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Rh whole of Christendom, and is still regarded as the substantial truth of the Christian life in all the churches that preach it under any creed of orthodoxy. The life of the man who could evolve such a story must have been very simply typical of the Christian life itself. "A Philistine of genius"—is there no light nor sweetness in this?

II. COWPER.

The career of Cowper, as all the world knows, was one to fill the pessimist with perennial gladness; and, in fact, if it were possible to look at the natural order of things only as Cowper was affected thereby, it might seem that nothing short of malignity in the overruling powers could account for the fiat that gave up so pure, simple, and cordial a nature to be the prey of the seven devils, and rendered so many delightful traits of character futile to achieve the happiness of their unfortunate possessor. In his letters, flowing on in the old, sweet, fresh English, one perceives the rare literary faculty, the shy humor, the discrimination, the sound sense, all the many graces of style and many virtues of intrinsic worth, that have long been familiar to scholars; and,


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Rh Cowper's virtue was in his simplicity and genuineness, rare qualities then; his good fortune was in never belonging to the literary set or bowing to the town taste; hence in a time the most barren in English literature, he gave us a half dozen fine poems that stand far beyond all contemporary rivalry, and some private letters of the best style and temper. When, however, the question comes as to the intrinsic value of these letters, it must be confessed that though they please the taste they do not interest the mind except in a curious and diverting way. They are less the letters of a poet than of a village original, a sort of schoolmaster or clergyman manqué, of sound sense, tender heart, and humane perception, but the creature of a narrow sphere.

III. CHANNING.

Channing was the chief ornament of the American pulpit in his day. Like nearly all men illustrious in the religious life, he has won a kindlier and wider regard by his character than by his opinions, because the moods of devotion are simple and are universal in human nature, while opinion in theology is more variable and eccentric, and

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 DARWIN'S LIFE.

is nothing more useful to observe in the life of Darwin than its simplicity. He was the man of science as Marlborough was the soldier, and he was only that. From boyhood he refused all other ways of life and knowledge as by instinct, and in his maturity the ill health which ends the career of ordinary men only confirmed him in his own; he was always the collector, the investigator, or the theorizer. A second quality, which is general enough to be constantly attracting attention, is the thoroughly English character of his life. The stock from which he sprang was rich in old English qualities of vigor, sense, and originality; the house in which he was reared offers an excellent type of English family life, and was as good a place to be born in as could be desired for any son; his father's strong character, the influences of his older relatives, the ordinary schools he attended, the smallest incidents of his childhood, even the jokes of his


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 BYRON'S CENTENARY.

absence of any widespread interest in the centenary of Lord Byron is a marvelous illustration of the vicissitudes of literary reputation. Only in Greece was public notice taken of it. The brilliancy with which his fame burst forth, the unexampled rapidity with which it spread through Europe, the powerful influence it continued to exert on the youth of the next age, were to the men who witnessed them sure signs of the magnitude of his future renown. The decadence into which it has fallen would have been incredible to them. It was Byron's distinction to have been the first man of letters who enjoyed an international reputation at once; and one can hardly credit the fact that he has shrunk so wonderfully. In the month of his death Sir Walter Scott, in a brief article which attracted wide attention, said that it seemed almost as if the sun in heaven had been extinguished; and when Scott soon followed him, Landor, writing to


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 ON BROWNING'S DEATH.

death of Browning brings one stage nearer the too plainly approaching end of a literary age which will long be full of curious interest to the student of the moods of the mind of man. Time has linked his name with that of Tennyson, and the conjunction gives to England another of those double stars of genius in which her years are rich, and by which the spirit of an age has a twofold expression. The old opposition, the polarity of mind, by virtue of which the Platonist differs from the Aristotelian, the artist from the thinker, Shakespeare from Jonson, shows its efficacy here, too, in the last modern age, and divides the poets and their admirers by innate preferences. It is needful to remember this contrast, though not to insist upon it unduly, in order to approach the work of Browning rightly, to be just to those who idolize him without offense to those who are repelled by him. The analysis of his powers, the charting of his


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 He was select preacher to the university (1835–7), domestic chaplain to Howley, archbishop of Canterbury (1843–8), canon of Canterbury and archdeacon of Maidstone (1845–1887). He had a considerable knowledge of Hebrew, and was one of the Old Testament company of revisers who produced the version of the Bible issued in 1885.

At Canterbury he was distinguished by his zeal in his archidiaconal work, his intimate knowledge of the clergy, his regularity at the cathedral services, his activity in the business of various church societies, and also by his geniality, wit, and tolerance, and by his readiness to take part by sympathy and hospitality in gatherings like those of the Canterbury cricket-week or the meetings of the agricultural and archæological societies. He inherited from Archbishop Howley a valuable library, and after his death his widow presented it, with the addition of a collection of Bibles and liturgical works made by his father, and many other books acquired by himself, to Canterbury Cathedral, where it forms the Howley-Harrison Library. He was intimate with Dean Stanley during his tenure of a canonry at Canterbury, and to him Stanley dedicated the ‘Historical Memorials of Canterbury.’

Harrison died on 25 March 1887, at 7 Bedford Square, London, a house which he had inherited from Sir Robert Inglis, M.P. for Oxford University, a connection by marriage. He married in 1841 Isabella, daughter of Henry Thornton, M.P., of Battersea Rise, but had no issue.

Harrison published, besides the ‘Tracts for the Times’ and many single sermons and charges, one of which gives a life of Archbishop Howley: 1. ‘Historical Inquiry into the true Interpretation of the Rubrics,’ London, 1849. 2. ‘Prophetic Outlines of the Christian Church, and the Anti-Christian power as traced in the Visions of Daniel and St. John; in twelve lectures preached in the Chapel of Lincoln's Inn on the foundation of Bishop Warburton,’ London, 1849. 3. ‘Privileges, Duties, and Perils in the English Branch of the Church of Christ,’ six sermons, London, 1850. He also edited: 1. Sermons of William Grant Broughton [q. v.], bishop of Sydney, with a prefatory memoir, 1857; and 2. ‘Christianity in Egypt. Letters and papers concerning the Coptic Church,’ 1883.

 HARRISON, GEORGE (d. 1841), legal writer, son of Thomas Harrison, attorney-general and advocate-general of Jamaica, studied law, was appointed by Pitt registrar for the redemption of the land tax (1798); counsel to the war office, the commander-in-chief's office, and the barrack office (1804); and assistant secretary to the treasury (1805). In 1823 he was made auditor for life of the duchy of Cornwall, and in 1826 auditor for life of the duchy of Lancaster. He was made a knight of the grand cross of the Royal Hanoverian and Guelphic order 13 April 1831. He died at Spring Gardens Terrace, London, 3 Feb. 1841. He was twice married, and had a son by his first wife.

Harrison wrote: 1. ‘Observations in support of the Title of the King to all Escheats and Forfeitures arising within the Fees or Liberties of the Duchy of Lancaster,’ &c., 1832. 2. ‘Fragments of History,’ 1834. 3. ‘Substance of a Report on the Laws and Jurisdiction of the Stannaries in Cornwall,’ 1835. 4. ‘Memoir respecting the Hereditary Revenues of the Crown and the Revenues of the Duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster, and Remonstrance and Petition addressed to the Chancellor and Council of the Duchy of Lancaster,’ 1838.

 HARRISON, GEORGE HENRY (1816–1846), water-colour painter, born in Liverpool in 1816, was the second son of Mary Harrison [q. v.], the flower-painter. He came to London at the age of fourteen, and improved his practice and pocket by working for the dealers. Subsequently he was engaged in making anatomical and other medical drawings and illustrations, and in studying anatomy at the Hunterian school in Windmill Street. He derived much benefit from the advice and encouragement of John Constable, R.A., who showed him great kindness, criticising his sketches, and urging him continually to study nature closely. In 1840 he first exhibited at the Royal Academy, and in 1845 he was elected an associate of the Old Water-Colour Society in Pall Mall. A painful disease forced him to travel in search of health. In Paris, as he had done in London and its neighbourhood, he formed classes for out-of-door sketching, and was very successful. His works were chiefly landscapes and domestic scenes, and the influence of Watteau and Boucher is discernible in some of his paintings. He seldom worked in oil. He made drawings of the fancy ball scenes and other festivities at Buckingham Palace for the ‘Illustrated London News.’ But his strength lay in landscape, with luxurious foliage and figures well introduced. The


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 sketches of ‘Fontainebleau’ and ‘St. Cloud,’ which he executed in the last year of his life, show his mastery of his art. An example of his work may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. According to Graves he exhibited between 1840 and 1846 twenty-seven pictures: fourteen at the Royal Academy, two at the British Institution, eleven at Suffolk Street. He died of aneurism on 20 Oct. 1846.

 HARRISON, JOHN (fl. 1630), author and envoy to Barbary, according to his own account served in the wars in Ireland under Elizabeth, and on the accession of James I was made groom of the privy-chamber to Prince Henry (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1603–1610 p. 116, 1630–1 p. 508;, Life of Henry, Prince of Wales, p. 452). He retained his position till the prince's death, except that in 1610 he was sent on a mission to Morocco. Afterwards he was in the suite of the Princess Elizabeth, and was at Heidelberg in 1619, when the Elector Palatine started to receive the Bohemian crown. Harrison then returned to England, and in 1622 was sheriff of the Somers Islands or Bermudas (Cal. State Papers, Colonial, America and West Indies, 1574–1660, p. 32); he himself states that he was governor. In 1625 he went on a mission to Barbary; a long letter, dated Tetuan, 10 July 1625, reporting his negotiations, is preserved (Harl. MS. 1581, ff. 320–4). In the autumn of 1626, when he is styled Captain Harrison, he was sent to treat with the kings or governors of Barbary and of the town of Sallee for the redemption of English captives and for mercantile intercourse (Fœdera, xviii. 793, orig. ed.; see also xviii. 807 and xix. 27, 21 Jan. 1629; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1625–6, pp. 440, 458). Sir Henry Marten objected to sending such a mission to treat with pirates, and Harrison wrote a letter in defence of the proposal (ib. pp. 480, 529). During the next four years Harrison constantly went backwards and forwards between Sallee and England, and succeeded in effecting the release of 260 British subjects (ib. 1631–3, p. 219; preface to The Tragical Life and Death, &c.) Harrison had an allowance of 40s. per diem, but says that he expended 4,000l. of his own money on the king's service, for which he could get no return, and was consequently in great distress (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1627–8, p. 361, 1629–1631, p. 508). On 26 June 1635 he received 100l. in full of 200l. due for his allowance. He is last mentioned in 1638, when he petitions for payment of a debt of 3,648l. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Ambrose Wheeler, ‘gentleman usher, quarter-waiter’ (ib. 1638–9, p. 254).

Harrison published: 1. ‘The Messiah already come. Or Profes of Christianitie, both out of the Scriptures and auncient Rabbins, to convince the Jewes of their palpable and more than miserable blindnesse (if more may be), for their long, vaine, and endlesse expectation of their Messiah (as they dreame) yet for to come. Written in Barbarie in the year 1610, &c.’ This work was first published in the Low Countries shortly after the death of ‘Prince Henry, my master’ (preface to 2nd edit.), 2nd edition, Amsterdam, 1619, 4to, with an address to Maurice, prince of Orange, prefixed. A third edition appeared in London, 1656, 12mo, as ‘A Vindication of the Holy Scriptures. Or the Manifestation of Jesus Christ. The Trve Messiah Already Come. … By that Learned and late Eminent Divine, John Harrison.’ (This probably accounts for the mistaken description of Harrison as ‘the Reverend’ in the ‘British Museum Catalogue.’). 2. ‘The Reasons which compelled the States of Bohemia to reiect the Archiduke Ferdinand, &c., and inforced them to elect a new King. Togeather VVith the Proposition … made vppon the first motion of the choice of th' Elector Palatine to be King of Bohemia. Translated out of the french copies,’ Dort [1619?], 4to. 3. ‘A Short Relation Of the Departure of the high and mightie Prince Frederick … from Heydelberg towards Prague. … Whearunto is annexed the Solempnitie or maner of the Coronation,’ Dort, 1619, 4to. 4. ‘Bohemica Iura Defensa. The Bohemian Lawes and Rights Defended against the Informer; or an Answer to an Information falsly so called secretly printed and divulged against the Writings published by the States of Bohemia. Translated out of Latin by I. H.,’ London, 1620, 4to. 5. ‘The Tragical Life and Death of Mvley Abdala Melek, the late King of Barbarie: With a Proposition or Petition to all Christian Princes annexed therevnto,’ Delft, 1633, 4to. This work is dedicated to Charles, prince elector palatine of the Rhine, and was presented to him as a new-year's gift.

 HARRISON, JOHN (1579–1656), philanthropist, only son of John Harrison, merchant, of Leeds, by Grace, daughter of William Kitchingman, esq., was born at Pawdmire House, Leeds, in 1579, and brought up in


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 the house of his uncle, John Kitchingman of Chapel-Allerton. In his twenty-fourth year he married the daughter of Henry Marton, esq., merchant, of Leeds, but had no issue. He derived from his father a considerable fortune, most of which he applied to the purchase of land in Leeds. The annual rental, with some of the profits of his own commercial pursuits, he distributed in public charities, alienating large portions of the fee-simple for charitable purposes. The ancient free grammar school having stood in an inconvenient situation, he removed it to the existing building, which he erected in a ‘pleasant field’ of his own. The handsome cross in the market-place was erected solely at his expense. The New Street or New Kirkgate was built by him, and the rents were appropriated to pious and charitable purposes. This street is terminated by St. John's Church, the crowning monument of his beneficence. The edifice was raised entirely by himself at an immense cost; it was endowed by him with an annual revenue of 80l., and was completed in 1634, when it was consecrated by Archbishop Neile. Harrison also erected and endowed a hospital or almshouse near the church for the residence of forty decayed housekeepers.

When the town of Leeds was incorporated by Charles I in 1626, Harrison was elected the first chief magistrate, with the title of alderman; and he was again chosen to fill that office in 1634. He was also one of the eight principal persons of the town who jointly purchased the manor of Leeds from the crown in the same reign. In 1647, at the request of his friends, he printed, at Berwick, some miscellaneous pieces, among which Thoresby mentions a tract entitled ‘The Government of the Town of Leedes before it was made a Corporation’ and ‘A Letter to Baron Rigby.’ Harrison was a staunch episcopalian and royalist, and his estates were consequently sequestrated by the parliamentary commissioners at the close of the civil war. Sickness aggravated his troubles, and for more than twenty months before his death he was bedridden. He died on 29 Oct. 1656, and was interred on 8 Nov. in his own orchard, which occupied the site of the present Kirkgate market; but his remains were afterwards removed to St. John's Church, and buried under a monument of black marble, over which was placed his portrait at full length in his municipal robes. A fine engraving of the portrait, by W. Holl, from a drawing by Thomas Robinson, is in Whitaker's edition of Thoresby's ‘Ducatus Leodiensis.’ There are several other engraved portraits of Harrison.

 HARRISON, JOHN (1613?–1670), presbyterian divine, son of Peter Harrison of Hindley, near Wigan, Lancashire, was born about 1613, and educated at Cambridge. After officiating for some time as curate of Walmsley Chapel, near Bolton, Lancashire, he became rector of Ashton-under-Lyne in the same county before February 1641–2, when he signed the protestation of the inhabitants as ‘minister’ of the town. Walker (Sufferings of the Clergy, 1714, pt. ii. p. 244) states that he was inducted, according to the custom of the time, by a party of soldiers; but the story is doubtful. He was one of the most active members of the presbyterian party in Lancashire, as an associate of Heyrick, Angier, Gee, and Hollinworth. He attended the meetings of the Manchester Classis regularly between 1646 and 1660, often acting as moderator. In 1648 his name appears as a signer of ‘The Harmonious Consent of the Ministers of the … County Palatine of Lancaster, with the Ministers of the Province of London, in their late Testimonie to the trueth of Jesus Christ, and to our Solemn League and Covenant,’ a document directed against the toleration of independents and other ‘sectaries.’ He was imprisoned at Liverpool in September 1651 on suspicion of corresponding with the king and of being in some way implicated in Love's plot (, Autobiog. p. 33).

In 1658 a controversy about presbyterian church government arose between the Rev. Isaac Allen of Prestwich and other episcopalians and the Manchester Classis, and Harrison was deputed by that presbytery to write in their defence. The volume of papers written on both sides was published in 1659, entitled ‘The Censures of the Church Revived,’ &c., and Harrison's part was done with considerable learning and skill. In September the same year he was imprisoned with other Lancashire ministers for complicity in Sir George Booth's rising for the restoration of the monarchy, but he was leniently dealt with, and liberated in January 1659–60 (ib. p. 111). On the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662 he resigned his living. The patron wished to put Harrison's son Maurice, a conformist, in his place; but the father thought the young man was unfit, and recommended


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 grand council and of the British parliament was to be “requisite to the validity of all general acts or statutes,” except that “in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the British parliament.” The individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777–1778) was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at £40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, “shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen opposed to the Revolution.”

Among his pamphlets are A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies (1775); Historical and Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion (1780); Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of American Independence (1780); and The Claim of the American Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of Law and Justice (1788).

See Thomas Balch (Ed.), The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a Committee of the House of Commons (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H. Baldwin, Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician (New Haven, 1903); and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).

 GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796–1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is “On the Proper Motion of the Solar System,” and was published in the ''Phil. Trans.'', 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and also wrote several scientific papers for the Edinburgh Review and various scientific journals. His Encyclopaedia article, “Probability,” was published separately.

 GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the Novantia of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless cattle. See and.

 GALLOWS (a common Teutonic word—cf. Goth. galga, O. H. Ger. galgo, Mod. Ger. Galgen, A.S. galzan, &c.—of uncertain origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible “gallows” was used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so galga in Ulfilas’s Gothic Testament). Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.

According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set apart for the purpose inside the gaol.

The word “gibbet,” the Fr. gibet, gallows, which appears in the first instance to have meant a crooked stick, was originally used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome custom comes the common use of the word “to gibbet” for any holding up to public infamy or contempt.

 GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous insects of the genus Oestrus. Signor Moriggia has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human hand, which was caused by Acarus domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise “all abnormal vegetable productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation.” For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the “stimulus” and the “supporter of the stimulus,” as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant

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 Thomas Ellison, who was appointed. Harrison resided at Ashton until the Oxford Act was passed, when for a time he removed to Salford, eventually returning to Ashton, where he died on 31 Dec. 1670, aged 57. In his latter days he suffered severely from rheumatism, by which he lost the use of his limbs. He had been a strong, healthy man, ‘yet by his excessive studies, and assiduous labours and watchings, and sitting so close without fire in cold winter nights, his sinews became so contracted and his body so weak, that some years before he died he could not stir hand or foot; yet he was hearty and would often say, “If I were in the pulpit I should be well”’ (, Whole Works, i. 537). He was buried in the chancel of Ashton-under-Lyne Church, and his funeral sermon was preached by his successor, Ellison, who, as Calamy says, ‘gave him a great character, but not beyond his desert.’ His younger brother, Peter Harrison, D. D. (d. 1673), was rector of Cheadle, Cheshire, and conformed at the Restoration. Another brother, Jeremiah, was lieutenant-colonel in the army of the Commonwealth.

HARRISON, JOHN (1693–1776), mechanician, born at Foulby, in the parish of Wragby, Yorkshire, and baptised on 31 March 1693, was the eldest son of Henry Harrison, by his wife Elizabeth Barber of Wragby. His father was carpenter and joiner to Sir Rowland Winn of Nostell Priory, and also repaired clocks. When seven years old John was taken by his father to Barrow-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire, where Winn had another estate. In childhood he was especially attracted by machinery on wheels. He received a scanty education, and was never able to express his ideas clearly in writing. A clergyman lent him a manuscript copy of Nicholas Saunderson's lectures on natural philosophy, which he copied with all the diagrams. In course of time he joined his father in the workshop, and occasionally made a little money by land-measuring and surveying. He tried to improve the construction of clocks and watches. In 1715 he constructed an eight-day clock with wheels made entirely of wood, which is still in going order at the Museum of Patents, South Kensington. To prevent the effects of heat and cold upon timekeepers, he devised in 1726 his ‘gridiron pendulum,’ which consists in having the bob suspended by a series of parallel rods, alternately of steel and brass, so arranged that the downward expansion of the steel rods from change of temperature is exactly compensated for by the upward expansion of the brass rods. This principle of compensation is now generally adopted. Two of Harrison's long eight-day clocks, one of them with the gridiron pendulum attached, are preserved in the museum of the Company of Clockmakers in the Guildhall, London. Another of his ingenious improvements in clockmaking was his recoil escapement, which obviated the necessity of keeping the pallets well oiled. This escapement has been found somewhat too delicate to be generally adopted. Harrison was also the first to employ the ‘going ratchet,’ or secondary spring, an arrangement for keeping the timepiece going at its usual rate while being wound up.

In 1713 an act was passed (12 Anne, cap. 15) offering rewards of 10,000l., 15,000l., and 20,000l. to any one who could discover a method of determining the longitude at sea within sixty, forty, and thirty geographical miles respectively. Harrison came to London in 1728 with drawings of an instrument for the purpose. George Graham [q. v.], who examined his invention, advised him to construct the instrument before applying to the board of longitude. He finished one in 1735, and having obtained certificates of its excellence from Halley, Graham, and others, he was sent in 1736 in a king's ship to Lisbon and back to test it. In this voyage he corrected an error in the ship's reckoning of one degree and a half. Six days after his return, on 30 June 1737, the board ordered 500l. to be paid to him in two moieties, though Graham, who was consulted, urged that he should have at least 1,000l. Harrison completed a second chronometer in 1739. It was less cumbrous than the first. For a third instrument of still smaller make he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1749. A fourth timepiece in the form of a pocket watch, about five inches in diameter, was finished in 1759. Trial of its accuracy was made by his son William during a voyage from Portsmouth to Jamaica and back, lasting from 18 Nov. 1761 to 26 March 1762, when it was found to have erred not more than one minute and fifty-four and a half seconds. This amounted to only eighteen geographical miles. The board of longitude, however, refused to certify that Harrison had won the prize. Harrison thereupon petitioned parliament, with the result that an act


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 * "On the Italian Front, MCMXVI" in A treasury of war poetry, British and American poems of the world war, 1914-1919 (1917)
 * "On the Italian Front, 1916" in The roamer and other poems (1920)

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 HARRISON, ROBERT (d. 1585?), Brownist, matriculated as a pensioner of St. John's College, Cambridge, 4 Oct. 1564, removed to Corpus Christi College, and proceeded B.A. 1567, M.A. 1572. In July 1573 he applied for the post of master of the grammar school of Aylsham, Norfolk, being recommended to Bishop Parkhurst by the mayor and certain of the aldermen of Norwich. The recommendation endeavoured to excuse Harrison for having raised an objection to the use of the prayer-book service at his marriage. The bishop at first refused to appoint him, alleging that he was young, that he had recently suffered ‘with a phrensy,’ and that his offence in the matter of his marriage had been committed in spite of the warning of the vicar, Thexton, and the schoolmaster, Greenwood. The bishop finally gave way, in response to an appeal from the chief inhabitants of Aylsham, but within a month of his appointment Harrison requested that changes might be made in the baptismal service on the occasion of his being godfather to an infant, and he was in consequence removed by the bishop in January 1574. Harrison afterwards went to Cambridge with a view to taking orders in the English church. He was dissuaded by Robert Browne [q. v.], whom he had known previously. Subsequently he became master of a hospital in Norwich, probably the hospital of St. Giles, or the Old Men's Hospital, which had some connection with Aylsham. Browne visited him at Norwich, and lodged and boarded with him and his wife. In ‘A True and Short Declaration, &c.,’ Browne gives an elaborate account of the origin and growth of his friendship with Harrison, whom he puts first in the list of his helpers and disciples. According to Browne's narrative, Harrison came completely over to his views, and the two spent all their energies in preaching and collecting a congregation at Norwich. In April 1581 Bishop Freake of Norwich sent formal articles of complaint against Browne and Harrison to Burghley, and the whole congregation decided to migrate to Middelburg in Zeeland in the autumn of the same year (1581). Harrison, according to his own account, suffered imprisonment before leaving England (A Little Treatise, pref.) At Middelburg the refugees enjoyed freedom of worship, and wrote tracts explaining their views, which were shipped over to England and distributed in large quantities. Two men were hanged for dispersing them, and a royal proclamation issued against them in June 1583. In the proclamation Harrison is misnamed Richard. Harrison wrote two of the prohibited books: 1. ‘A Little Treatise uppon the firste verse of the 122nd Psalm. Stirring up unto carefull desiring and dutiful labouring for true Church Gouvernement, R. H.,’ 1583, 16mo, reprinted at Leyden, 1618, 16mo. The preface states that the book is a fragment of a more elaborate work on church government, which illness and the cost of printing prevented Harrison from completing. 2. ‘Three formes of Catechismes, conteyning the most principal pointes of Religion,’ 1583, 16mo. The cost of printing the Brownist tracts was apparently borne largely by Harrison (, Rasing of the Foundations of Brownisme, p. xii). Grave dissensions soon arose among the members of the Middelburg congregation (, Discourse of some Troubles and Excommunications in the banished English Church of Amsterdam). Harrison and Browne quarrelled, and the latter sailed for Scotland with a few followers in November or December 1583. Harrison was now the head of the congregation, and made an unsuccessful effort to join it to the Conforming Church of English merchants presided over by Cartwright and Fenner. He apparently addressed a formal letter to Cartwright, who in his reply spoke in high terms of Harrison. Harrison wrote a second letter, and printed it along with Cartwright's in ‘An Answere to Master Cartwright his Letter for joyning with the English Churches: whereunto the true copie of his sayde Letter is annexed,’ &c., London, n.d. 4to. Harrison died about 1585.

Besides the works mentioned above Harrison is credited with: 1. ‘Of Ghostes and Spirites walking by night, and of strange noyses, crackes, and sundry forewarninges, which commonly happen before the death of menne, great slaughters and alterations of kyngdomes. One Booke. Written by Lewes Lavaterus of Tigurine, and translated into Englyshe by R. H.,’ London, 4to, 1572 and 1596. 2. ‘A boke of the forme of common prayers, administration of the Sacramentes, &c., agreeable to Gods worde and the use of the Reformed Churches,’ 8vo, 1586, 1587; and possibly 3. ‘Master R. H. His letter to the B. of Norwich,’ 1576 (in A Parte of a Register, pp. 365–70).

‘A Theologicall Discourse of the Lamb of God and His enemies,’ London, 4to, 1590, often attributed to Harrison, is by Richard Harvey [q. v.] (, Congregationalism, p. 69, app. 13; cf., Annals, ii. 62, and , Puritans, i. 193).


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 THE BELL-TOWER

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 HARRISON, ROBERT (1715–1802), mathematician, was appointed master of the Trinity House School in Newcastle on 14 Jan. 1757. For several years previously he had become well known from the part he took in the courses of lectures established in the town in 1739 by Isaac Thomson, printer. Harrison lectured on elementary physics, mechanics, and dynamics, and in conjunction with Thomson published ‘A Short Account of a Course of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, comprehending Mechanics, Hydrostatics, and Pneumatics, with the Elements of Optics and Astronomy’ (Newcastle, 1757). Among the private pupils of Harrison were John Scott and his brother (afterwards Lord Eldon and Lord Stowell). Besides his mathematical acquirements Harrison attained a great reputation as a linguist, and according to Richardson (Local Historian, iii. 21) was ‘acquainted with almost every known language.’ After resigning his mastership in the Trinity House School, he retired to Durham, and lived there during the rest of his life. In both towns he was generally known as Philosopher Harrison. In November 1802 he died at Durham, in the eighty-eighth year of his age.

HARRISON, SAMUEL (1760–1812), vocalist, was born at Belper, Derbyshire, on 8 Sept. 1760. Burton, a bass singer, was his earliest instructor. Harrison was trained as a soprano to sing solos at the Ancient Concerts and at the Society of Sacred Music in 1776. Not until he was eighteen did his voice break. He cultivated his tenor voice with the utmost care, and became the most finished singer of his age. George III, hearing him at one of the queen's parties, had the artist engaged for the Handel Commemoration, 1784, to open the ‘Messiah;’ he thus sprang into the notice of musicians and fashionable people. He had made his first appearance at the Three Choirs meeting as principal tenor in 1781, at Gloucester; from 1786 until 1808 he sang at each of the Hereford meetings, and from 1801 till 1808 was a principal also at Gloucester and Worcester. The meeting of 1811 was managed by Harrison with others. In London he was a member of the Catch Club, and performed at the Professional Concerts from about 1783, at Saloman's from 1786, and the Society of Sacred Music from 1785 until 1790 (when Kelly succeeded him). In conjunction with Ashley, Harrison conducted (and sang in) oratio at Covent Garden Theatre during the Lent of 1791; he sang in the Drury Lane oratorios in 1794, and at the Lenten concerts at the King's Theatre in 1795.

Harrison was principal tenor at the Ancient Concerts from 1785 until 1791, when he seceded, and, with Charles Knyvett the elder, established the Vocal Concerts. The first was given on 11 Feb. 1792 at Willis's Rooms. Here excellent performances of English chamber music were provided, but ceased to attract after a few seasons, Harrison and the chief promoters of the enterprise returning to the Ancient Concerts. In 1801 the Vocal Concerts were revived on a much larger scale than heretofore, with an orchestra; they were very successful until newer musical attractions drew the public away. In 1821 Harrison repeated some of his most popular performances (see ) at his benefit concert on 8 May 1812. He died of internal inflammation on the following 25 June at Percy Street. He was buried in Old St. Pancras graveyard. An inscription on the stone gives lines by the Rev. T. Beaumont (, Monumental Inscriptions, No. 66).

‘Nature had bestowed upon Harrison but slender materials’, but he had learnt to exercise complete control over his delicate organ, which was two octaves in compass, although limited in power. ‘Had his physical powers been equal to his taste,’ wrote a contemporary, ‘Harrison would have been in all points unrivalled.’ The aria cantabile showed his capacity to most advantage. His favourite songs were Pepusch's ‘Alexis,’ Handel's ‘Lord, remember David,’ and ‘Pleasure, my former ways resigning;’ Boyce's ‘Softly rise;’ Zingarelli's ‘Ombra adorata;’ Webbe's ‘A Rose from her bosom had strayed;’ and in later days, Attwood's ‘Soldier's Dream’ and Horsley's ‘Gentle Lyre’ (Dictionary of Music, 1827).

Harrison married, on 6 Dec. 1790, Miss Cantelo, a ‘pleasing and well-toned soprano singer, free from English brogue and vulgarity’. Before she married Harrison her musical career ran in parallel lines with his. She was a favourite at the Ancient Concerts and at the Three Choirs festivals, and earned some measure of praise for her performance at the Handel Commemoration of 1784. Her style of singing, particularly in its negative virtues, seems to have resembled Harrison's. She died in 1831.

HARRISON, STEPHEN (fl. 1603), joiner and architect, is perhaps the ‘Stephen Harryson, son of Peter Harryson,’ who was


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 A SONG OF SUNRISE

On the Morning of the Russian Revolution

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 RUMANIA

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Rumania

 * "Roumania" from A treasury of war poetry, British and American poems of the world war, 1914-1919 (1917)
 * "Rumania" from The roamer and other poems (1920)

title: Rumania


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 TO THE WINGLESS VICTORY

A Prayer

victory, whose shrine

By the Parthenon

Glorified our youth divine,

Harken!—they are gone,

The young eagles of our nest,

They, the brightest, bravest, best,

They are flown!

Lilies of France,

When first they flew,

Led their lone advance

Great heaven through.

Now soar they, brood on brood,

Like stars for multitude,

To France! France!

Save thou the golden flight

That wakes the morn,

And dares the azure height,

The tempest's scorn!

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Rh Save them o'er land and sea,

In deeps of air!

Thy grace, where'er they be,

Ensphere them there!

Save them, the country's pride,

Our wingèd youth!

And where they fall enskied,

Save thou the truth,

O Wingless Victory!


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 he was present at Naseby and Langport, and at the captures of Winchester and Basing and the siege of Oxford (, Anglia Rediviva, ed. 1854, pp. 36, 140, 151, 264). At the storming of Basing Harrison slew ‘one Robinson, son to the doorkeeper of Blackfriars playhouse, and the marquis's major, with his own hands, as they were getting over the works’ (Mercurius Civicus, 9–16 Oct. 1645;, p. 151). A story afterwards circulated among the royalists that Harrison had shot Robinson with a pistol when he had laid down his arms, saying, ‘Cursed is he that doeth the work of the Lord negligently’ (, Historia Histrionica;, Apology, ed. Lowe, i. xxix). Richard Baxter, with whom Harrison became acquainted during his service in the new model, writes of him: ‘He would not dispute with me at all, but he would in good discourse very fluently pour out himself in the extolling of Free Grace, which was very savoury to those that had right principles, though he had some misunderstandings of Free Grace himself. He was a man of excellent natural parts for affection and oratory, but not well seen in the principles of his religion; of a sanguine complexion, naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity, and alacrity, as another man hath when he hath drunken a cup too much; but naturally also so far from humble thoughts of himself that it was his ruin.’ Baxter was standing by Harrison at Langport when the royalists began to run, and heard him ‘with a loud voice break forth into the praises of God with fluent expressions, as if he had been in rapture’ (Reliquiæ Baxterianæ, 1696, pp. 54, 57).

In 1646 Harrison entered parliament as member for Wendover (Names of Knights, Citizens, and Burgesses, &c., 1648, 4to). His military reputation was then so high that Lord Lisle, when appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, asked for Harrison to serve under him (25 Jan. 1647). He returned to England in May, and was thanked by the commons for his services (Commons' Journals, v. 63, 166). In the quarrel between the army and the parliament Harrison sided with the former; signed the letter of the officers to the city of 10 June 1647, and was one of those appointed by Fairfax to treat with the parliamentary commissioners (, vi. 555, 603). Fairfax gave him the command of the regiment of horse which had been Colonel Sheffield's. In November Harrison declared his extreme political views by opposing further negotiations with the king. In a meeting of officers on 11 Nov. 1647, he spoke loudly against the legislative power of the House of Lords, and denounced Charles himself as a ‘man of blood,’ who should be called to an account (Clarke Papers).

During the second civil war Harrison served in the northern army under Lambert, and distinguished himself by his daring on 18 July 1648, when Langdale surprised Lambert's quarters at Appleby. With a few troopers he checked the enemy's advance, ‘and being more forward and bold than his men did second him; having hold himself of one of the enemy's horse colours he received three wounds’ (, vii. 1201). A month later his regiment played a prominent part in the battle of Preston, but it is doubtful whether Harrison himself was present. In November he was actively negotiating with Lilburne a reconciliation between the army leaders and the levellers, and took part in drawing up the agreement of the people (, The Legal, Fundamental Liberties of the People of England asserted, 1649, pp. 35–8).

Harrison was very zealous in bringing the king to trial. Under special instructions from Cromwell and Ireton, he escorted the king from Hurst Castle to London. Charles, who had been told that Harrison had offered to assassinate him, was attracted by his soldierly bearing, and told Herbert ‘that having some judgment in faces, if he had observed him so well before, he should not have that ill opinion of him’ (, Memoirs, ed. 1702, p. 140). Harrison assured the king that the report was not true; what he had really said was ‘that the law was equally obliging to great and small, and that justice had no respect of persons’ (ib. p. 142; Trials of the Regicides, p. 44). He was present at nearly every meeting of the high court of justice, and signed the death-warrant. To the last he always justified his action, and was convinced that it met with divine approbation (Trials of the Regicides, p. 50).

Harrison did not accompany Cromwell to Ireland, though in the prayer-meeting which took place previous to Cromwell's departure, he ‘expounded some places of scripture excellently well and pertinent to the occasion’ (, Memorials, ed. 1853, iii. 66). He was nominated to the council of state when that body was constituted in January 1649, but was not actually elected to it till 10 Feb. 1651 (Commons' Journals, vi. 532). In June 1650 Harrison was one of those entrusted by the council of state to persuade Fairfax to accept the command of the expedition to Scotland (, iii. 207). A letter which he addressed to Cromwell, on his undertaking that post, shows close intimacy with the future Protector (, Original Letters, iii. 353). During Cromwell's absence Harrison was appointed to the


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 THE FLAG

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 chief military command in England (Commons' Journals, 21 June 1650). On 22 Oct. 1650 he reviewed the newly raised militia forces in Hyde Park (Mercurius Politicus). In the following March rumours of plots in the north led the council of state to send him to the border. He had under him some 2,500 newly raised horse of doubtful quality (, Cromwell, Appendix, 20*; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1651, pp. 92, 102, 149). When Charles II marched into England Harrison received orders from Cromwell ‘to attend the motions of the enemy, and endeavour the keeping of them together, as also to impede his advance’ (, ii. 294). On 13 Aug. 1651 Harrison joined Lambert and the cavalry detached from Cromwell's army at Preston, and made an unsuccessful attempt to stop the royalists on 16 Aug. at Knutsford. After the battle of Worcester, in which he took part, Harrison was charged with the pursuit of the flying royalists, and followed up the victory so energetically and skilfully that very few escaped (Harrison's letters relating to this campaign are printed in State Letters addressed to Oliver Cromwell, 1743, p. 71; Old Parliamentary History, vols. xix., xx.;, Memorials of the Civil War, ii. 295, 300, 373). Like Cromwell, Harrison utilised the victory to recommend the parliament to improve ‘this mercy in establishing the ways of righteousness and justice, yet more relieving the oppressed, and opening a wider door to the publishing the everlasting gospel’ (, ii. 375). His own zeal for justice had been shown in 1650 by procuring the expulsion of Edward Howard, lord Howard of Escrick [q. v.] from parliament for taking bribes (, ed. 1751, p. 129). He took part in December 1651 in the conference concerning the settlement of the kingdom arranged by Cromwell, and was one of the promoters of the army petition of 12 Aug. 1652 (, iii. 372). Contemporary evidence represents Harrison as pressing urgently for the dissolution of the Long parliament. Cromwell complained that he was too eager. ‘Harrison,’ he said, ‘is an honest man, and aims at good things, yet from the impatience of his spirit will not wait the Lord's leisure, but hurries me on to that which he and all honest men will have cause to repent’ (, Memoirs, ed. 1751, p. 171). Harrison himself some years later explained to Ludlow that he had assisted in the expulsion of the parliament, ‘because he was fully persuaded that they had not a heart to do any more good for the Lord and his people’ (ib. p. 215). He was in his place in the house on 20 April 1653, and spoke against the passing of the act for calling a new representative assembly. He states that he was not previously acquainted with Cromwell's determination to resort to force, but he did not hesitate at Cromwell's bidding to lay hands on the speaker, though he later denied using force to fetch him from the chair (Several Proceedings in Parliament, 14–21, April 1653; Collection of Lives, Speeches, &c. p. 9;, p. 173).

Authority was now vested for a time in the hands of a small council of thirteen persons nominated by the officers, and Harrison was president of it during the third week of its existence. Some wished the supreme power to continue in the hands of a council, but Harrison urged that it should be intrusted to an assembly, to consist, like the Jewish ‘sanhedrim,’ of some seventy selected persons (, p. 176). This policy was in fact adopted in the summoning of the Barebones parliament, of which Harrison was a co-opted member. Over the majority of that body he exercised great influence, and with its extinction his own political career ended. Roger Williams describes him as head of the party of fifty-six who were for the abolition of priests and tithes, and ‘the second in the nation of late,’ adding, ‘he is a very gallant, most deserving, heavenly man, but most high-flown for the kingdom of the Saints, and the Fifth Monarchy now risen, and their sun never to set again,’ &c. (, Life of Williams, 1834, p. 261).

Harrison had been one of the council of state elected on 3 Nov. 1653, but was left out of that appointed under the instrument of government in December 1653. Refusing to own the new government he was naturally deprived of his commission, 22 Dec. 1653 (, i. 641). He says himself: ‘When I found those that were as the apple of mine eye to turn aside, I did loathe them and suffered imprisonment many years. Rather than to turn as many did that did put their hands to this plough, I chose rather to be separated from wife and family than to have compliance with them, though it was said, “sit at my right hand” and such kind of expressions’ (Trials of the Regicides, p. 50). On 3 Feb. 1654 he was ordered to retire to his father's house in Staffordshire, and not to leave till further order (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1653–4, p. 387). In September 1654 the anabaptists projected presenting a petition to parliament, and Harrison, who was suspected of directing their movements, was for a few days in custody. Cromwell then sent for him, entertained him richly, expostulated with him, and finally dismissed him with a simple admonition ‘not to persevere in those evil ways whose end is destruction’ (, ii. 606; Cal. Clarendon Papers, ii. 398). It was often


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 308 the country in more than one direction, and has rendered accessible its most romantic scenery, while opening up its varied and valuable productions.

The district of Uruapan has become famous for its exquisite lacquered ware bearing the same name, and which has received gold prizes at the Philadelphia, Vienna, and Paris Expositions. The finest specimens of the work yet exhibited, strange to relate, have been executed by two or three families. As explained to me by one of the workers in the market of Morelia, simple old-fashioned gourds, generally cut into plaques, are used as the basis of operations. They first apply some neutral tint as the groundwork, after which the artist, with an ordinary pocket-knife, makes the design in either fruit or flowers—perhaps after the order of an engraver on wood—and then, little by little, the colors are deftly put into these indentures by the fingers, time being allowed for each to become entirely dry before adding another. These paints are prepared by the Indians themselves from the native dye-woods, and as a variety of colors is used in the process, much time is expended in making this wonderful ware. Not the least important in the various processes employed, is that of rubbing, when thoroughly dry, the entire picture with a curious admixture of oily substances, of which the ordinary caterpillar is the principal. But there is good sense, and reason as well, in resorting to so obnoxious a thing as a caterpillar, for it completes an object that is not only one of great utility, resisting alike grease and water, but also gives a ware that is to the last, even when worn into shreds, an article of fadeless beauty.

In the State of Michoacán there is the most picturesque lake in the republic. Since my visit there the railway has reached its shores, rudely awakening it from the slumber of ages. Humboldt visited Pátzcuaro, and speaks of the lake as rivaling the world-famed Lake of Geneva. Even in this land of grand and romantic scenery it stands alone in its exceeding loveliness. A pleasure boat has been recently launched upon its limpid waters for the recreation of health-seekers and tourists. The town of Pátzcuaro supplies good accommodations


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 groundlessly reported that Harrison had made a secret agreement with the royalists (, i. 749, iii. 345). Fresh movements among the anabaptists roused anew the suspicions of the government, and on 15 Feb. 1655 Harrison was arrested and sent prisoner to Carisbrooke Castle (ib. iii. 160; Mercurius Politicus, 15–22 Feb. 1655; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1655, p. 112). Many interesting details relating to his imprisonment are recorded by his fellow-sufferer John Rogers (, Life and Opinions of a Fifth-Monarchy Man, 1867, pp. 257–61). In March 1656 Harrison was released and allowed to live at Highgate with his family (The Public Intelligencer, 31 March and 7 April 1656;, p. 277). In April 1657 Venner's conspiracy was discovered, but though the evidence of the conspirators themselves proved that Harrison had refused to take part in it, he was again for a time under arrest (, vi. 164, 185). However, in February 1658 a more dangerous plot came to light, in which Harrison was said to be deeply implicated, and he was again sent to the Tower (, Diary, iii. 449, 494; Mercurius Politicus, 4–11 Feb. 1657–8). In the summer of 1659 there were rumours of an intended anabaptist insurrection to be headed by Harrison, but he seems to have taken no part whatever in the political movements of that troublous year (Clarendon State Papers, iii. 479, 484). His inactivity was doubtless due largely to the injury his health had sustained by wounds and imprisonments. At his execution his hands and knees were seen to tremble. ‘It is by reason of much blood I have lost in the wars,’ said Harrison, ‘and many wounds I have received in my body, which caused this shaking and weakness in my nerves. I have had it this twelve years’ (Collection of Lives and Speeches, &c., p. 18). When the Restoration approached, Harrison refused either to give a verbal pledge not to disturb the government, or to save his life by flight.’ ‘If I had been minded to run away,’ said he, ‘I might have had many opportunities. But being so clear in the thing, I durst not turn my back nor step a foot out of the way by reason I had been engaged in the service of so glorious and great a God’ (ib. p. 19). Accordingly, early in May 1660 he was arrested at his own house in Staffordshire by Colonel John Bowyer, and committed to the Tower (, ed. 1751, p. 345; Commons' Journals, viii. 22, 39). He was one of the seven persons originally excepted from the Act of Indemnity (June 5), and was brought to trial on 11 Oct. 1660. In his defence Harrison justified the king's execution, and pleaded that he had acted in the name of the parliament of England and by their authority. ‘Maybe I might be a little mistaken, but I did it all according to the best of my understanding, desiring to make the revealed will of God in his holy scriptures a guide to me’ (Trials of the Regicides, p. 50). He was condemned to death, and was executed at Charing Cross on 13 Oct. 1660. On the scaffold itself, as throughout his trial, Harrison exhibited much courage and enthusiasm. ‘Where is your good old cause now?’ said a scoffer in the crowd. Harrison, with a smile, clapped his hand on his breast and said, ‘Here it is, and I am going to seal it with my blood’ (Lives, Speeches, &c., p. 15). Pepys, who witnessed his death, dwells on the cheerfulness with which he suffered, while Nicholas complains of the hardness of his heart (Diary, 13 Oct.; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1660–1, p. 312). Among the Fifth-monarchy men Harrison was regarded as a martyr; and a report spread that he was soon to rise again, judge his judges, and restore the kingdom of the saints. To this prophecy Cowley refers in the ‘Cutter of Coleman Street,’ iii. 12 (see also, 13 Oct. 1660; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1660–1, p. 569).

 HARRISON, THOMAS (1693–1745), baptist minister and poet, born in 1693, was the son of Thomas Harrison, the minister of a baptist congregation meeting at Loriners' Hall, London. He was first called to the ministry by the congregation of baptists to which he belonged, meeting in Joiners' Hall. From 1715 to 1729 he was the pastor of the particular baptist church in Little Wild Street. In 1729 he conformed to the church of England; through the influence of relatives obtained orders, and was inducted into the vicarage of Radcliffe-on-the-Wreke, Leicestershire. He preached and published a sermon in justification of his change of views, which was answered by the famous ‘Orator’ Henley [see ] in a tract entitled ‘A Child's Guide for the Rev. Thomas


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Rh in its comfortable hostelries, and its inhabitants are fully alive to the advantages of being in communication with the rest of the world.

The early Spanish fathers appreciated the natural beauties of this region, and founded here a bishopric and the College of San Nicolas, which, however, were both subsequently removed to Valladolid, the college being united with that of San Miguel in 1580, at the same time transferring its name to the latter institution.

The tourist visiting any of the larger cities of Mexico is much surprised to find schools and colleges with modern equipments such as would reflect credit upon any country.

At Morelia the most notable of the colleges are the "Colegio de San Nicolas"—of which Hidalgo was regent—and "El Seminario." Each of these has about five hundred pupils. The Church, or Conservative party, patronize and control "El Seminario," while the Liberals maintain the former. A bitter feud has been naturally aroused between the students of the two schools, and not so very long ago they would draw themselves up in battle array, and proceed to pelt each other with stones until all were satisfied.

San Nicolas was the first institution of learning established on the American continent, having


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 ,’ &c. Harrison died 30 March 1745, and was buried in St. Peter's churchyard at St. Albans. He was the author of ‘Poems on Divine Subjects, in two Parts,’ 12mo, pp. 84, London, 1719. Several of the hymns in this volume became popular, and were reprinted repeatedly in collections. He also published ‘Belteshazzar; or the Heroic Jew,’ 12mo, 1727. Several of his sermons were printed separately during his lifetime.

 HARRISON, THOMAS (1744–1829), architect, born in 1744 at Richmond in Yorkshire, was of humble origin, but early distinguished himself by his knowledge of arithmetic, drawing, and mechanics. He had the good fortune to attract the attention of Sir Lawrence Dundas, by whose liberality he was sent in 1769, with George Cuit the elder [q. v.], the landscape-painter, to study in Italy, and was for several years a student in Rome. In 1770 he made a design for Pope Clement XIV for the decoration of the cortile of the Belvedere. He also prepared other designs for the embellishment of the piazza near the Porta del Popolo, for which the pope presented him with a gold and a silver medal, and ordered his name to be added to the members of the academy of St. Luke, with a seat in the council of that body. He returned to London in 1776, and in 1777 exhibited his medal drawings. Shortly afterwards he was commissioned to build a bridge over the Lune at Lancaster; the first stone was laid by George III in 1783, and the work completed in 1788. It has five elliptical arches of sixty-nine feet span, and is said to be the first bridge with a level surface erected in England. He also rebuilt Lancaster Castle in the Gothic style, and designed other important buildings in that town. His plans in the Grecian Doric style for rebuilding the castle at Chester were selected in competition; they include a prison, county assize courts, armoury, exchequer, and gateway. These buildings were erected between 1793 and 1820, and are wholly of stone, no iron or timber being used in any part of the walls, ceilings, floors, or staircases. This was the first prison built on the panoptical arrangement in this country. In 1827 he erected the celebrated Grosvenor Bridge over the Dee at Chester, from designs he had prepared some years before. This consists of a single arch of two hundred feet span, a then unequalled dimension, and is of such singularly beautiful proportions as to convey little idea of size to a casual observer. This and the castle which stands near are Harrison's best-known works. He erected the obelisk on Moel Vammau, Denbighshire, to commemorate the jubilee of George III, the column to Lord Hill near Shrewsbury, and that to Lord Anglesea at Plâs Newydd. In Liverpool he was the architect of the Athenænum, the Lyceum, the theatre, the St. Nicholas's Tower, and other well-known buildings; in Manchester of the Portico, the Exchange Buildings (1809), and the Theatre Royal (burnt in 1843). He was also employed in erecting many public buildings and mansions for the nobility and gentry, not only in Lancashire and Cheshire, but in various parts of England and Scotland. He built Broomhall, Fifeshire, for Lord Elgin (1796). Harrison suggested to that nobleman, on his appointment to the embassy at Constantinople, that he should obtain casts and drawings of the works of art at Athens and other places in Greece. This resulted in that magnificent collection, the Elgin marbles, which were purchased by the British Museum in 1816. Harrison died at Chester, 29 March 1829, aged 85, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Bride. A bust of Harrison was presented by his nephew John to the Institute of British Architects in 1838, and there is an engraved portrait of him by A. R. Burt, dated Chester, 1 May 1824; in the background Chester Castle is shown. He exhibited five works at the Royal Academy between 1773 and 1814.

Most of his designs were in the revived classic style that suited the taste of his time, and such specimens as the Manchester Exchange, the Lyceum in Liverpool, and Wood Bank Hall, Stockport, serve to show his successful adaptation of this style to buildings intended for various purposes. They also have the merit of thoroughly convenient interior arrangement and excellent construction.

 HARRISON, THOMAS ELLIOTT (1808–1888), civil engineer, born in Sunderland on 4 April 1808, was son of William Harrison, who was engaged there in the shipping business. After a short education at Kepier grammar school, he was apprenticed to Messrs. Chapman, engineers and surveyors, in Newcastle, and soon showed remarkable efficiency. He became acquainted with George Stephenson and his son, and assisted the latter in some important engineering operations. Harrison surveyed part of the line for the London and Birmingham railway, and that of the Stanhope and Tyne railway. The latter undertaking included the well-known Victoria


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 Bridge, with a height of 157 feet and arches of 240 feet span, the whole of which was built on Harrison's plans, under his immediate superintendence. Other engagements which he successfully carried out as railway engineer were the survey of the Newcastle and Carlisle railway, the York and Doncaster, the Hull and Selby, the Tweedmouth and Kelso, and various other lines. He was also, conjointly with Robert Stephenson, engineer for the construction of several important works, the most famous being the high level bridge between Newcastle and Gateshead. When Robert Stephenson retired from work as railway engineer, Harrison became engineer-in-chief of the York, Newcastle, and Berwick line, and the success ultimately reached was largely due to his energy and powers of organisation. In 1858 he designed and carried out the Jarrow docks, with several remarkable appliances of hydraulic power, and afterwards designed the Hartlepool docks. On 13 Jan. 1874 he delivered the inaugural address as president of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Harrison died at Newcastle on 20 March 1888.

HARRISON, WILLIAM (1534–1593), topographer, chronologer, and historian, was born in Cordwainer Street (or Bow Lane), London, on 18 April 1534, ‘hora 11, minut. 4, secunda 56.’ He was educated first at St. Paul's School and then (he says) at ‘Westminster School, in which I was sometime an vnprofitable grammarian under the reuerend father, master [Alexander] Nowell’ [q. v.], ‘now deane of Paules;’ then at Cambridge in 1551, and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. 1556 and M.A. 1560. Later Harrison was chaplain to Sir William Brooke, lord Cobham, who gave him the rectory of Radwinter in Essex, to which he was inducted on 16 Feb. 1558–9, and which he held till his death. On 28 Jan. 1570–1 he obtained also the vicarage of Wimbish in Essex from Francis de la Wood, but resigned it in the autumn of 1581. By 1571 he had married Marion Isebrande, ‘daughter to William Isebrande and Ann his wife, sometyme of Anderne, neere vnto Guisnes in Picardie.’ On 23 April 1586 Harrison was appointed canon of Windsor, and installed the day after. At Windsor he died in 1593, and his will—dated at Radwinter, 27 July 1591—was proved by his son Edmund on 22 Nov. 1593. He left also an unmarried daughter, Anne, and another daughter married to Robert Baker. He outlived his wife.

Queen Elizabeth's printer, Reginald Wolfe [q. v.], planned ‘an vniversall Cosmographie of the whole world … with particular histories of euery knowne nation,’ and secured Harrison's help in it. After twenty-five years' work at the scheme Wolfe died about 1576; his successors narrowed his plan to descriptions and histories of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and for this work Harrison wrote his ‘Description of England’ and turned into English Bellenden's Scottish translation of Hector Boece's Latin ‘Description of Scotland.’ Harrison's famous ‘Description of England’ was set before Holinshed's ‘Chronicle’ (1st ed. 1577; 2nd ed., revised and enlarged, 1586–7), and his English version of Bellenden appeared in Holinshed's ‘Chronicle,’ vol. ii. The latter took him ‘three or foure daies.’ Two unprinted works by Harrison, apparently compiled as part of Wolfe's scheme, are in the diocesan library at Derry in Ireland: three big folios, vols. ii. iii. iv. of his ‘great Chronologie,’ ‘which he had gathered and compiled with most exquisit diligence’ (Chron. iii. A 4, ed. 1587), from the Creation to February 1592–3, two months before his death; and his much-corrected manuscript on weights and measures, Hebrew, Greek, English, &c., dated 1587. He pasted his corrections over his mistakes; the paste has perished, and the correction-slips are now all loose in the manuscript.

Harrison unluckily began his ‘Description of England’ by turning into words ‘maister Thomas Sackfords cardes’ or ‘Charts of the seuerall prouinces of this realme,’ describing the courses of rivers, &c.; but once clear of these in book i., he gave in book ii. a very valuable account of the institutions and inhabitants of England, their food, dress, houses, &c. In book iii. he described the products of the land, its inns and fairs. His racy accounts of our forefathers' dress—‘except it were a dog in a doublet, you shall not see anie so disguised as are my countrie men of England;’ of their food, their houses in chap. xii., the ‘amendment of lodging, since they had a good round log vnder their heads instead of a bolster or pillow;’ his description of the artificer and husbandman—‘so merie without malice, and plaine without inward … craft, that it would doo a man good to be in companie among them’—have made Harrison one of the most often quoted and trusted authorities on the condition of England in Elizabeth's and Shakespeare's days. His ‘Chronologie’ of his own time, in vol. iv. of his manuscript ‘Chronologie,’ is also of value. Extracts are given from it in Dr. Furnivall's edition of Harrison's ‘Description of England’ (i. xlvii–lx), 1877.


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310 been founded about the year 1540. Two or three years later, in 1543, it was placed under the protection of the Emperor Carlos V.

A magnificent library that is open to the public is connected with this institution. The population of the city is about forty thousand, and its public benefactions are numerous and excellent. Among them I noted a hospital for men, and a separate one for women; Civil Hospital, Hospital del Corazon de Jesus, and Monte de Piedad, and many others. Not only are these institutions cleanly and well kept, but they are also spacious and airy. Since the reform war, and the separation of Church and State, many of the convents have been converted into hospitals. The afflicted inmates have a permanent and agreeable source of diversion in gazing upon the highly embellished walls of these stately institutions.

There are separate prisons for men and women, and also a general penitentiary. Cotton factories and other industrial establishments, including the manufacture of exquisite pottery, place Morelia in the van of progressiveness. The temples of worship are magnificent, and the public edifices of great elegance, while well-kept panthcons (cemeteries), paseos and alamedas add to the long list of its attractions. A favorite place of recreation is the beautiful avenue known as the Calzada de Guadalupe. It was originally constructed for the accommodation of the faithful who visited the Sanctuary of Guadalupe, where it terminated.

The Morelianos are exceedingly conservative, and neither Americans nor other foreigners have obtained any extensive foothold; nevertheless, there is a growing undercurrent of liberalism, which in many ways manifests itself. They have a city of many natural advantages, but while it is one of the most beautiful and interesting in the republic, it will be many years before the Anglo-Saxon race will reside there in great numbers.

We are everywhere forcibly reminded of Spanish domination in the architecture, which, like the language, has changed but little. Cities may differ in building materials, but the ancient Spanish is universally copied. However, it must be acknowledged that the Anglo-


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 In 1788 Harrod projected an enlarged edition of Wright's ‘History and Antiquities of Rutlandshire,’ but the work was discontinued, after the appearance of two numbers, for want of encouragement. The copper-plates and manuscripts were afterwards purchased by John Nichols. Thomas Barker (1722–1809) [q. v.], one of Harrod's patrons, contributed a history of Lyndon, which formed one of the parts published (, Lit. Anecd. iii. 112–13). In 1789 Harrod published a sale catalogue of his books (ib. iii. 679), and during a contested election at Nottingham in 1803 compiled ‘Coke and Birch. The Paper-War carried on at the Nottingham Election, 1803; containing the whole of the Addresses, Songs, Squibs, &c., circulated by the contending parties, including the Books of Accidents and Chances.’

HARROWBY,. [See, 1762–1847, first earl; and {sc|Ryder, Dudley}}, 1798–1882, second earl.]

HARRY, BLIND (fl. 1470–1492). Scottish poet. [See .]

HARRY, GEORGE OWEN (fl. 1604), Welsh antiquary, son of William Owen, became rector of Whitchurch, or Eglwys-Wen, in the hundred of Cemmaes, Pembrokeshire. His printed works are: 1. ‘The Genealogy of the high and mighty Monarch James … King of Great Brittayne, with his lineall descent from Noah by divers direct lynes to Brutus; … with a briefe Cronologie of the memorable Acts of the famous men touched in this Genealogie, with many other matters worthy of note,’ London, 1604, 4to. This book, which was composed at the request of Robert Holland, is, when accompanied by all the plates, uncommonly rare. 2. ‘The Well-sprynge of True Nobility.’

He compiled in 1602 a manuscript volume showing the state of Wales at that period (for some extracts see Gent. Mag. for 1823). To Browne Willis's ‘Survey of the Cathedral Church of St. David's,’ 1717, are appended ‘some memoirs relating thereto, and the county adjacent, from a MS. wrote about the latter end of Queen Elizabeth's reign.’ The manuscript is believed to have been written by George Owen Harry for the use of Camden, who acknowledges his assistance in the account of Pembrokeshire in the ‘Britannia.’ Richard Fenton, in his ‘Historical Tour through Pembrokeshire,’ 1811, has liberally quoted from Harry's manuscripts.

HARRY, NUN MORGAN (1800–1842), congregationalist, was born in the parish of Lampeter Velfrey in Pembrokeshire, 9 June 1800. His father died in the prime of life, when Harry was in his fourth year. He and his three brothers with their mother were taken charge of by their grandfather, David Harry, who gave them a good education. At the age of fourteen Harry began to commit to paper on Sunday evenings the texts of the sermons he had heard during the day, and afterwards made as full notes as he could. At the age of seventeen he joined the congregational church at Henllan, and commenced his occasional labours as minister of the gospel there. It was partly through the instrumentality of Lady Barham, who took a kindly interest in him, that in 1822 he entered the college at Newport Pagnell, Buckinghamshire. Having completed the usual term of study there, he was unanimously chosen pastor of the independent church at Banbury, and was ordained on 25 April 1827. He remained here nearly seven years. On 15 Aug. 1832 he became pastor of the independent church in New Broad Street, London, and remained there till his death on 22 Oct. 1842. He enthusiastically adopted the principles of the Peace Society; in 1837 he was elected one of its honorary secretaries, and became editor of the ‘Herald of Peace.’ He generally drew up the annual reports, and wrote several valuable tracts and circulars, published by the committee. When asked to take part in any public meeting, he always stipulated that he should be allowed to say a word on ‘peace.’ In his theology he was probably in advance of the majority of the ministers of his own denomination. A memorial sermon by his ‘bosom friend,’ the Rev. Caleb Morris of Fetter Lane Chapel, London, passed through several editions. He published a series of twelve lectures on the subject, ‘What think ye of Christ?’ Banbury, 1832.

In 1828 he married Eliza, the eldest daughter of the Rev. William Warlow of Milford, by whom he had five children.

HARSNETT, ADAM (d. 1639), divine, was the son of Adam and Mercy Harsnett. When making his will on 24 Oct. 1612, his


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14 those passed by another? What shows conclusively that the States cannot be said to have reserved an undivided sovereignty, is, that they expressly ceded the right to punish treason—not treason against their separate power—but treason against the United States. Treason is an offence against sovereignty, and sovereignty must reside with the power to punish it But the reserved rights of the States are not less sacred, because they have for their common interest made the General Government the depository of these powers.

The unity of our political character (as has been shown for another purpose,) commenced with its very existence. Under the Royal Government we had no separate character—our opposition to its oppressions began as. We were the under the Confederation, and the name was perpetuated, and the Union rendered more perfect, by the Federal Constitution. In none of these stages did we consider ourselves in any other light than as forming one nation. Treaties and alliances were made in the name of all. Troops were raised for the joint defence. How, then, with all these proofs that, under all changes of our position, we had, for designated purposes and with defined powers, created national governments—how is it, that the most perfect of those several modes of Union should now be considered as a mere league, that may be dissolved at pleasure? It is from an abuse of terms. Compact is used as synonymous witwith [sic] league, although the true term is not employed, because it would at once show the fallacy of the reasoning. It would not do to say that our Constitution was only a league, but, it is labored to prove it a compact (which in one sense it is,) and then to argue that as a league is a compact, every compact between nations must, of course, be a league, and that from such an engagement every sovereign power has a right to recede. But it has been shown, that in this sense the States are not sovereign, and that even if they were, and the national Constitution had been formed by compact, there would be no right in any one State to exonerate itself from its obligations.

So obvious are the reasons which forbid this secession, that it is necessary only to allude to them. The Union was formed for the benefit of all. It was produced by mutual sacrifices of interests and opinions. Can those sacrifices be recalled? Can the States who magnanimously surrendered their title to the territories of the West, recall the grant? Will the inhabitants of the inland States agree to pay the duties that may be imposed without their assent by those on the Atlantic or the Gulf, for their own benefit? Shall there be a free port in one State, and onerous duties in another? No one believes that any right exists in a single State to involve all the others in these and countless other evils, contrary to engagements solemnly made. Every one must see that the other States, in self-defence, must oppose it at all hazards.


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378 wisdom of universities, and eminently conversant with the working of political forces; a man of life and action, an expert such as had not been seen. He became the first classic of imperialism, and helped to form that garrison of distinguished historians that prepared the Prussian supremacy together with their own, and now hold Berlin like a fortress. If any one will make a list of their names, he will see that such a phalanx was never arrayed before, and will also detect one of the arcana imperii, by which the rude strength centred in a region more ungenial than Latium was employed to absorb and to stiffen the diffused, sentimental, and strangely impolitic talent of the studious Germans.

Things were different heretofore, when history, not yet woven into the web of national greatness, was carried on by private enterprise. Men living in a small way, with a dim political background, were not often practical, but were generally disinterested. Göttingen, Tübingen, and Heidelberg had some advantages for historical teaching over Berlin, where "William Tell" was a forbidden play. Among their leisurely professors were men who found, like Dahlmann, that the great Frederic stuck in their throats; like Gervinus and Ewald, who repudiated Dahlmann's precept, that what their country wanted was force before freedom. The disconcerting verdict of events ruined their credit as readers of the signs of the times. Apart from the convenient popularity of the maxim, "Die Weltgeschichte ist das Weltgericht," it was apparent that the past had not revealed to them its inmost secret, and they were disparaged, as investigators of irreclaimable dry bones. The men who took betimes the side of the big battalions, showed superior penetration into the things beneath the sun. They brought history into touch with the nation's life, and gave it an influence it had never possessed out of France; and they won for themselves the making of opinions, mightier than laws. The most clear-sighted of those who resolved, after the failure of the Revolution, that the future of Germany belonged to Prussia, was Droysen.


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Rh Ten years before the fire-and-sword despatch revealed Count Ferro, while intelligent adherents of Greater Germany argued that without Austria there could be nothing but a magnified Prussia, Droysen affirmed that unity could never come from liberty and the vote of parliaments, that it required a power strong enough to crush resistance at home and abroad. The rest of his life was devoted to Prussian politics and the imperial arts; and he was one of that central band of writers and statesmen and soldiers who turned the tide that had run for six hundred years, and conquered the centrifugal forces that had reigned in Germany longer than the commons have sat at Westminster. He had learnt classical scholarship in the school of Böckh, and had acquired from Hegel the habit of abstract thought and that preference for the Hellenic empire which is adversely noted in the History of Federal Government. In spite of his Macedonian proclivity, his earliest pupil testifies that he was always a liberal, meaning a promoter of secondary liberties. Whatever element of the kind was in him, was fostered by his residence at Kiel, in a land flowing with political excitement, the early home of gratuitous education. To sustain the faith and the practice of patriotism, he published his lectures on the time between the Stamp Act and Waterloo, a book full of views and turbid cleverness. He passed on to his own domain with the biography of the grim warrior whose defection prepared the ruin of Napoleon, and whose son fell in the last action of the revolutionary war, refusing quarter, and exclaiming that his name was Yorck. The long History of Prussian Policy followed, and brought popularity and power. Being asked by what subtle charm he and the intimate advisers had changed the plain soldier of the last generation into the mightiest of conquerors, Droysen replied that it was nothing but the stern sense of duty (die verfluchte Schuldigkeit). He made this the note of Hohenzollern history. Their success lay in diplomacy and war, and the narrative is international, not domestic. The affairs of Europe from the Great Elector to the eve of the Seven Years'


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380 War have never been told with so large a knowledge of politics; and the later volumes are more effective than the parallel work of his illustrious rival. Ranke, who discards the teleological argument of history, whose feelings are so well under control that he dilates on the disasters of 1806 more than on the triumphs of 1757, had neither his popular fibre nor his official sanction. Fastidious readers doubt at last the swiftness of Achilles and the piety of Æneas; but to those who do not require conviction, the sagacious advocate of Prussian monarchy is as persuasive as the avowed defenders of other causes, of parliamentary government or federal democracy.

The one writer of history who is more brilliant and powerful than Droysen is Treitschke. Droysen's grasp of his materials began to relax when he came to Frederic; but Treitschke never flags, and is always vehement, certain, and overwhelming. As a political essayist, long ago he broke the spell of superiority which, until the death of Stahl, belonged to the religious and the strict conservative world. He was predestined for Berlin by his first conspicuous act; for he had attacked, and it was thought had refuted, the notion of a separate science of society, as the sphere of religion, morality, economy, and knowledge, as a vast community, organically distinct from the State, and able to control it. The idea, which comes from Harrington, and was pronounced by John Adams the greatest discovery in politics, had been made by Lorenz von Stein the key to the Revolution, in a work exposing the economic cause of political science, with Hegelian formalities which contrast unhappily with Treitschke's gleaming style. For he writes, with the force and the fire of Mommsen, of a time remembered by living men, and pregnant with the problems that are still open. He marshals his forces on a broader front than any other man, and accounts for the motives that stir the nation, as well as for the councils that govern it.

Treitschke's History of Germany belongs to a series that has made up for the long delay in approaching the present century, in which England, from the regency to


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Rh anu, small, subtile, infinitesimal, atom. It is an abstract word, and I have translated it by subtile essence.

The father then goes on explaining in various ways that this Sat is underlying all existence, and that we must learn to recognise it as the root, not only of all the objective, but likewise of our own subjective existence. 'Bring the fruit of a Nyagrodha tree,' he says, 'break it, and what do you find?' 'The seeds,' the son replies, 'almost infinitesimal.' 'Break one of them, and tell me what you see.' 'Nothing,' the son replies. Then the father continues: 'My son, that subtile essence which you do not see there, of that very essence this great Nyagrodha tree exists.'

After that follows this sentence: 'Etadâtmyam idam sarvam, tat satyam, sa âtmâ, tat tvam asi Svetaketo.'

This sentence has been rendered by Rajendralal Mitra in the following way: 'All this universe has the (Supreme) Deity for its life. That Deity is Truth. He is the Universal Soul. Thou art He, O Svetaketu .' This translation is quite correct, as far as the words go, but I doubt whether we can connect any definite thoughts with these words. In spite of the division adopted in the text, I believe it will be necessary to join this sentence with the last words of the preceding paragraph. This is clear from the commentary, and from later paragraphs, where this sentence is repeated, VI, 9, 4, &c. The division C 2


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Rh These are the alternatives that are presented by the Convention: a repeal of all the acts for raising revenue, leaving the Government without the means of support, or an acquiescence in the dissolution of our Union by the secession of one of its members. When the first was proposed, it was known that it could not be listened to for a moment. It was known, if force was applied to oppose the execution of the laws, that is must be repelled by force—that Congress could not, without involving itself in disgrace, and the country in ruin, accede to the proposition; and yet, if this is not done in a given day, or if any attempt is made to execute the laws, the State is, by the ordinance, declared to be out of the Union. The majority of a Convention assembled for the purpose, have dictated these terms, or rather this rejection of all terms, in the name of the people of South Carolina. It is true, that the Governor of the State speaks of the submission of their grievances to a Convention of all the States; which, he says, they "sincerely and anxiously seek and desire." Yet this obvious and constitutional mode of obtaining the sense of the other States, on the construction of the federal compact, and amending it, if necessary, has never been attempted by those who have urged the State on to this destructive measure. The State might have proposed the call for a general Convention, to the other States, and Congress, if a sufficient number of them concurred, must have called it. But the first magistrate of South Carolina, when he expressed a hope that, "on a review by Congress and the functionaries of the general government of the merits of the controversy," such a Convention will be accorded to them, must have known that neither Congress nor any functionary of the General Government has authority to call such a Convention, unless it be demanded by two-thirds of the States. This suggestion, then, is another instance of the reckless inattention to the provisions of the Constitution with which this crisis has been madly hurried on; or of the attempt to persuade the people that a constitutional remedy had been sought and refused. If the Legislature of South Carolina "anxiously desire" a General Convention to consider their complaints, why have they not made application for it in the way the Constitution points out? The assertion that they "earnestly seek" it, is completely negatived by the omission.

This then, is the position in which we stand. A small majority of the citizens of one State in the Union have elected delegates to a State Convention: that Convention has ordained that all the revenue laws of the United States must be repealed, or that they are no longer a member of the Union. The Governor of that State has recommended to the Legislature the raising of an army to carry the secession into effect, and that he may be empowered to give clearances to vessels in the name of the State. No act of violent opposition to the laws has yet been committed, but such a state of


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xxxvi in the printed text (VI, 8, 6) is wrong, and VI, 8, 7 should begin with sa ya esho 'nimâ, i. e. that which is the subtile essence.

The question then is, what is further to be said about this subtile essence. I have ventured to translate the passage in the following way:

'That which is the subtile essence (the Sat, the root of everything), in it all that exists has its self, or more literally, its self-hood. It is the True (not the Truth in the abstract, but that which truly and really exists). It is the Self, i. e. the Sat is what is called the Self of everything .' Lastly, he sums up, and tells Svetaketu that, not only the whole world, but he too himself is that Self, that Satya, that Sat.

No doubt this translation sounds strange to English ears, but as the thoughts contained in the Upanishads are strange, it would be wrong to smoothe down their strangeness by clothing them in language familiar to us, which, because it is familiar, will fail to startle us, and because it fails to startle us, will fail also to set us thinking.

To know oneself to be the Sat, to know that all that is real and eternal in us is the Sat, that all came from it and will, through knowledge, return to it, requires an independent effort of speculative thought. We must realise, as well as we can, the thoughts of the ancient Rishis, before we can hope to translate them. It is not enough simply to read the half-religious, half-philosophical utterances which we find in