the Confederacy, was a steam-gig built of steel, light and strong, calculated to hold five men, to go ten knots, and to carry coal enough, without provisions, for a night. Instead of carrying her torpedo—and she could carry several—at the end of a spar, she carried it over her bow. Her bowsprit was eight feet long, and so arranged, that when the enemy was struck it would


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262 come in against a spiral, thus acting as a buffer, and by firing a gun which would send a shaft, to which the torpedo was made fast by a cord several feet long, into the side of a ship. Thus, the torpedo would be left hanging; thence a cord or wire, some fifty or sixty feet long, with one end attached to the torpedo, the other to the boat, served to explode the charge as soon as the boat got out of the way, and brought it taut; the explosion being effected either by electricity or by the pulling of a trigger.

"The war ended before any of these boats were ready. They might answer very well against wooden ships. Another plan was prepared very early in the war, but was never tried. The torpedo was to be in the form of a fish, with its tail lashed to one side to serve as a rudder; it was to be towed astern by a long line in which were the conducting wires. Being thus towed by a swift steamer past the enemy, the effect was that the torpedo would be sheered off broad enough to strike, when it would be exploded by an electric discharge. I am not aware that any attempt was made to put this idea into practice.

"In July, 1861, the Federal fleet, then lying off Fortress Munroe, was attacked with floating torpedoes. They were in pairs, connected together by a span 500 feet long. The span was floated on the surface by corks; and the torpedo-barrels, containing 200 pounds of powder, also floated at the depth of twenty feet; empty barregas, painted lead-colour so as not readily to be seen, serving 'for the purpose. The span was connected with a trigger in the head of each barrel, so set and arranged that when the torpedo, being let go in a tideway under the bows and athwart the hawse had fouled, they would be drifted alongside, and in so drifting tauten the span and so set off the fuse, which was driven precisely as a 10" shot fuze, only it was calculated to burn 54", because it could not be known exactly in which part of the sweep along


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Rh tide the strain would be sufficient to set off the trigger. The torpedoes were launched at three fine frigates, the 'Minnesota' the 'Roanoke' and the 'Cumberland' (the blockading fleet off the mouth of the James River).

"Finding that they all missed, I attributed it to the fact that such a fuse could not burn under a pressure of 20 feet of water. The conjecture was confirmed by experiment. The fuse could burn very surely at the depth of 15 feet—never at 20 feet.

"Some time afterwards those torpedoes were discovered by the enemy. Spans, barrels, and barregas were soon got up, and carried off as relics.

"The enemy prevented any further attack in this way by dropping the end of his lower studding-sail boom in the water every night, anchoring boats or beams ahead, &c. The first vessel destroyed by a torpedo was the 'Quaker City'—I think that was the name—in the Yazoo River. This torpedo was an old demi-john filled with powder, planted in the channel-way, and having a string attached to a friction-tube leading to the shore; the observer, with it in his hand, being concealed on the bank. She came; he pulled, and down she went.

"After this hasty sketch, I come to electrical torpedoes for guarding mountain-passes and roadways, &c., for the protection of strongholds, and the defence of fortified positions. Shells cast for the purpose should be used, but in an emergency tin canisters, or any other prefectlyperfectly [sic] water-tight cases, will answer. I am not aware that electricity was used by either of the belligerents in the late American war for springing mines on land.

"The cases for land-torpedoes should be shells cast expressly for the purpose. The thickness of the shell being from one-fourth to an inch, and even more, or less, according to the size and the probable handling in transportation.


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 allowed me to leave early. When I reached home thro' long damp-aired gas-lighted windy streets, all looked bright and warm. Gertrude had arrived bringing presents, one a pair of quaint, delightful, old silver bracelets from an old lady, a friend of grandpapa's, whom I had never seen, but who has heard of me. When I entered the room I was amazed. It was brightly lighted, and decorated with ivy a friend had sent; another dear old lady had herself gathered me the last roses and lauristinus, myrtle leaves and chrysanthemums from her garden. One long table was set for tea, but the other was covered with presents. Mary Harris had sent me the "Idylls" and the "Two Paths." One dear lady, whom I have never seen but often written to (Mrs. Robins), had sent eleven volumes of poems Scott (who will be very valuable to me) and Crabbe whom I don't yet know. I tell you of the books, because they are such very precious things to possess.… Miss Rogers read us the loveliest Arab story. Gertrude, Minnie, and I sang; and all my best available friends were here, and were delighted to make one another's acquaintance. I was proudly delighted with them all, and most humbly delighted by all their kindness which I felt I had so very little deserved. It was almost too much to bear. Once or twice I dwelt thankfully on the thought that, except Mr. Maurice, who was ill, I had seen or heard from everyone I cared for specially, except Ruskin. When nearly everyone had left, Gertrude rushed upstairs, handed me a parcel saying, "Someone thinks it's from Mr. Ruskin." "No," I said quietly, looking at the unformed handwriting. "Then what made the servant say so?" I sat down on the stairs and tore it open. It was! I enclose his letter, which specially pleased me, for its sympathy with


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264 "They should be spherical, only, instead of a hole for the fuse, as in a hollow shot, they should have a neck like a bottle, with a cap to screw over—not in—the neck. The case should be charged through the neck, and the wires let in through two holes, counter-sunk, diametrically opposite, the counter-sinking being for the purpose of receiving pitch or other resinous matter to keep the water out. The fuse, being adjusted to the wires, should be held in its place by a string through the neck, while the wires are drawn out taut and sealed within and without. Having proved the fuse, first fin and then drive in a wooden peg. Then fill the space between it and the screw-cap with red lead, and screw down tight so as to make it water-tight. Now secure the tails of the wires so that they will not be chafed or bruised, and the mine is ready to be packed for transportation. They are generally to be used in stone fugassees, the wire being buried at convenient depths, and all marks of fugassees and trenches removed as completely as possible. Any number, not exceeding twenty-five or thirty, may be arranged in a single circuit for the ebonite; but if the magnetic exploder of Wheattstone be preferred, and the ground be perfectly dry, hundreds may be planted in a ladder-circuit, which you have been handled.

"The operator may be at any distance from these mines when he explodes them, provided only he has established some mark or point which, on being reached by the enemy, should serve as his signal. The area of destruction of one fugassee, properly constructed, with a charge of twenty or twenty-five pounds of powder, may be assumed to be that of a circle seventy-five or eighty yards in diameter. Twenty mines would therefore serve for a mile. Several miles may be planted in a night, and the assailants may be enticed or invited out in the morning. Passes before an invading army may be mined in advance, and thus, if he cannot be destroyed,


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Rh his progress may be so retarded by dummies or sham mines as almost literally to compel him to dig his way.

"The power to telegraph through these torpedoes is of little consequence, inasmuch as there need be but one station and one operator. Using the testing-fuse manufactured by Abel, and a weak voltaic current, the operator can at any time satisfy himself as to continuity. Thus bridges and gulfs or breaks are not required for the land as they are in sea-mining. Ebonite has the further advantage on land that it takes but a single wire.

"Forts may be protected against assault, and your own rifle-pits from occupation by an enemy, simply by a proper distribution of these new engines of war. They may be planted line within line, and one row above another, and so arranged that volcanoes may be sprung at will under the feet of assaulting columns.

"The only attempt that was made in the late American war to bring the electrical torpedo into play on the land, was made by the Confederates at Port Fisher, in 1865, just before its fall. The narrow land-spit over which the attacking party had to advance was mined. The officer in charge used the magneto exploder.

"But the mines would not go off, owing no doubt to defective arrangements, for the instrument was new to him, and he had not been posted up as to the virtues of the ladder-circuit. The instrument used on this occasion was just such a one as this before you. It was the first that had reached the Confederacy. Here is then a most striking illustration of the importance of previous study and drill in this new and important arm of defence."

Maury was also very fully occupied in the preparation of a series of geographical class-books for the use of schools. While he was in Paris he had received a letter from Mr.


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266 C. B. Richardson, a New York publisher, proposing that he should undertake this series; and a suitable arrangement having been made with him, Maury set to work on this new employment in good earnest. In August, 1866, he wrote: "I am hard at work on Geography No. I., 'Brave' drawing the maps. Well, I could not wind up my career more usefully (and usefulness is both honour and glory) than by helping to shape the character and mould the destinies of the rising generation." In the following month the family moved into cheaper lodgings in Clarendon Terrace, where Maury continued to work hard at his Geography Series, receiving advice and assistance from his friend Jansen, and this work fully occupied him until the end of the year. In 1868, he was also writing a popular book on astronomy, which, however, has never been published. His industry at this tune, as throughout his useful life, was indefatigable. During September 1866, Maury and his daughters were at Nottingham, for the meeting of the British Association, where they received a hearty welcome and cordial hospitality; and they also paid a pleasant visit at Wrottesley Hall. "Brave" was pursuing his studies at the School of Mines.

At about this time Mr. Corbin lost his house at Farleyvale, near Fredericksburg by fire; and Maury asked his daughter, Mrs. Corbin, to join him in London. She came with her little girl; and while she was staying with her parents her eldest son was born—an Englishman, and duly registered as one. He was named, by his grandfather, John Herndon Maury, after the gallant young uncle who was lost at Vicksburg. This little boy afterwards became a great pet with his grandfather, and it was touching and lovely to see these two friends together. The child only survived his illustrious grandparent ten days. "Lovely and pleasant were their lives, and in death they were not divided."


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Rh Although Maury had always been a devout Christian, it was not until this year that he became a regular member of the Church. He was confirmed, with his son Matthew ("Brave") and his young daughter Lucy, by Dr. Quintard, the Bishop of Tennessee, who was then in London attending the Pan-Anglican Assembly at Lambeth. The ceremony was performed in Dr. Tremlett's church at Belsize Park, and it was a beautiful and touching sight to behold that bald head bending in lowly adoration between the two glossy young brown ones he loved so dearly.

In 1868, the degree of LL.D. was conferred on Maury by the University of Cambridge, in recognition of his literary and scientific merits, and of his eminent service to mankind.

He went accompanied by his wife, his daughters Molly and Lucy, and the Rev. Mr. Tremlett. They were all guests of the Vice-Chancellor.

Alfred Tennyson received his degree on the same occasion, and so did Max Müller and Mr. Wright (translator of Egyptian manuscripts and hieroglyphics at the British Museum). There was a long oration, in high-sounding Latin, made by the Dean to the four newly-made "learned Doctors," each dressed in his University gown of bright red cloth lined with pink satin, and with their "mortar-boards" on their heads. Then the undergraduates, who filled the galleries, gave three cheers, and proceeded to make whatever remarks they chose in loud tones on the dress and deportment of the LL.D.'s, and of the audience generally, greatly to their embarrassment, of course. "You should take off your hat, old gentleman!" and "Did your mother forget to call you early?" &c.; one called for three cheers for "the girl with golden hair," and another professed loudly his admiration for "the girl with the blue bonnet," till all were more or less rapped over the knuckles.

The following is a translation of that part of the Latin


text:
Page:Wittgenstein - Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 1922.djvu/105

Rh says the same as the proposition. Therefore that product is identical with the proposition. For the essence of the symbol cannot be altered without altering its sense.

To a definite logical combination of signs corresponds a definite logical combination of their meanings; every arbitrary combination only corre- sponds to the unconnected signs.

That is, propositions which are true for every state of affairs cannot be combinations of signs at all, for otherwise there could only correspond to them definite combinations of objects.

(And to no logical combination corresponds no combination of the objects.)

Tautology and contradiction are the limiting cases of the combinations of symbols, namely their dissolution.

Of course the signs are also combined with one another in the tautology and contradiction, i.e. they stand in relations to one another, but these relations are meaningless, unessential to the symbol.

Now it appears to be possible to give the most general form of proposition; i.e. to give a description of the propositions of some one sign language, so that every possible sense can be expressed by a symbol, which falls under the description, and so that every symbol which falls under the description can express a sense, if the meanings of the names are chosen accordingly.

It is clear that in the description of the most general form of proposition only what is essential to it may be described — otherwise it would not be the most general form.

That there is a general form is proved by the fact that there cannot be a proposition whose form could not have been foreseen (i.e. constructed). Rh


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268 oration which introduced Maury; it is followed by extracts from his daughter Molly's diary kept at the time:—

"I present to you Matthew Fontaine Maury, who while serving in the American Navy did not permit the clear edge of his mind to be dulled, or his ardour for study to be dissipated, by the variety of his professional labours, or by his continual change of place, but who, by the attentive observations of the course of the winds, the climate, the currents of the seas and oceans, acquired those materials for knowledge, which afterwards in leisure, while he presided over the Observatory at Washington, he systematized in charts and in a book—charts which are now in the hands of all seamen, and a book which has carried the fame of its author into the most distant countries of the earth. Nor is he merely a high authority in nautical science. He is also a pattern of noble manners and good morals, because in the guidance of his own life he has always shown himself a brave and good man. When that cruel civil war in America was imminent, this man did not hesitate to leave home and friends, a place of high honour and an office singularly adapted to his genius—to throw away, in one word, all the goods and gifts of fortune—that he might defend and sustain the cause which seemed to him the just one. * The victorious cause pleased the gods,* and now perhaps, as victorious causes will do, it pleases the majority of men, and yet no one can withhold his admiration from the man who, though numbered among the vanquished, held his faith pure and unblemished even at the price of poverty and exile."

". . . . When this address was finished, an official on the left of the Vice-Chancellor came down from the dais, and, taking papa by the left hand, led him up to the Vice-Chancellor, and introduced him in Latin. The latter, taking papa's right hand in his, held it while he welcomed him, in a


text: Index:Letters of the Late Lord Lyttleton.djvu


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Rh short but appropriate speech, as a Doctor of the University of Cambridge; after which the new Doctor took a seat on the left of the Vice-Chancellor. Then came the other three I have already spoken of, and then came nearly forty, in black-silk gowns and furred hoods, who were to be created M.A.'s or B.A.'s. They knelt down before the Vice-Chancellor one by one, and put up their hands like a child saying its prayers; the Vice-Chancellor put his hands outside theirs and said in Latin, 'By the right of my office and the power invested in me, I create you Master of Arts or Bachelor of Arts (as the case might be) in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost. Amen.'

". . . . Papa presently introduced me to Mr. Adams, the Astronomer-Royal (the man who 'predicted the planet Neptune at the same time that Leverrier did). He went with us and Mrs. Vice-Chancellor to the FitzWilliam Museum that afternoon, and afterwards invited us to a strawberry-feast in his garden."

In 1868 the political objections to Maury's return to his native country had been removed by the enactment of a general amnesty. He had been offered the Directorship of the Imperial Observatory by the Emperor of the French, and the Superintendency of the University of the South at Suwanee; but he declined both. He had accepted the Chair of Physics at the Virginia Military Institute. The buildings at Lexington are in a line with the Washington and Lee University, over which the illustrious General Lee presided as Rector. This fact had no small influence in Maury's choice of Lexington for a home, so highly did he appreciate the pleasure of a renewal of the friendship which existed between them as neighbours in old times, when one lived at the Washington Observatory, the other at his country-seat of Arlington. The two houses were in full view of each other,


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270 with the River Potomac flowing between them. General Lee always earnestly wished that Virginians should not leave their country, but work for her in adversity as in prosperous times. As regards Maury, that noble and patriotic wish was now gratified.

Know you that, reposing special trust and confidence in your virtue, intelligence, and great qualifications, the Board of Visitors of the Virginia Military Institute, by virtue of the authority invested in them by law, have appointed you Professor of Meteorology.

Given under my hand, as President of the Board of Visitors and under the seal of the State, this 22nd day of February, 1868.

Seal.

Maury accepted this appointment in the following letter to General Smith, of the Virginia Military Institute:—

I thank you kindly for your letter of the 3rd inst, explaining my duties in the new Chair. They, being such as therein defined, you have induced me to accept.

I should lack courage to undertake a regular course of lectures as one of the faculty, simply because it would lead me into an untried line of life; and as my rule is to put my heart into whatever I attempt to do, and try my best, I


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Rh should have to work overmuch—especially at the beginning—and I am afraid of that. The consideration, therefore, that I am not to be charged with a class, or expected to deliver a regular course of lectures, removes a "sea of troubles," and leaves me in a field of research in which I am not altogether a "raw hand."

. . . . You certainly do draw a very bright picture of the work that is before me —of the results that are expected from it, and of the success that is to attend my labours.

"We do not weigh in the same balance the force that I can bring to the work. Therefore, as bright as your picture is, I have my fears of what there may be on the other side. "Still, it's wise and brave to hope the best," and, bringing willing hearts and ready hands to the work, we'll try to rub even the dark side bright, should it be turned towards us.

I have some private matters to attend to, previous engagements and obligations to meet and satisfy, which may prevent my being with you in June.

Will not your field-parties lack instruments? If you, have the funds, had you not better make known your wants while I am here? Loseby—who Brooke will remember as my "crack" chronometer-maker—has invented a pocket-barometer that will give you orographic features, as you ride about the country, with much nicety. With it you can read difference of level by the way as you read time from the face of your watch. A dozen of these barometers—say at $12 each—would be invaluable.

Yours truly,

Maury bade a reluctant farewell to many warm friends whom his talents and misfortunes had drawn around him. He took the steamer at Liverpool with his family, and arrived at New York early in July 1868; but his house at Lexington was not ready for him until the beginning of the following year. He went to Richmond in August, and thence,


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272 with his daughters, to the White Sulphur Springs, intending to devote the autumn to a study of the climate and productions of Virginia, with a view to the preparation of a report on its geographical position and commercial advantages. At that time the people of Holland were in great hopes that Flushing, with improved facilities for ships, would become an important commercial port. Maury received a proposal for establishing a life of steamers from Flushing to Norfolk in Virginia, and he welcomed the idea as likely to confer great benefits on his beloved native land. This gave a fresh spur to his ideas connected with an industrial and meteorological survey of Virginia.

On the 10th of September, 1868, Maury was duly installed in his Professorial Chair at Lexington; but he was not able to begin his residence until the following year. He spent the winter at Richmond, occupying himself with a preliminary report on the material wealth and resources of Virginia, and entertaining bright hopes from the new direct line of steamers which Commodore Jansen was striving to establish between Flushing and a Virginian port By the spring of 1869, Maury and his family were established in their house at Lexington.


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Rh

is a small town, beautifully situated on the western side of the Blue Ridge, with picturesque views of valley and mountain-ranges on every side. The academical buildings are erected in a continuous line, facing a green expanse of grass, interspersed with clumps and lines of trees. Nearest the town are the edifices connected with the Washington and Lee University, including the house of the Hector, where General Lee passed the last years of his life, the library and class-rooms, and houses of professors. A little in advance is the memorial church containing the noble recumbent statue of General Lee by Valentine, the great Virginian sculptor. The grounds of the University are only divided from those of the Military Institute by a gate and iron railings. Here is the house occupied by Maury, with a bright and cheerful landscape in full view from its windows, the house of the Principal, General Smith, and the main


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 building of the Institute with the marks of injuries, wantonly perpetrated by the federal invaders, still visible on its walls.

Here, surrounded by old friends, and free to work at the pursuits which were most congenial to him, Maury passed the last four years of his life with his wife and family. At last he had found a haven of rest; but his busy and untiring brain continued to be as active as ever in devising schemes for the good of his country, as is evident from the following letter:—

Here we are in our new home, busy fixing up; and things begin to know their places. So we also begin to have a home-feeling. People are very kind, the country is beautiful, the views and the scenery lovely, and both climate and air such that exercise is enjoyment. How I wish I had you and Miss Louisa here with us! Nannie and her two children are now on their way to us—by sea—from New York. Dick has gone to West Virginia. Brave is polishing off at the Institute.

The seat of Empire is fast settling down in the NorthWest States. They already give the Presidents, and will soon dictate the foreign policy of the country. They must have a better way to the sea. They have been taught to believe—erroneously—that the best way lies through Canada and the St. Lawrence. It does not; it lies through Virginia.

You will appreciate my feeling upon this subject, when I remind you that grain is sent round Cape Horn from California, and delivered at the ports along the Atlantic seaboard at ten cents the bushel cheaper than it can now be sent from Iowa and other North-West States; that the people throughout these States—and they are the grain-growing States—know that, with a good highway to the Atlantic seaboard, the value of their grain would be enhanced ten, twenty, even thirty cents the bushel; and they think


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Rh that Canada and the St. Lawrence can give them such a way.

The greatest difficulty in teaching these people that their best way to the sea lies through Virginia, not through Canada, is to get our people to raise funds for the gratuitous circulation of the Reports in sufficient numbers between this and the next meeting of Congress in December. If we can do that, the North-West States will raise their voices in favour of the Virginia route, and demand the money to o])en it. When that is done, they will not want Canada, and we shall have peace. Thus you see, my friend, I am aiming high and striking far. But with a few heads such as yours to help, we would hit the mark as sure as a gun 1

Help me with your fervent prayers. God bless you! Yours, M.

P.S. In reading over this, it smacks of the "ego," that I, a professor without a Chair, and upon a salary not so good as three hundred of your yellow boys, should be talking about bringing influences into play to prevent war between two great nations! But "tall oaks from little acorns grow."

I wish you would make me that visit you promised me now that I have a nest of my own. The house is never too full but what we can always find a place for you. If the worst comes to the worst, we can rig up a pole out of the window (Tennessee fashion) on which you can roost.

Early in 1870, Maury was busy with a map which should serve as a "caste of the atmosphere"—a device which his friend Brooke, the inventor of the deep-sea lead, had also conceived the idea of. It is described in the following letter to Rutson Maury:—

To

2em

. . . . You remember, before the war, how hard I tried to get up a Telegraphic Meteorological Bureau—writing and lecturing about it—now as meteorology for the farmers,


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276 now as storm-signals combined with crop statistics. When I was in England, during the war, I proposed to FitzRoy, and after his death to his successor, Toynbee, a plan for making, by means of an elastic cloth stretched over his map, a caste of the atmosphere, so that he might take in his whole field of observation at a single glance, 'and so predict with more certainty. Suppose, for instance, with his map pasted on a table, he had bored a hole through London, Liverpool, Portsmouth, &c., and stuck up in each place a little rod graduated for the barometer; that his elastic cloth was then fitted to a slide so that he could set it at the height of the barometer at each of the stations. Fancy each rod to be surmounted by a wind-vane which could be drawn out or shoved in, to show the force of the wind at each place. Thus you would have a "caste of the atmosphere," and see all about it.

Brooke ("deep-sea lead") has suggested just such a plan to Meyers; and Meyers, I have heard, has adopted it. The idea, I think, was as original with Brooke as it was with me.

The following two letters, while recalling his advancing years, prove also that Maury's activity and enthusiasm were unimpaired by them:—

Yesterday was my birthday—sixty-six. Read my mercies in the first of the morning psalms, 71st for the 14th day, and imagine the unction with which I joined in the reading in church. . ..

. . . . I am to go to Boston on the 18th September, to deliver an address by invitation, and in October to do the same at Griffin Ga., St. Louis, and Norfolk. The Board of Visitors won't accept my resignation; speak in dulcet tones about my presence here. . . . I put it to the vote this morning at breakfast, "V. M. I. or Richmond?" Unanimous for V. M. I. So here we rest for the present, at least.

The British Association wants me at Brighton. C.


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Rh Burrows (the Mayor) "requests the honour of my presence," August 14th, and they have kindly made arrangements with the Cunarders to take me there and back. . . . It would be fine to set the British Association at work upon my meteorological and crop convention; but I'm too poor—I must decline. The foot took me bad the day before yesterday. Yesterday it had me on crutches, and in the agonies there came a fainting-fit, about 5 But this morning I feel better, though still on crutches.

During the last four years of his life, Maury occupied himself, as one of his professional duties at Lexington, in making a meteorological survey of his beloved Virginia, partly with the view of developing her resources, and partly in the hope of attracting immigrants to her deserted farms. This survey, as far as it had gone, he embodied in two elaborate and valuable reports; but he was not destined to see the work fully accomplished.

No man was more alive than he was to the fact that the agriculture of the South was to her an unfailing source of renewed prosperity—that, like Antæus, it was from the earth that she would gain restitution of her strength.

Hence he earnestly favoured and persistently urged all measures looking to the improvement of agriculture. To this end he resumed the series of lectures on the subject so dear to his heart, which had been interrupted by the war, and visited, by invitation, cities in Alabama, Virginia, Tennessee, Massachusetts, and Missouri.

In May and October 1871, he delivered the following address at St Louis, Griffin in Georgia, Norfolk, and Richmond, Nashville, which met with enthusiastic commendation:—

"I calculate, that in consequence of erroneous estimates and the lack of such accurate crop statistics as we now seek, the cotton-planters alone have received, for their last six