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Rh 'waves of the sea would lift up their voice' and the very stones of the earth cry out against me.

"As a student of physical geography, I regard earth, sea, air, and water as parts of a machine, pieces of mechanism, not made with hands, but to which, nevertheless, certain offices have been assigned in the terrestrial economy; and when, after patient research, I am led to the discovery of one of these offices, I feel, with the astronomer of old, 'as though I had thought one of God's thoughts,' and tremble. Thus, as we progress with our science, we are permitted now and then to point out here and there in the physical machinery of the earth a design of the Great Architect when He planned it all.

"Take the little Nautili. Where do the fragile creatures go? What directing hand guides them from sea to sea? What breeze fills the violet sails of their tiny craft? And by whose skill is it enabled to brave the sea, and defy the fury of the gale? What mysterious compass directs the flotilla of the graceful Argonauts? Coming down from the Indian Ocean, and arriving off the stormy Cape, they separate, the one part steering for the Pacific, the other standing for the Atlantic Ocean. Soon the ephemeral life that animates these little navigators will be extinct; but the same power that cared for them in life, now guides them after death; for though dead, their task in the physical economy of our planet is not yet finished, nor have they ceased to afford instruction in philosophy.

"The frail shell is now to be drawn to distant seas by the lower currents. like the leaf carried through the air by the wind, the lifeless remains descend from depth to depth by an insensible fall, even to the appointed burial-place on the bottom of the deep, there to be collected into heaps and gathered into beds, which at some day are to appear above the surface, a storehouse rich with fertilizing Rh


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180 for man's use. Some day science will sound the depths to which this deadshell has fallen, and the little creature will perhaps afford solution for a problem as yet unsolved; for it may be the means of revealing the existence of the submarine currents that have carried it off, and of enabling the physical geographer to trace out the secret paths of the sea.

"Had I time I might show how mountains, deserts, winds, and water, when treated by the light of this beautiful science, all join in one universal harmony, for each one has its part to perform in the great concert of nature. . ..

"The Church, ere yet physical geography had attained to the dignity of a science in our schools, and even before man had endowed it with a name, saw and appreciated its dignity, the virtue of its chief agents. What have we heard here in this grove by a thousand voices this morning? A song of praise, such as these hills have not heard since the morning stars sang together the 'Benedicite' of our mother Church, invoking the very agents whose workings and offices it is the business of the physical geographer to study and point out. In her services she teaches her children in their songs of praise to call upon certain physical agents, principals in this newly-established department of human knowledge; upon the waters above the firmament, upon the showers, dew, wind, fire and heat, winter and summer, frost and cold, ice and snow, night and day, light and darkness, lightning and clouds, mountains and hills, green things, tree and plants, whales, and all things that move in the waters, fowls of the air, with beasts and cattle, to bless, praise, and magnify the Lord!"

In the end of 1860, Maury had occasion to visit England on business connected with the publication of his book. While he was in London, he was the guest of the Royal

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Rh Geographical Society at the anniversary dinner of 1861, when the late Lord Ashburton was in the chair. On that occasion Maury advocated the exploration of the Antarctic Regions, with a view to selecting a proper place for the observation of the next transit of Venus. He received the most sympathetic applause from a large audience. When he returned to America, the gloomy prospect of a great calamity was already darkening the land.


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182

have now followed the subject of this biography to the period when he had reached the highest point of his worldly prosperity. The National Observatory, under his able management, was daily increasing in usefulness; from nothing it had sprung into an institution of the first rank. An important astronomical work, on which he had been long engaged, entitled 'Astronomical Observations, Cataloguing the Stars' was progressing satisfactorily; other projects which he had devised for the advancement of science seemed on the point of realization, when the great storm of civil war burst upon him in the midst of his useful labours.

Maury made earnest efforts to avert war, maintain peace, and insure to the South her equal rights in the Union* He addressed pathetic appeals to the Governors of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware, "to stand in the breach and stop this fratricidal strife."


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Rh

When the affairs of a nation are disturbed, quiet people, however humble their station, may be justified in stepping a little out of their usual way. In all exertions of duty, something is to be hazarded; and I am sure you have only time to hear what I wish to write—none to listen to apologies for venturing to write you this letter. You recollect that, in the nullification times of South Carolina, Virginia stepped forward as mediator, and sent her commissioners to that State with the happiest results. But we are now in the midst of a crisis, more alarming to the peace and integrity of the Union than those memorable times. We have the people, in no less than seven of those States, assembling, or preparing to assemble, in their sovereign capacity to decide, in the most solemn manner known to them, whether they will remain in the Union or no. The most remarkable feature in the whole case is, it appears to me, this—that here we have a national family of States that have lived together in unity for nearly three-score years and ten, and that a portion of them are preparing to dissolve these family ties and break up the Union, because—because of what, sir? Ask legislators, ask governors, ask whom you will, and there are as many opinions as to the causes of discontent and the measures of redress, as there are leaves in the forest. At no time have the people of any one of the discontented States, acting in their sovereign capacity, even authorized a remonstrance to be made to their sister States of the North against their course of action. We have heard a great deal of this from politicians, partisans and others, but if the people of any one of the Southern States, acting in their sovereign capacity, have ever remonstrated with the people of the Northern States as to the causes of dissatisfaction and complaint, and thus laid the matter formally before you of the North, I cannot call it to mind. Neither has any Northern State so much as inquired of the people of any Southern State, either as to the cause of their offence, or as to the terms and conditions upon which they would be willing to remain in the Union.


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184 It does appear to me that iii and out of Congress we are all at sea with the troubles that are upon us; that the people, and the people alone, are capable of extricating us. You, my dear sir, and your State—not Congress—have it in your power to bring the people into the "fair way" of doing this. This brings me to the point of my letter—then why will not the great State of Pennsylvania step forth as mediator between the sections? Authorize your commissioner to pledge the faith of this State, that their ultimatum shall not only be laid before the people of the keystone State, assembled likewise in their sovereign capacity, but that she will recommend it to her sister States of the North, for like action on their part, and so let the people, and not the politicians, decide whether this Union is to be broken up.

I am sanguine enough to believe that the great body of the Southern people entertain opinions, sentiments, and feelings in Conformity with my own in this matter. With distinguished consideration, I have the honour to be,

Respectfully, &c.,

To His Excellency Gov. Wm. F. Packer, Harrisburg, Pa.

To Judge J. S. Black, of Penn., he also writes:—

I have an abiding faith that if we can draw a proposition from the people of any one of the Southern States before things get too far, all may yet be well.

If you think with me, please lend a hand to stir up Pennsylvania to mediate, and send a commissioner for the purpose.

In haste, yours truly,

Right in the middle of the Atlantic, On board steamer 'New York,'

I sailed from New York 28th Oct, arrived in London 14th Nov., left again Nov. 27th, and sailed from Southampton


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Rh Nov. 28th, having accomplished the immediate object of my visit, which was to copyright the new edition of the 'Physical Geography of the Sea, and its Meteorology' This is almost a new work. In England, I have dedicated it to Lord Wrottesley, who has assisted the cause (of meteorology) so much; and in the U. S., I have dedicated it to Wm. C. Hasbrouck, of Newburgh, who has been such a good and true friend to the author from early youth till now.

Till now! Do we belong to the same country yet, Hasbrouck? A queer question to ask, you will say; but you must recollect that I left home before the elections—have not seen a Southern paper since; and the latest accounts I have seen from the U. S. are contained in the New York Herald of the 13th, 14th, and 15th of last month—over three weeks ago! The people of South Carolina and C. have been more precipitate than I anticipated; and now, my friend, unless you good men of the North and South will bestir yourselves, and take matters into your own hands, and out of those of the politicians, I fear me—I fear me, we shall not be long of one country!. ..

I was very much engaged while in London with the business that took me there. I received much consideration, and was brought into social intercourse with the best people of the realm, all of which was very charming, but, after all, not worth the absence from my dear home, the sweet wife and dear children with which each of us is blessed, and which makes home the sweetest place on the face of this earth. Good-bye.

Yours,

. . . . The new President is now on his way to the capitol, and the Express reports "All Quiet," as I took it for granted it would be. I have no idea of any disturbance, or any attempt even at a plot. Of course, you will see the Inaugural as soon, if not sooner, than I shall, for, having the telegraph, Mr. Lincoln may literally speak his polyglot through tongues of fire.


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186 Officers of the Army and Navy—should war come between the sections—will have a hard time; and, indeed, who will not? No military man can permit himself to accept service with a mental reservation. All who are foes of his flag, and whom his country considers enemies of hers, are enemies of his; therefore, if we have war between the sections, every man who continues in "Uncle Sam's" service, is, in good faith, bound to fight his own, if his own be on the other side. The line of duty, therefore, is to me clear—each one to follow his own State, if his own State goes to war; if not, he may remain to help on the work of reunion.

If there be no war between the sections, we must hoist the flag of re-annexation, to carry the elections of '64 upon that issue, bring back the seceding States, and be happier and greater, and more glorious than ever. As soon as the smoke clears away, you will see that all the old party lines have been rubbed out. . ..

Virginia is not at all ready to go out of this Union; and she is not going out for anything that is likely to occur short of coercion—such is my opinion. . ..

Yours,

Civil war is like a conflagration! There is no telling when or where it will stop, as long as there is fuel to feed it. So I have been thinking it might be as well to have that thing that "pestered me so" back again, or in some other shape. Pray tell me what you think, and what you advise, and if, without inconvenience, you could realise for me, and when. . . . You know that in civil war men become fiends, and there is no telling where our divisions will end. As for me, I am getting old; my life is not worth much now at any rate, and if I do get knocked over, I would like to have my little savings and scrapings where wife and children could get them. Help me think how to arrange them.

I cannot tell you anything about public affairs, except what


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Jobbing Promptly Attended To. History of West Hoboken NJ pg 76-c.jpgates Furnished,

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 that ain't it Miss Annie. The mother was that girl, Lily that came from Bishop's place out in the country, and she don't want no children, and ma liked the little boy so much, she said she'd keep him here and adopt him for her own child."

Anna, for once, was fairly dumb with astonishment and rage. The front door slammed.

"There's ma now," cried Julia in an uneasy triumph, for she was not quite certain in her mind which side of the question she was on, "There's ma now, and you can ask her for yourself if I ain't told you true."

Mrs. Lehntman came into the kitchen where they were. She was bland, impersonal and pleasant, as it was her wont to be. Still to-day, through this her usual manner that gave her such success in her practice as a midwife, there shone an uneasy consciousness of guilt, for like all who had to do with the good Anna, Mrs. Lehntman dreaded her firm character, her vigorous judgments and the bitter fervour of her tongue.

It had been plain to see in the six years these women were together, how Anna gradually had come to lead. Not really lead, of course, for Mrs. Lehntman never could be led, she was so very devious in her ways; but Anna had come to have direction whenever she could learn what Mrs. Lehntman meant to do before the deed was done. Now it was hard to tell which would win out. Mrs. Lehntman had her unhearing mind and her happy way of giving a pleasant well diffused attention, and then she had it on her side that, after all, this thing was already done.

Anna was, as usual, determined for the right. She was stiff and pale with her anger and her fear, and nervous, and all a tremble as was her usual way when a bitter fight was near.

Mrs. Lehntman was easy and pleasant as she came into the room. Anna was stiff and silent and very white.

"We haven't seen you for a long time, Anna," Mrs. Lehntman cordially began. "I was just gettin' worried thinking you was sick. My! but it's a hot day to-day. Come into the sittin'-room, Anna, and Julia will make us


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 some ice tea."

Anna followed Mrs. Lehntman into the other room in a stiff silence, and when there she did not, as invited, take a chair.

As always with Anna when a thing had to come it came very short and sharp. She found it hard to breathe just now, and every word came with a jerk.

"Mrs. Lehntman, it ain't true what Julia said about your taking that Lily's boy to keep. I told Julia when she told me she was crazy to talk so."

Anna's real excitements stopped her breath, and made her words come sharp and with a jerk. Mrs. Lehntman' s feelings spread her breath, and made her words come slow, but more pleasant and more easy even than before.

"Why Anna," she began, "don't you see Lily couldn't keep her boy for she is working at the Bishops' now, and he is such a cute dear little chap, and you know how fond I am of little fellers, and I thought it would be nice for Julia and for Willie to have a little brother. You know Julia always loves to play with babies, and I have to be away so much, and Willie he is running in the streets every minute all the time, and you see a baby would be sort of nice company for Julia, and you know you are always saying Anna, Julia should not be on the streets so much and the baby will be so good to keep her in."

Anna was every minute paler with indignation and with heat.

"Mrs. Lehntman, I don't see what business it is for you to take another baby for your own, when you can't do what's right by Julia and Willie you got here already. There's Julia, nobody tells her a thing when I ain't here, and who is going to tell her now how to do things for that baby?  She ain't got no sense what's the right way to do with children, and you out all the time, and you ain't got no time for your own neither, and now you want to be takin' up with strangers.  I know you was careless, Mrs. Lehntman, but I didn't think that you could do this so.  No, Mrs. Lehntman, it ain't your duty to take up with no others, when you got two children of your own, that got to get along just any way they can, and you know you ain't


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there is an error in this text:

"THAT THAT NATION" should be "THAT THIS NATION"


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 got any too much money all the time, and you are all so careless here and spend it all the time, and Julia and Willie growin' big. It ain't right, Mrs. Lehntman, to do so." This was as bad as it could be. Anna had never spoken her mind so to her friend before. Now it was too harsh for Mrs. Lehntman to allow herself to really hear.  If she really took the meaning in these words she could never ask Anna to come into her house again, and she liked Anna very well, and was used to depend on her savings and her strength.  And then too Mrs. Lehntman could not really take in harsh ideas.  She was too well diffused to catch the feel of any sharp firm edge.

Now she managed to understand all this in a way that made it easy for her to say, "Why, Anna, I think you feel too bad about seeing what the children are doing every minute in the day. Julia and Willie are real good, and they play with all the nicest children in the square. If you had some, all your own, Anna, you'd see it don't do no harm to let them do a little as they like, and Julia likes this baby so, and sweet dear little boy, it would be so kind of bad to send him to a 'sylum now, you know it would Anna, when you like children so yourself, and are so good to my Willie all the time.  No indeed Anna, it's easy enough to say I should send this poor, cute little boy to a 'sylum when I could keep him here so nice, but you know Anna, you wouldn't like to do it yourself, now you really know you wouldn't, Anna, though you talk to me so hard.  My, it's hot to-day, what you doin' with that ice tea in there Julia, when Miss Annie is waiting all this time for her drink?"

Julia brought in the ice tea. She was so excited with the talk she had been hearing from the kitchen, that she slopped it on the plate out of the glasses a good deal. But she was safe, for Anna felt this trouble so deep down that she did not even see those awkward, bony hands, adorned to-day with a new ring, those stupid, foolish hands that always did things the wrong way.

"Here Miss Annie," Julia said, "Here, Miss Annie, is your glass of tea, I know you like it good and strong."

"No, Julia, I don't want no ice tea here. Your mamma ain't able to afford now using her money upon ice tea for


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Rh connection with the musculature has been advocated by Claus (1878) and by Chun (1880), but a nervous system without effectors is, as Samassa (1892) and Schaeppi (1904) declare, scarcely conceivable.

The opinion about the origin of nervous and muscular tissues as expressed in these articles is opposed to the various theories stated in the preceding paragraphs in that muscular tissue is regarded as the ancestral tissue and nervous tissue is supposed to have formed secondarily and as a means of bringing muscular tissue into action with greater certainty than direct stimulation would do. According to this view the primitive state of the neuromuscular mechanism is to be seen in such animals as sponges, which possess muscles but no true nervous organs; and the neuromuscular or, better, epithelial-muscular cells of the coelenterates represent these primitive effectors to which have been added a diffuse system of receptors as seen in the sea-anemones or a specialized system as in the jellyfishes. In both instances the receptors and effectors are related through a nervous net.


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146


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394


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Rh It is thus seen that with an increase of language preparation there is an increase in the quality of the work in English, but that in so far as there is shown a difference between the value of German and Latin the advantage is with German.

Grouping the students' grades in English (1903-1907) after the method used when the grades of all departments were considered (Table I.) we have:

It might be questioned whether in group 3B the considerable number of students who have had 2 years' German and 4 years' Latin might not be responsible for the higher English grades. Omitting those with 2 German and 4 Latin we have group 3C in which it is seen that the percentage of high grades is changed but little and is still far better than the corresponding Latin group 3A.

It is thus plain that, in so far as our experience gives light, and contrary to the old superstition, a year's German helps a student's work in English more than a year's Latin.

3. Is the student whose language preparation for college is German as likely to persevere until graduation as the student whose language preparation has been Latin?

The classes of 1907 and 1908, as given in the last catalogue, were taken for study. Of these students the entrance records of 45 were available, the others having entered from other colleges, etc. At entrance these two classes numbered 95.

From Lake Forest's experience we must conclude that the student whose high-school language preparation has been German is more likely to stay through the college course than the one whose language preparation has been Latin.

4. It has been claimed that the students from the better class of families study Latin rather than German. It is hard to characterize just what is meant by "better class of families." Perhaps the financial condition represents this as correctly as any one criterion that may be used for measurement.

The scholarship lists for last year and this year include a total of 80 names, duplicates not counted.


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396 In other words, the more Latin and the less German a student has the more likely he is to need financial assistance.

6. It has been claimed that there are not enough students in the high schools studying German, who are not studying Latin, to distinctly increase the number of possible college students.

The Lake Forest records show that the amount of Latin per student is not increasing, but that the amount of German is steadily increasing.

The United States Commissioner of Education's Reports show that the proportion of students taking Latin is not increasing while the proportion taking German is increasing faster than that taking any other subject.

Letters of inquiry to the high schools in the larger towns of Illinois and the adjoining states show that with them the proportion studying German rather than Latin is even larger than is given in the United States Commissioner of Education's Report for those states, the small high schools being included in the Report as well as the larger ones.

Letters from other colleges where the languages are placed on an equal footing for entrance show that a considerable proportion of their students, particularly men, enter without Latin. (The colleges where the languages are placed on an equal footing are nearly all in the north central states.)

President Hughes, of Bipon College:

President Plantz, of Lawrence University:

Registrar Densmore, of Beloit College:

Registrar Hiestand, of the University of Wisconsin:


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426 one of which culminates on one side of the zenith and the other at nearly the same distance on the opposite side of the zenith, by means of an eye-piece micrometer rather than a graduated circle, and herein lies the chief advantage of the Talcott method over all others, the micrometer being a much more delicate and accurate instrument than the graduated circle.

The program of work calls for sixteen determinations of the latitude each night, which means the observation of sixteen pairs of stars. Particular stars have been chosen in such a way as to give convenient intervals between the culmination times of each and the work consumes four hours of time each night. As the stations are all located on the same parallel of latitude the zenith of each observatory will traverse the same path in the sky and the same stars may therefore be observed at each station. Exactly the same program of work, weather and other conditions permitting, is carried out at each station every night of the year. About 12,000 determinations of the latitude are obtained each year, the total to the beginning of 1908 being 99,313. The greatest number of observations are obtained at the Italian station, the next greatest at Ukiah as may be seen from the following table:

middle is measured by means of the micrometer. The instrument is then reversed about its vertical axis, without disturbing the setting, and the telescope will then point as far south as it did north of the zenith before reversal, or vice versa. The second star will then pass through the field of view as far below or above as the first star was above or below the center, and this distance from the center is again measured by means of the micrometer. The proper combination of the micrometer settings on the two stars gives the actual difference of their zenith-distances, which may be turned into arc measure, provided the value of one revolution of the micrometer-screw be known. The latitude, φ, of the place of observation is computed by means of the formula,

in which the first term of the right-hand member of the equation represents one half the sum of the declinations of the two stars of the pair observed; the second term one half the difference of the zenith-distances of the two stars as measured by means of the micrometer; the third term a small correction for any change in the pointing of the telescope after reversal, detected by means of two very delicate levels attached to the telescope; and the last term a small correction for the difference in the atmospheric refraction affecting the rays of light coming from the two stars. It might be noticed that if the two stars are at exactly the same zenith-distance, and the instrument is reversed without disturbing the pointing, then the second, third and fourth terms each become zero in the equation above, and the latitude is simply the mean of the declinations of the two stars, or the declination of the zenith, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 1.


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Rh The percentage of nights upon which observations were obtained, during the first five years at the various stations, is given in the following table:

The conditions at Carloforte, in the Mediterranean Sea, must be almost ideal from an astronomical standpoint, still the above tabulation can not be taken as a true index of the weather at the stations. At Carloforte and at Mizusawa two observers are constantly employed, and probably nearly every favorable night is utilized. At the other stations, where all the observations are made by a single observer, some favorable nights must of necessity be allowed to pass. At Ukiah, for instance, the percentage could be increased by at least ten, perhaps fifteen, if two observers were employed. In considering the above table, the further fact should be taken into consideration that Professor Porter, who makes the observations at Cincinnati, has many other duties in connection with his position as director of the Cincinnati Observatory and professor of astronomy in the University of Cincinnati. We should also consider the still further fact that at some stations—for instance, Mizusawa—many nights are rendered incomplete by fog or clouds, and a night upon which only one pair is obtained enters into the above tabulation with the same weight as a complete night of sixteen pairs.

On account of the uncertainties of the weather it seldom happens that observations are obtained at all the stations on the same night—and a complete set of sixteen determinations at all stations on the same night is indeed a rare event. During the first five years that observations were made, there were but nineteen nights upon which some observations were obtained at all the stations, and not a single night on which a complete set of sixteen determinations was obtained at every station.

This seems a little strange at first thought, but a simple computation according to the principles of probability shows that such a result should be expected. Let us ask, first, What is the probability of obtaining at least some observations at each station on the same night? If we assume that observations are made on the average on fifty per cent, of the nights, then the probability of obtaining observations at any one station on any particular night will be one half, and manifestly the probability of obtaining observations at two stations on the same night will be $$\tfrac12\times\tfrac12$$, or $$\tfrac14$$, and the probability of obtaining observations at three stations on the same night $$\tfrac12\times\tfrac12\times\tfrac12$$, and the probability of obtaining observations at six stations $$(\tfrac12)^6=\tfrac{1}{64}$$.


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Rh

The above figures were given by the late Mr. H. C. Watson, one of our most eminent British botanists, and as he lived most of his life in the country, they are probably the results of his personal observation, and are therefore quite trustworthy.

Continuing the above enquiry to still smaller areas, one perch equalling acre, or less than the  of a square mile, has been found to have about forty distinct species, while on a patch 4 feet by 3 feet in Kent (or about  of a square mile) Mr. Darwin found twenty species.

The same law of increase of numbers in proportion to areas applies to the animal world, if we count all the species that visit a garden or field during the year, though those that can continuously live there are not perhaps so numerous in very small areas.

The powers of increase of plants and animals were next discussed, and were shown to be enormously great. An oak tree may produce some millions of acorns in a good year, but only one of these becomes a tree in several hundred years, to replace the parent. Kerner states that a common weed, Sisymbrium Sophia, produces about three quarters of a million of seeds; and if all these grew and multiplied for three years, the plants produced would cover the whole land surface of the globe.

Equally striking is the possible increase in the animal world. Darwin calculated that the slowest breeding of all animals, the elephant, would in 750 years from a single pair produce nineteen millions. Rabbits, which have several litters a year would produce a million from a single pair in four or five years, as they have probably done in Australia, where they have become a national calamity. As illustrative of this part of the subject, the lecturer referred at some length to the cases of the bison and the passenger pigeon in North America, and the lemmings of Scandinavia. In the insect tribes still more rapid powers of increase exist. The common flesh-fly goes through its complete transformations from egg to perfect insect in two weeks; and Linnæus estimated that three of these flies could eat up a dead horse as quickly as a lion.


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454 It is these enormous powers of rapid increase that have ensured the continuance of the various types of existing life from the earliest geological ages in unbroken succession; while it has also been an important factor in the production of new forms which have successively occupied every vacant station with specially adapted species.

The vitally important facts of inheritance with variation was next discussed, and their exact nature and universal application pointed out. The laws of the frequency and the amount of variations, and their occurrence in all the various parts and external organs of the higher animals, was illustrated by a series of diagrams. These showed the actual facts of variation in adult animals of the same sex obtained at the same time and place, which had been carefully measured in numbers varying from twenty to several thousand individuals. The general result deduced from hundreds of such measurements and comparisons, was, that the individuals of all species varied around a mean value—that the numbers became less and less as we receded from that mean, and that the limit of variation in each direction was soon reached. Thus, when the heights of 2,600 men, taken at random, were measured, those about 5 feet 8 inches in height were found to be far the most numerous. About half the total number had heights between 5 feet 6 inches and 5 feet 10 inches, while only ten reached 6 feet 6 inches, or were so little as 4 feet 10 inches, and at 6 feet 8 inches and 4 feet 8 inches there were only one of each.

The diagrams from the measurements of various species of birds and mammals were shown to agree exactly in general character; and the further fact was exhibited by all of them, that the parts and organs varied more or less independently, so that the wings, tails, toes or bills of birds were often very long, while the body, or some other part was very short, a point of extreme importance, as supplying ample materials for adaptation through natural selection.

The next subject discussed was the nature and mode of action of natural selection. It was pointed out that since the glacial epoch no decided change of species had occurred. This showed us that the adaptation of every existing species to its environment was not only special but general. The seasons changed from year to year, but the extremes of change only occurred at long intervals, perhaps of many centuries, with lesser, but still very considerable variations twice or thrice in a century. It was by the action of these seasons of extreme severity at long intervals, whether of arctic winters, or summer droughts, that the very existence of species was endangered;


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Rh involved, but the symbols are given by combination of the symbols for 1 to 9, with the symbol for zero. As our development will show the symbol for nothing was the great stumbling block in the development of a scientific method of writing the numerals. A place system to the base five would require only the addition of a symbol for zero to the symbols for 1, 2, 3 and 4. Leibnitz occupied himself with the binary system, as this required only two characters, one for unity and one for non-entity. To illustrate a binary place system the numbers from 1 to 16 are written, using only 1 and 0.

Three written as 11, means one, two and one unit. Nine written as 1001 represents one cube of two, no squares of two, no first powers of

two, and one unit. The construction of the arithmetic universe out of the single unit afforded Leibnitz some philosophical satisfaction in connection with his system of monads. All the operations of ordinary arithmetic are possible in this system. We catch a glimpse of our slight comprehension of the infinite totality of numbers in noting that any number that can be expressed with our ordinary ten digits can also be expressed with these two digits, and that even though we used a thousand digits we could add no new numbers. Doubtless it would afford Leibnitz some gratification to know that his binary system is used in modern mathematical analysis in certain delicate proofs. The study of these number systems is not wholly foreign to the history of the decimal system, as traces of the binary and quinary systems appear among primitive peoples.

Among the South Australian tribes the binary system of numeration is almost universal. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the hands and feet and eyes and ears occur in groups of two in each normal individual. These tribes are not advanced enough to have a system of symbols; such a development would imply a degree of intelligence which would proceed to a higher and more convenient number base. The system is seen in their words; three is given as two and one,


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494 Among the ancient Semitic peoples we find separate symbols for 1, 10, 20 and 100. Noteworthy is the use of twenty in forming the higher powers of ten; sixty is written as three twenties. The use of twenty as a unit of higher order goes back to primitive counting on fingers and toes, which operation still exists among Pacific coast tribes of Indians, Mexicans and Esquimaux. Persistence of the unit twenty is seen in our word for score; more markedly in the French quatre-vingt for 80.0.

Some time before the Christian era, the Phœnicians changed to an alphabet system of numbers. The first nine letters of their alphabet were given the number values 1 to 9; to the second nine attach the values 10—90; and similarly with the hundreds. From the Phœnicians this method was taken by the Hebrews and the Greeks. In any numerical work the order hundreds, tens, units is strictly observed. Nevertheless, as to each word there was a definite number value the Hebrews indulged in secret writing by giving one name with the hint to the wise to substitute some other well-known name with the same number value. This near-punning occurs in the Book of the Revelations, "the number of the Beast is 666" referring to the Roman Emperor whose name written in Hebrew letters had the numerical value, 666.

A different type is presented by the Attic system of numbers in use among the ancient Greeks, in which the symbols are the first letters of the corresponding Greek words.

Combinations r A, r H, r x, r M were used for 50, 500, 5,000 and 50,000. The advantage in numerical computation of this system over the alphabet system is great as the connection between 50, 500 and 5,000 is brought out by "the symbols. Deceived by the apparent simplicity of the alphabet system, the Greeks abandoned the Attic in favor of the alphabet form.

are apparently simple, but they fail to show any trace of the underlying decimal system.


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Rh These second forms are organically connected, whereas the first forms exhibit no connection.

During the first thousand years of the Christian era, the alphabet system held full sway; then for a period of nearly five hundred years the Roman and the Greek systems vied with each other for popular favor among European arithmeticians.

The origin of the Roman numerals is lost in obscurity. Undoubtedly the symbols are from Etruscan sources changed gradually into the similar Roman letters. It is to be noted that such changes in the forms of letters were most easily effected by copyists previous to the invention of printing. Just as the Babylonians operated with the common denominator sixty, so the Romans confined themselves to the denominator 12 (and powers of 12). The twelfth represented at first a definite concrete unit of weight or length, the uncius, which later acquired a numerical sense.

The connection between the unciæ and our inches and ounces is evident. The Roman numerals like their prototypes in the Attic system of Greece and the more ancient Semitic systems, left no traces upon our current arithmetic. However, the Roman system of calculating upon a reckoning table was one of the vital factors in the development of the decimal place system. This system was not peculiarly Roman, as ancient Greek reckoning tables are found in several continental museums. The Chinese suan-pan, in popular use in Chinese laundries, is familiar to most readers. A similar instrument is found in Russian elementary schools.

A series of parallel grooved spaces and a goodly number of pebbles constitute the simplest form of one of these primitive calculating machines. Any right-hand column is chosen as the units column and the successive columns to the left are designated by the symbols for the successive powers of ten. Ten pebbles in any one column are replaced by one pebble in the next column to the left. Addition and subtraction are simple operations and even multiplication with small integers is not a difficult operation. Division was an accomplishment which only masters achieved; the complicated rules given by some medieval writers on the subject lead one to suspect that the writers were concealing ignorance in obscurity. On the Roman abacus the extreme right hand column represented twelfths (unciæ) and three smaller columns


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496 denoted 24ths, 48ths and 36ths respectively. On the Greek abacus also the right-hand columns were of mixed systems which serve to make the calculating more difficult.

A late development of the same nature was the reckoning on lines which continued into the sixteenth century. The essentials are similar. A glance at the accompanying diagram explains the connection between this system and the decimal place system. The upper part represents the number 4,063, the lower part the number 3,251. It seems such a slight step, after acquiring special symbols for the groups of one

to nine to construct a symbol to indicate a blank space, but that step took centuries to achieve.

Of all ancient peoples the Hindus occupied themselves most deeply with numbers. To some of their scholars came the conception of a connection between the infinite of the universe and the infinite of numbers. This longing for the infinite found expression in the construction of ever increasing numbers. Buddha calculates the number of grains of sand in a mile and shows how to compute the number in a sphere whose radius is the distance to one of the fixed stars. Not content with this, the Buddha goes on to show how even greater numbers may be expressed, arriving at the equivalent in modern exponential notation of $$10^{(7+9.46)} = 10^{421}$$. The numerals of the ancient Tamils, who, like the mountaineers of Appalachian America, conserve the traditions of a more remote civilization, show us that the Hindu peoples originally had special symbols not only for the first nine units, but also for the nine tens, the nine hundreds and even the nine thousands. The formation of the sequences of large numbers revealed the futility of having separate signs for the mixed tens and hundreds, with the consequent result that they dropped the separate symbols for 20 to 90, 200 to 900, and used the pure decimal units in connection with the symbols for one to nine. A similar development took place in quite early times—pre-Christian—among the Chinese but their clumsy notation obscured the realization of the possibility of a simpler place system.

The reading of a large number in Hindu style reveals how close their nomenclature brought them to the place system.


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Rh have expected to find all species of the classes above referred to proving to be by one means or another at the minimum of recognizability as animals, and at the same time, at a corresponding minimum of palatability; and behold, that is just what we find! We find in the very ranks of the supposed mimetics (a term which asserts a protection involving conspicuousness of the protected individual) the actual climax of invisibility, as Bates practically testifies in the above extract, and as I too, and all others who have studied these insects in their homes, must testify. (In deep forest shades the actual illumination is faint, and objects show most when they come between the beholder and regions of more lighted foliage beyond or up nearer the forest's top. In these circumstances all rank patterns are potent to thwart the revealing-power of silhouette, and behold, here we find the very prince of silhouette thwarters—transparency itself!)

As to the impression that "flaunting flight" (i. e., slow or weak flight), gaudy costume and unpalatability keep together, they do not do this to any very impressive degree, as the accompanying table will remind the student. Entomologists will see that this table is sufficiently correct for my purpose.

In fact, one finds, as one would have expected, that every butterfly has the gait best suited to the kind of place that he lives in. Heliconius, one of the very slowest genera on our continent, is particularly at home while flying through the densest copses. It is perfectly natural that such a butterfly as a grapta, matched to the colors of the ground, should hurry, in flying from one safe spot on the ground to another, but the case of Heliconius is very different. He lives in cover, the very kind of cover to which small birds fly from a hawk, and through this he sails and flits in the only conceivable manner, threading its minute alleys with short wing beats, and at times almost seeming to stop and crawl through the narrowest places. This is, at least, true of charitonius. sara and melpomene, in the West Indies and Trinidad, where I have seen them. As is characteristic of all nature, these insects overflow from the situations that most nurture them into less favorable places.

Yet it is almost a sufficient answer to the natural question why they are not there preyed upon, to point out afresh that on the American continent, at least, no kind of butterfly at all appears often to be attacked on the wing. In Trinidad, one of the keenest of that


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200 the meanness of the powerful, when they forsake the weak; but there is a meanness of a lower grade—when the weak forsake each other.

No party, however, can be weak, which has truth for its element, and love for its bond of union. Women are only weak in their vanity, their selfishness, their falsehood to each other. In their integrity, their faithfulness, their devoted affection, they rise to an almost superhuman eminence; because they are strong in the elements of immaterial being, and powerful in the nature which is capable, when regenerated, of being shared with angels.

From the nature of true friendship, we turn to the consideration of what are its requirements. These, also, are mutual. If we expect to receive, we must be studious to give. An interchange of kind offices and evident proofs of affection are essential to the vitality of friendship; avoiding, however, the slightest approach to anything like a debtor and creditor account of the number of presents given or received, or even of the number of letters exchanged.

It seems a strange anomaly in friendship, that young persons, however ardently attached, should so seldom write, except when a letter is considered to be due by a certain length of time having elapsed since the last was received. It often happens, that one friend is particularly engaged, while the other has an abundance of unoccupied time; but a letter is still required by the idle party, or the love which she thinks so glowing and so tender, finds no channel of expression to her friend. Perhaps a friend is ill; and then is the time, above all others, when real love would dictate a succession of kind letters, such as would not tax the afflicted, or the feeble one, with the effort of making any return. There is, in fact, a mystery about the letter-writing of young women, which I have never been able fully to understand. It occupies their time; it used to drain their

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Rh purses, or the purses of their friends; it calls forth more complaining than almost any thing else they have to do; the letters they receive are seldom fraught with much interest; and yet they plunge into this reciprocity of annoyance, as if the chief business of life was to be writing or receiving letters.

Still I am far from supposing that this means of interchanging sentiment and thought, might not be rendered highly beneficial to the youthful mind; because I believe writing is of great importance as a branch of education. Without this habit, few persons, and especially women, think definitely. The accustomed occupation of their minds is that of musing; and they are, consequently, seldom able to disentangle a single clear idea from the current of vague thoughts, which they suffer perpetually to flow, and which affords them a constant, but, at the same time, a profitless amusement, in the variety of ideas it presents, alike without form, and void. But, in order to write with any degree of perspicuity, we are, to a certain extent, compelled to think; and, consequently, the habit of writing letters, if the subject-matter be well chosen, might be rendered highly advantageous to young women, who, on the termination of their scholastic exercises, require, more than at any other time of life, some frequently recurring mental occupation, to render their education complete.

The art of writing a really good letter ranks unquestionably amongst the most valuable accomplishments of woman, and next to that of conversing well. In both cases, the first thing to be avoided, is common-place; because, whatever partakes of the nature of common place, is not only vulgar, but ineffective. I know not how I can better define this term, so frequently used, and so little understood, than by saying that common-place consists chiefly in speaking of things by their little qualities, rather than their great ones.

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202 Thus it is common-place to speak of religious persons as using cant, to speak of distinguished characters as being well or ill-dressed, and to speak of the works of Shakspeare as being peculiar in their style. It is also common-place to use those expressions of kindness, or sympathy, which custom has led us to expect as a matter of course. And we never feel this more, than in cases of affliction or death; because there is a kind of set phraseology made use of on such occasions, which those who really feel would often be glad to vary, if they only knew how. It is common-place to speak of some fact as recently discovered, to those who have long known it. But above all that is genuine in common-place, the kind of flattery generally adopted by men, when they mean to address themselves pleasantly to women, deserves the credit of pre-eminence. Indeed, so deficient, for the most part, is this flattery, in point, originality, and adaptation, that I have known sensible women, who felt more really flattered by the most humiliating truths, even plainly spoken; because such treatment implied a confidence in their strength of mind and good sense, in being able to bear it.

Common-place letters are such as, but for the direction, would have done as well for any other individual as the one to whom they are addressed. In description especially, it is desirable to avoid common-place. A correspondent making a tour of the Lakes, tells you that on such a day she set off to the summit of Helvellyn. That the first part of the ascent was steep and difficult, the latter more easy; that the view from the summit was magnificent, extending over so many lakes, and so many other mountains; and there ends the story; and well for you, if it does end there. But such writers unfortunately often go on through a whole catalogue of beauties and sublimities, no single one of which they set before you in such a manner as to render it one

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Rh whit more attractive, or indeed more peculiar in any of its features, than the king's highway.

In the vain hope of avoiding common-place, some young writers have recourse to extravagant expressions when describing little things; a mode of writing, which, besides being the medium of falsehood, leaves them in the uncomfortable predicament of having no language adequate to what is great.

It is difficult to say what is the direct opposite of common-place, without giving lengthened quotations from the best style of epistolary correspondence, with which the literature of our country during the last century abounds. There is a quality both in writing and conversation, to which I can give no other name than freshness, which is not only opposite in its nature and effect to common-place, but on which I believe depends more than half the pleasure and amusement we derive from the intercourse of mind with mind. Few persons possess this charm; because few are humble enough to suppose that it would be any advantage to them; and those who do, are always in danger of losing it by writing too much. The letters of a woman of moderate abilities, and limited sphere of observation, may possess this great beauty; while those of a more highly gifted, or accomplished writer, may want it; because it must ever depend upon a capability of receiving vivid impressions, combined with a certain degree of simplicity of heart.

The first consideration in commencing a letter should be, "What is my object in writing it?" If simply for the relief of your own mind you take up the pen, remember that such a communication can only be justified by pressing and peculiar circumstances, and that it ought only to be addressed to the nearest and dearest of your friends, whose love for you is of such a nature as to pardon so selfish an act.

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204 A higher object in writing, is to give pleasure, or afford benefit, to an absent friend; it is therefore necessary to place yourself in idea in her circumstances, and consider what she would most wish to know. If her affection for you be such, and such I am aware affection often is, that she has no desire beyond that of receiving intelligence concerning yourself, let your descriptions of your state and circumstances be clear and fresh; so that she may see you as you really are, and, as it were, live with you through the enjoyments or the trials of every day. How strong and lively may be the impressions thus conveyed—how deep the interest they excite, provided only the writer will condescend to be sufficiently simple—sufficiently sincere.

It is, however, only under peculiar circumstances, such as change of scene and situation, that young persons can have much of this kind to communicate. What then are they to say? Shall the minute details of family affairs be raked up, to fill their letters? This is at least a dangerous alternative, more especially as it too frequently induces a habit of exaggeration, in order to make what is called "a good story" out of a mere trifle; and thus, that worst kind of falsehood, which is partly true, becomes perpetuated through the medium of pen and paper.

To avoid this danger on the one hand, and the weariness of writing without anything to say, on the other, would it not be practicable for young women to agree, for their own improvement and that of their friends, to correspond on some given subject, and if unequal to the task of treating it in a style of an essay, they might at least relate to each other some important or amusing facts, which they had met with in the course of their reading, and by relating them in their own language, and then comparing them with that of the author, they would be learning valuable lessons in the

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Rh art of composition? for of all kinds of style, that of easy narrative is the most useful.

The study of nature in this department of mental improvement, might be made to afford a never-failing source of interest, both for individual thought and familiar communication. The peculiarities of plants and animals, and even the different traits of human character developed by people of different countries and grades of society, might all contribute to the same object, so as in time to displace from the page of female correspondence, the trifling, the common-place, or the more mischievous gossip, which that page too generally unfolds.

In speaking of a mutual interchange of tokens of affection being essential to the vitality of friendship, I am far from including under this head, those expressions of endearment which are sometimes used by young women, so indiscriminately, as entirely to lose their individual force and value. Indeed, I am not quite sure that terms of endearment made use of as a matter of course, are desirable under any circumstances; because there will be occasions, even with the most warmly attached, when the tones of the voice, and the expression of the countenance, indicate anything but love; and having heard these tender epithets still made use of on such occasions, it is scarcely possible to retain our value for them when applied with real tenderness and respect. It also frequently happens, where these epithets are commonly used, that the very individual who has just been speaking to us injuriously of another, turns to the injured party with the same expression of endearment so frequently applied to ourselves, and which we consequently become extremely willing to dispense with for the future.

It is the peculiar nature of friendship, that it will not be mocked. All manner of weakness, and a fearful sum of follies and transgressions, it is willing to bear with; but

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206 faithfulness is a requisite without which it is impossible it should continue to exist. It is not necessary, in order to be faithful to our friends, that we should be always praising them, nor yet that we should praise them more than they deserve. So far from this, we do them real injury by too much praise, because it always occasions disappointment in those who cultivate their acquaintance upon the strength of our evidence in their favour. Nor is it necessary, when we hear their characters discussed in company, to defend them against every charge; at least to deny their having those faults which are conspicuous to every eye. But one thing is necessary on such occasions—that a friend should be ever prompt and anxious to bring forward the evidence which remains on the side of virtue, so far as it may be done with prudence and delicacy.

The indulgence of caprice is another evil prevalent amongst the young, with which friendship disdains that her claims should be put in competition. Capricious persons are those who frequently choose to act under a momentary impulse, in a manner opposed to the general and acknowledged rule of their conduct and feelings. Thus the social companion of yesterday, may choose to be a stranger today. She may have no unkindness in her heart towards you, yet it may suit her mood to meet as if you had never met before. She may have no desire to give you pain, yet her looks may be as forbidding, and her manners as repulsive, as if she had never loved you. She may be habitually cheerful, yet her humour may be to hang her head, and lower her brow, and hardly articulate an answer when you speak to her.

It is scarcely necessary to say, that few things are more ruinous to friendship, and to domestic and social happiness in general, than caprice ; because its very nature is to render every one uncertain, and to chill, to wound, or to irritate

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Rh all with whom it comes in contact; while friendship requires that you should always be the same, and nothing can be more painful to the feelings of a friend, than to find that caprice, or the indulgence of your own humour, is a matter of more importance to you than her happiness. Such wounds, however, are happily not incurable. Friendship, thus repulsed, is soon withdrawn; and the capricious woman has the satisfaction of finding herself left at last to the enjoyment of her different moods alone. There is, in short, something in the very nature of caprice so selfish and ungenerous, so opposed to all the requirements of affection, that in no connection in life, except where the tie is indissoluble, can it long be endured.

But while we are justified in acting upon the repulsion which caprice so naturally excites, there are other trials which, if true, friendship must submit to endure; because they necessarily spring out of the nature of the human heart, and, instead of being checked by the influence of society, they are fostered by it, and subsist upon the very elements of which it is composed. One of these evils is a spurious kind of social intercourse, falsely denominated friendship, which, unfortunately, sometimes links itself with the true. I say falsely, for that friendship is not worthy of the name, which is founded upon tale-bearing and detraction. Yet, how much of the intimacy of young women consists in the magnifying and telling of little troubles, particularly of a domestic nature, and most commonly injurious to some member of the household to which they belong.

Let the young be especially warned against this most insidious and most dangerous temptation; and let them be assured, that there are few causes of more bitter repentance in after life, than the reflection that they have thus wantonly made themselves enemies to those of their own house. There is one fact which ought of itself to deter them from

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208 the indulgence of this habit. It is, that friendship based on such a foundation, is never lasting. No; friendship must have love, not hate, for its element. If the intimacy of youth consists in evil speaking, and injurious thoughts, it soon becomes assimilated with the poisonous aliment on which it feeds. The friend becomes an enemy; and what is the consequence? The shafts of slander are turned against yourself, and the dark secrets you have revealed, go forth to the world as swift witnesses against you, as well as against those to whom duty and natural affection should have kept you true.

Besides which, there are few cases of human conduct where inexperienced youth can be a correct or sufficient judge. It may appear to you at the time you speak of family grievances, that a parent has been too severe, that a sister has been selfish, or that a brother has been unjust. But you are not even capable of judging of yourself, as regards the impression produced by your own behaviour upon others; how then can you pronounce upon the motives of others in their behaviour to you? more especially how are you to lift the veil of experience, and penetrate the deep mysteries of parental love? yet, how otherwise are you to understand

There are hordes of human beings, once partakers with us in the privileges and enjoyments of our native land, now branded with infamy, and toiling in chains upon a distant shore, who have to regret, when too late, some guilty theft committed in early youth upon the property of a confiding and indulgent master. And the voice of our country cries out against them for the injury and ingratitude, as well as for the injustice, of what they have done. And is it possible

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Rh that within the fair and polished circles of the same favoured land, where woman blooms and smiles, and youth is radiant with joy, and happy in the security of domestic peace—is it possible that woman can so far forget her heart-warm affection, her truth, her devotedness of soul, as, while hex hands are pure from the contamination of so foul a crime as theft, to permit her tongue to be the instrument of injury more deep than robbery—more bitter than the loss of wealth.

We will not—we cannot believe it ; because the time is coming when the daughters of England, admonished of their duties on every hand, will learn to look, not to the mere gratification of an idle moment, in what they say, and what they do, but to the eternal principles of right and wrong; and to the great balance in which human actions are weighed, in reference not only to time, but to eternity.

It is good for many reasons that youth should early acquire a habit of checking its own impulses, and never is this more important than when under temptation to speak injuriously of others. A few years more of experience, a few more instances of personal trial, a little more self-knowledge, and a little more observation of others, will in all probability open your understandings to an entirely altered view of human nature, of the motives which influence the conduct of mankind, as well as of the claims of affection when combined with those of duty. You will then see, how unjust have been your first conclusions, how your thoughts have wronged those whom you were unable to understand; and happy will it be for you when making this discovery, to reflect that you have scrupulously kept your erroneous views and injurious suspicions confined to the knowledge of your own heart.

Friendship, if true, has much to bear from the idle and mischievous gossip of society. Indeed, gossip may justly

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210 be considered as having destroyed more youthful attachments, than selfishness, falsehood, or vanity; though all these three have done their part in the work of destruction. It is easy to say, 'I care not for such and such injurious reports.' 'The opinion of the world is of no consequence to me,' and it is undoubtedly the part of wisdom not to allow such causes to operate against our peace of mind. Unfortunately, however, for us, the world is made up of our friends, as well as of those who are strangers to us; and in this world it is the malignant office of gossip to set afloat rumours of what is evil, rather than statements of what is good. Were such rumours welcomed only by the credulity of strangers, they would certainly be of little consequence to us; but, alas, for the faithfulness of affection; our friends, though at first surprised at last believe them; and then comes the trial of friendship, for to be injuriously and unjustly thought of by those who ought to know us better, and simply because common report has circulated some charge against us, is that, which, perhaps more than anything else, destroys our confidence in the profession, the language, the very name of friendship.

The character of woman in every situation in life, has ever been found most admirable, when most severely tried; and I know that her friendship is equal to remaining unshaken by difficulties and dangers, which might well be supposed to move a firmer nature than her's. But I speak of the little trials of minute and every-day experience, for it is against these that woman seldom brings her highest principles and best feelings to bear. It is in the sunshine of society that friendship most frequently withers, because the "love that tempests never shook" may expire under the deadly breathing-upon of common slander.

On the first view of this subject, it seems impossible to believe that mere gossip, which we unanimously agree to

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Rh regard as being in so many instances false, should operate with such potency in dissolving the tenderest ties of early life. Yet I appeal to experience, and observation too, when I ask, whether the ranks of society are not thronged with individuals closely assimilated in their habits and ways of thinking, mutually in want of the consolations of friendship, and adapted to promote each other's happiness, of whom it may be said with melancholy truth,

What then is the part which friendship ought to act in a case where rumour is strong against a friend? The part of true friendship is always a straightforward and decided one. First ask whether the charge brought against your friend be wholly at variance with the principles you know to regulate her conduct in general, wholly at variance with the sentiments uniformly expressed in her confidential intercourse with you, and wholly at variance with the tenor of her previous life. If such be the case, reject it with a noble indignation: for even if in one instance your friend has actually departed from the general principles of her conduct, her habitual sentiments, and her accustomed mode of action—and if in the end you find that the world has all the while been right, while you have been mistaken—it is better a thousand times to have felt this generous, though misplaced confidence, than to have been hastily drawn in to entertain an injurious suspicion of a friend.

Still, where the evidence is strong against a friend, where it increases and becomes confirmed, it would be blindness and folly to continue to disregard it. But before you yield even to such accumulating evidence, more especially before you act upon it, or suffer one syllable to pass your lips in support of the charge, or even of other charges of a similar

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212 nature to that openly alleged, fail not, as you value everything that is just and equitable in the conduct of one human being towards another—fail not to appeal directly to the injured party, so as to allow her an opportunity of exculpating, or at least of excusing, herself.

If this had but been done in one instance out of a thousand, where slander has scattered her poison upon the foundation of human love, what a different position would woman now maintain in the scale of moral excellence. How much of real good the hand of friendship might by this means have drawn out from seeming evil; how many a wounded bosom the balm of friendship might have healed; how many of those who are now lonely and unloved might have been linked together in the endearing fellowship of mutual affection!

People talk as if the worst thing that could happen to us, was to be deceived; they dare not be generous, they dare not trust, because they should thereby incur the risk of being deceived. That this theory may very properly be acted upon in business, I am quite disposed to allow; but if in friendship there is no other alternative than to listen to injurious rumour, to lean to the side of suspicion, and to believe the first report against a friend; let me rather be deceived a thousand times, for then I shall at least enjoy the consciousness of having known what it was to trust, as well as love.

Friendship has many trials. Though vanity and selfishness are at the root of many of these, they are for the most part too minute, and apparently too trifling, for description. Perhaps the greatest of these arises out of the undue value attached by women to the general attentions of men. For the assistance, the protection, and the disinterested kindness of the other sex, all women ought to be deeply grateful; but for those common attentions which good breeding

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Rh dictates, without reference to the individual on whom they are bestowed, I own I cannot see why they should ever be so much the subject of envy amongst women, as to cast a shade upon their intercourse with each other.

This part of my subject necessarily leads me to the consideration of what, for want of a more serious name, I am under the necessity of calling flirtation; by which I would be understood to mean, all that part of the behaviour of women, which in the art of pleasing, has reference only to men. It is easy to understand whether a woman is guilty of flirtation or not, by putting her conduct to this simple test—whether, in mixed society, she is the same to women as to men.

Although nothing could be more revolting to the feelings of a true-hearted woman, than needlessly to make a public exposure of the weaknesses and follies of her own sex, yet something of this is not only justifiable, but necessary in the present case, in order to contrast the conduct of those who are truly admirable, with that which is only adopted for the purpose of courting admiration. Nor would I speak uncharitably, when I confess, that, like others, I have often seen a drooping countenance suddenly grow animated, an oppressive headache suddenly removed, and many other symptoms of an improved state of health and spirits as suddenly exhibited, when the society of ladies has become varied by that of the nobler sex; and never does female friendship receive a deeper insult, than when its claims are thus superseded by those, perhaps, of a mere stranger.

Though the practice of flirtation, or the habit of making use of certain arts of pleasing in the society of men, which are not used in that of women, is a thing of such frequent occurrence, that few can be said to be wholly exempt from it; yet we rarely find a woman so lost to all sense of delicacy, as to make an open profession of flirtation. Indeed,

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214 I am convinced, that some do actually practise it unconsciously to themselves, and for this reason I am the more anxious to furnish them with a few hints, by which they may be better able to detect the follies of their own conduct.

In the first place, then, allow me to ask, why it is necessary, or even desirable, for young women to do more to please men than women? Their best friends, as friends only, will ever be found amongst their own sex. There is but one relation in life in which any of the men whom they meet with in mixed society can be anything to them; and surely they can have no thought of marrying half those whom they take more pains to please, than they take in their intercourse with their own sex. What then, can be the state of mind of her who exercises all her powers of fascination upon beings in whom she can have no deep, or real interest? She must have some strong motive, or why this total change in her behaviour, so that her female friends can scarcely recognize in her the same individual, who, an hour before, was moping, fretful, listless, and weary of herself, and them? She must have some strong motive, and it can be no other than one of these two— either to gain the admiration, or the affection, of all those whom she favours with the full exhibition of her accomplishments in the art of pleasing. If her motive be simply to gain their admiration, it is a blind and foolish mistake into which her vanity has betrayed her, to suppose that admiration is to be purchased by display, or to imagine that the open and undisguised claims she makes upon it, are not more calculated to disgust than attract.

But there remains the second, and stronger motive; and this would seem, at first sight, to demand more delicacy of treatment, since it is generally considered an amiable propensity in woman's nature to desire to be beloved. Let her, however, be honest, sincere, and honourable, in the

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Rh means she adopts for the gratification of this desire. Let her require nothing for which she is not prepared to make an adequate return. The kindness, the generosity, the integrity of her character demand this. If, therefore, her desire be to obtain the love of all those with whom she engages in the business of flirtation, she is either on the one hand involved in a very serious and alarming outlay of affection; or, on the other, in a system of selfishness and meanness, for which every honest-hearted woman ought to blush. I have used the words selfishness and meanness, because the art of flirtation deserves to be described by no better; because it is selfish to endeavour to obtain that for which we know that a return will be expected, which we are not the least prepared to make; because it is mean to use, in obtaining it, a degree of art, which makes us appear better, or more admirable, than we really are.

Is it not good, then, for woman to bear about with her, even in early life, the conviction that her only business with men in society, is to learn of them, and not to captivate, or dazzle them; for there is a boldness—an indelicacy, in this exercise of her influence, as much at variance with good taste, as with right principle, and real feeling. Is it not good, also, to bear about with her the remembrance, that no woman ought to be so brilliant or so agreeable in mixed society, as in her own domestic circle. There is no harm in pleasing, it is at once her privilege, and her power; but let her influence through the exercise of this means be what it may, there will come in after life sore trials, under which she will need it all; and poor indeed is that woman, who, when affection wanes, and disappointment chills the glow of youthful ardour, feels that she has expended all her powers of pleasing in public, or upon comparative strangers.

I have said, that all women plead not guilty to the

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216 charge of flirtation in themselves; yet, all are ready to detect and despise it in their friends. All can detect in others, when the bland and beaming smile is put on for the occasion; when expressive looks are interchanged; when glittering curls are studiously displayed; when songs are impressively sung; when flowers which have been presented, are preserved and worn; when unnecessary attentions are artfully called forth; but, above all, for it is best to cut short this catalogue of folly, when conversation is so ingeniously turned as to induce, and almost compel some personal allusion, in which a compliment must almost unavoidably be couched.

And in all this system of absurdity, containing items of folly too numerous for tongue or pen to tell, from the glance of a beautiful eye, to the expression of a mutual sentiment; from the gathering of a favourite flower, to the awakening of a dormant passion; from the pastime of an idle moment, to the occupation of years; in all this, it is deeply to be regretted, that the influence of man is such, as to excite, rather than to repress—to encourage this worse than folly, rather than to warn and to correct. Indeed, whatever may be the excellencies of man in every other walk of life, it is a subject of something more than regret, that these excellencies are so little called forth in his intercourse with woman in mixed society. As a father, a husband, a brother, and a friend, his character assumes a totally different aspect. And why, I would ask of him, if his eye should ever deign to glance over these pages,—why is he not the friend of woman in society, as well as in the more intimate relations of social and domestic life?

Time was, when warriors and heroes deemed it not incompatible with glory or renown, to make the cause of helpless woman their's. Nay, such was the respect in which her claims were held, that the banner could not

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Rh wave in battle, nor the laurel-wreath in peace, so proudly as when lances were broken, and lays were sung, in defence of her fair fame. On what did that fame then rest?—on what must it rest for ever? On her moral purity—on her exemption from mean and grovelling thoughts, and on her aspirations after what is noble, and refined, and true. And is woman less deserving now, than she was a thousand years ago, of the kindness, the protection, the honourable and fair dealing, of man? So far from this, she has made rapid progress in the work of moral renovation, having gained in real worth, more than she has lost in romantic feeling. But one hinderance to her improvement still remains—one barrier against her progress in the path of wisdom and of truth. It is the influence of man, in his intercourse with her in general society.

Perhaps he is not aware how powerful and extensive this influence is, or he would surely sometimes endeavour to turn it to better account. I wish not to describe it in too flattering a manner, by telling how many a young heart is made to throb for the first time with vanity, and idle thoughts, and foolish calculations, in consequence of his flattery and attentions; but it is most important he should know, that while women naturally and necessarily look to the stronger sex to give character and decision to their own sentiments; it is in the common intercourse of society, that such sentiments are implanted, fostered, and matured.

To speak of the popular style of conversation used by gentlemen when making themselves agreeable to young ladies, as trifling, is the best thing we can say of it. Its worst characteristic is its falsehood, while its worst tendency is to call forth selfishness, and to foster that littleness of mind, for which man is avowedly the despiser of woman. If intellectual conversation occupies the company, how

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218 often does he turn to whisper nonsense to woman; if he sees her envious of the beauty of her friend, how often does he tell her that her own charms are unrivalled; if he discovers that she is foolishly elated with the triumph of having gained his attentions, how studiously does he feed her folly, waiting only for the next meeting with a boon companion, to treat the whole with that ridicule which it deserves—deserves, but not from him.

It may be—I would fain believe it is, his wish that woman should be simple-hearted, intelligent, generous, frank, and true; but how is his influence in society exercised to make her any one of these? Woman is blamed, and justly so, for idle thoughts, and trifling conversation; but, I appeal to experience, and ask, whether, when a young girl first goes into society, her most trifling conversation is not that which she shares with men? It is true that woman has the power to repel by a look, a word, or even a tone of her voice, the approach of falsehood or folly; and admirable are the instances we sometimes find of woman thus surrounded as it were by an atmosphere of moral purity, through which no vulgar touch can penetrate. But all are not thus happily sustained, and it seems hard that the weaker sex should not only have to contend with the weakness of their own hearts; but that they should find in this conflict, so much of the influence of man on the side of evil.

In speaking of friendship, I have said nothing of that which might be supposed to exist between the two sexes; because I believe, that, in early youth, but little good can accrue to either party from making the experiment; and chiefly for reasons already stated, that man, in his intercourse with woman, seldom studies her improvement; and that woman, in her's with man, is too much addicted to flirtation. The opinion of the world, also, is opposed to

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Rh this kind of intimacy; and it is seldom safe, and never wise, to do what society unanimously condemns. Besides which, it is exceedingly difficult for a young and inexperienced girl to know when a man is really her friend, and when he is only endeavouring to gain her favour; the most serious mistakes are, therefore, always liable to be made, which can only be effectually guarded against, by avoiding such intimacies altogether.

Again, it is no uncommon thing for men to betray young women into little deviations from the strict rule of propriety, for their own sakes, or in connection with them; which deviations they would be the first to condemn, if they were in favour of another. Be assured, however, that the man who does this—who, for his own gratification betrays you into so much as the shadow of an error—who even willingly allows you to be placed in an exposed, a questionable, or even an undignified situation—in short, who subjects you, for his own sake, to the slightest breath of censure, or even of ridicule, is not your real friend, nor worthy so much as to be called your acquaintance.

Fain would we hope and trust, that men who would do this, are exceptions to a general rule; and, honourable it is to the sex, that there are those, who, without any personal interest of their own being involved, are truly solicitous to raise the moral and intellectual standard of excellence amongst women; men who speak the truth, and nothing but the truth, even to the trusting and too credulous; who never, for the gratification of an idle moment, stoop to lead the unwise still farther into folly, the weak into difficulty, or the helpless into distress; men who are not satisfied merely to protect the feeble portion of the community, but who seek to promote the safety and the happiness of woman, by placing her on the sure foundation of sound principle; men who are ready to convince her, if she would but listen

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magnificent promise of spring was broken before the May-blossom was fully out. All through the beloved month the wind rushed in upon us from the north and north-east, bringing the rain fierce and heavy. The tender-budded trees shuddered and moaned; when the wind was dry, the young leaves flapped limp. The grass and corn grew lush, but the light of the dandelions was quite extinguished, and it seemed that only a long time back had we made merry before the broad glare of these flowers. The bluebells lingered and lingered; they fringed the fields for weeks like purple fringe of mourning. The pink campions came out only to hang heavy with rain; hawthorn buds remained tight and hard as pearls, shrinking into the brilliant green foliage; the forget-me-nots, the poor pleiades of the wood, were ragged weeds. Often at the end of the day, the sky opened, and stately clouds hung over the horizon infinitely far away, glowing, through the yellow distance, with an amber lustre. They never came any nearer, always they remained far off, looking calmly and majestically over the shivering earth, then saddened, fearing their radiance might be dimmed, they drew away, and sank out of sight. Sometimes, towards sunset, a great shield stretched dark from the


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220 to their faithful teaching, that she possesses no beauty so attractive as her simplicity of heart, no charm so lasting as her deep and true affection, and no influence so powerful as her integrity and truth.

I cannot leave the subject of the general behaviour of women to the other sex, without adverting to a popular tendency amongst the young and inexperienced, to attach undue importance to the casual notice of distinguished men; such as popular speakers, eloquent ministers of religion, or any who hold conspicuous situations in society. The most objectionable feature which this tendency assumes, is an extravagant and enthusiastic attachment to ministers of religion. I am aware there is much in the character and office of a faithful minister, justly calculated to call forth the respectful admiration both of young and old; that there is also much in his pastoral care of the individual members of his flock equally calculated to awaken feelings of deep and strong attachment; and when such feelings are tempered with reverence, and kept under the proper restraint of prudence and good taste, it is unquestionably right that they should be cherished. My remarks can have no reference to young women whose conduct is thus regulated; but there are others, chiefly of enthusiastic temperament, who, under the impression that it is right to love and admire to the utmost of their power, whoever is worthy of admiration, give way to a style of expression, when speaking of their favourite ministers, and a mode of behaviour towards them, which is not only peculiarly adapted to expose them, as religious professors, to the ridicule of the world; but which, of itself, too plainly betrays their want of reverence and right feeling on the subject of religion in general.

But the duties of friendship remain yet to be considered in their highest and most important character. We have

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Rh never been intimately associated with any one, even in early youth, without having received from them some bias of feeling, either towards good or evil; and the more our affections were engaged in this intimacy, the more decided this bias has been. What, then, has been the nature of our influence upon them?—upon all to whose bosom- confidence we have been admitted? Is this solemn query to be reserved for the hour of death? or is it not the wiser part of youth to begin with its practical application, while the character is yet fresh and pliant, and before the traces of our influence, if wrong, shall have become too deep to be eradicted?

If your friend is farther advanced in religious experience than yourself, be willing, then, to learn from her example; but be watchful, also, to point out with meekness and gentleness, her slightest deviations from the line of conduct which a Christian professor ought to pursue; and by this means you may not only materially promote her highest interests, but you may also assist in promoting the interests of religion itself, by preserving it from the calumny and disrespect for which such deviations so naturally give occasion.

If your friend is less advanced than yourself in religious experience, or if, as is most probable, you are both in a backward and defective state, suffer not your mind on any account to become regardless of the important fact, that in proportion to the degree of confidence you have enjoyed with that friend, and in proportion with the hold you have obtained of her affections, is the responsibility you incur with regard to her moral and spiritual advancement. It is fruitless to say, "I see her faults, I mourn over her deviations, but I dare not point them out, lest I wound her feelings, or offend her pride." I know the task is difficult, perhaps the most so of any we ever undertake. But our

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334 west to the zenith, tangling the light along its edges. As the canopy rose higher, it broke, dispersed, and the sky was primrose coloured, high and pale above the crystal moon. Then the cattle crouched among the gorse, distressed by the cold, while the long-billed snipe flickered round high overhead, round and round in great circles, seeming to carry a serpent from its throat, and crying a tragedy, more painful than the poignant lamentations and protests of the peewits. Following these evenings came mornings cold and grey.

Such a morning I went up to George, on the top fallow. His father was out with the milk—he was alone; as I came up the hill I could see him standing in the cart, scattering manure over the bare red fields; I could hear his voice calling now and then to the mare, and the creak and clank of the cart as it moved on. Starlings and smart wagtails were runing briskly over the clods, and many little birds flashed, fluttered, hopped here and there. The lapwings wheeled and cried as ever between the low clouds and the earth, and some ran beautifully among the furrows, too graceful and glistening for the rough field.

I took a fork and scattered the manure along the hollows, and thus we worked, with a wide field between us, yet very near in the sense of intimacy. I watched him through the wheeling peewits, as the low clouds went stealthily overhead. Beneath us, the spires of the poplars in the spinney were warm gold, as if the blood shone through. Further gleamed the grey water, and below it the red roofs. Nethermere was half hidden, and far away. There was


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222 want of disinterested lore, and of real earnestness in the cause of Christ, render it more difficult than it would otherwise be.

We might in this, as in many other instances, derive encouragement from what is accomplished by women in the way of supporting public institutions, and promoting public good. Look at some of the most delicate and sensitive females—how they penetrate the abodes of strangers—how they persevere through dangers and difficulties, repelled by no contumely, and deterred by no hardship, simply because they know that the work in which they labour, is the cause of Christ. And shall we find less disinterested zeal, less ardour, less patience, less self-denial, in bosom-friends who share each other's confidence and love?

I am the more anxious to impress these observations upon the young reader, because the present is peculiarly a time for laudable and extraordinary exertions for the public good; and because I am convinced, that benevolent, and highly salutary, as these exertions are, they will never so fully answer the noble end desired, as when supported by the same principles faithfully acted upon in the intimate relations of private life.

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Rh nothing in this grey, lonely world but the peewits swinging and crying, and George swinging silently at his work. The movement of active life held all my attention, and when I looked up, it was to see the motion of his limbs and his head, the rise and fall of his rhythmic body, and the rise and fall of the slow waving peewits. After a while, when the cart was empty, he took a fork and came towards me, working at my task.

It began to rain, so he brought a sack from the cart, and we crushed ourselves under the thick hedge. We sat close together and watched the rain fall like a grey striped curtain before us, hiding the valley; we watched it trickle in dark streams off the mare’s back, as she stood dejectedly; we listened to the swish of the drops falling all about; we felt the chill of the rain, and drew ourselves together in silence. He smoked his pipe, and I lit a cigarette. The rain continued; all the little pebbles and the red earth glistened in the grey gloom. We sat together, speaking occasionally. It was at these times we formed the almost passionate attachment which later years slowly wore away.

When the rain was over, we filled our buckets with potatoes, and went along the wet furrows, sticking the spritted tubers in the cold ground. Being sandy, the field dried quickly. About twelve o’clock, when nearly all the potatoes were set, he left me, and fetching up Bob from the far hedge-side, harnessed the mare and him to the ridger, to cover the potatoes. The sharp light plough turned the soil in a fine furrow over the potatoes; hosts of little birds fluttered, settled, bounded off again after the plough.


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336 He called to the horses, and they came downhill, the white stars on the two brown noses nodding up and down, George striding firm and heavy behind. They came down upon me; at a call the horses turned, shifting awkwardly sideways; he flung himself against the plough, and leaning well in, brought it round with a sweep: a click, and they are off uphill again. There is a great rustle as the birds sweep round after him and follow up the new turned furrow. Untackling the horses when the rows were all covered, we tramped behind them down the wet hillside to dinner.

I kicked through the drenched grass, crushing the withered cowslips under my clogs, avoiding the purple orchids that were stunted with harsh upbringing, but magnificent in their powerful colouring, crushing the pallid lady smocks, the washed-out wild gillivers. I became conscious of something near my feet, something little and dark, moving indefinitely. I had found again the larkie’s nest. I perceived the yellow beaks, the bulging eyelids of two tiny larks, and the blue lines of their wing quills. The indefinite movement was the swift rise and fall of the brown fledged backs, over which waved long strands of fine down. The two little specks of birds lay side by side, beak to beak, their tiny bodies rising and falling in quick unison. I gently put down my fingers to touch them; they were warm; gratifying to find them warm, in the midst of so much cold and wet. I became curiously absorbed in them, as an eddy of wind stirred the strands of down. When one fledgling moved uneasily, shifting his soft ball, I was quite excited; but he nestled down again, with his head close to his brother’s. In my heart of hearts, I longed for