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Rh there, and she wished him never to enter their home and find her absent. Placing her arm affectionately about my waist, in her sweet Spanish she said to me: "In my country it is very sad for you, and you are far from your home and people, but do not forget I am your friend and sister; what I can do for you shall be done as for a sister." Her husband, Don Pancho, shared fully in her professions of friendship, and on one occasion, when a hundred miles away from the city, sent us a regalo (gift) of a donkey-load of grapes.

In striking personal contrast were my two most intimate friends among Mexican women. Pomposita, like Liberata, had the petite figure, the dainty feet and hands peculiar to the women of that country; but unlike her, she possessed the high cheek-bones, the straight black hair, the brown skin indicating her Indian origin, of which she was justly proud.

But there was no contrast in the exhibition of their devoted kindness and friendship. Both were equally ready to assist me in adapting myself to the strange order of things and to aid in my initiation into the mysteries of their peculiar household economies. In case of sickness it seemed worth while to suffer to be the object of such exquisite tenderness, and experience the unspeakable sweetness of their sisterly ministrations.

But the time came when an overwhelming affliction fell upon me, when the night with its countless stars and crescent moon told of no serene sphere where tears and grief are unknown. The shadows passed over my soul without a gleam to enlighten the gloom of the grave.

The oft-read promise to grief-stricken humanity, "Thy brother shall rise again," was powerless to console.

My sister Emma, the loveliest and most devoted of women, was suddenly called from this bright world in the summer bloom of her loving life, leaving four young and tender children, leaving all her relations and friends grief-stricken and myself in the depths of such anguish as only God and the good angels know. When we came into this world, it was in a large family of brothers who loved and petted the two wee girls with all the devotion of noble-hearted men. But


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Rh tender attentions could not have been exceeded by those endeared to me by ties of blood.

Pomposita, though so young, as a matron took precedence, constituting herself my special nurse, in full accord with the Gospel injunction to love her neighbor as herself. In the fevered, silent watches of the night, how gently her soft little, brown hand would pass across my brow as she murmured her sweet words of endearment, and how lovingly her arms encircled me as she held me to her warm and noble heart. She constantly reminded me of her first visit and her assurance that she would be my sister.

In every way they all sought to win me from my grief. Indeed, it seemed that the ministering angels themselves had deputed their high mission to my devoted, faithful, and gratefully remembered Mexican friends.

In this land of sunshine and brightness there fell upon my heart the darkest shadow of my life, the shadow of the tomb of my sister, who slept the dreamless sleep in her far-off, lonely grave.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 they had long gone forth into the world, our noble parents had been called to their last home, while we remained together, our hearts throbbing in unison. Now that she was taken, it seemed to me there was a void that no space nor object of the affections could fill, and the better part of my life was gone.

In these darkened and burdened days of grief I can only tell how true, loving, and tender were the hands that ministered to me.

The other members of our party were absent on a journey, and these strangers nobly filled their places. In the long and painful illness that followed, Pomposita, Liberata and other friends never left me for a moment, day or night, and in deference to my sorrow all were robed in somber black. Every possible delicacy that could tempt a wayward appetite was brought; notes and messages came daily to my door, and numberless inquiries, all expressive of sympathy and a desire to serve me, from the male relatives of my friends. These affectionate and


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blasphemy

BLASPHEMY, is somewhat variously defined. According to the most general definition, it means the speaking irreverently of the mysteries of religion; and formerly, in Roman Catholic countries, it also included the speaking contemptuously or disrespectfully of the Holy Virgin or the saints. Public blasphemy has been considered by the Catholic Church as an unpardonable sin, and it was formerly punished with death by the municipal laws. The 77th novel of Justinian assigned this punishment to it; and the capitularies inflicted the same punishment upon such as, knowing of an act of blasphemy, did not denounce the offender. The former laws of France punished this crime with fine, corporal punishment, the gallows and death, according to the degree and aggravation of the offense. The records of the parliaments supply numerous instances of condemnation for this crime and many of punishment by death; others of branding and mutilation. A man was for this offense condemned to be hanged, and afterward to have his tongue cut out and the sentence was executed at Orleans as late as 1748. But it is remarked by a writer in the French ‘Encyclopédie Moderne,’ that we should form an erroneous opinion, from the present state of society, of the effect of this offense and the disorders it might introduce in former times; for religion was once so intimately blended with the government and laws, that to treat the received articles of faith or religious ceremonies with disrespect was in effect to attack civil institutions.

By the common law of England, as stated by Blackstone, blasphemy consists in denying the being and providence of God, contumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ, profane scoffing at Holy Scripture, etc., and is punishable by fine and imprisonment, or corporal punishment; the offense is also statutory, the Statute 9 and 10 William III cap. xxxii, declaring that if any one shall deny any of the persons of the Trinity to be God, or assert that there are more gods than one, or deny the truth of Christianity or of the Scriptures, he shall be

incapable of holding any office; and for a second offense be disabled from suing any action, or being an executor, and suffer three years' imprisonment.

By the law of Scotland, as it stood under acts of 1661 and 1695, the punishment of blasphemy was death. Blasphemy consisted of railing at or cursing God, or of obstinately persisting in denying the existence of the Supreme Being, or any of the persons of the Trinity.

The early legislation of the American colonies followed that of the mother country, and in some of them the crime of blasphemy was punished with death; but the penalty was mitigated before the establishment of independence and imprisonment, whipping, setting on the pillory, having the tongue bored with a red-hot iron, etc., were substituted. Several penalties against blasphemy are to be found in the laws of some of the New England States, according to which it is provided that, if any person shall blaspheme, by denying, cursing or contumeliously reproaching God, his creation, government or final judging of the world, or by cursing or reproaching Jesus Christ or the Holy Ghost, or contumeliously reproaching the Word of God, consisting of the commonly received books of the Old and New Testament, he is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years. But in many States, the offense of blasphemy, not being a subject of special statutory provision, is only punishable either as an offense at common law, or a violation of the statute laws against profane swearing.

Such penal statutes against blasphemy as are not subversive of the freedom of speech or liberty of the press have, in the United States, been declared constitutional. Consult ‘American and English Encyclopedia of Law,’ Vol. IV, p. 582.


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text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blighty

BLIGHTY, a name generally used in Brit t ish India as a general designation for Europe. During the War in Europe in 1914-18 the word was introduced on the western front by the Anglo-Indian troops and soon came into general use as a nickname for England.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blind, Karl

BLIND, blĭnt, Karl, German political agitator and writer on history, mythology and Germanic literature: b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826; d. London, England, 31 May 1907. He was educated at Heidelberg and Bonn, and from his student days till he settled in England in 1852 he was continually engaged in agitating or in heading risings in the cause of German freedom and union, and was frequently imprisoned. The democratic propaganda was afterward supported by his pen; and he wrote political and biographical works: ‘Fire-burial Among Our Germanic Forefathers’; ‘Teutonic Cremation’; ‘Yggdrasil, or The Teutonic Tree of Existence’; biographies of Freiligrath, Ledru Rollin and Francis Deák.


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Rh came in to inform Mr. Seward, that the stream was too high to allow of the passage of the stages, but that during the night it would subside. They would then put the wheels of one side of the stage in one boat, and those of the other side in a second, and so row the cumbersome vehicles across. Meantime, he and all he had was "at His Excellency's service." He had two coaches in tolerable repair, which he was ready to hitch up to convey us on three leagues more to the "Hacienda Calera," the residence of Don Juan Firmin Huarte, where we were to pass the night. The old gentleman told us that he had about four thousand five hundred acres of the best sugar, cotton, and Indian corn land in America, and, he did not know exactly how many, though quite a number of square miles of good pasture lands in this rancho, which he would sell me [some one had wickedly represented me as the rich man the of the party] for $8,000 in gold. He had a few thousand cattle, all good stock, though diminutive, which he would also dispose of cheap. There might be 2,000 or 10,000, but he would not be particular about a few hundred head any way. He wanted to move upon a larger rancho somewhere up in the interior. I agreed to think it over until I came back, and give him my answer then. I trust that he will not get tired out, and die waiting to hear from me.

Dinner, consisting of a variety of meats, vegetables, fruits, sweetmeats, and wines, was placed on the table, and I take occasion to say that a cleaner, better cooked, and better served dinner could not be obtained at any hotel in the United States, though there was not a sign of a stove, carpet, or even floor about the premises.

At sunset, we saw our baggage train of pack mules


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blind, Mathilde

BLIND, Mathilde, German-English poet: b. Mannheim, 21 March 1841; d. London, 26 Nov. 1896. She went to England in 1849, and won fame by her writings: ‘The Prophecy of Saint Oran’ (1881); ‘Life of George Eliot’ (1883); ‘Madame Roland’ (1886); ‘The Heather on Fire,’ a tale (1886); ‘Ascent of Man’ (1888); ‘Dramas in Miniature’ (1891); ‘Songs and Sonnets’ (1893); and ‘Birds of Passage’ (1895). Consult ‘Poetical Works of Mathilde Blind,’ with memoir (London 1900).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blind

BLIND. See.

title: The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blind


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:2

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title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:2


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blind, Education of the

BLIND, Education of the. When it is stated that prior to 1830 the blind of America were to be found “moping in hidden corners or degraded by the wayside, or vegetating in almshouses,” it is the adult blind that is meant. Still blind children were occasionally found in these places, though it could scarcely be said that they were vegetating, as could be said of the untrained deaf children.

The British census of 1851 first showed the world that over 80 per cent of the blind are adults. American schools for the blind were started, first, because of the widespread interest in the results of educating the young deaf and dumb, which furnished inspiration for new fields of educational endeavor; secondly, because the country was coming to the conviction that all the children of the state should receive education both as a matter of public policy and as a private right; and thirdly, because reports of what had been accomplished abroad in schools for the blind were being promulgated in our land. By 1830 the more progressive States of the east were ready to give their blind children school training. In that year the government first included in the national census the deaf and dumb and the blind. The work of the blind was to begin with scientific foreknowledge as to their number. In 1829 certain gentlemen in Boston obtained the incorporation of the “New England Asylum for the Blind.” By a most fortunate circumstance, the interest and services were obtained of a graduate of Brown University, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, who, after finishing his medical studies, had chivalrously gone to the aid of the Greeks. Dr. Howe went at once to Europe to study

of instruction. Upon his return, in 1832, the school was opened with six pupils. In New York the act of incorporation of the New York Institution for the Blind was passed in 1831; but funds were needed and no one went abroad to study methods. This school opened in March 1832, antedating by a few months the school at Boston. In the very same year a German teacher of the blind, a Mr. Friedlander, most opportunely came to Philadelphia, in the hope of starting a school for the blind there. Having trained certain blind children he exhibited their accomplishments, first, to a few influential people, secondly, before a large audience among whom he distributed a leaflet, "Observations on the instruction of blind persons." A meeting of public-spirited citizens followed, funds were liberally contributed, fairs held and the success of the cause was assured. The Pennsylvania institution for the instruction of the blind was opened in 1833, fully 10 months before an act of incorporation was obtained. The three schools at Boston, New York and Philadelphia are called the pioneer schools. All sprang from private effort and private funds. All were incorporated as private institutions, and remain so to this day. Three similar institutions for the blind have arisen in this country, at Baltimore, at Pittsburgh and at Hartford. As recently as 1912 an institution for the deaf with a department for the blind was opened with private funds supplemented by an appropriation from the legislature, in Brattleboro, Vt. This department was discontinued in 1917.

Schools. — The origin of the State schools differs from that of the type above given only in that classes of trained pupils from the earlier schools were exhibited before the State legislatures as well as before the people. State appropriations followed and the institutions were inaugurated as State institutions. The new schools sprang into being with astonishing rapidity. There were, in 1917, 44 residential schools for the blind in the United States. (For an account of the day schools of 13 cities, opened between 1900 and 1917 see below). Every State in the Union makes provision for its blind of school age either in its own school or in that of a neighboring State. In our sparsely-settled country, especially west of the Alleghanies and south of Maryland, great efforts had to be made to find the children and still greater efforts to persuade the parents to send them to school. In certain States where the amount of the public fund seemed to preclude a special grant for the blind, pupils of this class were brought together in connection with a school for the deaf and dumb, forming “dual schools,” as they are called. These institutions could not help being unfair to their blind contingent; for in nearly every such case the blind came to a school already established as a school for the deaf, and under the superintendence of a man especially interested in the education of the deaf; moreover, the number of the deaf pupils usually far exceeded that of the blind. There are still a few of these dual schools, but wherever possible they have been divided into two distinct institutions. In Northern schools the colored blind are educated with the white; in Southern schools it

is best for the colored to have schools of their own. Both the whites and they prefer this arrangement. The first school for the colored blind was opened in North Carolina in 1869.

All the institutions for the blind were in their very first inception schools. The pioneer schools imported literary teachers from Paris and handicraft teachers from Edinburgh. At first only the brighter class of pupils came under instruction. Teaching them was easy. They progressed with amazing strides; all was enthusiasm; exhibitions were called for and widely given (Dr. Howe's pupils gave exhibitions in 17 States); large editions of the various annual reports were exhausted. Soon, however, less bright pupils came to be admitted; then the curriculum of studies began to sober down to the practical and comprehensive one prevailing to-day. Whatever occupation the boy or eirl expects to follow after leaving school, it is assumed he will follow it better and thus live more happily and worthily if he has a general education. When, as was formerly the case, the period or term of schooling allowed pupils was shorter than it is now, they were not admitted before the age of eight or nine. Now that kindergarten departments have been universally added to the schools, the pupils are urged to enter at an early age; because experience has shown that at home these little blind folks are coddled rather than trained, so much so in fact that by the time many of them come to school their natural growth of body and mind has been so interfered with by inaction, that all the efforts of the schools cannot make up for lost time and opportunity. The principle of periodicity of growth has now come to be understood and the importance of applying the proper stimulus at the period most sensitive to it comprehended. Children with good sight and hearing have got along without kindergarten training, and so have blind children, but of all the useful means of reaching and developing the average blind child none is so effective as the properly-conducted kindergarten. The practical knowledge of things comes to the blind through the hand, their fingers being veritable projections of their brains. Thus must their hands not only be trained to sensitiveness of touch but to be strong and supple, so that they may, indeed, be dexterous; for as their hands are so are their brains. The kindergarten cultivates ear and heart and hand and brain as nothing else does. Even color is not wholly omitted in kindergartens for the blind. Many of the children see colors, and those who do not love to talk about them and certainly derive some indirect value from considering them. Wise, resourceful kindergartners who have either bought or made some Montesorri didactic material have not failed to utilize it with their newcomers or with their backward children. Of late years where institutions have either enlarged on the original site or rebuilt on a new, the kindergarten department has been housed by itself as an independent unit, all living as a family and with classes under the same roof. This is a great advance.

Blind children with kindergarten training are more susceptible to instruction than those without it. Above this department the course

of academic studies in American schools requires from seven to eight years, which means a primary, a grammar and a high school education; or instruction in object lessons, reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composition, arithmetic, history, physiology, botany, zoology, geology, physics, algebra, geometry, civics, English literature, typewriting, bookkeeping and simple business, and sometimes Latin and modern languages. Not a few pupils have fitted for college where they took the regular course with the seeing students, and from where they were graduated usually with distinction. Formerly much of the teaching was oral, which, in many cases, was apt to be more pleasant than profitable to the pupil. Since the general introduction of the embossed textbook and tangible writing, the pupil has been forced to depend more and more upon himself, obviously with better results. In fact, the work has been growing more and more practical, emphasis being put upon the vocational. The methods of teaching the blind correspond in general to those of teaching other hearing children. The common appliances have but to be raised and enlarged as in maps and diagrams, or simply made tangible, which may be done, for example, by notching an ordinary ruler so that the graduations can be felt.

Industrial Training. — Industrial training has been an integral part of the school course from the beginning. Recently educational manual training has been generally introduced as preliminary to the trades. Sloyd has been found especially adapted to the blind. The handicrafts — chair-caning, hammock-making, broom-making, carpet-weaving, and a few others, alone remain of all the many trades taught at one time or another in our schools. Manual occupations of some kind will always be taught, even were it evident that none of them would be followed by the blind as trades; for it is by doing and making that the blind especially learn best. Then, it is essential that they be kept occupied. A few institutions built on the cottage family plan require pupil participation in the daily housework, a policy which if wisely conducted is of not less developmental value than the school occupations, since it tends to build up social efficiency. A youth who is efficient in a community of youth is the more likely to be so in the community of adults. In the past, before the introduction of such varieties of labor-saving machinery as the last half century has seen, many of the discharged pupils followed some manual trade and succeeded in subsisting by it. To-day this is less and less possible. The mind itself of the blind is least trammeled by the lack of sight; hence some pursuit where intelligence is the chief factor would seem to be best adapted to his condition. Music, of course, opens up his most delightful field. It is said that all the force of the superintendents of the early schools was required to prevent the institutions from becoming mere conservatories of music. To-day only those pupils pursue music in regular course who have talent for it; but even those are not allowed to neglect other studies for it. It is the experience of the American schools, as of the British, that the profession of music offers to the educated and trained musician who is blind

a field in which he can work his way with least hindrance from his lack of sight, and many are they who have found in it a means of livelihood for themselves and their families. A few in nearly every school are certificated annually as tuners of pianos. Indeed, piano tuning, often joined as it is with piano selling, has become one of the very best occupations yet developed for the men. The public school pianos of several of our cities are regularly kept in order by tuners who are blind.

Since 1900, when the Pennsylvania institution moved to the suburbs of Philadelphia and laid out its play grounds and covered cloisters to invite open-air activities, increased attention to directed play and even to athletics by blind boys has been noticeable all over the country. Most institutions now have a good gymnasium and several have swimming pools.

Prior to 1900 the only systematic schooling given the blind was in residential institutions. Since then for various reasons, chiefly the supposed demands of the times, a number of cities have opened day classes for blind children in connection with the public schools. In such cases the blind pupils living in several school districts are united in one convenient centre or home-room under a teacher who coaches them for recitation in the grade rooms with the other children. The plan is feasible enough and is found to be successful in proportion as the teachers and those responsible for it are alive to the needs of the individual child and do not try to make him conform to the usual hours and the limitations of the common school system. Keeping handicapped children all the time in the community where they live and not even a part of the time off in special residential schools, as used to be deemed necessary, is doubtless a move in the right direction. But it must not be forgotten that children handicapped by lack of sight not only deserve but require enlarged and enriched opportunities of development; for it takes them longer to do things than it does children who see, and moreover they are far more dependent for balance and poise upon whatever training they get at school. In some cities having such centres private associations for the blind have tried to provide the needed supplementary training. Teaching the adult blind at home called “home teaching” is carried on in 13 States. Two States now (1917) conduct summer schools for a limited number of adults, using their institution plants for this purpose.

Books. — The American schools for the blind were founded upon embossed books. Dr. Howe states somewhere that the simple reading from embossed print did more to establish the schools in the country than any other one thing. Extraordinary pains were taken by Dr. Howe and his assistants to perfect a system which should be at once readily tangible to the fingers of the blind and legible to the eyes of their friends. The result was the small lower-case letter of Dr. Howe, the Boston line print, as it is often called. To this the jury gave preference before all other embossed systems exhibited at the great exhibition of the industry of all nations, in London, in 1851. Backed by such endorsement and all the authority of Dr. Howe, the system was rapidly adopted into the American schools. It was then the theory that

the blind would be further isolated from their friends if their alphabets were dissimilar. The blind of themselves had devised a writable system — arbitrary and composed of dots or points — one which they could both read and write. But the early superintendents would not countenance it. However, many of the blind failed to read the line-letter system; because to read it requires extreme nicety of touch, which all the blind by no means have. Characters composed of points, not of lines, are scientifically adapted to touch reading. In the 33d report of the New York institution, Supt. William B. Wait wrote: “Now, which is the more important, that all the young blind should be able to read, thus being made, in fact, like the seeing, or that they should be taught an alphabet which in some sort resembles that used by the seeing, but by doing which only 34 per cent of them will ever be able to read with any pleasure or profit?” This attitude of the New York school was the outcome of statistics gathered from seven institutions, in which 664 pupils were involved, and of experiments made by Mr. Wait with his own pupils, using a system scientifically devised by him, composed of points in arbitrary combination. This was in 1868. At the next convention of the American instructors of the blind, it was resolved “That the New York horizontal point alphabet as arranged by Mr. Wait should be taught in all institutions for the education of the blind.” Europe was a long time accepting a writable point system. That of Louis Braille, devised in 1829, though much used by individuals, was not officially adopted into the Paris school where it originated until 1854. In contrast, America devised, printed, spread and resolved to accept its writable system in less than one-half the time. The benefits of a tangible writable system are vast. It puts the blind more nearly on a par with the seeing, particularly as pupils in school. Its adoption here, next to that of tangible printing, makes obtainable the ideal of American schools for the blind. Every tangible system has its defects. French “braille” as adopted into England has antiquated abbreviations and contractions for the use of adults; and is involved with rules allowing much bad use, like the omission of all capitals. The New York point as printed also laid itself open to much criticism as to “good use.” The American braille, the latest system, combining the best features of French braille and of New York point, was devised by a blind teacher of the Perkins institution. It takes full account of “good use,” and those who use the system deem it very satisfactory. In 1892, when the American braille system was adopted into several schools, a typewriter for writing braille was invented, and this was followed by the invention of another machine for embossing braille directly on plates of thin brass from which any number of duplicates could be struck off on paper. Here was a means of creating a new library at once. But the chief value of the invention lay in the fact that as the machine was simple and inexpensive and could be operated if necessary by a blind man, any institution could have a printing office of its own. And several schools immediately established such offices, from which they issued at once whatever their school classes demanded. By co-operating in the selection of the books

to be embossed these schools have created in a comparatively few years a library of books in American braille than which there is no superior in any system in any country, and they have added an immense amount of music in the braille music notation, which is the same all over the world. A typewriter and a machine for embossing brass plates in the New York point system promptly appeared also, and a great library of both books and music has rapidly been issued in this system, especially from the American Printing House for the Blind at Louisville, Ky.; so that in America we have the condition of two competing point systems when but one would obviously be enough. More than one system means duplication and therefore lessening both the book production and the reading done by the blind themselves. Seeking a way out of this dilemma, a group of especially competent blind people was created a “uniform type committee.” For several years it conducted tests in many States and in several countries, the funds being subscribed by private individuals, by themselves, by other blind people and their friends and by school printing plants. To-day the country seems to be on the eve of uniformity.

The United States Bureau of Education gives the number of embossed books in the country in the year 1915 as 127,247. The greater part of these are in the school libraries, thousands belonging to departments for the blind in public libraries; from both of these sources the circulation to the blind at home is surprisingly large. A fact mainly accountable for this is that such books pass through the mails postage free. There are now, besides fiction in great variety, periodical magazines embossed for finger reading, notably the Matilda Ziegler Magazine, a monthly appearing in no less than 15,000 copies. A journal of inter-communication among all agencies in behalf of the blind, a quarterly in common print, called the Outlook for the Blind, has been issued since 1907 and is of far-reaching service to all interested in work for the blind.

Higher Education. — The Association of American Instructors of the Blind, formed in 1871, has met biennially ever since, usually as guest of one or another institution. The proceedings of each convention have been published. The principles underlying the scheme for educating the blind being to make them as little as possible a class apart from the rest of the community, it has not been deemed wise to attempt to establish a national college for the higher education of those capable of taking it, but efforts are making toward enabling the brighter and worthier pupils to attend one of the colleges for the seeing, at the expense of the States or the schools from which they come. Seven states have already (1918) made appropriations of money for such higher education. The school instruction of the blind is comparatively an easy matter. That work is less of a science than the more difficult task of instructing the deaf. But training them vocationally or for social efficiency is usually difficult, and it is becoming more and more so as society grows in complexity, and the places easily open to the blind become filled by them. Since 1900, through the vastly increased attention given the adult blind by private associations and public

commissions, which have opened new shops for their employment and increased the kinds of occupations provided them, the schools have made their curricula more definitely vocational, and moreover their superintendents have more and more actively assumed the responsibility not only of preparing their charges for something definite but even of providing them work or positions when leaving the shelter of school.

Vocational Statistics. — Blindness in itself does not necessarily unfit its possessor for employment or even self-support; and there are few occupations in which some blind person has not made good. But while it is usually easy to equip a blind person for a vocation, it is always difficult to place him, as the average employer of labor does not want him. This fact seriously militates against the potential economic success of the blind and has always done so. It tends to superimpose idleness upon blindness, which is tragedy indeed. And yet the blind are very properly classed as socially competent. The proposed plan of our government for doing its duty to those of its soldiers who are blinded in the great war, i.e., not only re-educating them but also finding or making places for those capable of filling them, is splendid and a most encouraging sign of the times. Even when back in 1878 an exhaustive census of the graduates from all over the country was compiled, it revealed the following facts: 16 became superintendents of other institutions; 214 became teachers or were otherwise employed in institutions; 34 became ministers of the gospel; 84 authors, publishers or lecturers; 310 were engaged as teachers of music or were vocalists outside of institutions; 69 had been organists in churches; 125 piano tuners; 937 had been engaged as teachers, employees and workers in handicraft; 277 were storekeepers, etc.; 45 became owners and managers of real estate; 760 (mostly women) were employed at housework at home or in families, or at sewing with machines, or by hand, and 78 were in homes of employment. Further, according to the census of the United States, while there were about 55,000 blind in the land, but 2,560 were found in almshouses. What proportion of these ever attended our schools will never be known, but it must be remembered that blindness is an affliction of old age.

Bibliography. — Anagnos, M., ‘Education of the Blind’ (Boston 1882); Diderot, ‘Essay on Blindness’ (Reprint, London 1895); ‘Encyclopædia Britannica,’ article “Blindness” (Vol. III, New York 1911); Haüy, Valentin, ‘Essay on the Education of the Blind’ (Reprint, London 1894); Howe, Julia Ward, ‘Memoir of Dr. Samuel G. Howe’ (Boston 1877); Illingworth, W. H., ‘History of the Education of the Blind’ (London 1914); La Sizeranne, Maurice, ‘The Blind as Seen through Blind Eyes’ (translated by F. Park Lewis, New York 1893); ‘The Blind Sisters of Saint Paul’ (New York 1907); Mell, Alexander, ‘Encyclopædisches Handbuch des Blinden-Wesens’ (Vienna 1899); ‘Nelson's Encyclopedia,’ article “Blind, Training of the” (Vol. II, New York 1910); Richards, Mrs. Laura A., ‘Letters and Journal of Samuel G. Howe’ (Vol. II, ‘The Servant of Humanity,’ (Boston 1909); Sanborn, F. B., ‘Dr. S. G. Howe’ (New York 1881); ‘Reports,’

Association of Instructors of the Blind (1853-1915); State Commissions for the Blind (1906-16); United States Bureau of Education 1872, 1899, 1913, 1915 (Washington Government Printing Office); International Conferences on the Blind (London 1902-14, National Institute for the Blind); ‘American Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Ophthalmology’ (1913-16); Outlook for the Blind (Columbus 1907-15).


text: Author:Edward Ellis Allen

title: Author:Edward Ellis Allen


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/194

 ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs). (f ) Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 104-117.

Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered.

The author was, according to Tertullian (De Baptism. 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 358-360.

Acts of Peter.—These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (H.E. iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian about 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (Gesch. Kanons, ii. 864), wrote about 160 (op. cit. p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter’s victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin Actus Vercellenses (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the  ) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.

Preaching of Peter.—This book ( ) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter’s teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, In Evang. Johann. t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (De Prin. Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90–100 at latest; Dobschütz, as 100–110; and Harnack, as 110–130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.

They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: ''Nov. Test. extra Can.'', 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschütz, Das Kerygma Petri, 1893. Salmon (Dict. Christ. Biog. iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul, implied in a statement of Lactantius (Inst. Div. iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings’ Bible Dict. iv. 776.

Acts of Thomas.—This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, Haer. xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, Contra Faust. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (Journ. of Theol. Studies, i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Nöldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, ''Apoc. Anec.'' ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (Apocr. Acts of the Gospels, 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus—therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, i. 225-347; Hennecke, N.T. Apokryphen, 473-480.)

Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didachē).—This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff’s and in Harnack’s editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the Epistle of Barnabas. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years 80–120; Harnack to 120–165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80–100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in Dict. of Christ. Biog. iv. 806-815, also article .)

Apostolical Constitutions.—For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations—the Syriac Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles, &c.—see separate article.

(c) Epistles.—The Abgar Epistles.—These epistles are found in Eusebius (H.E. i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ’s answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should “cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people.” Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See Dict. Christ. Biog. iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also .)

Epistle of Barnabas.—The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further .)

Epistle of Clement.—The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (Strom. iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (H.E. iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876,

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/194


text:
Kenilworth (Coates)

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1900), "Kenilworth" in The Atlantic Monthly (January 1900).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "Kenilworth" in Mine and Thine (1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "Kenilworth" in Poems II.

title: Kenilworth (Coates)


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blithedale Romance, The

BLITHEDALE ROMANCE, The, the third of Nathaniel Hawthorne's romances, published 1852. It was the outcome of an intimate acquaintance with the members of the ../Brook Farm/ (q.v.) Community, and immortalized the brief attempt of that little group of transcendentalists to realize equality and fraternity in labor. It is more objective and realistic than Hawthorne's other works, and therefore in a sense more ordinary. Its central figure is Zenobia, a beautiful, intellectual, passionate woman; drawn as to some outlines, perhaps, from Margaret Fuller. At the time it opens she has taken up her abode at Blithedale Farm, the counterpart of Brook Farm. The other members of the community are Hollingsworth, a self-centred philanthropist; a Yankee farmer, Silas Forster, and his wife; Miles Coverdale, the relater of the story; and Priscilla, who is Zenobia's half-sister, though of this fact Zenobia is ignorant. 'The Blithedale Romance' is a brilliant instance of Hawthorne's power as a story-teller. No scene in the whole range of fiction is more realistic than the finding of Zenobia's body in the dead of night; drawn from the dank stream, a crooked, stiff shape, and carried to the farmhouse where old women in nightcaps jabber over it. Nothing could be more in the manner of Hawthorne than his comment that if Zenobia could have foreseen her appearance after drowning, she would never have committed the act.


text:
Of Future Days

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "Of Future Days" in The Reader Magazine (March 1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "Of Future Days" in Mine and Thine (1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "Of Future Days" in Poems I.

title: Of Future Days


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:3

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title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:3


text:
Demeter

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "Demeter" in Mine and Thine (1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "Demeter" in Poems II.

title: Demeter


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blizzard

BLIZZARD, a peculiarly fierce and cold wind, accompanied by a very fine, blinding snow which suffocates as well as freezes men and animals exposed to it. The origin of the word is popularly conceded to the United States where there is evidence of its use as early as 1840; recent investigations have shown that it is used in the local dialect of Lancashire, England, where it has been traced back over several centuries and is generally written “bleasard.”

It came into general use in American newspapers during the bitterly cold winter of 1880-81, and has been in more or less general use since 1888. Such a storm comes up very suddenly and overtakes the traveler without premonition. The sky becomes darkened, and the snow is driven by a terrible wind which comes with a deafening roar. One of the most severe of these storms recorded in the West was that of January 1888 which extended from Dakota to Texas. The thermometer in some places fell from 74° to —28° F., and in Dakota to —40°. The number of deaths amounted to 235. Children were frozen on their way home from school, and farmers in their fields, and travelers were suffocated by the fine snow. The blizzard which will long be remembered in the Eastern States began 11 March 1888, and raged until the 14th, New York and Philadelphia being the cities most affected. The wind at one time blew at the rate of 46 miles an hour. The streets and roads were blocked, railroad trains snowed up for days, telegraphic communication cut off and many lives were lost. Blizzards are due to a southward flow of a large mass of cold air which is being pushed out from a centre of high barometric pressure. The flow progresses regularly according to the differences of density and pressure on either side of its front line of advance. This regularity of advance has been turned to account by the United States Weather Bureau, which is able to forecast with great accuracy the advance of a blizzard, and thus in almost every case the populations affected are amply forewarned.


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:4

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title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:4


text:
Page:First Voyage Round the World.djvu/80

 They sailed from this Rio de Janeiro on the 26th December, and navigated along the coast to make the Cape of St. Mary, which is in thirty-four degrees and two-thirds; as soon as they sighted it, they made their course west-north-west, thinking they would find a passage for their voyage, and they found that they had got into a great river of fresh water, to which they gave the name of river of St. Christopher, and it is in thirty-four degrees, and they remained in it till the 2nd of February, 1520.

He sailed from this river of St. Christopher on the 2nd of the said month of February; they navigated along the said coast, and further on to the south they discovered a point which is in the same river more to the south, to which they gave the name of Point St. Antony; it is in thirty-six degrees, hence they ran to the south-west, a matter of twenty-five leagues, and made another cape which they named Cape St. Apelonia, which is in thirty-six degrees; thence they navigated to the west-south-west to some shoals, which they named Shoals of the Currents, which are in thirty-nine degrees; and thence they navigated out to sea, and lost sight of land for a matter of two or three days, when they again made for the land, and they came to a bay, which they entered, and ran within it the whole day, thinking that there was an outlet for Maluco, and when night came they found that it was quite closed up, and in the same night they again stood out by the way which they had come in. This bay is in thirty-four degrees; they name it the island of St. Matthew. They navigated from this island of St.


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:5

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 and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot2, 1890, Funk2, 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, ''Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac, 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima'', 1894.

“Clement’s” ''2nd Ep. to the Corinthians.—This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (H.E.'' iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians.

Clement’s Epistles on Virginity.—These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by Beelen, Louvain, 1856.

Clement’s Epistles to James.—On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith’s ''Dict. of Christian Biography, i. 559, 570, and Lehmann’s monograph, Die Clementischen Schriften'', Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.

Epistles of Ignatius.—There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, ''Patr. Apost. Op., 1876; Funk2, Die apostol. Väter, 1901; Lightfoot2, Apostolic Fathers'', 1889.

Epistle of Polycarp.—The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith’s Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, i. 629-702; also.

Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians.—The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see Colossians8, 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, op. cit. ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592).

APODICTIC (Gr. , capable of demonstration), a logical term, applied to judgments which are necessarily true, as of mathematical conclusions. The term in Aristotelian logic is opposed to dialectic, as scientific proof to probable reasoning. Kant contrasts apodictical with problematic and assertorical judgments. APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the river Ilm, 9 m. E. by N. from Weimar, on the main line of railway from Berlin via Halle, to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900) 20,352. It has few notable public buildings, but possesses three churches and monuments to the emperor Frederick III. and to Christian Zimmermann (1759–1842), who, by introducing the hosiery and cloth manufacture, made Apolda one of the most important places in Germany in these branches of industry. It has also extensive dyeworks, bell foundries, and manufactures of steam engines, boilers and bicycles. APOLLINARIS, “the Younger” (d. 390), bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He collaborated with his father Apollinaris the Elder in reproducing the Old Testament in the form of Homeric and Pindaric poetry, and the New after the fashion of Platonic dialogues, when the emperor Julian had forbidden Christians to teach the classics. He is best known, however, as a warm opponent of Arianism, whose eagerness to emphasize the deity of Christ and the unity of His person led him so far as a denial of the existence of a rational human soul ( ) in Christ’s human nature, this being replaced in Him by a prevailing principle of holiness, to wit the Logos, so that His body was a glorified and spiritualized form of humanity. Over against this the orthodox or Catholic position maintained that Christ assumed human nature in its entirety including the , for only so could He be example and redeemer. It was held that the system of Apollinaris was really Docetism (see ), that if the Godhood without constraint swayed the manhood there was no possibility of real human probation or of real advance in Christ’s manhood. The position was accordingly condemned by several synods and in particular by that of Constantinople ( 381). This did not prevent its having a considerable following, which after Apollinaris’s death divided into two sects, the more conservative taking its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of Antioch, the other (Polemeans) adding the further assertion that the two natures were so blended that even the body of Christ was a fit object of adoration. The whole Apollinarian type of thought persisted in what was later the (q.v.) school.

Although Apollinaris was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, e.g. , long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These have been collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann.

He must be distinguished from the bishop of Hierapolis who bore the same name, and who wrote one of the early Christian “Apologies” (c. 170). See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vols. iii. and iv. passim; R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation; G. Voisin, L’Apollinarisme (Louvain, 1901); H. Lietzmann, Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule (Tübingen, 1905).

APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of Carthage, who flourished in the 2nd century He taught Pertinax—himself a teacher of grammar before he was emperor,—and Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in the highest terms (iv. 17). He is the reputed author of the metrical arguments to the Aeneid and to the plays of Terence and (probably) Plautus (J. W. Beck, De Sulpicio Apollinari, 1884). APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS (c. 430–487 or 488), Christian writer and bishop, was born in Lyons about 430. Belonging to a noble family, he was educated under the best masters, and particularly excelled in poetry and polite literature. He married (about 452) Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was consul and afterwards emperor. But Majorianus, in the year 457, having deprived Avitus of the empire and taken the city of Lyons, Apollinaris fell into the hands of the enemy. The reputation of his learning led Majorianus to treat him with the greatest respect. In return Apollinaris composed a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of count. In 467 the emperor Anthemius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the post of prefect of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity of a patrician and senator. In 472, more for his political than for his theological abilities, he was chosen to succeed Eparchius in the bishopric of Arverna (Clermont). On the capture of that city by the Goths in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its defence; but he was afterwards restored by Euric, king of the Goths, and continued to govern his bishopric as before. He died in 487 or 488. His extant works are his Panegyrics on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian); and nine books of Letters and Poems, whose chief value consists in the light they shed on the political and literary history of the 5th century. The Letters, which are very stilted, also reveal Apollinaris as a man of genial temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. The best edition is that in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey of the manuscripts.

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title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 32:6


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 one of the ships the captain of which had been killed. There sailed from this port on the 24th of August four ships, for the smallest of the ships had been already lost; he had sent it to reconnoitre, and the weather had been heavy, and had cast it ashore, where all the crew had been recovered along with the merchandise, artillery and fittings of the ship. They remained in this port, in which they wintered, five months and twenty-four days, and they were seventy degrees less ten minutes to the southward.

They sailed on the 24th day of the month of August of the said year from this port of St. Julian and navigated a matter of twenty leagues along the coast, and so they entered a river which was called Santa Cruz, which is in fifty degrees, where they took in goods and as much as they could obtain: the crew of the lost ship were already distributed among the other ships, for they had returned by land to where Fernando de Magalhāes was, and they continued collecting the goods which had remained there during August and up to the 18th September, and there they took in water and much fish which they caught in this river; and in the other, where


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollinaris


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollinaris, Sulpicius


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 they wintered, there were people like savages, and the men are from nine to ten spans in height, very well made; they have not got houses, they only go about from one place to another with their flocks, and eat meat nearly raw: they are all of them archers and kill many animals with arrows, and with the skins they make clothes, that is to say, they make the skins very supple, and fashion them after the shape of the body, as well as they can, then they cover themselves with them, and fasten them by a belt round the waist. When they do not wish to be clothed from the waist upwards, they let that half fall which is above the waist, and the garment remains hanging down from the belt which they have girt round them. They wear shoes which cover them four inches above the ankle, full of straw inside to keep their feet warm. They do not possess any iron, nor any other ingenuity of weapons, only they make the points of their arrows with flints, and so also the knives with which they cut, and the adze and awls with which they cut and stitch their shoes and clothes. They are very agile people, and do no harm, and thus they follow their flocks: wherever night finds them there they sleep; they carry their wives along with them with all the chattels which they possess. The women are very small and carry heavy burdens on their backs; they wear shoes and clothes just like the men. Of these men they obtained three or four and brought them in the ships, and they all died except one, who went to Castile in a ship which went thither.

They sailed from this river of Santa Cruz on the 18th of October: they continued navigating along the coast until


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollinaris Sidonius, Caius Sollius


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 the 21st day of the same month, October, when they discovered a cape, to which they gave the name of Cape of the Virgins, because they sighted it on the day of the eleven thousand virgins; it is in fifty-two degrees, a little more or less, and from this cape a matter of two or three leagues distance, we found ourselves at the mouth of a strait. We sailed along the said coast within that strait which they had reached the mouth of: they entered in it a little and anchored. Fernando de Magalhāes sent to discover what there was further in, and they found three channels, that is to say, two more in a southerly direction, and one traversing the country in the direction of Maluco, but at that time


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V] ing; from Aroer, which is by the bank of the river Arnon, even unto mount Sion, which is Hermon, and all the plain on this side Jordan eastward, even unto the sea of the plain, under the springs of Pisgah.

Moses called all Israel, and said unto them, Hear, O Israel, the statutes and judgments which I speak in your ears this day, that ye may learn them, and keep, and do them. The Lord our God made a covenant with us in Horeb. The Lord made not this covenant with our fathers, but with us, even us, who are all of us here alive this day. The Lord talked with you face to face in the mount out of the midst of the fire, (I stood between the Lord and you at that time, to shew you the word of the Lord: for ye were afraid by reason of the fire, and went not up into the mount;) saying,

I am the Lord thy God, which brought thee out of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage.

Thou shalt have none other gods before me.

Thou shalt not make thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters beneath the earth: thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth genera-


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Rh tion of them that hate me, and shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love me and keep my commandments.

Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain: for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.

Keep the sabbath day to sanctify it, as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee. Six days thou shalt labour, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thine ox, nor thine ass, nor any of thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates; that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou. And remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the Lord thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the sabbath day.

Honour thy father and thy mother, as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee; that thy days may be prolonged, and that it may go well with thee, in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.

Thou shalt not kill.

Neither shalt thou commit adultery.


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V] Neither shalt thou steal.

Neither shalt thou bear false witness against thy neighbour.

Neither shalt thou desire thy neighbour's wife, neither shalt thou covet thy neighbour's house, his field, or his manservant, or his maidservant, his ox, or his ass, or any thing that is thy neighbour's.

These words the Lord spake unto all your assembly in the mount out of the midst of the fire, of the cloud, and of the thick darkness, with a great voice; and he added no more. And he wrote them in two tables of stone, and delivered them unto me. And it came to pass, when ye heard the voice out of the midst of the darkness, (for the mountain did burn with fire,) that ye came near unto me, even all the heads of your tribes, and your elders; and ye said. Behold, the Lord our God hath shewed us his glory and his greatness, and we have heard his voice out of the midst of the fire: we have seen this day that God doth talk with man, and he liveth. Now therefore why should we die? for this great fire will consume us: if we hear the voice of the Lord our God any more, then we shall die. For who is there of all flesh, that hath heard the voice of the living God speaking out of the midst of the fire, as we have, and lived? Go thou near, and hear all that the Lord our


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Rh God shall say: and speak thou unto us all that the Lord our God shall speak unto thee; and we will hear it, and do it. And the Lord heard the voice of your words, when ye spake unto me; and the Lord said unto me, I have heard the voice of the words of this people, which they have spoken unto thee: they have well said all that they have spoken. O that there were such an heart in them, that they would fear me, and keep all my commandments always, that it might be well with them, and with their children for ever! Go say to them, Get you into your tents again. But as for thee, stand thou here by me, and I will speak unto thee all the commandments, and the statutes, and the judgments, which thou shalt teach them, that they may do them in the land which I give them to possess it. Ye shall observe to do therefore as the Lord your God hath commanded you: ye shall not turn aside to the right hand or to the left. Ye shall walk in all the ways which the Lord your God hath commanded you, that ye may live, and that it may be well with you, and that ye may prolong your days in the land which ye shall possess.

Now these are the commandments, the statutes, and the judgments, which the Lord your God commanded to teach you, that ye might do them in the land whither ye go to possess it: that thou mightest


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VI] fear the Lord thy God, to keep all his statutes and his commandments, which I conmmand thee, thou, and thy son, and thy son's son, all the days of thy life; and that thy days may be prolonged.

Hear therefore, O Israel, and observe to do it; that it may be well with thee, and that ye may increase mightily, as the Lord God of thy fathers hath promised thee, in the land that floweth with milk and honey. Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes. And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy gates. And it shall be, when the Lord thy God shall have brought thee into the land which he sware unto thy fathers, to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, to give thee great and goodly cities, which thou buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, which thou filledst not, and wells digged, which thou diggedst not, vineyards and


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 invented in 1914 by Dr. E. E. Fournier d’Albe, then a lecturer in physics in the university of Birmingham. It is based upon the properties of selenium, an element which is a better electrical conductor in light than in darkness. A beam of light is rendered intermittent by the interposition of a revolving siren disc and is then concentrated into a small bright point on the paper to be read. If the point on the paper is white, it will reflect the light; if it is black it will not. A selenium cell placed close to the paper, on receiving the reflected beam of intermittent light, will respond to each flash by a change in conductivity, and if the frequency of the flashes is of the “musical” order (between 30 and 30,000 flashes per second), a telephone receiver connected with the selenium and a battery will sound a musical note. A blind person could thus tell whether the paper is black or white.

That is the principle of the optophone. In practice a small row of luminous points is substituted for a single point, and each point in the row is given a different frequency by suitably perforating the siren disc. The row, usually of five or six points, just fills up the size of the tall letters of the print to be read. When the whole row falls upon the black stem of a letter there is silence in the telephone. As the letters pass their various shapes are indicated by the sounding or silence of the different notes, and after some practice the blind person learns to recognize letters from their sounds, and so to read ordinary type.

The first reading test was given by the inventor in March 1917, the matter read being a leading article in The Times. In Aug. 1918, Miss Mary Jameson, a blind pupil from Norwood, gave the first public reading demonstrations, reading an unknown page from a book at a speed of about two words per minute. Later, with an improved instrument, she attained a speed of about 20 words per minute. A new type of optophone was brought out in 1920 by Barr & Stroud, of Glasgow. In this instrument two selenium cells were used, balanced against each other in such a manner that white paper produced silence, and the black letters themselves made the musical sounds. Reading demonstrations were also given with this instrument, but any advantage in the way of ease of reading was found to be counter-balanced by a greater delicacy and complexity of adjustment. The new type is known as the “black-sounder,” and the original type is termed the “white-sounder.” The latter type was approved by the Inventions and Research Committee of the National Institute for the Blind in 1921 after an exhaustive series of tests. The optophone is intended to place the world’s printed literature once more within reach of the blind. It is applicable, without special preparation, to any language, and can also be used for reading typescript, but not handwriting.

 ORANGE FREE STATE (see 20.151), a province of the Union of S. Africa. At the 1911 census it had a pop. of 528,174 compared with 387,315 in 1904—an increase of 26.67%. Whites numbered 175,189, coloured 352,985. In 1918 the white pop. was 181,678. The increase in pop. since 1904 was very largely due to the development of agriculture and stock farming, the province being essentially a pastoral region.

The only big town is the capital, Bloemfontein (pop. in 1911 26,925). While new settlers included many of British origin, the white inhabitants remained predominantly of Dutch descent. Nearly all the coloured people are Bantu and in 1911 the province had only 108 Asiatics. A higher proportion, 50.77 %, of the natives professed Christianity than in any other province of the Union.

There were in 1918 only 5,588 persons (all races and both sexes) engaged in factories in the province, but in Jagersfontein it possesses one of the chief diamond mines in S. Africa, and there is a group of small but rich diamond mines in the Boshof area, proclaimed in 1906, 1910 and 1912. There are coal mines by the Vaal at Vereeniging, which produced 469,000 tons in 1910 and 838,000 tons in 1919.

Dr. A. E. W. Ramsbottom was the first administrator, being succeeded by Mr. H. C. Wessels. Both had been members of the Ministry during the brief period (July 1907–May 1910) while the province had been a self-governing colony. The provincial administration at first continued the system of compulsory bilingual education enforced in 1908, but the struggle conducted by the English-speaking part of the people over the medium of instruction came virtually to an end in 1912, the provincial council having adopted, in the main though still with a bias in favour of the Dutch language, the proposal suggested by the Union Parliament that up to standard IV. instruction in the schools should be given in the “home language” of the scholar. In 1920 an ordinance was passed recognizing “Afrikaans,” i.e. the Taal or colloquial Dutch, as equivalent to Netherlands Dutch as a medium of instruction, and its adoption, for Dutch scholars, was very general. In most respects the provincial administration was progressive and was conducted on non-party lines. (For the administrative system see .) Provincial expenditure rose from £511,000 in 1912–3 to £611,000 in 1917–8, the amount spent on education in the years named being £250,000 and £473,000 respectively.

The province was the stronghold of the Dutch Nationalists. Up to his death in 1916 ex-President Steyn, who lived near Bloemfontein, though he held no office, exercised very great influence on public affairs. In the crisis caused by the World War Steyn opposed operations against German S.W. Africa. There followed the rebellion of Gen. De Wet, the Free State being the principal theatre of the campaign. Gen. Hertzog, the parliamentary chief of the Dutch Nationalists and after Steyn’s death their undisputed leader, carried the Free State in the elections of 1915, 1920 and 1921. In Feb. of the last-named year, when he had declared for the secession of the union from the British Empire, his party won 16 out of the 17 constituencies into which the province was divided (see ).

 ORDNANCE (see 20.189.)—. The principal requirements from a gun are accuracy, high muzzle velocity and high remaining velocity at any given range. These points are dependent on the ballistics, or power, of the gun, on the twist and form of the rifling, and on other factors outside the gun, such as the weight and shape of the projectile and the design of the driving-band on the projectile.

At the same time as definite conditions are laid down for these main requirements, certain limitations are imposed upon the designer in connexion with the working pressures in the gun, the length and weight of the gun, the feasibility of repair, and the length and weight of the projectile. These various factors must be considered from the point of view of their relation to each other as they are to a very large extent interdependent, and variation in any one of them will react on one or more of the others. The limiting factor in the working pressure is the strength of the gun to resist the firing stresses, and any increase in these beyond a certain limit will necessitate a corresponding increase in the strength of the gun, that is, in the amount of material employed in its construction, which obviously entails an increase in the weight of the gun, a very important consideration. The length of the gun has an important effect on ballistics, and any increase in this respect not only is accompanied by increased weight but also affects the question of the space occupied, another important consideration. Further, any variation in the weight or length, or both, of the gun will affect the position of the centre of gravity, and so affect the design of the mounting or carriage. Another aspect of the question of length is its effect upon the “girder strength” of the gun. In modern ordnance efforts are made to place the centre of gravity as near the breech as possible, and, the gun being supported on its mounting at or near this point, with long guns a considerable proportion of the total length remains unsupported, and therefore has a tendency to “sag” due to its own weight. Theoretically a longer gun gives better ballistics, but in practice the length of modern guns is usually 45 to 50 calibres; though this has been sometimes exceeded in what may be termed “freak” guns, and may in future be exceeded in hyper-velocity

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text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orange Free State