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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Professional

EDUCATION, Professional. Professional education as distinguished from elementary, secondary, industrial or liberal education, is that form of higher education specially designed as a preparation for “learned,” technical, commercial, or social professions or callings in which men and women deal with their fellows, with institutions, or with material things, according to abstract principles, with an understanding of natural or social forces and the ways in which they have been or may be applied. To the three “learned professions” of the older time, other professions have been added to meet the need of a developing civilization. Hence professional education takes account of dentistry, chemistry, engineering, education, pharmacy and veterinary medicine, while

certain other callings are so well-organized as to their materials and methods that education for them might be included in the professional group. In this latter class belong journalism; commerce and business organization, including banking, insurance, transportation, foreign and domestic trade and accounting; public service, including expert service in federal, state, municipal, and diplomatic administration; and social service, comprising charities, corrections, Red Cross, welfare work and sociological research.

At the close of the American Revolution there were, besides the semi-ecclesiastical colleges like Harvard and Yale, only two professional schools in English-speaking America — the medical college of Philadelphia, now a part of the University of Pennsylvania, and the medical department of King's College, now Columbia University. The law school of Harvard University, the oldest of existing law schools in this country, was opened in 1817; the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery dates from 1839; the oldest school of veterinary medicine (Iowa State College) began as late as 1880. From these early beginnings the present long list of American professional schools has grown. The recent expansion of these institutions in the five clearly recognized professions, as published by the United States Bureau of Education for the years 1900 and 1916, is shown in the accompanying tabulation, from which are omitted statistics of schools which train for the professions of engineering (see ), chemistry, commerce and social service, for the reason that such training is still carried on largely in the usual four-years undergraduate course, either in close co-ordination with other undergraduate divisions or in parallel separate schools, with the inclusion of a considerable amount of fundamental or buttressing material of a non-professional character in the quasi-professional curriculum. Statistics of training schools for nurses are likewise omitted because these institutions are not, by organization, faculty, curriculum or special equipment, quite comparable with professional schools which are independent establishments, not merely adjuncts or accessories to major enterprises like hospitals which exist for an entirely different purpose.

The standards of admission, instruction and graduation in professional schools have markedly improved since 1870, notably in medicine, engineering and education. In the case of medicine the changes since 1904 have been almost revolutionary under the firm and statesmanlike guidance of the Council on Medical

Education of the American Medical Association and the Association of American Medical Colleges, two voluntary organizations within the medical profession, which have neither legal nor coercive authority over schools licensing boards or individual teachers or students. Organizations quite similar to these two have exercised in a smaller degree an elevating influence on corresponding forms of professional education during the last two decades. Legislation by the states now regulates more or less effectively the practice, and hence the education to practice, of the last five of the six tabulated professions, and in some degree also the quasi-professions of accountancy, nursing, etc.

Several specific examples are here given to illustrate the progress just described and the present state of certain forms of professional education. The law school of Harvard College required no previous course of study in 1857; male students, 19 years of age and of good moral character, were eligible for admission. Not until 1870 was the course extended to two years; in 1877 it was raised to three years; since 1899 only graduates of approved colleges are eligible for admission. Yet in 1916 this law school had 791 students, more than any other law school in the country except certain evening schools in Chicago and in Washington, D, C. By 1916 all but 20 of the 124 law schools reporting to the Bureau of Education prescribed three-year courses and only one remained on the one-year basis; all but 26 maintained a standard year of at least 35 weeks. The requirements for admission, until after 1870, were merely a knowledge of English and the common branches; by 1880 they were made the completion of a four-years' high school course; at the present time nearly all the better schools require the completion of at least two years of work in a college of liberal arts. Though the content of the work of these two years is not prescribed, students are urged to choose such subjects as history, politics, English literature, logic, philosophy, economics and public speaking.

The professional curriculum in law is usually quite closely prescribed during at least the first year, including contracts, torts, personal property, real property, domestic relations and criminal law; for the remainder of the course a varying degree of freedom is accorded the student. The methods of instruction have been remodeled along with the changes just noted; the original lecture system was succeeded by the textbook system, and this in turn by the “case system,” in which the student makes analytical studies of actual cases decided in courts, discusses these cases in the classroom, and passes examinations on them and upon lectures dealing with the principle involved. The degree of bachelor of laws (LL.B.) is generally conferred upon the completion of the regular course; certain schools, e.g., the universities of Chicago Michigan and Yale, confer instead the degree of doctor of law (J.D. or J.U.D.) upon those graduates who entered with an A.B. or B.S. degree from an approved college. For a fourth or graduate year the degree of master of laws (M.L.) is sometimes given.

Medical education has undergone even more striking evolution than law. The early medical schools were usually connected with colleges, but, beginning in the early 19th century, came a

period of about 75 years when the independent proprietary medical school flourished, to the grave detriment of the profession. In about a century 437 medical schools appeared in the United States and Canada, of which 162 were in operation in 1906 when the campaign for improvement began to prosper. The famous Flexner report on “Medical Education in the United States and Canada,” published in 1910 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, is a landmark in both medical and professional education in North America. Concerning the majority of these numerous schools the report states:

From this chaotic and almost standardless condition, medical education moved up in 25 years so that the best American schools are quite the equal of the best European schools. The universities have resumed actual and vigorous control; graded courses of medical studies, adequately based on two years of college training, including chemistry, physics and zoology, and covering four school years of approximately nine months each, are the rule. Six medical schools have already taken still more advanced ground by requiring before graduation the satisfactory completion of a fifth year to be spent in an approved hospital or in other acceptable clinical work — Minnesota, Stanford, Rush, California, Northwestern and Vermont, and six State boards have established a requirement of one year's internship for licensure to practice. Numerous full-time salaried teachers have replaced the volunteer practitioner-lecturer, even in important clinical chairs. Great laboratories for instruction and research, supplemented by extensive hospitals for clinical teaching, have been built at enormous expense, sometimes by individual gifts, as in universities like Harvard, Cornell, Washington and Leland Stanford Jr., and sometimes by State or municipal appropriations, as in universities like Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa and Cincinnati, thus setting the highest standards now known in the profession. The degree of doctor of medicine (M.D.) is almost invariably conferred upon graduates. A special degree in public health (Dr.P.H. or Gr.P.H.) is given by several institutions, e.g., Michigan, Harvard and California.

Such progress meant inevitably the death of many weak and scandalous schools; by 1917 the roster of medical schools showed 96 names, of which 29 were integral parts of State universities. Proprietary, profiteering schools clearly could not live when the amount spent annually on each student in 82 schools for which an estimate was made in 1917 was $419, and the corresponding return from the student in fees was about $150, the fees ranging from $25 in Oklahoma to $275 in Columbia.

Out of 48 schools of dentistry only 12 are independent institutions. The dental curriculum covers three years of professional work based upon four years of high school, and leads to the degree of doctor of dental surgery (D.D.S.). A movement to raise the course to four years, comparable with medicine, has attained considerable momentum with the cordial support of the leaders of the profession. Tuition fees range from $60 to $200, averaging about $150.

The schools of theology represent a wide variety of standards, from the “full salvation” school (in Kentucky) to the great group of seminaries about the Catholic University of America, the Union Theological Seminary of New York, Princeton Theological Seminary, or Boston University School of Theology, all of which as a rule require a bachelor's degree or its equivalent for admission and a three-years course for graduation. The degree usually conferred is bachelor of divinity (B.D.) or bachelor of sacred theology (S.T.B.). The theological schools reporting to the bureau of education in 1900 and 1916 are summarized in the accompanying table. The attendance of 11,291 in 1916 included 760 women, but these figures do not include the considerable number of students in semi-professional Bible schools and institutes for training evangelists, missionaries and other church workers. Theological schools in 1916 were located in 32 States, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois having each more than 15. By denominations the distributions of 1900 and 1916 were:

All but 15 of the 71 schools of pharmacy have university or college connection. Admission requirements to the two-years course are two to four years of high school; to the four-years course, usually the full high school course of four years. The former leads to the title of graduate in pharmacy (Ph.G.) or pharmaceutical chemist (Ph.C.), the latter to bachelor of science in pharmacy (B.S. in Phar.)

One of the chief reasons for the rapid development of veterinary medicine is found in the great demand by the Federal government for inspectors of food animals and by the farmers for the prevention or cure of swine and cattle diseases. Nine of the 22 veterinary schools are connected with state agricultural colleges. The course of four years is generally based on a high school education and leads to the degree of doctor of veterinary medicine (D.V.M.). The largest schools are those of Iowa, Cornell, Ohio, and Kansas City.

The training of teachers for the elementary schools does not fall under the heading of professional education, but the last decade has seen a gradual standardization of really

training of teachers, comparable with the other professions in scope and severity of requirements. Few of the normal schools and colleges of education do more than incorporate into the regular undergraduate curriculum considerable courses in psychology, history of education, educational organization, and practice teaching in neighboring schools, or in college-controlled or laboratory schools as at the universities of Wisconsin, Missouri and Minnesota. The better institutions limit the specialized studies in education to the last two years. Teachers College of Columbia University, which has been a graduate school since 1914, and the education divisions of graduate schools like those of Chicago, Harvard and California, are the best examples of professional courses in education, though they may not, with the exception of the first, be known technically as professional schools. The volume and significance of the researches of this group of institutions augur well for the further development of the profession.

Illustrative of the newer type of professional schools which require more than a four-years high school course for admission, are the Graduate School of Business Administration of Harvard University, the richly endowed New York School of Philanthropy, the Tuck School of Administration and Finance of Dartmouth College and the Yale School of Forestry.

So enormously expensive has the maintenance of professional education of all kinds become, that it must more and more depend upon tax-support or upon generous endowment, and less and less upon student fees and the free services of lawyers, doctors and dentists. No first class professional school can be content with mere teaching; it must engage in investigations of new conditions and new problems, in medicine, theology and education as well as in journalism, chemistry and social service, in the strenuous endeavor to master alike the social and natural forces which affect human welfare. Hence the graduate professional school and the research institution or endowment are new integral parts of professional education at the present time. Examples of these are the Graduate School of Business Administration of Harvard, medical endowments for research in cancer at Columbia and Harvard and in urology at Johns Hopkins, the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research at Minnesota, the Veterinary Investigation Department of Iowa State College, the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois, and the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research and School of Specific Industries of the University of Pittsburgh.

To meet these multiplying and mounting needs of professional education, men and states have poured out during the last two decades a veritable stream of gifts and appropriations as evidence of approval of the soundness and progressiveness of the management of such schools. In 1917 the University of Chicago received nearly $5,500,000 for its medical schools. Vanderbilt, Washington, Johns Hopkins and Yale have each recently received $1,000,000 or more for medical work; Pennsylvania received more than $1,000,000 for dentistry; the Pulitzer donations to Columbia for journalism were $2,000,000. The endowments

of eight theological schools are above $1,000,000 each, three passing $2,000,000 and one (Princeton), passing $3,000,000, while the grounds, buildings and library of the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church are reported at more than $2,000,000. The building and library of the law school of the University of Chicago are estimated at $500,000, and the properties of the Harvard Law School (including $600,000 of endowment) at $2,000,000.

Bibliography. — Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education; United States Bureau of Education (Bulletin, 1913, No. 4, G. E. MacLean, “Present Standards of Higher Education in the United States”); Annual Educational Numbers of the Journal of the American Medical Association (in reprints); Annual Reports of the Conferences of the Council on Medical Education; Annual Reports of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching; Bulletins of the same: Flexner, “Medical Education in the United States and Canada” (No. 4, 1910); Redlich, “The Case Method in American Law Schools” (No. 8, 1914); Annual Reports of the Meetings of the Religious Education Society.


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Page:Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire vol 1 (1897).djvu/151

Rh virtues. Numa could only prevent a few neighbouring villages from plundering each other's harvests. Antoninus diffused order and tranquillity over the greatest part of the earth. His reign is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life he was an amiable as well as a good man. The native simplicity of his virtue was a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed with moderation the conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent pleasures of society; and the benevolence of his soul displayed itself in a cheerful serenity of temper.

The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of a severer and more laborious kind. It was the well-earned harvest of many a learned conference, of many a patient lecture, and many a midnight lucubration. At the age of twelve years he embraced the rigid system of the Stoics, which taught him to submit his body to his mind, his passions to his reason; to consider virtue as the only good, vice as the only evil, all things external as things indifferent. His Meditations, composed in the tumult of a camp, are still extant; and he even condescended to give lessons on philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps consistent with the modesty of a sage or the dignity of an emperor. But his life was the noblest commentary on the precepts of Zeno. He was severe to himself, indulgent to the imperfection of others, just and beneficent to all mankind. He regretted that Avidius Cassius, who excited a rebellion in Syria, had disappointed him, by a voluntary death, of the

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Page:Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire vol 1 (1897).djvu/152

78 pleasure of converting an enemy into a friend; and he justified the sincerity of that sentiment, by moderating the zeal of the senate against the adherents of the traitor. War he detested, as the disgrace and calamity of human nature; but when the necessity of a just defence called upon him to take up arms, he readily exposed his person to eight winter campaigns on the frozen banks of the Danube, the severity of which was at last fatal to the weakness of his constitution. His memory was revered by a grateful posterity, and above a century after his death many persons preserved the image of Marcus Antoninus among those of their household gods.

If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes deserved the honour of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom.

The labours of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward that inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of virtue, and by the exquisite delight of beholding the general happiness of which they were the authors. A just but melancholy reflection embittered, however, the noblest of human enjoyments. They must often have recollected the instability of a happiness which depended on the character of a single man. The fatal moment was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, or some jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that absolute power which they had exerted for the benefit of their people. The ideal restraints of the senate and the laws might serve to display the virtues, but could never correct the vices, of the emperor. The military force was a blind and irresistible instrument of oppression; and the corruption of Roman manners would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and


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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Serfdom

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Serfdom


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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sergel, Johan Tobias

SERGEL, JOHAN TOBIAS (1740-1814), Swedish sculptor, was born on the 8th of September 1740 in Stockholm. After studying for some time in Paris he went to Rome, where he remained for twelve years and sculptured a number of groups in marble, including, besides subjects from classical mythology, a colossal representation of “History,” in which are depicted the achievements of Gustavus Adolphus before the Chancellor Oxenstierna. It was in Rome also that he modelled the statue of Gustavus III., subsequently cast in bronze and purchased by the city of Stockholm in 1796. Sergel returned to Stockholm in 1779 and continued to produce his works there. Among them are a tomb for Gustavus Vasa, a monument to Descartes, and a large relief in the church of St Clarens in Stockholm, representing the Resurrection. He died in his native city on the 26th of February 1814.


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Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/467

297 it presented in TS. (iii. 1. 11$8$) rather sets off its difficulties than gives any help in solving them. It makes marutas vocative in a, and the comm. also understands the word as vocative, not heeding its accent; the preferable reading would be údapruto marutas, both vocative. The comm. then takes tā́n together with udaprútas as qualifying meghān 'clouds' understood. Ppp., with the majority of SPP's authorities and some of ours (P.M.), reads udaplútas. Then tā́ṅ (pada-text tā́n) is read by all the authorities in both texts, although the sense necessarily requires (as in our translation is assumed) tā́m, as antecedent to yā́. But here, again, all the pada-texts have yā́ḥ, which completes their confusion. TS. has, for b, the wholly different and doubtless secondary phrase vṛ́ṣṭiṁ yé víçve marúto junánti, making of the line 'O Maruts, send those water-swimming ones who, [namely] all the Maruts, hasten the rain.' The comm. understands yā, but then also víçvā, as neut. pl. (vrīhiyavādisasyāni), while all our pada-texts have correctly víçvāḥ; the comm. then is obliged to supply a ca 'and' after nivátas. In c, d, TS. reads króçāti for éjāti, gárdā for gláhā, pérum for érum, and tuñjānā́ for tundānā́ (some of the mss., including our O.D.R., have tudānā́); the comm. also has tuñjānā, but gahlā (so printed; but it should doubtless be galhā, since he derives it from root garh 'chide': one of our mss. (W.) and three of SPP's have gálhā) instead of gláhā or gárdā; he translates it 'thunder.' These changes on gláhā and éru, at least, are plainly no real variations of reading, but blind blunders over an unintelligible text. Ppp. is corrupt and hardly legible: perhaps ye jahāti ktahnā kanye ’va dunnonaṁ dunnāmā patye ‘va jāyām. R. suggests that the line c-d belongs to a gambling hymn, and that we are to read glahas and ūrum, a comparison being made between the shaking of the dice-holder and the agitatio of a female at the coitus.

1. Flowing on, devoted to it; by day and by night flowing on; I, of desirable activity, call upon the heavenly waters.

2. Let them release here the worked-in waters of the ceremony for conducting forward; let them at once make [them] to go.

title: Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/467


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Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/468

vi. 23- 3. In the impulse (savá) of the divine impeller (savitár) let men do their [sacred] work; weal to us be the waters, the herbs propitious.

1. They flow forth from the snowy (mountain); in the Indus somewhere [is their] gathering; may the heavenly waters give to me that remedy for heart-burn.

2. Whatever hath burnt (ā-dyut) in my eyes, and what in my heels, my front feet; may the waters remove all that—they of physicians the most excellent physicians.

3. Ye whose spouse is the Indus, whose king is the Indus, all ye streams that are—give us the remedy for this; for that would we enjoy you.

1. Both the five and the fifty that gather against those of the nape—let them all disappear from here, like the noises (? vāká) of the apacíts.

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text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 22

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 22


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 23

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 23


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 24

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 24


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schultz, Hermann

SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836-1903), German theologian (see ), died in 1903.


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Page:Messages and Letters of William Henry Harrison Vol. 1.djvu/101

Rh and the people of the Territory which declares that there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in it has prevented the Country from populating and been the reason of driving many valuable Citizens possessing Slaves to the Spanish side of the Mississippi, most of whom but for the prohibition contained in the ordinance would have settled in this Territory, and the consequences of keeping that prohibition in force will be that of obliging the numerous Class of Citizens disposed to emigrate, to seek an Asylum in that country where they can be permitted to enjoy their property.

Your memorialists however and the people they represent do not wish for a repeal of the article entirely, but that it may be suspended for the Term of Ten Years and then to be again in force, but that the slaves brought into the Territory during the Continuance of this Suspension and their progeny, may be considered and continued in the same state of Servitude, as if they had remained in those parts of the United States where Slavery is permitted and from whence they may have been removed.

Your memoralists beg leave further to represent, That the quantity of lands in the Territory open for Settlement is by no means sufficiently large to admit of a population adequate to the purposes of Civil Government. They therefore pray that the Indian titles to the land lying between the settled part of the Illinois country and the Ohio, between the general Indian boundary line running from the mouth of the river Kentucky [Greenville Treaty Line] and the tract commonly called Clark's Grant [Clark County, Indiana] and between and below the said Clark's Grant and the Ohio and Wabash Rivers, may be extinguished; and as an incouragement for a speedy population of the Country; that those lands and all other public lands in the Territory may be sold in Smaller Tracts and at a lower price than is now allowed by the existing Laws. A purchase of most of the Country above men- tioned but more especially of that part lying between the Illinois and the Ohio it is conceived may be easily obtained from the Indians and on very moderate and advantageous Terms.

Several persons (as your memoralists are informed) having settled on the public lands in this Territory with the intention of purchasing the same when offered for sale by the United States are fearful that advantages may be taken


text: A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Wang Hsien-chih


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schurman, Jacob Gould

SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854-), American educationist (see ), was appointed in 1912 U.S. minister to Greece and Montenegro, serving one year. During the World War, when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare, he urged that American rights be firmly insisted upon; he pointed out that the destruction of the “Lusitania” in 1915 threatened to efface the distinction between combatants and non-combatants long recognized by civilized peoples. In 1915 he was first vice-president of the N.Y. State Constitutional Convention. In Oct. 1917 he was appointed a member of the N.Y. State Food Commission, resigning in June 1918 to go to France as lecturer to American soldiers under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A. He was opposed to many of President Wilson's policies, especially in connexion with Mexico, and also to Article X. of the Covenant of the League of Nations, believing that it would involve the United States in war. As early as 1913 he urged the independence

of the Philippines in the near future; in 1914 he declared in favour of woman suffrage. He resigned the presidency of Cornell University in 1920. He was appointed minister to China in 1921. He was the author of The Balkan Wars 1912-1913 (1914, lectures at Princeton).


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Rh Open Ranges.—The closed stove with its movable grate and many contrivances for the disposal and regulation of heat is an invention of recent years; but the open fire with some primitive arrangement for cooking above, or by the side of it, dates back to a remote age. In the peat districts on the east and west coasts of England, cooking is still carried on under what appear to us almost impossible conditions, i.e. by means of a peat fire, burning on a stone hearth, with a wide chimney above it. In nearly all the houses the back kitchen or scullery is provided with a brick oven, in which bread and joints of meat may be baked; but by reason of the cost of extra fuel, time and trouble entailed, the heating of this oven is a weekly, or at most, a bi-weekly occurrence, and on other days culinary operations are confined to the open kitchen fire. Vegetables and puddings are cooked in saucepans, or pots, as they are described in the local dialect, suspended over the fire; the means of suspension being a rigid bar of iron, fixed in the breast-wall of the chimney, and supplied with strong hooks of varying length, to allow the vessels to be raised or lowered to any height above the fire. All the culinary utensils are provided with half-circular handles, curved over the top like the handle of a kettle, but running from side to side instead of from back to front. They have also a large oval iron vessel, which they term a "hang-over oven," and use for baking pies, puddings and cakes. It has a depressed lid, like a braizing pan, which is filled with hot peat; and in this manner a steady, gentle heat is applied from above and below. A similar vessel, called a "kail-pot," was used by the ancient Egyptians for baking bread and cakes.

Before man's ingenuity had invented the chimney, the vessels were suspended from a tripod of three bars of iron or hard wood. One hook only could be inserted at the point where the rods were joined, and from this depended a large cauldron used for the various purposes of boiling and stewing. Cakes were baked and fish cooked in an open pan, which was probably the prototype of the North-country "griddle" or "girdle."

In pre-historic times, while the early Britons were subsisting mainly on milk, fruit, herbs and other products of the land, the ancient Druids built fires of wood on hearths formed of rough stones; and it has been supposed that the agreeable odour of the roasted flesh of the sacrificed animals first suggested their use as food; but until the year 61, when the Romans abolished Druidism by force, the inhabitants of Britain would not have dared to commit what would have been considered a terrible sacrilege.

There is no direct evidence of the fact, but it is highly probable that roasting in front of the fire was one of the improved methods of cooking introduced by the Normans in the eleventh century. Roasting spits were in general use in the fourteenth century. They were first turned by hand; but afterwards dogs were specially trained for the work which was executed by the dog keeping in motion a revolving


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farnell, Lewis Richard

FARNELL, LEWIS RICHARD (1856-), English classical scholar and archaeologist, was born at Salisbury Jan. 10 1856. Educated at the City of London school and Exeter College, Oxford, he was elected fellow of his college in 1880 and subsequently rector in 1913. In 1920 he became vice-chancellor of the university. After graduating he studied classical archaeology at the universities of Berlin and Munich, and travelled much in Greece and Asia Minor. In 1909 he was elected the first Wilde lecturer in comparative religion, and he was Hibbert lecturer in 1911. He published Cults of the Greek States (5 vols., 1896); The Evolution of Religion (1905); Greece and Babylon (1911); The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion (1912).


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farrand, Livingston

FARRAND, LIVINGSTON (1867-), American educationist, was born at Newark, N.J., June 14 1867. After graduation from Princeton in 1888, he studied medicine at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, and received the degree of M.D. in 1891. During the next two years he studied at Cambridge (England) and at Berlin. From 1893 to 1903 he taught psychology at Columbia University as instructor, and, after 1901, adjunct professor; from 1903 to 1914 he was professor of anthropology. In 1897 he accompanied the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, which visited the Indians of British Columbia, and published two monographs as results of his own investigations. From 1905 to 1914 he was executive secretary of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis; and from 1912 to 1914 was treasurer of the American Health Association, during the same period editing the American Journal of Public Health. From 1914 to 1919 he was president of the university of Colorado, but in 1917 was granted leave of absence, following his appointment by the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation to direct the work against tuberculosis in France. In 1919 he was made chairman of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross. In 1921 he was elected to succeed Jacob Gould Schurman as president of Cornell University. He was the author of Basis of American History (1904) and various articles on psychology and anthropology.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive I. C.

Among the more cogent critiques of U.S. policy toward Vietnam is the contention that the U.S. failed to recognize in Ho Chi Minh a potential Asian "Tito." This view holds that Ho has always been more concerned with Vietnam's independence and sovereign viability than with following the interests and dictates of Moscow and Peking. With U.S. support, the neutrality in the argument runs, Ho would have adopted some form of East–West conflict and maintained the DRV as a natural and durable bulwark against Chinese expansion southward. Thus, were it not for "U.S. communist blinders," Ho would have served the larger purposes of American policy in Asia. Though the focus of inquiry in this study is the period immediately following World War II, when it would have been relatively easy to support an anti-Japanese, anti-colonial Ho, it is often argued that the U.S. neglected another opportunity after the Geneva Conference of 1954 — and indeed, that U.S. acceptance of Ho, and a communist dominated Vietnam, may be the only path to peace in Southeast Asia today. The historical (1945–1954) argument has a persuasive ring. In the light of the present costs and repercussions of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, any prior way out can seem attractive. It is possible, however, that a dynamic and unified communist Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh could have been vigorously expansionist, thus causing unanticipated difficult problems in some ways comparable to current ones.

Many authors have advanced one version or another of the "Tito" hypothesis. Some develop the principal thesis that a different U.S. policy could have moved Ho to non-alignment and opposition to Peking; others stress the corollary that Ho was forced into dependence upon Peking and Moscow by American opposition or indifference. Whether Ho was a nationalist or a communist is not at issue; all of the authors quoted seem to accept that Ho was a communist, and that a communist Vietnam would probably have eventuated under his leadership. Rather, their arguments center on what they perceive to be Ho's willingness to subordinate communist goals, forms, and international discipline to attaining Vietnam's independence and unity. A few openly favor a communist Vietnam on the grounds that only a national communism led by Ho would be sufficiently strong to survive adjacent to China. They stress Ho's attempts in 1945 and 1946 to obtain Western backing, and point out that antipathy to China is a pillar of Viet nationalism. Many concede that the Tito analogy is not wholly appropriate. Unlike Tito, Ho came to power after the war without the aid of another communist state. More basically, there was no analogy to be made until late 1948, when the experiment with Tito seemed like it would work. Rh

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Rh It has already been mentioned that the tip of the young primary root circumnutates, and Darwin also found that the tip of the radicle is extremely sensitive to the irritation of small bodies in contact with it. It is also positively geotropic, directing itself vertically downward if the partially grown radicle is laid horizontally; and it may be assumed from the behavior of other plants of the same kind that the tip of the radicle is negatively heliotropic—i.e., it turns away from the source of light. Whether it is also sensitive to differences in the degree of moisture on different sides (hydrotropic), or to differences of temperature (thermotropic), is not known, but it may be inferred that such is the case; nor do we know whether it is affected by electric currents in the earth

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Nonetheless, these authors point out that if the U.S. found it advantageous to set aside its repugnance to Tito's communism in the interest of stemming Russian expansion in Europe, it should have been willing to accommodate Ho Chi Minh's communism for similar ends in Asia. This critique generally ends with the accusation that the U.S. purpose in Southeast Asia is simply and solely to stop communism. (Tab 1)

An examination of Ho Chi Minh's political development through 1950 may provide a basis to narrow the range of speculation concerning Ho and U.S. policy. From such a review, it is evident that the man who in 1945 became President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was a mature, extraordinarily dedicated revolutionary who had undergone severe hardships serving the cause of Vietnam's freedom from France. Fifty-five years of age in 1945, he had been a communist for twenty-five years — one of the founding members of the French Communist Party — and a Comintern agent in Asia for fifteen years before World War II. He was originally of Nghe-An, a province traditionally a spawning ground of revolutionists; of a father imprisoned by the French for nationalist activism; and of a Hue school known for radical nationalism among its students. Exiled from Vietnam from 1910 to 1940, imprisoned in Hong Kong and in China, deprived of home, family, fame, fortune and companionship outside the Comintern's conspiratorial circles, he apparently devoted himself selflessly all those years to revolution in Vietnam. Ruth Fischer, a well-known German former communist who knew Ho during this period, has written, "It was Ho Chi Minh's nationalism which impressed us European Communists born and bred in a rather grey kind of abstract internationalism."

For Ho, now back in Asia, World war II opened new avenues to the attainment of his life-long goals. France discredited itself in Vietnam through Vichy's collaboration with the Japanese, and then in 1945 was toppled from power altogether by Japanese arms. In the meantime, Ho had built the Viet Minh into the only Vietnam-wide political organization capable of effective resistance to either the Japanese or the French. Ho was the only Vietnamese wartime leader with a national following, and he assured himself wider fealty among the Vietnamese people when in August–September, 1945, he overthrew the Japanese, obtained the abdication of Bao Dai, established the DRV, and staged receptions for in-coming allied occupation forces —in which the DRV acted as the incumbent Vietnamese government. For a few weeks in September 1945, Vietnam was — for the first and only time in its modern history — free of foreign domination, and united from north to south under Ho Chi Minh.

Ho became the focus of the nationalist fervor evoked by these and subsequent events. Leaders of the rival Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDD) and the Revolutionary League (Dong Minh Hoi), although admitted to the DRV government, commanded no grass-roots organizations, and since they were closely associated with the Chinese Nationalists, shared in Rh

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text:
Council for Maltese Living Abroad Act

CHAPTER 515

22nd July, 2012*

Short title.
1. The short title of this Act is the Council for Maltese Living Abroad Act.

Interpretation.
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires -

 * "the Constitution" means the Constitution of Malta;

 * "the Council" means the Council established by article 3;

 * "Maltese living abroad" means any person of Maltese nationality who is living outside Malta and has so lived for a period of at least twelve months;

 * "the Minister" means the Minister responsible for foreign affairs;

 * "overseas member" means a member of the Council who is living outside Malta;

 * "the public service" shall have the same meaning as is assigned to it by article 124 of the Constitution of Malta;

 * "Register" shall mean the Registers referred to in article 10.

Establishment of Council.
3. (1) There is hereby established a Council for Maltese Living Abroad, hereinafter referred to as "the Council".

(2) The Council shall be the body representing Maltese communities abroad before all Malta government entities including the public service and any public authority, institution or organisation responsible for implementing policies affecting these communities.

(3) The functions of the Council shall be the following:

 * (a) to monitor the quality of life of Maltese communities and of their individual members residing abroad;

 * (b) to strengthen, facilitate and cultivate the ties between Maltese communities abroad and Malta’s political, cultural, economic and social life;

 * (c) to ensure effective protection of the rights of Maltese communities and of their individual members residing abroad;

 * (d) to facilitate the maintenance of the cultural and linguistic identity of Maltese communities abroad and promote Maltese culture abroad, in particular the teaching of the Maltese language;

 * (e) to promote the history of migration in Malta in cooperation with government authorities;

 * (f) to maintain ties with such all organizations established by Maltese living abroad and keep a register of nongovernment organizations established abroad;

 * (g) to analyse and verify the problems encountered by Maltese communities abroad, including professional and educational training and development, and recognition of qualifications and skills gained in Malta;

 * (h) to prepare any proposal, or make any suggestion or recommendation relating to legislation or administrative measures as well as international agreements and European Union regulations affecting the rights and interests of Maltese living abroad;

 * (i) to ensure that Maltese living abroad are not excluded from any benefits to which they would otherwise be entitled originating from the institutions of the European Union;

 * (j) to promote and encourage studies and research work relating to subjects concerning Maltese communities and persons of Maltese descent around the world; and

 * (k) to be consulted on, and contribute to, the drafting of Maltese legislation or administrative measures affecting Maltese communities abroad.

Duties.
4. The Council shall be responsible to provide the Minister with advice on:

 * (a) any Bill presented to the House which directly or indirectly affects the rights entitlements or interests of Maltese living abroad;

 * (b) any budgetary matter or administrative measure relating to the interests of Maltese communities abroad, including the promotion of Maltese culture and language abroad whether on the initiative of Government or any public institution, by whatever name called, entrusted with the promotion of Maltese culture abroad;

 * (c) any transmission on and production of public broadcasting services relating to programmes intended for Maltese living abroad; and

 * (d) any other relevant matter referred to the Council by the Minister.

Council set-up.
5. (1) The Council shall be composed as follows:

 * (a) the Minister responsible for foreign affairs who shall be ex officio its Chairman;

 * (b) five members who shall be appointed by the Prime Minister for a term of three years, after consulting the Leader of the Opposition, from amongst Maltese nationals living in Malta or abroad, who have special knowledge and experience of the needs and interests of Maltese living abroad, and who have lived abroad or have worked or are working in non-governmental organisations whose principal aim is the promotion of the welfare of Maltese living abroad; and

 * (c) ten members appointed by the Prime Minister for a term of three years from amongst Maltese nationals who are members of Maltese communities living abroad (hereinafter referred to as "overseas members"), to be appointed in accordance with the Schedule, which may be amended or substituted by regulations made under this Act.

(2) Members of the Council may be re-appointed for one more term on the expiration of their initial term of office.

(3) Except for the Chairman, a person shall not be qualified to hold office as a member of the Council if he is a Minister, Parliamentary Secretary, a member of or a candidate for election to the House of Representatives or the European Parliament or national, state, regional or local legislature, or a member of a local government authority. A member of the Council shall not hold any position which is incompatible with the correct performance of his official duties or with public confidence therein.

(4) Subject to the provisions of this article, the office of a member of the Council shall become vacant:

 * (a) at the expiration of three years from the date of appointment or re-appointment; or

 * (b) upon resignation by letter addressed to the Minister; or

 * (c) if any circumstances arise that, if he were not a member of the Council, would cause him to be disqualified for appointment as such.

(5) The Council may set up Regional Councils for any one of the countries listed in the Schedule. Such Regional Councils shall be exclusively responsible and accountable to the Council. Their composition shall be the within the exclusive remit of the Council.

Meetings.
6. (1) Meetings of the Council may take place through the medium of video and, or audio teleconferencing and the records of such meetings shall register the presence of any overseas members participating through such medium.

(2) The meetings of the Council shall be called by the Chairman on his own initiative or at the request of any four members of the Council.

(3) The Council shall not act unless a quorum consisting of the Chairman or his delegate and not less than eight members including at least one overseas member is present, provided that where video and, or audio teleconferencing takes place, any overseas member participating in such meeting shall be deemed to be present at such meeting for all purposes of this Act.

(4) At least once every year the Chairman shall convene a meeting of the Council in Malta inviting all overseas members to attend and participate in such meeting.

(5) The decisions of the Council shall be adopted by a simple majority of the votes of the members present. The Chairman shall not have an original vote or a casting vote.

(6) Any vacancy among the members of the Council shall not invalidate the proceedings of the Council.

(7) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Council may regulate its own procedure.

Reports.
7. (1) By the end of March of the year immediately following the year of its constitution, the Council shall publish a report of all its activities and annually thereafter, and send a copy of the report to the Clerk of the House of Representatives who shall immediately lay such report on the Table of the House, provided that if the House is not in session, then such report shall be laid within four weeks after the House resumes its session.

(2) The report mentioned in sub-article (1) shall, within a period of eight weeks from the date on which a copy thereof is laid on the Table of the House, be noted and discussed by the Foreign and European Affairs Standing Committee of the House or by any other committee replacing it and such Committee shall make appropriate recommendations to the House on any matters arising from the report.

(3) A copy of such report shall also be sent to the Standing Committee on Social Affairs of the House.

Directorate.
8. (1) There shall be established within the Ministry responsible for Foreign Affairs or any other Ministry as the Prime Minister may determine, a Directorate responsible for Maltese living abroad, whose aim shall be the promotion and protection of the rights and interests of Maltese living abroad.

(2) The Directorate shall serve as a focal point for information, advice and co-ordination to Maltese living abroad and any association representing Maltese abroad or non-governmental organization included in the Register.

(3) The Directorate shall be responsible to ensure the implementation of this Act.

Secretary and staff.
9. (1) There shall be a Secretary to the Council who shall be a person appointed by the Minister or a public officer designated by the Minister to perform the functions of Secretary.

(2) The Council shall also have such other staff as the Minister may deem necessary and appoint or designate as aforesaid.

Register of Non-Governmental Organizations.
10. (1) There shall be kept a Register of non-governmental organizations set up outside Malta which are involved in the promotion and protection of the interests of Maltese living abroad as well as a Register of prominent Maltese nationals living abroad who have distinguished themselves in their respective profession, vocation or work outside Malta.

(2) Such registers shall be kept at the Office of the Council and shall be the responsibility of the Secretary.

(3) The inclusion, exclusion and removal of an organization or individual from the Registers shall be the sole responsibility of the Council.

Power to make regulations.
11. The Minister may make regulations to implement and give better effect to the provisions of this Act and may also, without prejudice to the generality hereof, make regulations:

 * (a) to regulate any appointment or election of any member of the Council who lives abroad;

 * (b) to amend or substitute in whole or in part the provisions of the Schedule;

 * (c) to prescribe anything that may or is to be prescribed under this Act;

 * (d) to provide for assistance to overseas members who attend meetings of the Council in Malta and for the establishment of relevant schemes;

 * (e) with the concurrence of the Minister responsible for culture, to establish a Maltese Cultural Institute for the promotion of Maltese culture outside Malta, and for such purpose to regulate the composition, functions, operation and appointment of officers and staff attached to such Institute:

 * Provided that no regulation made under this paragraph shall have effect unless it has received the prior approval of the House signified by resolution.

=Schedule=

[Article 5(1)(c)]

1. The members of the Council residing abroad appointed by the Prime Minister shall be ordinary residents living in the following states or countries and two members shall be selected from amongst persons living in each of the following countries or states:

 * (a) the State of Victoria in the Commonwealth of Australia;

 * (b) the State of New South Wales in the Commonwealth of Australia;

 * (c) The United States of America.

And one member shall be selected from amongst persons living in each of the following countries:

 * (a) United Kingdom; and

 * (b) any state of the Commonwealth of Australia (other than Victoria and New South Wales );

 * (c) Canada; and

 * (d) Members states of the European Union other than Malta and the United Kingdom.

2. In choosing overseas members to the Council due consideration shall be given to the opinions, suggestions, recommendations and advice of, where applicable, federations of Maltese associations, Maltese community councils and the associations most representative of communities of Maltese living abroad.

title: Council for Maltese Living Abroad Act


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farwell, Sir George

FARWELL, SIR GEORGE (1845-1915), English judge, was born at Codsall, Staffs., Dec. 22 1845. He was educated at Rugby and Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1866. He was called to the bar in 1871. In 1891 he became a Q.C. and in 1895 a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, while in 1899 he was raised to the bench. In 1900 he came into prominence over the case known as the Taff Vale judgment (see ), since his decision, though reversed by the court of appeal, was upheld in 1901 by the House of Lords, and ultimately led to the passing of the Trade Disputes Act (1906). In 1906 Farwell was made a lord of appeal, but resigned this position in 1913. He died at Dunster, Som., Dec. 30 1915. He published Concise Treatise on the Law of Powers (1874).


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40 chief points of difference from the root are that the xylem and phloëm of these vascular bundles of the stem do not alternate on the section, as they did in the root, but the phloëm of each bundle is on the same radius as the xylem; and that there is no pericycle, for branches

9.—Transverse sections through very young twigs of oak, showing the vascular bundles of the stem (P and X), arranged in a ring round the pith, and joined by the cambium ring—the fine line passing through the bundles; M and s, the vascular bundles passing down from the leaves—M the median bundles and s the lateral bundles. The external outline is the epidermis; the letters P P stand in the primary cortex; the letters X X stand in the pith; the primary medullary rays separate the bundles. (After Müller.)

are not developed endogenously as rootlets are. Then there are some important differences in the mode of origin of these vascular bundles in space. We saw that in the root the first-formed spiral vessels are developed at the outer parts of the axis-cylinder, nearest the cortex, and the succeeding vessels are formed in centripetal order from these points. In the young stem the exact

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User:Chris55/Essay2/Short works needing proofreading

These index files are currently marked to be proofread, though some of the earlier ones should probably be moved on.


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44 lines), turning to one side and becoming continuous in the fifth internode with a strand coming off from another leaf situated at another of the angles at a different level. The strands which stand next to this median one—one on each side (ms)—at first also pass

10.—Diagram of the course of the bundles M, s, and s' of Fig. 109,A [sic], as they pass out of the stem into the base of the leaf-stalk. mm is the median bundle, and ms, ms its two companions (M in Fig. 9, A); l, l are the lateral bundles s and s' of Fig. 9, A. The small branches fst go into the stipules. (After Frank.)

vertically down together with it, but at about the second or third internode below they break up into smaller strands, which again join with strands coming from other leaves situated at other nodes and angles.

If we again compare the figures, it will be seen that the three strands just traced come down in the angle of the stem, only turning aside lower down—the median strand mm, indeed, running actually in the angle through five internodes.

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Rh To right and left in Fig. 10 are seen two strands, marked l, l, and these run chiefly in what may be called the faces of the five-angled stem; only, at the node where the leaf we are considering is inserted, they turn in towards the leaf, and eventually they run into the sides of the petiole of the leaf as the so-called "lateral strands," or bundles.

Now, observation shows that these lateral strands (marked l, l², l³, etc., in the diagram,

11.—Diagram of the course of the vascular bundles as they come down from the leaves into the stem. The horizontal dotted lines represent the levels of sucessive leaves; the triangular white area beneath the upper letter z is the insertion of a leaf. Each group of bundles form a leaf, as mm, ms, ms, etc. (see text), descends into the stem, and joins with the bundles from other leaves after running through several internodes. The other letters refer to the bundles from other leaves. (After Frank.)

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 next neighbor below, and if a line be drawn from the insertion of any one leaf through the points of insertion of those above, it will describe a spiral, and will eventually come to a leaf standing directly above the leaf started from. In doing this the spiral line will pass twice round the stem, and through the points of insertion of five leaves. This is shortly expressed by two fifths.

The previously homogeneous embryonic tissue in the section now shows certain patches of grayer, closer tissue, arranged round the center in a peculiar manner; these are transverse sections of the young vascular bundles—strands which at present are distinguished chiefly by the small diameter of their cells, whence the darker gray appearance.

These strands when young are called procambium strands. Their cells are distinguished from the other embryonic cells around by growing more in length and dividing less frequently across their length, and by growing less in breadth and dividing more often by longitudinal walls.

On transverse sections a little lower down there may be seen a number of elongated and curved patches of procambium, as shown in Fig. 9. On the section it will be noticed that the larger strands are so arranged that they inclose a five-angled mass of central tissue (the pith), the five corners pointing to the angles of the young stem to which the leaves are attached. At the corners or ends of the rays just referred to are in some cases two or three smaller strands.

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loudoun, John Campbell


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 Now, the important point to apprehend first is that these strands at the corners (, s) are the strands which pass directly into the leaves through the petioles, and it is necessary to be perfectly clear on this subject in order to understand much of what follows. For instance, the three strands marked m in Fig. 9, (mm, ms, and ms in Fig. 10), pass directly into a given leaf, mm, in the middle, flanked by ms on either side; but this group is also accompanied on each side by another strand (marked s, s' in Fig. 9,, and l, l in Fig. 10), so that five strands may be regarded as contributing to each corner of the section, the three middle ones running side by side up the midrib of the leaf and then branching out in a manner to be described subsequently.

It can be shown, moreover, that the larger curved strands, occupying the sides of the pentagon, are simply formed by the union of several of the smaller strands at different levels.

If, now, successively lower sections are cut of the very young shoot, and compared, or if the shoot is softened and dissected, it is possible to make out the course of these vascular bundle strands lower down; the course is somewhat complex, but the diagrammatic sketches in Fig. 11 will enable the reader to apprehend the chief points.

In the first place, the middle strand from a leaf, mm, passes vertically down in the angle of the young stem through five internodes (marked by the horizontal

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fasting

FASTING (see ).—The adoption of “hunger-striking” in prison by some of the militant suffragettes in England, just before the World War, and by Irish Sinn Feiners subsequently, has served to call attention to the physiological fact that the human body is capable of more prolonged fasting (abstinence from food) than had generally been realized. Before they gave these demonstrations of endurance, fasts of 40 or 50 days had been regarded as extreme cases. In 1920, however, the Lord Mayor of Cork, Terence McSwiney, maintained his hunger strike in Brixton prison during 74 days, and, though subject to fits of delirium, he was stated to have been conscious until within a few days of his death.

From a purely scientific point of view it is regrettable that no definite medical record of this and other long “hunger strikes” was officially published, in such a way as to provide positive evidence that no “food” (apart from water and medicines) was taken, since there were naturally suspicions to the contrary in spite of all questions in Parliament on that point being answered in the negative. It can only be assumed that such allegations were unfounded. It has been shown therefore that, if the hygiene of fasting is carefully carried out, the mere lack of food becomes of small moment to the preservation of life for several weeks. The beginning of a fast is its most painful period, for during the first 48 or 36 hours hunger pains, occasioned by peristaltic contractions of the stomach, persist. These pains at first increase in severity during some hours, then, if no food is taken, they begin to pass away. Once they have disappeared they do not, as a rule, return. The fasting individual passes into a condition of comparative ease and comfort. The future now depends on the care with which the debris, collecting in the alimentary canal, is evacuated—for the bowel goes on producing waste matter in spite of the absence of food. Purgation is therefore necessary, and enemata are usually administered. The skin tends to exude an oily detritus, and unless this is removed constantly a fæcal odour will be experienced. Here again, however, the beginning is the worst period. After some days the problem of maintaining health is much simplified, and the patient, though increasing in weakness, experiences small inconvenience. This period is, however, often characterized by hallucinations, the mind being dissociated from its material surroundings. Visions are frequently described and strange manifestations announced. The patient is now approaching the

time when he must break his fast or die. Recent investigation suggests that death will be due to acid poisoning, and it is stated that the administration of what are called “buffer salts,” for example the acid phosphate of sodium, is instrumental in postponing the fatal issue. In any case the end is apt to occur suddenly, the patient becoming collapsed without warning. If the fast is broken with a little fruit juice and then milk given for a day or two no untoward results seem to follow. Indeed, many people derive benefit and practise occasional fasting for a short period as a therapeutic measure. The Allan treatment of diabetes is an instance in point. There are many cases on record of men walking considerable distances on the 40th day of a fast, and shorter fasts have been fairly common. It need scarcely be added that water is taken throughout the period of abstinence in all instances. (Author:R. McNair Wilson)

title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fasting


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive full measure in the anti-Chinese odium among the people of North Vietnam. In South Vietnam, French intrigue, and Vietnamese disunity precluded the emergence of a competitor to Ho. When France resorted to force to restore its control over Vietnam, Ho again became the head of Viet resistance, and the Viet Minh became the primary nationalist protagonists. Hence, Ho Chi Minh, both on his own merits and out of lack of competition, became the personification of Vietnamese nationalism.

Ho, nonetheless, found himself, his movement, and his government under intense pressure. From within the nation, the Chinese-backed Viet parties attacked communist domination of his government. For the sake of national unity, Ho dissolved the Communist Party, avoided communist cant, announced general elections, and assured the contending factions representation in the government well out of proportion to their popular support. External pressures from France and from China proved more difficult. The French capitalized on the relative weakness of the Viet Minh in South Vietnam, and the dissension among the Vietnamese there to overthrow the DRV government in Saigon, and to force the Viet Minh to resort to guerrilla warfare. In famine-wracked North Vietnam, Chinese hordes under booty-minded warlords descended on the DRV, supplanting its legal government with committees of their own sponsoring and systematically looting. Ho vainly sought aid abroad; not even the Soviet Union proved helpful. Ho eventually (March, 1946) negotiated with the French, accepting a French military presence in North Vietnam for a period of five years in return for vague French assurances to the DRV as a "Free State within the French Union." When Ho was attacked for this by the pro-Chinese elements within the DRV, he declared:

 * "You fools! Don't you realize what it means if the Chinese stay? Don't you remember your history? The last time the Chinese came, they stayed one thousand years!

 * "The French are foreigners. They are weak. Colonialism is dying out. Nothing will be able to withstand world pressure for independence. They may stay for a while, but they will have to go because the white man is finished in Asia. But if the Chinese stay now, they will never leave.

 * "As for me, I prefer to smell French shit for five years, rather than Chinese shit for the rest of my life."

The unresolved historic problem, of course, is to what extent Ho's nationalist goals over-rode his communist convictions in these maneuvers. Ho seemed to place the former above the latter not solely as a matter of dissemblance, as he might have done in the dissolution of the Party and the simultaneous formation of a "Marxist Association," but possibly as a result of doubts about communism as a political form suitable for Vietnam. Bao Dai is reputed to have said that: "I saw Ho Chi Minh suffer. He was fighting a battle within himself. Ho had his own struggle. He realized communism was not best for his country, but it was Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive too late. Ultimately, he could not overcome his allegiance to communism." During negotiations for a with the French in Paris in autumn, 1946, Ho appealed to the French to "save him from the extremists" within the Viet Minh by some meaningful concession to Vietnamese independence, and he told the U.S. Ambassador that he was not a communist. He is reputed to have asserted at that time that Vietnam was not ready for communism, and described himself as a Marxist. In reply to a journalist's inquiry, Ho claimed that he could remain neutral, "like Switzerland" in the developing world power struggle between communism and the West. But these and other such statements could have come either from a proper Leninist or a dedicated nationalist. Ho's statements and actions after 1939, and his eventual close alignment with the Sino-Soviet Bloc, support the Leninist construction. But, then, U.S. insistence on Ho's being a doctrinaire communist may have been a self-fulfilling prophesy. (Tab 2)

There remains, however, the matter of Ho's direct appeals for U.S. intervention in Vietnam, at which even a Leninist might have scrupled. These occurred (late 1945, early 1946) just after France has reasserted itself militarily in South Vietnam, while Chinese Nationalist warlords were ensconced in Hanoi, and before the 6 March 1946 Accord with France. Desperately, Ho turned to the United States, among other powers, asking for "immediate interference" in Vietnam.

There were, at least, eight communications from Ho to the President of the United States, or to the Secretary of State, from October, 1945, to February, 1946. Ho had conveyed earlier, in August and September, 1945, O.S.S. channels, proposals that Vietnam be accorded "the same status as the Philippines," for an undetermined period of tutelage preliminary to independence. With the outbreak of hostilities in South Vietnam, September–October 1945, he added fonmal requests for U.S. and U.N. intervention against French aggression, citing the Atlantic Charter, the U.N. Charter, and a foreign policy address of President Truman in October, 1945, endorsing national self-determination. Ho's last direct communication with the U.S. was in September, 1946, when he visited the U.S. Ambassador in Paris to ask vaguely for U.S. assistance in obtaining independence for Vietnam within the French Union.

There is no record of U.S. reply to any of Ho's appeals for aid. Extant instructions to a U.S. diplomat in contact with Ho in December, 1946, reveal U.S. preoccupation with his known communist background, and apprehension that he might establish a "communist-dominated, Moscow-oriented state." Two months later, when the Franco-Viet Minh war in North Vietnam was underway, Secretary of State Marshall emphasized that "we do not lose sight [of the] fact that Ho Chi Minh has direct Communist connections and it should be obvious that we are not interested in seeing colonial empire administrations supplanted by philosophy and political organizations emanating from and controlled by the Kremlin." Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive In May, 1949, Secretary of State Acheson admitted that as a "theoretical possibility" the establishment of a "National Communist state on pattern Yugoslavia in any area beyond reach [of the] Soviet Army," but pointed out that:

 * "Question whether Ho as much nationalist as Commie is irrelevant. All Stalinists in colonial areas are nationalists. With achievement national aims (i.e., independence) their objective necessarily becomes subordination state to Commie purposes and ruthless extermination not only opposition groups but all elements suspected even slightest deviation...."

When, in early, 1950, Ho's DRV lay within reach of Mao's Chinese Army, and Ho had openly embraced communism, Secretary Acheson declared that bloc recognition of the DRV "should remove any illusion as to the nationalist character of Ho Chi Minh's aims and reveals Ho in his true colors as the mortal enemy of native independence in Vietnam."

But Ho's behavior in 1949–1950, however convincingly it endorsed U.S. policy at that juncture, does not necessarily explain away his earlier eagerness for U.S. and U.N. intervention in Vietnam, nor otherwise gainsay the "Tito" hypothesis as applied to the 1945–1950 period. Of that period, it can be said that the U.S. offered Ho only narrow options. He received no replies to his appeals. After 1946, not only were Ho's direct communications with the U.S. cut, but also the signals he received from the U.S. were hardly encouraging. By the time the Indochina war began in earnest in late 1946, U.S. military equipment had already been used by French forces against the Vietnamese, and the U.S. had arranged credit for France to purchase $160 million worth of vehicles and miscellaneous industrial equipment for use in Indochina. Secretary of State George C. Marshall's public comment on the outbreak of war in January, 1947, was limited to a hope that "a pacific basis for adjustment of the difficulties could be found," and within six months the Marshall Plan threw even greater U.S. resources behind France.

The simple truth seems to be that the U.S. knew little of what was transpiring inside Vietnam, and certainly cared less about Vietnam than about France. Knowing little and caring less meant that real problems and variety of choices were perceived but dimly. For example, the U.S. could have asked itself — "Did we really have to support France in Southeast Asia in order to support a non-communist France internally and in Europe?" Another question we could have asked ourselves was — "If the U.S. choice in Vietnam really came down to either French colonialism or Ho Chi Minh, should Ho automatically be excluded?" Again, "If the U.S. choice was to be France, did France have any real chance of succeeding, and if so, at what cost?"

Even before World War II was over, Washington had placed the decision on Ho's fate in the hands of France. It can be argued, nonetheless, Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive that the U.S. could have insisted that Paris buy Ho and provide Indochinese independence without endangering the more basic relationship between the U.S. and France in Europe. Just as the U.S. came to recognize the prime importance of Europe over any policy it pursued elsewhere, so the French government would have soon realized (if it had not already done so) that nothing should be done to impair seriously U.S. acceptance of common interests in European recovery and collective security. Moreover, it was not as if there were not sizeable segments of the French community which would not have supported graceful U.S. attempts to extricate France from Indochina. It may well be, however, that the "Tito hypothesis" assumes a compliance from France of which France was demonstrably incapable. No French government is likely to have survived a genuinely liberal policy toward Ho in 1945 or 1946; even French communists then favored redemption of control in Indochina. From '46 on, however, bloodshed hardened policy in France. As before, the Ho alternative was never seriously contemplated.

French representations to the contrary notwithstanding, Ho Chi Minh possessed real political strength among the people of Vietnam. While calling Ho another George Washington may be stretching the point, there is no doubt about his being the only popularly-recognized wartime leader of the Vietnamese resistance, and the head of the strongest and only Vietnam-wide political movement. There can be no doubt either that in a test by ballot only Ho's Viet Minh could have delivered votes at the hamlet level. Washington and Paris, however, did not focus on the fact of Ho's strength, only on the consequences of his rule. Paris viewed Ho as a threat to its regaining French economic, cultural and political prerogatives in Indochina. The U.S., wary of Ho's known communist background, was apprehensive that Ho would lead Vietnam into the Soviet, and later Chinese, orbit. President Eisenhower's later remark about Ho's winning a free election in Vietnam with an 80% vote shone through the darkness of our vision about Vietnam; but U.S. policy remained unillumined.

In the last speculation, U.S. support for Ho Chi Minh would have involved perspicacity and risk. As clear as national or independent or neutral communism may seem today, it was a blurred vision in 1945–1948. Even with the benefit of seeing Tito successfully assert his independence, it would have been hard for Washington to make the leap from there to an analogy in Asia. Recourse to "national communism" in Vietnam as an eventual bulwark against China, indeed, would have called for a perspicacity unique in U.S. history. The risk was there, too. The reality of Ho's strength in Vietnam could have worked seriously against U.S. interests as well as against Chinese Communist interests. Ho's well-known leadership and drive, the iron discipline and effectiveness of the Viet Minh, the demonstrated fighting capability of his armies, a dynamic Vietnamese people under Ho's control, could have produced a dangerous period of Vietnamese expansionism. Laos and Cambodia would have been easy pickings for such a Vietnam. Ho, in fact, always Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive considered his leadership to extend to Indochina as a whole, and his party was originally called the Indochinese Communist Party. Thailand, Malaya, Singapore, and even Indonesia, could have been next. It could have been the "domino theory" with Ho instead of Mao. And, it could have been the dominoes with Mao. This may seem implausible, but it is only slightly less of a bad dream than what has happened to Vietnam since. The path of prudence rather than the path of risk seemed the wiser choice. (Tab 3)

I.C. Rh

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loudun

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loudun


text:
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54

12.—Transverse section of young stem, showing primary vascular bundles, etc., highly magnified. a and h, the pith; c, primary cortex; i, epidermis; h, periderm (cork); g, collenchyma. Two complete primary vascular bundles, and parts of two others, are shown, separated by the primary medullary rays. r, spiral vessels (protoxylem); k, bast-fibers (protophloëm); n, m, cambium, separating the phloëm from the xylem; p, wood-parenchyma. Secondary medullary rays are seen in the bundles, as also are pitted vessels of different sizes. (Th. Hartig.)

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Rh where in the pith, but otherwise their shape, etc., are similar; all the pith-cells are vertically twice or three times as long as broad. Thus the shape of the cells is that of short, polygonal prisms, standing on end and closely packed.

Imbedded, as it were, in the smaller pith-cells at the rounded angles of the vascular wedges are the oldest—i. e., first-formed—vessels, looking like small holes with very firm outlines (Fig. 12, r). These are the tracheæ, or vessels with unrollable spiral thickenings on their walls. From their shape and peculiarities they are called spiral vessels, and from their position and development they constitute the first-formed elements of the xylem or wood. They are of very narrow caliber, and stand in radial, short rows, single or branched; those first developed—i.e., nearest the pith—are the narrowest, their diameter being often even less than that of the smallest pith-cells among which they lie. As we pass radially out towards the cortex these vessels get wider and wider, but the true spiral vessels are always very narrow (Fig. 16, sp). Occasionally some of these vessels have annular instead of spiral thickenings.

Of course, their true characters are not elucidated until we compare longitudinal sections of the stem. It is then seen that the spiral thickenings are very closely wound, sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left, and occasionally double. Comparative studies of longitudinal sections also show that these vessels at first simply consist of longitudinal rows of very narrow,

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text:
Author:Robert McNair Wilson

Works

 * The Hearts of Man (1918)
 * The Beloved Physician: Sir James Mackenzie, a Biography (1926)
 * Pygmalion: or, the doctor of the future (1926)
 * Napoleon the Man (1927)

Novels and Short Story Collections

 * The Mystery of the Evil Eye (1925). Also published as The Sign of Evil. Serialised weekly in Flynn's between 29 November 1924 and 3 January 1925
 * The Double-Thirteen Mystery (1926). Also published as The Double Thirteen. Serialised weekly in Flynn's between 5 and 26 September 1925

Non-fiction

 * Making Modern Girls Happier: Amateur Acting Cure for Temperamental Women. Sunday Mirror, 25 January 1925
 * Shingling and Woman's Moods: New Outlook Expressed by Hair-Cutting Fashions. Sunday Mirror, 12 April 1925
 * How Modern Woman Is Spoiled: English Husbands Follow America's Bad Example. Sunday Mirror, 19 July 1925
 * Holiday Girls' New Heroine: Choice of Books as Sign of Changing Mind. Sunday Pictorial, 19 July 1925
 * Youths Who Are Rude to Women. Sunday Mirror, 24 January 1926
 * Within the Dance. Nottingham Journal, 4 March 1926. Reprinted as The Whirl. Birmingham Daily Gazette, 20 May 1926
 * Fashion as Fairy Godmother. Sunday Mirror, 26 December 1926

Written as by Harry Colindale

 * They Want Their Wages (1925)

title: Author:Robert McNair Wilson


text: Page:A Chinese Biographical Dictionary.djvu/1046


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fawcett, Millicent Garrett


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fayolle, Marie-Emile


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fazy, Henri


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Rh The isolation of these places is intense. The light of midday dazzles the eyes as it is reflected from the walls of the houses, the dust of the road, or the whitish soil of hill or valley. Heat is a liberal accompaniment of the fierce glare of light, as blistered lips may abundantly testify after a few hours riding across the desert. The Mexican knows the value of his broad-brimmed sombrero and is seldom to be found without it, if indeed we may induce him to leave the shade of the tree or the dark interior of his adobe dwelling at the middle of the day. But the shade, even the thin shade of the mesquite, is a place of comfort, affording some shelter from the direct rays of the sun. Even alongside a thermometer registering over 100° in the shade, no discomfort may be felt in the thin and relatively dry air of this climate.

The most suggestive feature of the desert is its vegetation and the variety of the plants which it supports. The great number of species which by some peculiar fitness of their own are able to maintain themselves in the midst of seemingly impossible conditions, must certainly impress one accustomed to the abundant vegetation of the green fields and woodlands of the better-watered sections of the country, though the number of individuals of a race may be considerably less. This is not true of all species, but the fact is quite patent to any one who has seen even a little of desert vegetation, having in mind the almost impenetrable vegetation of some of our northern woodlands. Across the desert of Zacatecas one may ride in any direction, limited only by the perpendicular banks of arroyos, or mountain barriers. The floor of the desert here also is bare and clean for the most part, which means a paucity of herbaceous plants. Such herbaceous forms as do exist are found usually in shaded situations, under the shelter of woody perennials.

The vegetation of this region as it appears to one at a casual glance seems to be composed of Yuccas, shrubs and small trees, Agaves and cacti and these constitute the predominant features of the plant life in varied arrangements and conditions.

The most conspicuous element in this vegetation is the palma, so called, which may be seen on every hand. Two kinds are usually met with; one a straight-stemmed plant, six to ten feet in height, with a crown of stiff radiating sword-like leaves, much prized for the fiber or ixtli which it yields. This plant, Samuela carnerosana, which the native calls palma zamandoca, grows in great abundance on the higher lands, from the upper footslopes a thousand feet up the mountainside. On the high rolling land south of Saltillo, from Carneros to Fraile and beyond, thousands of acres are covered with this splendid plant. In March and April they are in full bloom and one may go far to find a more pleasing picture than these tall plants with their erect panicles of creamy-white flowers, two or three feet in height. This plant grows so


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slowly that the increment of one season can not be marked without precise measurements, but year by year the lower leaves of the foliage crown die and add to the thatch of dry leaves that cover the trunk below. The trunk itself is six inches to a foot in diameter, a mass of spongy tissue with a more dense outer rind. Of these stems the peon makes fences, or sets them palisade-like for the walls of his hut, or hollows them out for bee-hives. The leaves of the plant make the most convenient thatch for his hut, and from the fibers of its leaves he makes ropes and sundry other articles of convenience. Palma china, as the native calls it, known to botany as Yucca australis, is a close relative of the preceding and often occurs in the same situations. Usually, however, this plant does not ascend to the heights attained by its neighbor, but is a native of the wide valley lands, where it often occurs in great profusion as at Pal mas Grandes, a few miles west of Mazapil, and again on the footslopes some twenty miles east of Camacho. This Yucca is the most striking of all the plants seen on this desert. Beaching a height of 35 to 40 feet, and having a trunk diameter of two to three feet, its upper portion is divided into straggling branches clothed for a foot or two from the tip with rigid outstanding leaves a foot and a half long. The branching of palma china is never symmetrical, but usually both trunk and branches are contorted and arched in various directions. Occasionally one is found straight and tall and beautiful,


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Rh such as grew by a peon's hut in the village of Cedros, and one which was found on the plain near Symón was as grand a tree as an oak of two centuries and probably not much younger. This magnificent palma must have been close to forty feet in height, with a hundred branches which filled out the hemispherical top with symmetry and beauty. The trunk of this palma was near three feet in diameter four feet from the ground, and its thickened base below was not far from six feet across. The flower cluster of this plant is about three feet long and the creamy flowers which abound in June are much prized by the people as food. This plant also yields fiber, which, however, is not so generally used as that of its neighbor, owing doubtless to the abundance of the latter, which has longer and more accessible leaves. Some of the other desert plants less conspicuous than the Yuccas are hardly less interesting. In numbers the Maguey and its family outrank almost everything else. From Agave americana down to A. lechuguilla and Hechtia they are everywhere abundant. While the huge pulque maguey is found in this region at least only in cultivation, its lesser relatives are on a thousand hills, sometimes leaving little room for anything else to grow. Three species of Agave are abundant. Two of these, A. lechuguilla and A. falcata, are never found on the level plain, but as soon as one begins the ascent of the low ridges which rise but little above the valley he is almost sure to encounter A. lechtiguilla. We may say encounter advisedly, for their leaves are as so many daggers set at all angles to impale the unwary. The rigid leaves about a foot long are armed with terminal spines as sharp as needles and as strong as nails. These in places, especially on the low limestone ridges, are so numerous that one with difficulty can make his way through. In June this plant is at the height of its flowering season and over large areas the flowering shoots, ten to twelve feet tall, are everywhere conspicuous. The stems of last year have fallen, and the new ones soon ripen their seed and terminate the life of the plant. The leaves of this plant are especially valuable for fiber and it is one of the most important of native Mexican plants. From it the native also obtains amole, the short stem and leaf bases, which, when crushed, has marked saponaceous properties, and seems to justify the esteem in which it is held, if one may judge by results. A. falcata occupies the slopes of the ridges, but is rare as compared with A. lechuguilla. Its flower stalk is smaller on the whole than that of its neighbor and its flowers much darker colored. Its sickle-shaped leaves are pointed inward and it is, therefore, not nearly so unpleasant to meet as Lechuguilla. But its fiber is little used, probably owing to the scarcity of the plant and the great abundance of the other species which is more easily worked.

Agave asperrima is one of the plants which the traveler first notices in the desert of Zacatecas. Its bluish-green leaves are usually less than three feet in length as it grows in the desert, but are sharply armed


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with stout spines both terminal and lateral, which make them formidable objects to meet. These plants spread by stolons and form impenetrable masses where they monopolize the ground. This agave grows in greatest abundance on the plain, where it frequently impedes the progress of a horseman quite effectually. It also spreads upward on the ridges and in the canons to points a thousand feet above the plain. Its flowering season is in June, though it loiters along in this business through the whole summer. The flowering shoot is similar to that of A. americana, but hardly exceeds fifteen feet in height. But these great flowering shoots are of great interest in their strength and beauty, looming up against the sky on the crest of some ridge, and not the least in the fact that this huge inflorescence represents the culminating vital activity of the whole life of the plant. Slowly through the years the materials have been gathering for this particular task, and finally in a few short weeks of summer the supreme work is consummated, and the great candelabrum of branches stands forth with its hundreds of seed capsules, while the erstwhile luxuriant leaves are sere and withered, their substance, as indeed the whole life of the plant, sacrificed to this one supreme effort toward the propagation of its kind. When in bloom the inflorescence is surrounded by myriads of flies and other insects attracted by the abundant nectar which the flowers secrete. These flowers in press, if not killed, continue for days to produce the viscid sweetish fluid which the natives collect and call miél or honey. When the seeds are ripe the pod splits down from above


text:
User:Yutsi

I don't edit here very much. If you want to contact me, the best place is probably my Wikipedia user page.

title: User:Yutsi


text:
The Squaw Man

 * "The Squaw Man", a poem by Robert William Service
 * The Squaw Man, a 1914 film

title: The Squaw Man


text:
The Passing of the Year

 * The Passing of the Year, a poem by Robert William Service
 * The Passing of the Year, a poem by Frances Fuller Victor

title: The Passing of the Year


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Febvre, Alexandre Frédéric