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1540.] divided the leading root of the feudal system. Persons holding lands by military tenure were allowed to dispose of two-thirds in their wills, as they pleased. Lands held under any other conditions might be bequeathed absolutely, without condition or restriction. To prevent disputes on titles, and to clear such confusion of claims as had been left remaining by the Uses Act, sixty years' possession of property was declared sufficient to constitute a valid right; and no claim might be pressed which rested on pretensions of an older date. The Privy Seal's hand is legible in several Acts abridging ecclesiastical privileges, and restoring monks, who had been dead in law, to some part of their rights as human beings. The suppression of the religious houses had covered England with vagrant priests, who, though pensioned, were tempted by idleness, and immunity from punishment, into crimes. If convicted of felony, and admitted 'to their clergy,' such persons were in future to be burnt in the hand. A bill in the preceding year had relieved them from their vows of poverty; they were permitted to buy, inherit, or otherwise occupy property.


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294 They were freed by dissolution from obedience to their superiors, and the reflection naturally followed, that the justice which had dispensed with two vows, would dispense with the third, and that a permission to marry, in spite of the Six Articles, would soon necessarily follow. Further inroads were made also upon the sanctuaries. Institutions which had worn so deep a groove in the habits of men could not be at once put away; nor, while the letter of the law continued so sanguinary, was it tolerable to remove wholly the correctives which had checked its action, and provide no substitute. The last objection was not perhaps considered a serious one; but prejudice and instinct survived, as a safeguard of humanity. The protection of sanctuary was withdrawn for the more flagrant felonies, for murder, rape, robbery, arson, and sacrilege. Churches and churchyards continued to protect inferior offenders; and seven towns—Wells, Westminster, Manchester, Northampton, York, Derby, and Launceston—retained the same privileges, until, finding that their exemption only converted them into nests of crime, they petitioned of themselves for desecration. Some other regulations were also introduced into the system. Persons taking refuge in a church were allowed to remain not longer than forty days; at the end of which they were to abjure before the coroner and leave the country, or were to be consigned for life to one of the specified towns, where they were to be daily inspected by the governor, and if absent three days consecutively—no very barbarous

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1540.] —were to forfeit their security. An Act was passed for the better maintenance of the navy; and next, bringing inevitable ill-will with it to the unpopular minister, appeared the standard English grievance, a Money Bill. In the preceding session the Duke of Norfolk had laid before the Lords a statement of the extraordinary expenses which had been cast upon the Crown, and of the inadequacy of the revenue. Twelve months' notice had been given, that the Houses might consider at their leisure the demand which was likely to be made upon them. It appeared in a bill introduced on the 3rd of May, requiring a subsidy of four fifteenths and four tenths, the payments to be spread over a period of four years.

The occasion of a demand of money was always carefully stated; the preamble set forth that the country had prospered and had lived in wealth, comfort, and peace under the King, for thirty-one years. His Highness, in the wisdom which God had given him, had brought his subjects out of blindness and ignorance to the


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296 of God and his holy Word. He had shaken off the usurpations of the Bishop of Rome, by whose subtle devices large sums had been annually drained out of the realm. But in doing this he had been forced to contend against insurrections at home and the peril of invasion from the powers of the Continent. He had built a navy and furnished it. He had raised fortresses, laid out harbours, established permanent garrisons in dangerous places, with arsenals for arms and all kinds of military stores. Ireland after an arduous struggle was at length reduced to obedience; but the conquest was maintained at a great and continuing cost. To meet this necessary outlay, no regular provision existed; and the King threw himself confidently upon his subjects, with an assurance that they would not refuse to bear their share of the burden.

The journals throw no light upon the debate, if debate there was. The required sum was voted; we know no more. The sand in Cromwell's hour-glass was almost run. Once more, and conspicuously, his spirit can be seen in a bill of attainder against four priests, three of whom, Abel, Fetherston, and Powell, had been attached to the household of Queen Catherine, and had lingered in the Tower, in resolute denial of the supremacy; the fourth, Robert Cook, of Doncaster, 'had adhered to the late arrogant traitor Robert Aske.' In companionship with them was a woman, Margaret Tyrrell, who had refused to acknowledge Prince Edward


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Rh weakness of heart, decayed spirits, palsies, apoplexies, and both to help and prevent a fit; it will also destroy all heaviness and coldness in the liver, restores lost appetite; and fortifies and surprisingiy strengthens the stomach.

When the first Water has ran what is strong, there will remain a weaker sort at the bottom of the limbeck; take the herbs and flowers, press them, and put them into a gallon and an half of the best sherry, stop them close, and let them stand five Weeks; distil them, and let the liquor run as long as it remains strong; pour it into the glass where the sarsnet bags are, and let them remain in this second liquor six weeks, close stopped; then you may, use it as the former. It is good to bathe any part affected with weakness.

Take the roots of angelica, dragon, maywort, mint, carduus, origany, winter savoury, broad thyme, rosemary, pimpernel, sage, coltsfoot, fumentory, scabius, burrage, saxafreg, betony, jarmander, and liverwort, of each a handful; the flowers of wormwood, suckery, hyssop, fennel, agrimony, cowslips, poppies, plantain, setfoil, bugloss, vocvain, maiden hair, motherwort, dill, cowage, golden rod, and gromwell, of each a handful; the seeds of hart's tongues, horehound, fennel, melolet, St. John wort, comfry, feather-few, red rose leaves, wood sorrel, pellitory of the wall, heartsease, sentory, and sead rink, of each a hand-


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 two days and nights, stirring them morning and evening; then take out some of the herbs, and squeeze them lightly with your hands into the still; fill the still with the herbs and wine, let them stand twelve hours in a cold still, and distil them through a limbeck till the herbs and wine are out; mix the water of each still together, sweeten it, keeping some unsweetened as a preservative to women in illness.

Gather the herbs on a very fine clear day, chop them well, and put them in an earthen pan; wash them with sack; or if, you do not chuse that expence, wash them, with water; let them stand twenty-four hours, distil them in a cold still over a gentle fire, and you may put a piece of white sugar-candy into the bottom for it to drop on.

Take a still full of orange mint, distil it in a cold still, and put fresh orange mint into the water; distil it again, and put your bottles into the still unstopped: a spoonful of this water put into a glass of spring water, will perfume it as well as the orange flower water.

Take the outward rinds of a pound and a half of lemons, one pound of orange peels, tops of dried wormwood and winter cinnamon, of each half a pound; flowers of camomile four ounces; little cardamums not husked; cloves, cubebs, ana camels' hay, of each one ounce; cinnamon, nutmegs, caraway seeds, of each two ounces; spirits of


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 61/June 1902/The Progress of Science


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 Spectrum of Electric Light.

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 LONDON:

LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS & GREEN

1865

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 {| class="work_TOC"

 * 1.||Visible and Invisible Radiation||1
 * 2.||Origin and Character of Radiation. The Ether||6
 * 3.||The Atomic Theory in reference to the Ether||11
 * 4.||Absorption of Radiant Heat by Gases||12
 * 5.||Absorption by Iodine. Formation of Invisible Foci||18
 * 6.||Visible and Invisible Rays of the Electric Light||21
 * 7.||Combustion by Invisible Rays||24
 * 8.||Transmutation of Rays. Calorescence||27
 * 9.||Deadness of the Optic Nerve to the Calorific Rays||30
 * 10.||Persistence of Rays||33
 * 11.||Absorption of Radiant Heat by Vapours and Odours||38
 * 12.||Aqueous Vapour in relation to Terrestrial Temperatures||41
 * 13.||Liquids and their Vapours in relation to Radiant Heat||45
 * 14.||Reciprocity of Radiation and Absorption||48
 * 15.||Influence of Vibrating Period and Molecular Form. Physical Analysis of the Human Breath||valign=bottom|52
 * 16.||Summary and Conclusion||57
 * }
 * 9.||Deadness of the Optic Nerve to the Calorific Rays||30
 * 10.||Persistence of Rays||33
 * 11.||Absorption of Radiant Heat by Vapours and Odours||38
 * 12.||Aqueous Vapour in relation to Terrestrial Temperatures||41
 * 13.||Liquids and their Vapours in relation to Radiant Heat||45
 * 14.||Reciprocity of Radiation and Absorption||48
 * 15.||Influence of Vibrating Period and Molecular Form. Physical Analysis of the Human Breath||valign=bottom|52
 * 16.||Summary and Conclusion||57
 * }
 * 14.||Reciprocity of Radiation and Absorption||48
 * 15.||Influence of Vibrating Period and Molecular Form. Physical Analysis of the Human Breath||valign=bottom|52
 * 16.||Summary and Conclusion||57
 * }
 * 16.||Summary and Conclusion||57
 * }
 * }

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 1. Visible and Invisible Radiation.

the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body, which translate, or enable the mind to translate, the impressions of that world into facts of consciousness and thought.

Different nerves are suited to the perception of different impressions. We do not see with the ear, nor hear with the eye, nor are we rendered sensible of sound by the nerves of the tongue. Out of the general assemblage of physical actions, each nerve, or group of nerves, selects and responds to those for the perception of which it is specially organized.

The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eye-ball and there spreads out, to form the retina, a web of nerve filaments, on which the images of external objects are projected by the optical portion of the eye. This nerve is limited 1

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 the latter being in fact nothing more than the heaped-up motion of the former. For it is the calorific waves emitted by the sun which heat our air, produce our winds, and hence agitate our ocean. And whether they break in foam upon the shore, or rub silently against the ocean's bed, or subside by the mutual friction of their own parts, the sea-waves finally resolve themselves into waves of ether, and thus regenerate the motion from which their temporary existence was derived. This connexion is typical. Nature is not an aggregate of independent parts, but an organic whole. If you open a piano and sing into it, a certain string will respond. Change the pitch of your voice; the first string ceases to vibrate, but another replies. Change again the pitch; the first two strings are silent, while another resounds. Now in altering the pitch you simply change the form of the motion communicated by your vocal chords to the air, one string responding to one form, and another to another. And thus is sentient man sung unto by Nature, while the optic, the auditory, and other nerves of the human body are so many strings differently tuned and responsive to different forms of the universal power. CAMBRIDGE; PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

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 to the apprehension of the phenomena of radiation, and notwithstanding its marvellous sensibility to certain impressions of this class, it is singularly obtuse to other impressions.

Nor does the optic nerve embrace the entire range even of radiation. Some rays, when they reach it, are incompetent to evoke its power, while others never reach it at all, being absorbed by the humours of the eye. To all rays which, whether they reach the retina or not, fail to excite vision, we give the name of invisible or obscure rays. All non-luminous bodies emit such rays. There is no body in nature absolutely cold, and every body not absolutely cold emits rays of heat. But to render radiant heat fit to affect the optic nerve a certain temperature is necessary. A cool poker thrust into a fire remains dark for a time, but when its temperature has become equal to that of the surrounding coals it glows like them. In like manner, if a current of electricity of gradually increasing strength be sent through a wire of the refractory metal platinum, the wire first becomes sensibly warm to the touch; for a time its heat augments, still however remaining obscure; at length we can no longer touch the metal with impunity; and at a certain definite temperature it emits a feeble red light. As the current augments in power the light augments in brilliancy, until finally the wire

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he was nearly arrived at adolescence it did not become clear to Kipps how it was that he was under the care of an aunt and uncle instead of having a father and mother like other boys. Yet he had vague memories of a somewhere else that was not New Romney—of a dim room, a window looking down on white buildings—and of a some one else who talked to forgotten people, and who was his mother. He could not recall her features very distinctly, but he remembered with extreme definition a white dress she wore, with a pattern of little sprigs of flowers and little bows of ribbon upon it, and a girdle of straight-ribbed white ribbon about the waist. Linked with this, he knew not how, were clouded half-obliterated recollections of scenes in which there was weeping, weeping in which he was inscrutably moved to join. Some terrible tall man with a loud voice played a part in these scenes, and either before or after them there were impressions of looking for interminable periods out of the windows of railway trains in the company of these two people.…

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4 He knew, though he could not remember that he had ever been told, that a certain faded, wistful face, that looked at him from a plush and gilt framed daguerreotype above the mantel of the "sitting-room," was the face of his mother. But that knowledge did not touch his dim memories with any elucidation. In that photograph she was a girlish figure, leaning against a photographer's stile, and with all the self-conscious shrinking natural to that position. She had curly hair and a face far younger and prettier than any other mother in his experience. She swung a Dolly Varden hat by the string, and looked with obedient respectful eyes on the photographer-gentleman who had commanded the pose. She was very slight and pretty. But the phantom mother that haunted his memory so elusively was not like that, though he could not remember how she differed. Perhaps she was older, or a little less shrinking, or, it may be, only dressed in a different way.…

It is clear she handed him over to his aunt and uncle at New Romney with explicit directions and a certain endowment. One gathers she had something of that fine sense of social distinctions that subsequently played so large a part in Kipps' career. He was not to go to a "common" school, she provided, but to a certain seminary in Hastings that was not only a "middle-class academy," with mortar boards and every evidence of a higher social tone, but also remarkably cheap. She seems to have been animated by the desire to do her best for Kipps, even at a

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CH. I sacrifice of herself, as though Kipps were in some way a superior sort of person. She sent pocket-money to him from time to time for a year or more after Hastings had begun for him, but her face he never saw in the days of his lucid memory.

His aunt and uncle were already high on the hill of life when first he came to them. They had married for comfort in the evening or at any rate in the late afternoon of their days. They were at first no more than vague figures in the background of proximate realities, such realities as familiar chairs and tables, quiet to ride and drive, the newel of the staircase, kitchen furniture, pieces of firewood, the boiler tap, old newspapers, the cat, the High Street, the back yard and the flat fields that are always so near in that little town. He knew all the stones in the yard individually, the creeper in the corner, the dustbin and the mossy wall, better than many men know the faces of their wives. There was a corner under the ironing-board which by means of a shawl could, under propitious gods, be made a very decent cubby-house, a corner that served him for several years as the indisputable hub of the world; and the stringy places in the carpet, the knots upon the dresser, and the several corners of the rag hearthrug his uncle had made, became essential parts of his mental foundations. The shop he did not know so thoroughly—it was a forbidden region to him; yet somehow he managed to know it very well.

His aunt and uncle were, as it were, the immediate

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6 gods of this world; and, like the gods of the world of old, occasionally descended right into it, with arbitrary injunctions and disproportionate punishments. And, unhappily, one rose to their Olympian level at meals. Then one had to say one's "grace," hold one's spoon and fork in mad, unnatural ways called "properly," and refrain from eating even nice sweet things "too fast." If he "gobbled" there was trouble, and at the slightest abandon with knife, fork, and spoon, his aunt rapped his knuckles, albeit his uncle always finished up his gravy with his knife. Sometimes, moreover, his uncle would come, pipe in hand, out of a sedentary remoteness in the most disconcerting way, when a little boy was doing the most natural and attractive things, with "Drat and drabbit that young rascal! What's he a-doing of now?" And his aunt would appear at door or window to interrupt interesting conversation with children who were upon unknown grounds considered "low" and undesirable, and call him in. The pleasantest little noises, however softly you did them,—drumming on tea-trays, trumpeting your fists, whistling on keys, ringing chimes with a couple of pails, or playing tunes on the window-panes,—brought down the gods in anger. Yet what noise is fainter than your finger on the window—gently done? Sometimes, however, these gods gave him broken toys out of the shop, and then one loved them better—for the shop they kept was, among other things, a toy shop. (The other things included books to read and books to give away and

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CH. I local photographs; it had some pretensions also to be a china shop, and the fascia spoke of glass; it was also a stationer's shop with a touch of haberdashery about it, and in the windows and odd corners were mats and terra-cotta dishes, and milking-stools for painting; and there was a hint of picture-frames, and firescreens, and fishing tackle, and air-guns, and bathing suits, and tents: various things, indeed, but all cruelly attractive to a small boy's fingers.) Once his aunt gave him a trumpet if he would promise faithfully not to blow it, and afterwards took it away again. And his aunt made him say his Catechism and something she certainly called the "Colic for the Day" every Sunday in the year.

As the two grew old while he grew up, and as his impression of them modified insensibly from year to year, it seemed to him at last that they had always been as they were when, in his adolescent days, his impression of things grew fixed. His aunt he thought of as always lean, rather worried-looking, and prone to a certain obliquity of cap, and his uncle massive, many-chinned, and careless about his buttons. They neither visited nor received visitors. They were always very suspicious about their neighbours and other people generally; they feared the "low" and they hated and despised the "stuck-up," and so they "kept themselves to themselves," according to the English ideal. Consequently little Kipps had no playmates, except through the sin of disobedience. By inherent nature he had a sociable disposition. When he was

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8 in the High Street he made a point of saying "Hello!" to passing cyclists, and he would put his tongue out at the Quodling children whenever their nursemaid was not looking. And he began a friendship with Sid Pornick, the son of the haberdasher next door, that, with wide intermissions, was destined to last his lifetime through.

Pornick, the haberdasher, I may say at once, was, according to old Kipps, a "blaring jackass"; he was a teetotaller, a "nyar, nyar, 'im-singing Methodis'," and altogether distasteful and detrimental, he and his together, to true Kipps ideals, so far as little Kipps could gather them. This Pornick certainly possessed an enormous voice, and he annoyed old Kipps greatly by calling, "You—Arn" and "Siddee," up and down his house. He annoyed old Kipps by private choral services on Sunday, all his family "nyar, nyar-ing"; and by mushroom culture; by behaving as though the pilaster between the two shops was common property; by making a noise of hammering in the afternoon, when old Kipps wanted to be quiet after his midday meal; by going up and down uncarpeted stairs in his boots; by having a black beard; by attempting to be friendly; and by—all that sort of thing. In fact, he annoyed old Kipps. He annoyed him especially with his shop doormat. Old Kipps never beat his mat, preferring to let sleeping dust lie; and, seeking a motive for a foolish proceeding, he held that Pornick waited until there was a suitable wind in order that the dust disengaged in that operation might defile his

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 appears of a dazzling white. The light which it now emits is similar to that of the sun.

By means of a prism Sir Isaac Newton unravelled the texture of solar light, and by the same simple instrument we can investigate the luminous changes of our platinum wire. In passing through the prism all its rays (and they are infinite in variety) are bent or refracted from their straight course; and as different rays are differently refracted by the prism, we are by it enabled to separate one class of rays from another. By such prismatic analysis Dr Draper has shown, that when the platinum wire first begins to glow, the light emitted is a pure red. As the glow augments the red becomes more brilliant, but at the same time orange rays are added to the emission. Augmenting the temperature still further, yellow rays appear beside the orange, after the yellow green rays are emitted, and after the green come, in succession, blue, indigo and violet rays. To display all these colours at the same time the platinum wire must be white-hot: the impression of whiteness being in fact produced by the simultaneous action of all these colours on the optic nerve.

In the experiment just described we began with a platinum wire at an ordinary temperature, and gradually raised it to a white heat. At the beginning, and before the electric current had acted

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 at all upon the wire, it emitted invisible rays. For some time after the action of the current had commenced, and even for a time after the wire had become intolerable to the touch, its radiation was still invisible. The question now arises,—What becomes of these invisible rays when the visible ones make their appearance? It will be proved in the sequel that they maintain themselves in the radiation; that a ray once emitted continues to be emitted when the temperature is increased, and hence the emission from our platinum wire, even when it has attained its maximum brilliancy, consists of a mixture of visible and invisible rays. If, instead of the platinum wire, the earth itself were raised to incandescence, the obscure radiation which it now emits would continue to be emitted. To reach incandescence the planet would have to pass through all the stages of non-luminous radiation, and the final emission would embrace the rays of all these stages. There can hardly be a doubt that from the sun itself, rays proceed similar in kind to those which the dark earth pours nightly into space. In fact, the various kinds of obscure rays emitted by all the planets of our system are included in the present radiation of the sun.

The great pioneer in this domain of science was Sir William Herschel. Causing a beam of solar light

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 to pass through a prism he resolved it into its coloured constituents; he formed what is technically called the solar spectrum. Exposing thermometers to the successive colours he determined their heating power, and found it to augment from the violet or most refracted end, to the red or least refracted end of the spectrum. But he did not stop here. Pushing his thermometers into the dark space beyond the red he found that, though the light had disappeared, the radiant heat falling on the instruments was more intense than that at any visible part of the spectrum. In fact, Sir William Herschel showed, and his results have been verified by various philosophers since his time, that besides its luminous rays, the sun pours forth a multitude of other rays more powerfully calorific than the luminous ones, but entirely unsuited to the purposes of vision.

At the less refrangible end of the solar spectrum, then, the range of the sun's radiation is not limited by that of the eye. The same statement applies to the more refrangible end. Ritter discovered the extension of the spectrum into the invisible region beyond the violet; and, in recent times, this ultraviolet emission has had peculiar interest conferred upon it by the admirable researches of Professor Stokes. The complete spectrum of the sun consists, therefore, of three distinct parts:—1° Of ultra-red

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 rays of high heating power, but unsuited to the purposes of vision; 2° Of luminous rays which display the following succession of colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet; 3° Of ultra-violet rays which, like the ultra-red ones, are incompetent to excite vision, but unlike them possess a very feeble heating power. In consequence, however, of their chemical energy these ultra-violet rays are of the utmost importance to the organic world.

2. Origin and Character of Radiation. The Ether.

When we see a platinum wire raised gradually to a white heat, and emitting in succession all the colours of the spectrum, we are simply conscious of a series of changes in the condition of our eyes. We do not see the actions in which these successive colours originate, but the mind irresistibly infers that the appearance of the colours corresponds to certain contemporaneous changes in the wire. What is the nature of these changes? In virtue of what condition does the wire radiate at all? We must now look from the wire as a whole to its constituent atoms. Could we see those atoms, even before the

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84 forego the pleasure and profit of my course of studies at the College of Engineers for about half a year.

I answered expressing my willingness to do so if any good end could be served thereby.

'That being the case,' said he, 'you will receive an intimation from the Central after its next meeting. The Minister of Agriculture has decided to make a trial of your discovery and invention on a moderately large scale during the next spring and summer. He is therefore preparing to lay tubes and wires in a piece of land five miles square, now inside the snow line. The land gets free from snow and ice in summer and rapidly grows a lot of grass, and even a crop of tubers is sometimes grown; but we cannot trust the land, and unless a crop can he got in very early it cannot be ripened and secured.'

'The Central, then,' I asked, 'wishes me to clear this twenty-five miles of land and apply electrical warmth?'

'Yes,' said Grayson, 'the men and the materials are already there: two engineers also are directing operations. You are wanted to supervise the special part with which you are most familiar, so that the experiment may have a fair chance.'

I now know for the first time that Grayson is a member of that august body, the Central Executive.

S I expected, I received a note from the Secretary of the Central asking me if I could make it convenient to supervise the subwarming of a strip of level and pretty good land twenty miles in length, from east to west, and five in width, from north to south. I had not to consider myself bound to go, and I was to have a special swift air boat to take me to and from as often as I choose.

I at once and gladly accepted the commission, knowing that I could at any time go on with my studies at the College.

I wrote mother and father asking them to defer for a little while their visit to Sidonia, and next day found me rapidly flying to the north. I took with me Fred Harley, an aspiring young engineer, who had completed his college course, and wanted to make himself useful. For several weeks I directed the operations of the staff of men employed, and had the satisfaction of making a practical test. For a late snowstorm came and covered my completed work and suspended operations in other parts, I turned on my heat and had the satisfaction of seeing the snow melt and the land grew green, while all around was locked up in a wintry sleep.

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text: Melbourne and Mars/Chapter 14

title: Melbourne and Mars/Chapter 14


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Page:On Radiation.djvu/19

 electric current has begun to act upon them, we should find them in a state of vibration. In this vibration indeed consists such warmth as the wire then possesses. Locke enunciated this idea with great precision, and it seems placed beyond the pale of doubt by the excellent quantitative researches of Mr Joule. "Heat," says Locke, "is a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of the object, which produce in us that sensation from which we denominate the object hot: so what in our sensation is heat in the object is nothing but motion" When the electric current, still feeble, begins to pass through the wire, its first act is to intensify the vibrations already existing, by causing the atoms to swing through wider ranges. Technically speaking, the amplitudes of the oscillations are increased. The current does this, however, without altering the period of the old vibrations, or the time in which they were accomplished. But besides intensifying the old vibrations the current generates new and more rapid ones, and when a certain definite rapidity has been attained the wire begins to glow. The colour first exhibited is red, which corresponds to the lowest rate of vibration of which the eye is able to take cognizance. By augmenting the strength of the electric current more rapid vibrations are introduced, and orange rays appear. A quicker rate

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 of vibration produces yellow, a still quicker green, and by further augmenting the rapidity we pass through blue, indigo, and violet, to the extreme ultra-violet rays.

Such are the changes which science recognizes in the wire itself, as concurrent with the visual changes taking place in the eye. But what connects the wire with this organ? By what means does it send such intelligence of its varying condition to the optic nerve? Heat being, as defined by Locke, "a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of an object," it is readily conceivable that on touching a heated body the agitation may communicate itself to the adjacent nerves, and announce itself to them as light or heat. But the optic nerve does not touch the hot platinum, and hence the pertinence of the question, By what agency are the vibrations of the wire transmitted to the eye?

The answer to this question involves perhaps the most important physical conception that the mind of man has yet achieved: the conception of a medium filling space and fitted mechanically for the transmission of the vibrations of light and heat, as air is fitted for the transmission of sound. This medium is called the luminiferous ether. Every shock of every atom of our platinum wire raises in this ether a wave, which speeds through it at the rate of 186,000

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 miles a second. The ether suffers no rupture of continuity at the surface of the eye, the inter-molecular spaces of the various humours are filled with it; hence the waves generated by the glowing platinum can cross these humours and impinge on the optic nerve at the back of the eye. Thus the sensation of light reduces itself to the communication of motion. Up to this point we deal with pure mechanics; but the subsequent translation of the shock of the ethereal waves into consciousness eludes the analysis of science. As an oar dipping into the Cam generates systems of waves, which, speeding from the centre of disturbance, finally stir the sedges on the river's bank, so do the vibrating atoms generate in the surrounding ether undulations, which finally stir the filaments of the retina. The motion thus imparted is transmitted with measurable, and not very great velocity to the brain, where, by a process which science does not even tend to unravel, the tremor of the nervous matter is converted into the conscious impression of light.

Darkness might then be defined as ether at rest; light as ether in motion. But in reality the ether is never at rest, for in the absence of light-waves we have heat-waves always speeding through it. In the spaces of the universe both classes of undulations incessantly commingle. Here the waves issuing

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 from uncounted centres cross, coincide, oppose, and pass through each other, without confusion or ultimate extinction. The waves from the zenith do not jostle out of existence those from the horizon, and every star is seen across the entanglement of wave motions produced by all other stars. It is the ceaseless thrill which those distant orbs collectively create in the ether, which constitutes what we call the temperature of space. As the air of a room accommodates itself to the requirements of an orchestra, transmitting each vibration of every pipe and string, so does the inter-stellar ether accommodate itself to the requirements of light and heat. Its waves mingle in space without disorder, each being endowed with an individuality as indestructible as if it alone had disturbed the universal repose.

All vagueness with regard to the use of the terms radiation and absorption will now disappear. Radiation is the communication of vibratory motion to the ether, and when a body is said to be chilled by radiation, as for example the grass of a meadow on a starlight night, the meaning is, that the molecules of the grass have lost a portion of their motion, by imparting it to the medium in which they vibrate. On the other hand, the weaves of ether once generated may so strike against the molecules of a body exposed to their action as to yield up their motion to the

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 latter; and in this transfer of the motion from the ether to the molecules consists the absorption of radiant heat. All the phenomena of heat are in this way reducible to interchanges of motion; and it is purely as the recipients or the donors of this motion, that we ourselves become conscious of the action of heat and cold.

3. The Atomic Theory in reference to the Ether.

The word "atoms" has been more than once employed in this discourse. Chemists have taught us that all matter is reducible to certain elementary forms to which they give this name. These atoms are endowed with powers of mutual attraction, and under suitable circumstances they coalesce to form compounds. Thus oxygen and hydrogen are elements when separate, or merely mixed, but they may be made to combine so as to form molecules, each consisting of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. In this condition they constitute water. So also chlorine and sodium are elements, the former a pungent gas, the latter a soft metal; and they unite together to form chloride of sodium or common salt.

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 In the same way the element nitrogen combines with hydrogen, in the proportion of one atom of the former to three of the latter, to form ammonia, or spirit of hartshorn. Picturing in imagination the atoms of elementary bodies as little spheres, the molecules of compound bodies must be pictured as groups of such spheres. This is the atomic theory as Dalton conceived it. Now if this theory have any foundation in fact, and if the theory of an ether pervading space, and constituting the vehicle of atomic motion be founded in fact, we may assuredly expect the vibrations of elementary bodies to be profoundly modified by the act of combination. It is on the face of it almost certain that both as regards radiation and absorption, that is to say, both as regards the communication of motion to the ether and the acceptance of motion from it, the deportment of the uncombined will be different from that of the combined atoms.

4. Absorption of Radiant Heat by Gases.

We have now to submit these considerations to the only test by which they can be tried, namely, that of experiment. An experiment is well defined

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 as a question put to Nature; but to avoid the risk of asking amiss we ought to purify the question from all adjuncts which do not necessarily belong to it. Matter has been shown to be composed of elementary constituents, by the compounding of which all its varieties are produced. But besides the chemical unions which they form, both elementary and compound bodies can unite in another and less intimate way. By the attraction of cohesion gases and vapours aggregate to liquids and solids, without any change of their chemical nature. We do not yet know how the transmission of radiant heat may be affected by the entanglement due to cohesion, and as our object now is to examine the influence of chemical union alone, we shall render our experiments more pure by liberating the atoms and molecules entirely from the bonds of cohesion, and employing them in the gaseous or vaporous form.

Let us endeavour to obtain a perfectly clear mental image of the problem now before us. Limiting in the first place our enquiries to the phenomena of absorption, we have to picture a succession of waves issuing from a radiant source and passing through a gas; some of them striking against the gaseous molecules and yielding up their motion to the latter; others gliding round the molecules, or passing through the inter-molecular spaces without

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 apparent hindrance. The problem before us is to determine whether such free molecules have any power whatever to stop the waves of heat, and if so, whether different molecules possess this power in different degrees.

The source of waves which I shall choose for these experiments is a plate of copper, against the back of which a steady sheet of flame is permitted to play. On emerging from the copper, the waves, in the first instance, pass through a space devoid of air, and then enter a hollow glass cylinder, 3 feet long and 3 inches wide. The two ends of this cylinder are stopped by two plates of rocksalt, this being the only solid substance which offers a scarcely sensible obstacle to the passage of the calorific waves. After passing through the tube, the radiant heat fails upon the anterior face of a thermo-electric pile, where it is instantly applied to the generation of an electric current. This current conducted round a magnetic needle deflects it, and the magnitude of the deflection is a measure of the heat falling upon the pile. This famous instrument, and not an ordinary thermometer, is what we shall use in these enquiries, but we shall use it in a somewhat novel way. As long as the two opposite faces of the thermo-electric pile are kept at the same temperature, no matter how high that may be, there is no current generated. The current is a

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 of a difference of temperature between the two opposite faces of the pile. Hence, if after the anterior face has received the heat from our radiating source, a second source, which we may call the compensating source, be permitted to radiate against the posterior face, this latter radiation will tend to neutralize the former. When the neutralization is perfect, the magnetic needle connected with the pile is no longer deflected, but points to the zero of the graduated circle over which it hangs.

And now let us suppose the glass tube, through which pass the waves from the heated plate of copper, to be exhausted by an air-pump, the two sources of heat acting at the same time on the two opposite faces of the pile. Perfectly equal quantities of heat being imparted to the two faces, the needle points to zero. Let the molecules of any gas be now permitted to enter the exhausted tube; if these molecules possess any sensible power of intercepting the calorific waves, the equilibrium previously existing will be destroyed, the compensating source will triumph, and a deflection of the magnetic needle will be the immediate consequence. From the deflections thus produced by different gases, we can readily deduce the relative amounts of wave motion which their molecules intercept.

In this way the substances mentioned in the

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 table were examined, a small portion only of each being admitted into the glass tube. The quantity admitted was just sufficient to depress a column of mercury associated with the tube one inch: in other words, the gases were examined at a pressure of one-thirtieth of an atmosphere. The numbers in the table express the relative amounts of wave motion absorbed by the respective gases, the quantity intercepted by atmospheric air being taken as unity.

Radiation through gases.

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 Every gas in this table is perfectly transparent to light, that is to say, all waves within the limits of the visible spectrum pass through it without obstruction; but for the waves of slower period, emanating from our heated plate of copper, enormous differences of absorptive power are manifested. These differences illustrate in the most unexpected manner the influence of chemical combination. Thus the elementary gases, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and the mixture atmospheric air, prove to be practical vacua to the rays of heat; for every ray, or more strictly speaking, for every unit of wave motion, which any one of them is competent to intercept, perfectly transparent ammonia intercepts 5460 units, olefiant gas 6030 units, while sulphurous acid gas absorbs 6480 units. What becomes of the wave motion thus intercepted? It is applied to the heating of the absorbing gas. Through air, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, on the contrary, the waves of ether pass without absorption, and these gases are not sensibly changed in temperature by the most powerful calorific rays. The position of nitrous oxide in the foregoing table is worthy of particular notice. In this gas we have the same atoms in a state of chemical union, that exist uncombined in the atmosphere; but the absorption of the compound is 1800 times that of the air.

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CH. I neighbour's shop. These issues would frequently develop into loud and vehement quarrels, and on one occasion came so near to violence as to be subsequently described by Pornick (who read his newspaper) as a "Disgraceful Frackass." On that occasion he certainly went into his own shop with extreme celerity.

But it was through one of these quarrels that the friendship of little Kipps and Sid Pornick came about. The two small boys found themselves one day looking through the gate at the doctor's goats together; they exchanged a few contradictions about which goat could fight which, and then young Kipps was moved to remark that Sid's father was a "blaring jackass." Sid said he wasn't, and Kipps repeated that he was, and quoted his authority. Then Sid, flying off at a tangent rather alarmingly, said he could fight young Kipps with one hand, an assertion young Kipps with a secret want of confidence denied. There were some vain repetitions, and the incident might have ended there, but happily a sporting butcher boy chanced on the controversy at this stage, and insisted upon seeing fair play.

The two small boys under his pressing encouragement did at last button up their jackets, square and fight an edifying drawn battle, until it seemed good to the butcher boy to go on with Mrs. Holyer's mutton. Then, according to his directions and under his experienced stage management, they shook hands and made it up. Subsequently, a little tear-stained perhaps, but flushed with the butcher boy's approval

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10 ("tough little kids"), and with cold stones down their necks as he advised, they sat side by side on the doctor's gate, projecting very much behind, staunching an honourable bloodshed, and expressing respect for one another. Each had a bloody nose and a black eye—three days later they matched to a shade—neither had given in, and, though this was tacit, neither wanted any more.

It was an excellent beginning. After this first encounter the attributes of their parents and their own relative value in battle never rose between them, and if anything was wanted to complete the warmth of their regard it was found in a joint dislike of the eldest Quodling. The eldest Quodling lisped, had a silly sort of straw hat and a large pink face (all covered over with self-satisfaction), and he went to the National School with a green baize bag—a contemptible thing to do. They called him names and threw stones at him, and when he replied by threatenings ("Look 'ere, young Art Kipth, you better thtoppit!") they were moved to attack and put him to flight.

And after that they broke the head of Ann Pornick's doll, so that she went home weeping loudly—a wicked and endearing proceeding. Sid was whacked, but, as he explained, he wore a newspaper tactically adjusted during the transaction, and really it didn't hurt him at all.… And Mrs. Pornick put her head out of the shop door suddenly, and threatened Kipps as he passed.

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CH. I

"Cavendish Academy," the school that had won the limited choice of Kipps' vanished mother, was established in a battered private house in the part of Hastings remotest from the sea; it was called an Academy for Young Gentlemen, and many of the young gentlemen had parents in "India," and other unverifiable places. Others were the sons of credulous widows, anxious, as Kipps' mother had been, to get something a little "superior" to a board school education as cheaply as possible; and others again were sent to demonstrate the dignity of their parents and guardians. And of course there were boys from France.

Its "principal" was a lean, long creature of indifferent digestion and temper, who proclaimed himself on a gilt-lettered board in his front garden George Garden Woodrow, F.S.Sc, letters indicating that he had paid certain guineas for a bogus diploma. A bleak white-washed outhouse constituted his schoolroom, and the scholastic quality of its carved and worn desks and forms was enhanced by a slippery blackboard and two large yellow out-of-date maps, one of Africa and the other of Wiltshire, that he had picked up cheap at a sale. There were other maps and globes in his study, where he interviewed inquiring parents, but these his pupils never saw. And in a glass cupboard in the passage was several shillingsworth of test tubes and chemicals, a tripod, a glass retort, and a damaged

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Page:The White Stone.djvu/40

36 the revelation of the grandeur of one's sentiments. It was in those days the height of elegance to utter virtuous discourse. At any rate, there is no doubt that Mela spoke his thoughts.

He replied to his brother that, although not versed in public affairs like himself, he had had occasion to admire the power and wisdom of the Romans.

"They reveal themselves," he said, "in the most remote parts of our own Spain. But it is in a wild pass of the mountains of Thessaly that I have been made to appreciate at its highest the beneficent majesty of the Empire. I had come from Hypata, a town renowned for its cheeses, and whose women were notorious for witchcraft, and I had been riding for some hours along mountain paths, without coming across a human face. Overcome by the heat and fatigue, I tethered my horse to a tree by the road, and lay down under an arbutus-bush. I had been resting there a short while only, when there came along a lean old man bowed down under a load of branches. Utterly exhausted, he tottered in his steps, and just as he was about to fall, exclaimed: 'Caesar.' On hearing such an invocation escape the lips of a poor woodcutter in this stony solitude, my heart overflowed with veneration for the tutelary City, which inspires, even unto the farthermost lands, the most rustic of minds with so great a conception

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Rh of its sovereign providence. But sadness and a feeling of distress mingled with my admiration, brother mine, when I reflected upon the injury and insults to which the inheritance of Augustus and the fortune of Rome were exposed through men's folly and the vices of the century."

"I have witnessed on the spot, brother mine," replied Gallio, "the crimes and follies which sadden your mind. My cheek has blanched under the gaze of the victims of Caius from my seat in the Senate. I have held my peace, as I did not despair of better days. I am of the opinion that good citizens should serve the Republic under bad princes rather than shirk their duty in a useless death."

As Gallio was uttering these sentiments, two men, still in their youth and wearing the toga, came up to him. The one was Lucius Cassius, of a Roman family, plebeian but ancient, and having attained distinction. The other, Marcus Lollius, son and grandson of consuls, and moreover of a knightly family, which had sprung from the free town of Terracina. Both had frequented the schools of Athens, and acquired a knowledge of the laws of nature of which those Romans who had not been in Greece were totally ignorant.

At the present moment, they were studying in Corinth the management of public affairs, and the proconsul surrounded himself with them as an

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 {| align="center" width="450px"
 * colspan="3" |
 * width="10%" | CHAP. || || width="10%" | PAGE.
 * I. || || 9
 * II. ||  |  || 29
 * III. || || 107
 * IV. || || 147
 * V.||  |  || 183
 * VI. || || 237
 * }
 * IV. || || 147
 * V.||  |  || 183
 * VI. || || 237
 * }
 * VI. || || 237
 * }
 * }

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text: Historical Account of the Navigable Rivers, Canals, and Railways, of Great Britain/Bridgewater's Canal


text:
User:Justus Nussbaum

Hark, the Herald Tribune sings, Advertising wondrous things. - Tom Lehrer

title: User:Justus Nussbaum


text: Page:The White Stone.djvu/10

title: Page:The White Stone.djvu/10


text: Page:The White Stone.djvu/9

title: Page:The White Stone.djvu/9


text:
User talk:Justus Nussbaum

 * "Humor is a drug which it's the fashion to abuse." - William S. Gilbert
 * "I cannot and will not cut my conscience to fit this year's fashions." - Lillian Hellman

title: User talk:Justus Nussbaum


text:
The White Stone

Sur la pierre blanche

title: The White Stone


text: The White Stone/Chapter 1

title: The White Stone/Chapter 1


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38 ornamental adjunct to his magistracy. Somewhat behind them, the Greek Apollodorus, wearing the short cape of the philosophers, bald of head, and with Socratic beard, sauntered along, with uplifted arm and gesticulating fingers, discussing with himself.

Gallio welcomed all three of them in kindly fashion.

"The rose of dawn is already fading," he said, "and the sun is beginning to shed its steeled darts. Come along, my good friends, to the coolness of the shady foliage beyond."

Saying this, he led them along the banks of a stream whose babbling murmur invited peaceful reflections, until they had reached an enclosure of verdant bushes in the midst of which lay in a hollow an alabaster basin filled with limpid waters on whose surface floated the feather of a dove, which had just bathed in them, and which was now cooing plaintively from a branch. They took their seats on a semicircular marble bench supported by griffins. Laurel and myrtle bushes blended their shadows about it. Statues encircled the enclosure. A wounded Amazon gracefully coiled her arm about her head. Grief appeared a thing of beauty on her lovely face. A shaggy Satyr was playing with a goat. A Venus, emerging from the bath, was drying her wetted limbs along which a shudder of pleasurable emotion seemed to run. Near by, a youthful

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 of each half an ounce; cut and put them to the former flowers and spirits, and distil them together in a limbeck, and make three runnings of it; first, a quart glass, which will be exceeding strong; then a pint glass, which will be almost as good; and then another pint, or as much as will run, for when it run weak, which may be known by its taste, and the colour being whiter, you will have drawn about that quantity; mix your runnings together, and take citron, or the yellow rind of a lemon, six drachms of spice seeds, cinnamon one ounce, nutmegs, mace, cardamums, and yellow sanders, of each half an ounce, and lignum aloes one drachm, make these into a gross powder, adding a few jujubes that are fresh, stoned, and cut small; put these ingredients into a large sarsnet bag and hang it in the water as aforesaid; take two drachms of prepared pearls, of ambergris, musk, and saffron, one scruple each; red roses dried one ounce; put these in a bag by themselves, and hang it in the spirits as the other; close it well, that no air gets in, and let it stand six weeks; take out the water, press the bags, dry, and keep the water, in narrow mouthed glasses, and stop it up.

It is so strong and powerful that it cannot be taken without the assistance of some other thing; but when dropt on crumbs of bread or sugar, it must be taken the first thing in the morning, at four in the afternoon, and the last thing at night; you must not eat for an hour after you take it: it is very efficacious in all swoonings, weakness


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 5. Formation of Invisible Foci.

This extraordinary deportment of the elementary gases naturally directed attention to elementary bodies in another state of aggregation. Some of Melloni's results now attained a new significance; for this celebrated experimenter had found crystals of the element sulphur to be highly pervious to radiant heat; he had also proved that lamp-black and black glass (which owes its blackness to the element carbon) were to a considerable extent transparent to calorific rays of low refrangibility. These facts, harmonizing so strikingly with the deportment of the simple gases, suggested further enquiry. Sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of carbon was found almost perfectly transparent. The dense and deeply coloured element bromine was examined, and found competent to cut off the light of our most brilliant flames, while it transmitted the invisible calorific rays with extreme freedom. Iodine, the companion element of bromine, was next thought of, but it was found impracticable to examine the substance in its usual solid condition. It however dissolves freely in bisulphide of

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 carbon. There is no chemical union between the liquid and the iodine, it is simply a case of solution, in which the uncombined atoms of the element can act upon the radiant heat. When permitted to do so, it was found that a layer of dissolved iodine, sufficiently opaque to cut off the light of the midday sun, was almost absolutely transparent to all invisible calorific rays.

By prismatic analysis Sir William Herschel separated the luminous from the non-luminous rays of the sun, and he also sought to render the obscure rays visible by concentration. Intercepting the luminous portion of his spectrum he brought, by a converging lens, the ultra- red rays to a focus, but by this condensation he obtained no light. The solution of iodine offers a means of filtering the solar beam, or failing it, the beam of the electric lamp, which renders attainable more powerful foci of invisible rays than could possibly be obtained in the above experiment by Sir William Herschel. For to form his spectrum he was obliged to operate upon solar h'ght which had passed through a narrow slit or through a small aperture, the amount of the obscure heat admitted being limited by this circumstance. But with our opaque solution we may employ the entire surface of the largest lens, and having thus converged the rays, luminous and non-luminous, we can intercept the Rh

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 former by the iodine, and do what we please with the latter. Experiments of this character, not only with the iodine solution but also with black glass and layers of lamp-black, were publicly performed at the Royal Institution in the early part of 1862, and the effects at the foci of invisible rays then obtained were such as had never been witnessed previously.

In the experiments here referred to, glass lenses were employed to concentrate the rays. But glass, though highly transparent to the luminous, is in a high degree opaque to the invisible heat-rays of the electric lamp, and hence a large portion of those rays was intercepted by the glass. The obvious remedy here is to employ rock salt lenses instead of glass ones, or to abandon the use of lenses wholly, and to concentrate the rays by a metallic mirror. Both of these improvements have been introduced, and, as anticipated, the invisible foci have been thereby rendered more intense. The mode of operating remains however the same, in principle, as that made known in 1862. It was then found that an instant's exposure of the face of the thermo-electric pile to the focus of invisible rays, dashed the needles of a coarse galvanometer violently aside. It is now found that on substituting for the face of the thermo-electric pile a combustible body, the invisible rays are competent to set that body on fire.

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21 6. Visible and Invisible Rays of the Electric Light.

We have next to examine what proportion the non-luminous rays of the electric light bear to the luminous ones. This the opaque solution of iodine enables us to do with an extremely close approximation to the truth. The pure bisulphide of carbon, which is the solvent of the iodine, is perfectly transparent to the luminous, and almost perfectly transparent to the dark rays of the electric lamp. Through the transparent bisulphide the total radiation of the lamp may be considered to pass, while through the solution of iodine only the dark rays are transmitted. Determining, then, by means of a thermo-electric pile, the total radiation, and deducting from it the purely obscure, we obtain the amount of the purely luminous emission. Experiments, performed in this way, prove that if all the visible rays of the electric light were converged to a focus of dazzling brilliancy, its heat would only be one ninth of that produced at the unseen focus of the invisible rays.

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 Exposing his thermometers to the successive colours of the solar spectrum, Sir William Herschel determined the heating power of each, and also that of the region beyond the extreme red. Then drawing a straight line to represent the length of the spectrum, he erected, at various points, perpendiculars to represent the calorific intensity existing at those points. Uniting the ends of all his perpendiculars, he obtained a curve which showed at a glance the manner in which the heat was distributed in the solar spectrum. Professor Müller of Freiburg, with improved instruments, afterwards made similar experiments, and constructed a more accurate diagram of the same kind. We have now to examine the distribution of heat in the spectrum of the electric light; and for this purpose we shall employ a particular form of the thermo-electric pile, devised by Melloni. Its face is a rectangle, which by means of moveable side pieces can be rendered as narrow as desired. We can, for example, have the face of the pile the tenth, the hundredth, or even the thousandth, of an inch in breadth. By means of an endless screw, this linear thermo-electric pile may be moved through the entire spectrum, each of its rays being selected in succession, the amount of heat falling upon the pile at every point of its march, being declared by an associated magnetic needle.

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 When this instrument is brought up to the violet end of the spectrum of the electric light, the heat is found to be insensible. As the pile gradually moves from the violet end towards the red, heat soon manifests itself, augmenting as we approach the red. Of all the colours of the visible spectrum the red possesses the highest heating power. On pushing the pile into the dark region beyond the red, the heat, instead of vanishing, rises suddenly and enormously in intensity, until at some distance beyond the red it attains a maximum. Moving the pile still forward, the thermal power falls, somewhat more suddenly than it rose. It then gradually shades away, but for a distance beyond the red greater than the length of the whole visible spectrum, signs of heat may be detected. Drawing, as Sir William Herschel did, a datum line, and erecting along it perpendiculars, proportional in length to the thermal intensity at the respective points, we obtain the extraordinary curve which exhibits the distribution of heat in the spectrum of the electric light. In the region of dark rays beyond the red the curve shoots up in a steep and massive peak—a kind of Matterhorn of heat, which dwarfs by its magnitude the portion of the diagram representing the luminous radiation. Indeed, the idea forced upon the mind by the inspection of this diagram is that the light rays are a mere

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 insignificant appendage to the dark ones, thrown in as it were by nature for the purposes of vision. (See Frontispiece, where the space ABCD represents the non-luminous, and CDE the luminous radiation).

The diagram drawn by Professor Müller to represent the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum is not by any means so striking as that just described, and the reason, doubtless, is that prior to reaching the earth the solar rays have to traverse our atmosphere. The aqueous vapour there diffused acts very energetically upon the ultra-red rays, and by it the summit of the peak representing the sun's invisible radiation is cut off. A similar lowering of the mountain of invisible heat is observed when the rays from the electric light are permitted to pass through a film of water, which acts upon them as the atmospheric vapour acts upon the rays of the sun.

7. Combustion by Invisible Rays.

The sun's invisible rays transcend the visible ones in heating power, so that if the alleged performances of Archimedes during the siege of Syracuse had any foundation in fact, the dark solar rays would have

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 been the philosopher's chief agents of combustion. On a small scale we can readily produce with the purely invisible rays of the electric light all that Archimedes is said to have performed with the sun's total radiation. Placing behind the electric light a small concave mirror, the rays are converged, the cone of reflected rays and their point of convergence being rendered clearly visible by the dust always floating in the air. Interposing, between the luminous focus and the source of rays, our solution of iodine, the light of the cone is entirely cut away, but the intolerable heat experienced when the hand is placed, even for a moment, at the dark focus, shows that the calorific rays pass unimpeded through the opaque solution.

Almost anything that ordinary fire can effect may be accomplished at the focus of invisible rays; the air at the focus remaining at the same time perfectly cold, on account of its transparency to the heat-rays. An air thermometer, with a hollow rocksalt bulb, would be unaffected by the heat of the focus: there would be no expansion, and in the open air there is no convection. The ether at the focus, and not the air, is the substance in which the heat is embodied. A block of wood, placed at the focus, absorbs the heat, and dense volumes of smoke rise swiftly upwards, showing the manner in which the air

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 itself would rise, if the invisible rays were competent to heat it. At the perfectly dark focus dry paper is instantly inflamed: chips of wood are speedily burnt up: lead, tin, and zinc are fused: and discs of charred paper are raised to vivid incandescence. It might be supposed that the obscure rays would show no preference for black over white; but they do show a preference, and to obtain rapid combustion, the body, if not already black, ought to be blackened. When metals are to be burned, it is necessary to blacken or otherwise tarnish them, so as to diminish their reflective power. Blackened zinc foil, when brought into the focus of invisible rays, is instantly caused to blaze, and burns with its peculiar purple flame. Magnesium wire flattened, or tarnished magnesium ribbon, also bursts into splendid combustion. Pieces of charcoal suspended in a receiver full of oxygen are also set on fire: the dark rays after having passed through the receiver still possessing sufficient power to ignite the charcoal, and thus initiate the attack of the oxygen. If, instead of being plunged in oxygen, the charcoal be suspended in vacuo, it immediately glows at the place where the focus falls.

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27 8. Transmutation of Rays: Calorescence.

Eminent experimenters were long occupied in demonstrating the substantial identity of light and radiant heat, and we have now the means of offering a new and striking proof of this identity. A concave mirror produces beyond the object which it reflects an inverted and magnified image of the object; withdrawing, for example, our iodine solution, an intensely luminous inverted image of the carbon points of the electric light is formed at the focus of the mirror employed in the foregoing experiments. When the solution is interposed, and the light is cut away, what becomes of this image? It disappears from sight, but an invisible thermograph remains, and it is only the peculiar constitution of our eyes that disqualifies us from seeing the picture formed by the calorific rays. Falling on white paper, the image chars itself out: falling on black paper, two holes are pierced in it, corresponding to the images of the two coal points: but falling on a thin plate of carbon in vacuo, or upon a thin sheet of platinized

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H HAYNES, HOPTON (1672?–1749), theological writer, was born about 1672. He entered the service of the mint as weigher and teller in 1696 or early in 1697, and was promoted to be assay-master in 1723. In April 1737, having been above forty years in the mint, Haynes was allowed to appoint a deputy; he retired on full pension, 8 Feb. 1749, retaining the auditorship of the tally office in the exchequer.

Haynes's entrance into the mint was nearly synchronous with Sir Isaac Newton's appointment as warden (19 March 1696), and it is not improbable that he was a protégé of Newton, with whom he was very intimate till Newton's death (20 March 1727). He translated into Latin (after 1708) Newton's two letters on the textual criticism of 1 John v. 7, 8, and 1 Tim. iii. 16. Through him Whiston, in 1712, communicated with Newton on the subject of baptism. Richard Baron [q. v.] describes Haynes as ‘the most zealous unitarian’ he ever knew. He attended the services of the established church, sitting down at certain parts ‘to show his dislike,’ till Samuel Say (d. 1743), presbyterian minister at Princes Street, Westminster, told him his practice was inconsistent, and he never again attended any place of worship. He died at Queen Square, Westminster, on 19 Nov. 1749, aged 77 (Gent. Mag.;, on the authority of a funeral ring, gives the date 18 Nov.) He was twice married, and had several children by his first wife, of whom Samuel Haynes, D.D. [q. v.], was the eldest. His second wife was Mary Jocelyn (d. 22 Sept. 1750, aged 65), a member of Say's congregation. His portrait, by Highmore, is in Dr. Williams's Library, Gordon Square, London, W.C.; it has been engraved by Nugent.

He published: 1. ‘A Brief Enquiry relative to the Right of His Majesty's Royal Chapel … within the Tower,’ &c., 1728, fol. 2. ‘Causa Dei contra Novatores; or the Religion of the Bible and … the Pulpit compared. In a Letter to the Revd. Mr. Wilson,’ &c., 1747, 8vo (anon.; at p. 60 is the signature ‘A. B.’). Posthumous was 3. ‘The Scripture Account of … God; and … Christ,’ &c., 1750, 8vo (edited by John Blackburn, presbyterian minister of King John's Court, Bermondsey, afterwards of Newbury, Berkshire, died January 1762); 2nd edition 1790, 8vo (edited by Theophilus Lindsey [q. v.]); 3rd edition, 1797, 8vo; 4th edition, Hackney, 1815, 8vo, with memoir by Robert Aspland [q. v.] According to Nichols, he also wrote a tract, ‘The Ten Commandments better than the Apostles' Creed.’

 HAYNES, JOHN (d. 1654), the third governor of Massachusetts Bay, and first governor of Connecticut, New England, was born in Essex, and was the son of John Haynes (d. 3 Nov. 1605) of Old Holt, in the same county, by Mary Michell, his wife. Some time before 1624 Haynes purchased the manor of Copford Hall, Essex (, Hist. of Essex, 1768, ii. 195), and is said to have been worth 1,000l. a year. He attached himself to the puritans, and upon the invitation of Governor Winthrop and others sailed for New England in 1633 in the Griffin, arriving at Boston on 4 Sept., after a voyage of a couple of months, during which time the two hundred passengers had sermons three times a day. Cotton and two other fathers of the puritan church went over in the same ship. Haynes took his freedom on 14 May 1634, and at the next election was chosen one of the assistants of the colony. He was also placed on the extraordinary commission of seven persons who had charge of ‘all military affairs whatsoever,’ with power to levy war, imprison, or put to death. In 1635 he succeeded Thomas Dudley as governor, elected ‘partly because the people would exercise their absolute power, and partly upon some speeches of the deputy,’ Roger Ludlow, who aspired to the post (, Hist. of New England, Boston, 1853, i. 188). Haynes was somewhat unwilling to assume the office, and in his first address declined the usual allowance for the year, seeing ‘how much the people had been pressed lately with public charges’ (ib. i. 190). He had to check the colonising activity of the Dutch under Van Twiller, immortalised by Dietrich Knickerbocker. In 1636 he was superseded by Henry Vane, ‘fortunate,’ says Savage, ‘in being governour of Massachusetts, and more fortunate in removing after his first year in office, thereby avoiding our bitter contentions, to become the father of the new colony of Connecticut’ (ib. i. 130 n.) As early as 1634 Haynes and others had endeavoured to form a new settlement on the Connecticut river, and in October of the following year sixty persons emigrated thither, but the winter was so severe that they had to return. A more vigorous effort was made in the spring of 1636, and about a hundred persons marched through the ‘wilderness,’ the journey occupying a


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H fortnight. Twelve months later Haynes removed his family to Hartford. Much fighting took place with the Pequots, the most warlike of the New England Indians, before they were vanquished. In 1639 the colonists adopted a constitution (reprinted in B. Trumbull's ‘Hist. of Connecticut,’ 1818, i. 498–502), said to be ‘the first example in history of a written constitution’ (, Hist. of New England, 1866, i. 232), and in April Haynes was chosen the first governor of Connecticut. One of his earliest acts was to urge the necessity of compiling a code of laws. As under the new constitution no person could be governor more than twice in two years, Edward Hopkins was chosen in 1640, Haynes being re-elected in 1641. The next year George Wyllys was appointed. In 1643 Haynes, once more in office, took an active part in the confederation of four New England colonies for protection. In 1646 he was in great danger during a tempest (letter of Winthrop, 16 Nov. ap. Hist. ii. 430), and escaped murder by an Indian (, Hist. i. 158–9). While in Massachusetts he held strong opinions on the necessity of strict rule, and considered Winthrop to have ‘dealt too remissly in point of justice’ (, i. 212), but became more liberal in his views. ‘That heavenly man, Mr. Hains,’ says Roger Williams, ‘though he pronounced the sentence of my long banishment against me at Cambridge, then Newtown,’ was very friendly at Hartford (letter to Major Mason, 22 June 1670, in Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll. i. 280).

Haynes died on 1 March 1654 at Hartford, Connecticut. He was twice married. By his first wife, Mary, daughter of Robert Thornton of Nottingham, he had Robert (d. 1657), Hezekiah, Roger, and Mary. The first son fought in England as a royalist, and the second as a parliamentarian. Hezekiah lived at Copford Hall till the father's death, and left the estate to his heirs. The second wife of Haynes was Mabel Harlakenden, by whom he had John, Joseph (1638–1679), a clergyman, Ruth, and Mabel.

‘He was not considered in any respect inferior to Governor Winthrop,’ says Trumbull (Hist. i. 216), and Bancroft describes him as ‘of a very large estate and larger affections; of a heavenly mind and a spotless life; of rare sagacity and accurate but unassuming judgment; by nature tolerant, ever a friend to freedom’ (Hist. of the United States, 1862, i. 364).

HAYNES, JOHN (fl. 1730–1750), draughtsman and engraver, apparently a native of York, drew and engraved some views of York and Scarborough for T. Gent's ‘History of Kingston-on-Hull.’ He also drew many of the architectural plates for Drake's ‘Eboracum,’ published in 1736. In 1740 he published an etching from his own drawing of ‘The Dropping Well at Knaresborough as it appeared in the Great Frost, January 1739.’ A view of the Duke of Cumberland's ‘Mandarine Yacht’ at Windsor was engraved by Haynes in 1753, and a large plan of the city of York in 1748.

HAYNES, JOSEPH (d. 1701), actor. [See .]

HAYNES, JOSEPH (1760–1829), painter and etcher, born in 1760 at Shrewsbury, came to London early in life. He studied under John Hamilton Mortimer, A.R.A. [q. v.], and on the death of that artist in 1779 was for some time engaged in etching from his works. These etchings include ‘Paul preaching to the Britons’ and ‘Robbers and Banditti.’ Subsequently he etched for Samuel Ireland [q. v.] two subjects from pictures by Hogarth, ‘Debates on Palmistry’ and a portrait of ‘The Right Hon. James Caulfeild, Earl of Charlemount.’ At a later date he copied some of Sir Joshua Reynolds's pictures. He made a journey to Jamaica, which proved fruitless, and on his return went back to Shrewsbury. He eventually settled as a drawing-master at Chester, where he died on 14 Dec. 1829. He is also stated to have worked in mezzotint. His paintings are few, and are seldom met with, but his etchings and engravings, which have considerable merit, are numerous.

HAYNES, SAMUEL (d. 1752), historical writer, was the son of Hopton Haynes [q. v.] He was educated at King's College, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1723. He proceeded M.A. in 1727 and D.D. in 1748.


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Author:James Challis

Works

 * Creation in Plan and Progress (1861)
 * Notes on the Principles of Pure and Applied Calculation; and Applications of Mathematical Principles to Theories of the Physical Forces (1869)
 * A Translation of the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Romans (1871)
 * An Essay on the Mathematical Principles of Physics (1873)
 * Remarks on the Cambridge Mathematical Studies (1875)
 * Essay on the Scriptural Doctrine of Immortality (1880)

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 platinum, either in vacuo or in air, radiant heat is converted into light, and the image stamps itself in vivid incandescence upon both the carbon and the metal. Results similar to those obtained with the electric light have also been obtained with the invisible rays of the lime-light and of the sun.

Before a Cambridge audience it is hardly necessary to refer to the excellent researches of Professor Stokes at the opposite end of the spectrum. The above results constitute a kind of complement to his discoveries. Professor Stokes named the phenomena which he has discovered and investigated Fluorescence; for the new phenomena here described I have proposed the term Calorescence. He, by the interposition of a proper medium, so lowered the refrangibility of the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum as to render them visible; and here, by the interposition of the platinum foil, the refrangibility of the ultra-red rays is so exalted as to render them visible. Looking through a prism at the incandescent image of the carbon points, the light of the image is decomposed, and a complete spectrum obtained. The invisible rays of the electric light, remoulded by the atoms of the platinum, shine thus visibly forth; ultra-red rays being converted into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and ultra-violet ones. Could we, moreover, raise the original source of rays

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 to a sufficiently high temperature, we might not only obtain from the dark rays of such a source a single incandescent image, but from the dark rays of this image we might obtain a second one, from the dark rays of the second a third, and so on,—a series of complete images and spectra being thus extracted from the invisible emission of the primitive source.

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Rh Faun was smilingly placing a flute to his lips. His face was partly concealed by the branches, but his shining belly glistened amid the leafage.

"That Faun seems animated," remarked Marcus Lollius. "One could imagine that a gentle breathing was causing his bosom to heave."

"He is true to life, Marcus," said Gallic "One expects to hear rustic melodies flow from his flute. A Greek slave carved him out of the marble, in imitation of an ancient model. The Greeks formerly excelled in the making of these fanciful statues. Several of their efforts in this style are justly renowned. There is no gainsaying it: they have found the means of giving august traits to the gods and of expressing in both marble and bronze the majesty of the masters of the world. Who but admires the Olympian Zeus? And yet, who would care to be Phidias!"

"No Roman would assuredly care to be Phidias," exclaimed Lollius, who was spending the fortune he had inherited from his ancestry in ornamenting his villa at Pausilypum with the masterpieces of Phidias and Myron brought over from Greece and Asia.

Lucius Cassius was of the same opinion. He argued with some warmth that the hands of a free man were not made to wield the sculptor's chisel or the painter's brush, and that no Roman citizen would condescend to the degrading work of casting

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40 bronze, hewing marble into shape, and painting forms on a wall.

He professed admiration for the manners of the ancient times, and vaunted at every opportunity the ancestral virtues.

"Men of the stamp of Curius and Fabricius cultivated their lettuce-beds, and slept under thatched roofs," he said. "They wot of no other statue than the Priapus carved in the heart of a box-tree, who, protruding his vigorous pale in the centre of their garden, threatened pilferers with a terrible and shameful punishment."

Mela, who was well versed in the annals of Rome, opposed to this opinion the example of an old patrician.

"In the days of the Republic," he pointed out, "that illustrious man, Caius Fabius, of a family issued from Hercules and Evander, limned with his own hand on the walls of the Temple of Salus paintings so highly prized that their recent loss, on the destruction of the temple by fire, has been considered a public misfortune. It is moreover related that he did not doff his toga when painting, thus to indicate that such work was not unworthy of a Roman citizen. He was given the surname of Pictor, which his descendants were proud to bear."

Lucius Cassius replied with vivacity:

"When painting victories in a temple, Caius

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Rh Fabius had in mind those victories, and not the painting of them. No painters existed in Rome in those days. Anxious that the doughty deeds of his ancestors should for ever be present to the gaze of the Romans, he set an example to the artisans. But just as a pontiff or an aedile lays the first stone of an edifice, without exercising for that the trade of a mason or of an architect, Caius Fabius executed the first painting Rome boasted of, without it being permissible to number him with the workmen who earn their livelihood by painting on walls."

Apollodorus signified approval of this speech with a nod, and, stroking his philosophic beard, remarked:

"The sons of Ascanius are born to rule the world. Any other care would be unworthy of them."

Then, speaking at some length and in well-rounded sentences, he sang the praises of the Romans. He flattered them because he feared them. But in his innermost being, he felt nothing but contempt for their shallow intelligences so devoid of finesse. He beslavered Gallio with praise in these words:

"Thou hast ornamented this city with magnificent monuments. Thou hast assured the liberty of its Senate and of its people. Thou hast decreed excellent regulations for trade and navigation, and

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42 thou dispensest justice with even tempered equity. Thy statue shall stand in the Forum. The title shall be granted to you of the second founder of Corinth, or rather Corinth shall take from you the name of Annaea. All these things are worthy of a Roman, and worthy of Gallio. But, do not think that the Greeks have an exaggerated affection for the manual arts. If many of them are engaged in painting vases, in dyeing stuffs, and in modelling figures, it is through necessity. Ulysses constructed his bed and his ship with his own hands. At the same time, the Greeks proclaim that it is unworthy of a wise man to give himself up to futile and gross arts. In his youth, Socrates followed the trade of a sculptor, and modelled an image of the Charites still to be seen on the Acropolis of Athens. His skill was certainly not of a mediocre order, and, had he so wished, he could, like the most renowned artists, have portrayed an athlete throwing a discus or bandaging his head. But he abandoned like works to devote himself to the quest of wisdom, as commanded by the oracle. Henceforth, he attached himself to young men, not for the purpose of measuring the proportions of their bodies but solely to teach them that which is honest. He preferred those whose soul was beautiful to those of perfect form, differing in this respect from sculptors, painters and debauchees, who consider only external

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Rh beauty, despising the inner comeliness. You are aware that Phidias engraved on the great toe of his Jupiter the name of an athlete, because he was handsome, and without considering whether he was pure."

"Hence it is," was Gallio's summing up, "that we do not sing the praises of sculptors, while bestowing them on their works."

"By Hercules!" exclaimed Lollius, "I do not know whether to admire most that Venus or that Faun. The goddess seems to reflect coolness from the water still dripping from her. She is truly the desire of gods and men; do you not fear, Gallio, that some night, a lout concealed in your grounds may subject her to an outrage similar to the one inflicted by a profane youth, so it is reported, on the Aphrodite of the Cnidians? The priestesses of her temple discovered one morning traces of the outrage on the body of the goddess, and travellers affirm that from that day until now she bears the indelible mark of her defilement. The audacity of the man and the patience of the Immortal One are to be wondered at."

"The crime did not remain unpunished," affirmed Gallio. "The sacrilegious profaner flung himself into the sea, and fell on the rocks a shapeless mass. He was never again seen."

"There can be no doubt," resumed Lollius,

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44 "that the Venus of Cnidus surpasses all others in beauty. But the artisan who carved the one in your grounds, Gallio, knew how to make marble plastic. Look at that Faun; he is laughing, and saliva moistens his teeth and his lips; his cheeks have the fresh bloom of the apple: his whole body glistens with youth. However, I prefer the Venus to the Faun."

Raising his right arm, Apollodorus said:

"Most gentle Lollius, just think a bit, and you will fain admit that a like preference is pardonable in an ignorant individual who follows his instincts and who reasons not, but that it is not permitted to one as wise as yourself. That Venus cannot be as beautiful as that Faun, for the body of woman enjoys a perfection lesser than that of man, and the copy of a thing which is less perfect can never equal in beauty the copy of a thing that is more perfect. No doubt can assuredly exist, Lollius, that the body of woman is less beautiful than that of man, since it contains a less beautiful soul. Women are vain, quarrelsome, their mind occupied with trifles and incapable of elevated thoughts, while sickness often-times obscures their intellect."

"And yet," remarked Gallio, "both in Rome and in Athens, virgins and matrons have been held worthy of presiding over sacred rites and of placing offerings on the altars. Nay more, the gods have

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Rh at times selected virgins to give utterance to their oracular words, or to reveal the future to men. Cassandra wore the bands of Apollo about her head and prophesied the discomfiture of the Trojans. Juturna, to whom the love of a god gave immortality, was entrusted with the guardianship of the fountains of Rome."

"Quite true," replied Apollodorus. "But the gods sell dearly to virgins the privilege of interpreting their wishes, and of announcing future events. While conferring on them the power of seeing that which is hidden, they deprive them of their reason and inflict madness on them. I will, however, Gallio, grant you that some women are better than some men and that some men are less good than some women. This arises from the fact that the two sexes are not as distinct and separate from each other as one would believe, and that, quite on the contrary, there is something of man in many women, and of woman in many a man. The following is the explanation of this commingling:

"The ancestors of the men who nowadays people the earth sprang from the hands of Prometheus, who, to give them shape, kneaded the clay as does the potter. He did not confine himself to shaping with his hands a single couple. Far too prudent and too industrious to cause the entire human race to grow from one seed and from a single vessel, he

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46 undertook the manufacture of a multitude of women and men, in order to secure at once to humanity the advantage of numbers. In order better to carry out so difficult a work, he modelled separately at the outset all the parts which were to constitute both male and female bodies. He fashioned as many lungs, livers, hearts, brains, bladders, spleens, intestines, matrices and generative organs as were required, and, lastly, he made with subtle art, and in sufficient quantity, all the organs by means of which human beings might breathe freely, feed themselves, and enjoy the reproduction of the species. He forgot neither muscles, tendons, bones, blood nor fluids. He next cut out skins, intending to place in each one, as in a sack, the requisite articles. All these component parts of men and women were duly finished, and nothing remained but to put them together, when he was of a sudden invited to partake of supper at the residence of Bacchus. He went thither, crowned with roses, and indulged too freely in libations to the god, returning with tottering steps to his workshop. His brain befogged with the fumes of wine, his eyesight dimmed, and his hands shaky, he resumed his task, greatly to our misfortune. The distribution of organs among human beings seemed to him an easy enough pastime. He knew not what he was about, and was perfectly contented with his job, however

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