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42 ixe chiues tipt with yellow pendents, and a three-forked tile or pointell compaing a greene head, which when the flower is pat, rieth vpright againe, and becommeth the eede veell, being omewhat long and round, yet hauing a mall hew of edges, flat at the head, like the head of a Lilly, and without any crowne as the Tulipa hath, wherein is contained pale coloured flat eede, like vnto a Lilly, but maller.

There is ome variety to be eene in this flower; for in ome the colour is paler, and in others againe of a very high or deepe colour: ometimes alo they haue eight leaues, and ometimes ten or twelue, as if two flowers were made one, which ome thereupon haue called a Double Fritillaria. Some of them likewie doe flower very early, euen with or before the early flowring Tulipas; and ome againe flower not vntill a moneth or more after the former.

The roote of this Fritillaria is omewhat rounder and cloer then the former, from whence the talke rieth vp, being horter and lower then in any other of thee kindes, hauing one or two leaues thereon, and at the top thereof two or three more et cloer together, which are broader, horter, and whiter then any of them before, almot like vnto the leaues of the yellow Fritillaria, from among which toppe leaues commeth forth the flower, omewhat bending downe, or rather tanding forth, being larger then any of the former, and almot equall in bignee vnto the yellow Fritillaria, of a duskie gray colour all ouer on the outide, and of a very darke red colour on the inide, diuerly potted or traked: this very hardly encreaeth by the roote, and as eldome giueth ripe feede, but flowreth with the other firt orts, and before the blacke, and abideth lee time in flower then any.

This great Fritillaria hath his roote equall to the bignee of the ret of his parts, from whence rieth vp one, & oftentimes two talks, hauing one, two or three flowers a peece on them, as nature and the eaons are itting: euery one of thee flowers are larger and greater then any of the former decribed, and pendulous as they are, of a ad red or purplih colour, with many thwart lines on them, and mall long markes, which hardly eeme checkerwie, nor are o eminent or conpicuous as in the former: the talke is trong and high, whereon are et diuers long whitih greene leaues, larger and broader then thoe of the former.

The white Fritillaria is o like vnto the firt, that I hall not neede to make another decription of this: it hall (I hope) be ufficient to hew the chiefe differences, and o proceed to the ret. The talke and leaues of this are wholly greene, whereby it may eaily be knowne from the former, which, as is aid, is brownih at the bottome. The flower is white, without almot any hew of pot or marke in it, yet in ome the markes are omewhat more plainly to be eene, and in ome againe there is a hew of a faint kinde of bluh colour to be eene in the flower, epecially in the inide, the bottomes of the leaues of euery flower ometimes are greenih, hauing alo a mall lit of greene, comming downe towards the middle of each leafe: the head or eede veell, as alo the eede and the roote, are o like vnto the former, that the mot cunning cannot ditinguih them.

This Fritillaria hath a round flattih white roote, very like vnto the lat Fritillaria, bearing a talke with long greene leaues thereon, little differing from it, or the firt ordinary Fritillaria: the flower is aid to be contant, compoed of many leaues, being ten at the leat, and mot vually twelue, of a pale whitih purple colour, potted like vnto the paler ordinary Fritillaria that is early, o that one would verily thinke it were Rh


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Rh but an accidentall kinde thereof, whereas it is (as is aid before) held to bee contant, continuing in this manner.

The pure yellow Fritillaria hath a more round, and not o flat a whitih roote as the former kindes, and of a meane bignee; from the middle rieth vp a talke a foote and a halfe high, and ometimes higher, whereon are et without order diuers long and omewhat broad leaues of a whitih greene colour, like vnto the leaues of the blacke Fritillaria, but not aboue halfe o broad: the flower is omewhat mall and long, not much vnlike to the blacke for hape and fahion, but that the leaues are maller and rounder pointed, of a faint yellowih colour, without any hew of pots or checkers at all, eyther within or without the flower, hauing ome chiues and yellow pendents in the middle, as is to be eene in all of them: the eede is like the firt kinde.

This Fritillaria groweth not much lower then the former, and brownih at the riing vp, hauing his leaues whiter, broader, and horter then it, and almot round pointed. The flower is greater, and larger pread then any other before, of a faire pale yellow colour, potted in very good order, with fine mall checkers, which adde a wonderfull pleaing beauty thereunto: it hath alo ome lits of greene running downe the backe of euery leafe. It eldome giueth eede; the roote alo is like the other, but not o flat.

This kinde of Fritillaria rieth vp with a round and browne greene talke, whereon are et diuers leaues omewhat broad and hort, which compae the talke at the bottome of them, of a darke greene colour; at the toppe of the talke, which bendeth a little downewards, doe mot vually tand three or foure leaues, betweene which commeth forth mot vually but one flower, which is longer then the lat, hanging downe the head as all the others doe, coniting of ixe leaues, of a darke yellowih purple colour, potted with ome mall red checkers. This kinde flowreth late, and not vntill all the ret are part.

This mall Italian Fritillaria carrieth more tore of flowers on the talke, but they are much maller, and of a yellowih greene colour, potted with long and mall darke red checkers or markes: the talke hath diuers mall hort greene leaues thereon, vnto the very toppe.

The leaues of this Fritillaria are o mall, narrow and long, that it hath caued them to take the name of ruhes, as if you hould call it, The ruh leafed Fritillaria, which tand on a long weake round talke, et without order: the flower is mall and yellow, but thicker checkerd with red pots then any of the other yellow Fritillaria's; the talk of the flower, at the head thereof, being alo of a yellowih colour.

The roote of this kinde doth often grow o great, that it eemeth like vnto the roote of a mall Crowne Imperiall: the talke is trong, round, and high, et without order, with broader and whiter greene leaues then any of the former, bearing one, two, or three flowers; ometimes at the toppe, being not o large as thoe of the ordinary purple Fritillaria, but maller, longer, and rounder, ometimes a little turning vp the brims or edges of the leaues againe, and are of a yellowih hining greene colour on Rh

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 time, I tell you My apostles will do. The Jews shall be cast out. Jerusalem shall be soon destroyed. And the heathen shall enter into the knowledge of God. My apostles shall do this after you have slain the heir of the vineyard."

Then the apostles said to the Jews: "You shall be accursed," (Celsus laughed at it); and to the heathen, "You shall enter into the knowledge of God." And this then came to pass.

Jesus Christ came to blind those who saw clearly, and to give sight to the blind; to heal the sick, and leave the healthy to die; to call to repentance, and to justify sinners, and to leave the righteous in their sins; to fill the needy, and leave the rich empty.

Holiness.—Effundum spiritum meum. All nations were in unbelief and lust. The whole world now became fervent with love. Princes abandoned their pomp; maidens suffered martyrdom. Whence came this influence? The Messiah was come. These were the effect and signs of His coming.

Destruction of the Jews and heathen by Jesus Christ: Omnes gentes venient et adorabunt eum. Parum est ut, &c. Postula a me. Adorabunt eum omnes reges. Testes iniqui. Dabit maxillam percutienti. Dederunt fel in escam.

Jesus Christ for all, Moses for a nation.

The Jews blessed in Abraham: "I will bless those that bless thee." But: "All nations blessed in his seed." Parum est ut, &c.

Lumen ad revelationem gentium.

Non fecit taliter omni nationi, said David, in speaking of the Law. But, in speaking of Jesus Christ, we must say:

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 it of value to the University graduate equally with the salesman, to the woman of leisure and to the busy financier, to the Army officer and to the commercial clerk. The Pelmanist is in no danger of becoming stereotyped in thought, speech, or action: on the contrary, individuality becomes more pronounced. Greater diversity of "character" would be apparent amongst fifty Pelmanists than amongst any fifty people who had not studied the Course.

The system is, in fact, not a mental strait-jacket but an instrument: instead of attempting to impose universal ideals upon its students, it shows them how to give practical effect to their own ideals and aims. It completes man or woman in the mental sense, just as bodily training completes them in the physical sense.

There are many who adopt it as a means of regaining lost mental activities. Elderly men and women whose lives have been so fully occupied with business, social, or household matters that the intellectual side has been partly or wholly submerged: successful men in the commercial world whose enterprises have heretofore left them too little leisure to devote to self-culture: Army officers who find that the routine of a military life invites intellectual stagnation—these find that the Pelman Course offers them a stairway up to the higher things of life.

Here are two letters which emphasise this. The first is from an Army student, who says:

The Course has prevented me becoming slack and stagnating during my Army life—this is a most virulent danger, I may add. It inculcates a clear, thorough, courageous method of playing the game of Life—admirably suited iii

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 ''Fecit taliter omni nationi. Parum est ut,'' &c., Isaiah. So it belongs to Jesus Christ to be universal. Even the Church offers sacrifice only for the faithful. Jesus Christ offered that of the cross for all.

There is heresy in always explaining omnes by "all," and heresy in not explaining it sometimes by "all." Bibite ex hoc omnes; the Huguenots are heretics in explaining it by "all." In quo omnes peccaverunt; the Huguenots are heretics in excepting the children of true believers. We must then follow the Fathers and tradition in order to know when to do so, since there is heresy to be feared on both sides.

Ne timeas pusillus grex. ''Timore et tremore.—Quid ergo? Ne timeas [modo] timeas''. Fear not, provided you fear; but if you fear not, then fear.

Qui me recipit, non me recipit, sed eum qui me misit.

Nemo scit, neque Filius.

Nubes lucida obumbravit.

Saint John was to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and Jesus Christ to plant division. There is no contradiction.

The effects in communi and in particulari. The semi-Pelagians err in saying of in communi what is true only in particulari; and the Calvinists in saying in particulari what is true in communi. Such is my opinion.

Omnis Judæa regio, et Jerosolomytæ universi, et baptizabantur. Because of all the conditions of men who came there.

From these stones there can come children unto Abraham.

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Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964

An Act to revise the statute law of Scotland by repealing obsolete, spent, unnecessary, or superseded enactments, and to facilitate the citation of statutes. [31st July 1964]

BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-

Repeal of obsolete etc. enactments.

1. The Acts of the Parliament of Scotland specified in Schedule 1 to this Act (which to the extent specified in column 3 of that Schedule are obsolete, spent or unnecessary or have been superseded by other enactments) are hereby repealed to that extent.

Citation of Acts.

2. Each of the Acts specified in Schedule 2 to this Act may, without prejudice to any other mode of citation, be cited by the short title specified in relation thereto in column 3 of that Schedule.

Reference of Schedules to 1908 Revised Edition.

3. The Schedules to this Act are to be read as referring to the Revised Edition of the Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland prepared under the direction of the Statute Law Committee and printed by authority in 1908.

Short Title.

4. This Act may be cited as the Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964.

SCHEDULE 2

SHORT TITLES


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 "Lambs took not away the sins of the world, but I am the lamb which taketh away the sins."

"Moses gave you not the bread from heaven. Moses hath not led you out of captivity, and made you truly free."

…Then Jesus Christ comes to tell men that they have no other enemies but themselves; that it is their passions which keep them apart from God; that He comes to destroy these, and give them His grace, so as to make of them all one Holy Church; that He comes to bring back into this Church the heathen and Jews; that He comes to destroy the idols of the former and the superstition of the latter.

To this all men are opposed, not only from the natural opposition of lust; but, above all, the kings of the earth, as had been foretold, join together to destroy this religion at its birth. (Proph.: Quare fermerunt gentes…reges terræ …adversus Christum.)

All that is great on earth is united together; the learned, the wise, the kings. The first write; the second condemn; the last kill. And notwithstanding all these oppositions, these men, simple and weak, resist all these powers, subdue even these kings, these learned men and these sages, and remove idolatry from all the earth. And all this is done by the power which had foretold it.

Jesus Christ would not have the testimony of devils, nor of those who were not called, but of God and John the Baptist.

I consider Jesus Christ in all persons and in ourselves: Jesus Christ as a Father in His Father, Jesus Christ as a Brother in His Brethren, Jesus Christ as poor in the poor, Jesus Christ as rich in the rich, Jesus Christ as Doctor and Priest in priests, Jesus Christ as Sovereign in princes, &c. For by His glory He is all that is great, being God; and by

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 His mortal life He is all that is poor and abject. Therefore He has taken this unhappy condition, so that He could be in all persons, and the model of all conditions.

Jesus Christ is an obscurity (according to what the world calls obscurity), such that historians, writing only of important matters of states, have hardly noticed Him.

On the fact that neither Josephus, nor Tacitus, nor other historians have spoken of Jesus Christ.—So far is this from telling against Christianity, that on the contrary it tells for it. For it is certain that Jesus Christ has existed; that His religion has made a great talk; and that these persons were not ignorant of it. Thus it is plain that they purposely concealed it, or that, if they did speak of it, their account has been suppressed or changed.

"I have reserved me seven thousand." I love the worshippers unknown to the world and to the very prophets.

As Jesus Christ remained unknown among men, so His truth remains among common opinions without external difference. Thus the Eucharist among ordinary bread.

Jesus would not be slain without the forms of justice; for it is far more ignominious to die by justice than by an unjust sedition.

The false justice of Pilate only serves to make Jesus Christ suffer; for he causes Him to be scourged by his false justice, and afterwards puts Him to death. It would have been better to have put Him to death at once. Thus it is

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 with the falsely just. They do good and evil works to please the world, and to show that they are not altogether of Jesus Christ; for they are ashamed of Him. And at last, under great temptations and on great occasions, they kill Him.

What man ever had more renown? The whole Jewish people foretell Him before His coming. The Gentile people worship Him after His coming. The two peoples. Gentile and Jewish, regard Him as their centre.

And yet what man enjoys this renown less? Of thirty-three years, He lives thirty without appearing. For three years He passes as an impostor; the priests and the chief people reject Him; His friends and His nearest relatives despise Him. Finally, He dies, betrayed by one of His own disciples, denied by another, and abandoned by all.

What part, then, has He in this renown? Never had man so much renown; never had man more ignominy. All that renown has served only for us, to render us capable of recognising Him; and He had none of it for Himself.

The infinite distance between body and mind is a symbol of the infinitely more infinite distance between mind and charity; for charity is supernatural.

All the glory of greatness has no lustre for people who are in search of understanding.

The greatness of clever men is invisible to kings, to the rich, to chiefs, and to all the worldly great.

The greatness of wisdom, which is nothing if not of God, is invisible to the carnal-minded and to the clever. These are three orders differing in kind.

Great geniuses have their power, their glory, their greatness, their victory, their lustre, and have no need of worldly greatness, with which they are not in keeping. They are seen, not by the eye, but by the mind; this is sufficient.

The saints have their power, their glory, their victory, their lustre, and need no worldly or intellectual greatness, with which they have no affinity; for these neither add

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CONSTRUCTION] is required for the successful application of definite formulae to the problem. For example, what is a safe speed at a given curve for an engine, truck or coach having the load equally distributed over the wheels may lead to either climbing or overturning if the load is shifted to a diagonal position. An ill-balanced load also exaggerates “plunging,” and if the period of oscillation of the load happens to agree with the changes of contour or other inequalities of the track vibrations of a dangerous character, giving rise to so-called “sinuous” motion may occur.

In general it is not curvature, but change of curvature, that presents difficulty in the laying-out of a line. For instance, if the curve is of S-form, the point of danger is when the train enters the contra-flexure, and it is not an easy matter to assign the best super elevation at all points throughout the double bend. Closely allied to the question of safety is the problem of preventing jolting at curves; and to obtain easy running it is necessary not merely to adjust the levels of the rails in respect to one another, but to tail off one curve into the next in such a manner as to avoid any approach to abrupt lateral changes of direction. With increase of speeds this matter has become important as an element of comfort in passenger traffic. As a first approximation, the centre-line of a railway may be plotted out as a number of portions of circles, with intervening straight tangents connecting them, when the abruptness of the changes of direction will depend on the radii of the circular portions. But if the change from straight to circular is made through the medium of a suitable curve it is possible to relieve the abruptness, even on curves of comparatively small radius. The smoothest and safest running is, in fact, attained when a “transition,” “easement” or “adjustment” curve is inserted between the tangent and the point of circular curvature.

Gauge.—The gauge of a railway is the distance between the inner edges of the two rails upon which the wheels run. The width of 4 ft. 8½ in. may be regarded as standard, since it prevails on probably three-quarters of the railways of the globe. In North America, except for small industrial railways and some short lines for local traffic, chiefly in mountainous country, it has become almost universal; the long lines of 3 ft. gauge have mostly been converted, or a third rail has been laid to permit interchange of vehicles, and the gauges of 5 ft. and more have disappeared. A considerable number of lines still use 4 ft. 9 in., but as their rolling stock runs freely on the 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge and vice versa, this does not constitute a break of gauge for traffic purposes. The commercial importance of such free interchange of traffic is the controlling factor in determining the gauge of any new railway that is not isolated by its geographical position. In Great Britain railways are built to gauges other than 4 ft. 8½ in. only under exceptional conditions; the old “broad gauge” of 7 ft. which I. K. Brunel adopted for the Great Western railway disappeared on the 20th–23rd of May 1892, when the mainline from London to Penzance was converted to standard gauge throughout its length. In Ireland the usual gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., but there are also lines laid to a 3 ft. gauge. On the continent of Europe the standard gauge is generally adopted, though in France there are many miles of 4 ft. 9 in. gauge; the normal Spanish and Portuguese gauge is, however, 5 ft. 5¾ in., and that of Russia 5 ft. In France and other European countries there is also an important mileage of metre gauge, and even narrower, on lines of local or secondary importance. In India the prevailing gauge is 5 ft. 6 in., but there is a large mileage of other gauges, especially metre. In the British colonies the prevailing gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., as in South Africa, Queensland, Tasmania and New Zealand; but in New South Wales the normal is 4 ft. 8½ in. and in Victoria 5 ft. 3 in., communication between different countries of the Australian Commonwealth being thus carried on under the disadvantage of break of gauge. Though the standard gauge is in use in Lower Egypt, the line into the Egyptian Sudan was built on a gauge of 3 ft. 6. in., so that if the so-called Cape to Cairo railway is ever completed, there will be one gauge from Upper Egypt to Cape Town. In South America the 5 ft. 6 in. gauge is in use, with various others.

Mono-Rail Systems.—The gauge may be regarded as reduced to its narrowest possible dimensions in mono-rail lines, where the weight of the trains is carried on a single rail. This method of construction, however, has been adopted only to a very limited extent. In the Lartigue system the train is straddled over a single central rail, elevated a suitable distance above the ground. A short line of this kind runs from Ballybunnion to Listowel in Ireland, and a more ambitious project on the same principle, on the plans of Mr F. B. Behr, to connect Liverpool and Manchester, was sanctioned by Parliament in 1901. In this case electricity was to be the motive-power, and speeds exceeding 100 m. an hour were to be attained, but the line has not been built. In the Langen mono-rail the cars are hung from a. single overhead rail; a line on this system works between Barmen and Elberfeld, about 9 m., the cars for a portion of the distance being suspended over the river Wupper. In the system devised by Mr Louis Brennan the cars run on a single rail laid on the ground, their stability being maintained by a heavy gyrostat revolving at great speed in a vacuum.

Permanent Way.—When the earth-works of a line have been completed and the tops of the embankments and the bottoms of the cuttings brought to the level decided upon, the next step is to lay the permanent way, so-called probably in distinction to the temporary way used during construction. The first step is to deposit a layer of ballast on the road-bed or “formation,” which often slopes away slightly on each side from the central line to facilitate drainage. The ballast consists of such materials as broken stone, furnace slag, gravel, cinders or earth, the lower layers commonly consisting of coarser materials than the top ones, and its purpose is to provide a firm, well-drained foundation in which the sleepers or cross ties may-be embedded and held in place, and by which the weight of the track and the trains may be distributed over the road-bed. Its depth varies, according to the traffic which the line has to bear, from about 6 in. to 1 ft. or rather more under the sleepers, and the materials of the surface layers are often chosen so as to be more or less dustless. Its width depends on the numbers of tracks and their gauge; for a double line of standard gauge it is about 25 ft., a space of 6 ft. (“six-foot way”) being left between the inner rails of each pair in Great Britain (ng. 8), and a rather larger distance in America (fig. 9), where the over-hang of the rolling stock is greater. The intervals between the sleepers are filled in level with ballast, which less commonly is also heaped up over them, especially at the projecting ends.

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832

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Railways/Accident Statistics


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Railways/Financial Organization


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Technical

EDUCATION, Technical. Technical education is a very modern form of educational enterprise which is concerned with the training of men to make an organized practical application of a knowledge of the principles of chemistry, physics (especially mechanics, heat and electricity), mathematics, astronomy and bacteriology to the design, construction and operation of machines, structures of all kinds, and the material conveniences of life. It aims to produce men of broad understanding of the field of applied science, who have insight, organizing power and leadership, not merely surveyors, draughtsmen or superintendents. Viewed in this light it is an important new phase of professional education (see ), always mindful of the need of increased production, but distinguished from industrial education (see ), which is designed primarily to prepare men and women for maximum production with a minimum expenditure of time and human energy. Broadly speaking, technical education is engineering education, but the term engineering now includes a variety of divisions which would have been entirely incomprehensible to the founders of the early schools of applied science; it applies rather to the expert direction of organizations which utilize the forces and materials of nature through large combinations of human units than to the actual labor of production. In addition to the usual branches of engineering — civil, electrical, mechanical, mining and architectural — there must now be included chemical, railway, marine, ceramic, sanitary, textile, agricultural, metallurgical and aeronautic engineering.

The scheme of technical education for all of these specialized engineering professions provides for firm grounding of the student in the processes of the fundamental pure sciences appropriate to the specialization, whether chemical, ceramic, textile or aeronautic. In the usual four-years technological course leading to a Bachelor's degree this is accomplished largely in the first two years, in which instruction in mathematics, chemistry, physics, surveying, etc., is given, sometimes by basing the two-years engineering curriculum upon two years of liberal arts, as in the University of Missouri. In the case of five-years engineering courses or six-years combination courses the fundamentals may occupy the first two years or the first three years as in the Columbia School of Mines, in which the three-years technological courses in mining, engineering and chemistry are based upon the three years of study in a collegiate or scientific school. After these fundamental sciences and additional instruction in English,

economics, politics, etc., the curriculum of the last two or three or four years of technical courses follows divergent lines of study preparatory to the practice of specialized engineering professions, which aim to meet corresponding specialized demands arising out of the unparalleled development of mechanical, structural and industrial needs of a nation of 110,000,000, complex in its interests, rich in its resources and impatient in its development.

The first school of engineering in the United States was the ../Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute/ (q.v.), founded at Troy, N. Y., by Stephen van Rensselaer in 1824, as a School of Theoretical and Applied Science, to furnish “instruction in the application of science to the common purposes of life.” No further provision of the kind was made until 1847 when the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale and the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard were founded. In the same year the University of Michigan voted to establish a course in civil engineering. These four schools, concerned almost exclusively with civil engineering, were the only schools of the kind opened before the Civil War, After the passage of the Morrill act in 1862 (see ) many States accepted the provision of the act and proceeded to organize new schools of agriculture and the mechanic arts, or to add these types of technical education to existing schools. Many of the State universities, like Illinois, Wisconsin and California, which now offer strong and well-equipped instruction in technical lines received very large impulse from the Morrill act. The great expansion of construction and industry after the Civil War caused the rapid multiplication of engineering schools. The four schools of 1860 increased to 17 in 1870, 41 in 1871, 70 in 1872, 85 in 1880 and 126 in 1917; the graduates numbering 100 in 1870 reached 4,300 in 1917. Besides these schools there are 43 other institutions giving more or less attention to engineering work, either in the form of “two years of engineering” or of single courses like civil engineering in connection with other curricula. Of the 126 schools of 1917, 46 were connected with land grant colleges, 44 were professional schools in universities, 20 were attached to colleges and 16 were independent. Midway between the group of technical schools and industrial schools are to be found certain excellent institutions giving more or less technical or engineering education to men and women, for example, Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, Lewis Institute in Chicago and the Cogswell Polytechnic Institute in San Francisco.

Following the period of rapid multiplication of technical institutions from 1870 to 1890 came a period of standardization of requirements for admission and for graduation, for it was clear that technical education was not a simple problem with an easy and uniform solution, especially if the engineer was to become the professional equal of trained lawyers and doctors. The formation of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education in 1893 and the organization of the joint committee on engineering education of the national engineering societies in 1908 promoted the process of elevation and standardization of curricula. By 1917 practically all of the first class technical schools required at least four years of high school work

for admission and at least four years of collegiate work for the specialized degree, whether that of B.S., in some division of engineering, as Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering (B.S. in M.E.), Bachelor of Civil Engineering (B.C.E.) or Civil Engineer (C.E.). With few exceptions, e.g., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the technical schools, like other colleges, receive their students out of the great system of public secondary schools by certificate rather than by examination. Students thus received are given approximately the same work during the first year with later differentiation as discussed above. The extent of this specialization is illustrated in the curricula offered at the University of Illinois and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Degree of B.S.: in special curricula: architecture, architectural engineering, ceramic engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mining engineering, municipal and sanitary engineering, general engineering, physics, railway civil engineering, railway electrical engineering and railway mechanical engineering.

Degree of B.S.: civil engineering; mechanical engineering, mining engineering and metallurgy, architecture, chemistry, electrical engineering, biology and public health, physics, general science, chemical engineering, sanitary engineering, geology, naval architecture and marine engineering, electro-chemistry and engineering administration. Further specialization is permitted within these courses in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for example, in mechanical engineering along the lines of engine design, locomotive engineering, mill engineering and steam turbine engineering.

A summary of the requirements for admission and the curricula for graduation, for the course leading to a degree in mechanical engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the University of Illinois will serve as an illustration of the standardized technological course in an institution of the highest class. The specifications for admission are given in terms of units (one unit is approximately one-fourth of the work of a high school year).

The proportions between shop work, or practice work, and theoretical work in the curriculum of technical schools, vary widely in different institutions and at different times. The most progressive have abandoned the requirement of many hours of manipulative laboratory work and the production of completed machines, and now require sufficient shop work for an understanding of the processes and tools, but without insistence upon the attainment of skill. On the other hand there is stronger and stronger emphasis upon the mastering of the fundamental subjects and theory behind the technical courses. Many strong institutions like those whose curricula are given above require also a considerable proportion of liberal, non-technical study in order to develop the man as well as the engineer, so that the student who graduates from the institution shall understand the importance of both the human and the technological factors which enter into the practice of his profession. In place of the narrow technical education of 1890 or 1900 with slender foundation in the sciences and the inclusion of large quantities of shop practice, technical schools now seek to develop at the same time an accurate working knowledge of the principles and practices of engineering subjects and personal qualities of judgment, initiative, responsibility and an understanding of men. Such a curriculum as that noted above in engineering administration requires quite as much knowledge of “human engineering” as of mechanical, or chemical engineering.

The co-operative type of technical education, sometimes known as the Cincinnati co-operative plan, is the most recent attempt to co-ordinate theory and practice under conditions approximating those of the shop and of the field. First formulated in 1899 by Hermann Schneider when instructor at Lehigh University, it had its beginning in 1906 at the University of Cincinnati which established under his direction a co-operative agreement with industrial plants, railways, etc., by which students who are admitted to the university, as are other students, work on a schedule by which, during bi-weekly periods, one-half of the class is at the university, and one-half is in the factory. During the next period of two weeks the sections change about. The co-operative course is of five years' duration, 11 months in the year. While in factory or

shops students are regular employees, receive regular pay and must report satisfactory service in the shops as well as in the classrooms in order to be continued in the university. The co-operative plan has been adopted at other technical institutions, and in some cases by secondary institutions, which are advantageously located near shops and industrial plants of various kinds, with which co-operative arrangements may be made. It is claimed that this combination of scientific and theoretical study at the university with practical experience results in a better mastery of facts and of manual skill since it is secured under conditions which compel a maximum of independent thinking along with an appreciation of the social significance of the studies and the practice.

Technical education has its upward reach into graduate courses for professional degrees like Civil Engineer (C.E.), and Master of Civil Engineering (M.C.E.); organizations for research like the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois, the Federal Forest Products Laboratory located at the University of Wisconsin and the Mellon Institute of the University of Pittsburgh; and investigations in subjects like industrial chemistry leading to the Ph.D. in great graduate schools which are not organically parts of a technological college as at Cornell University and the University of Chicago. The steady emphasis of the stronger technical schools upon investigation and contributions to the solution of intricate new problems is one of the latest and most significant aspects of technical education in the United States and in Europe.

Bibliography. — Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education (especially, 1916, chapter on “Engineering Education,” C. R. Mann); Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education; Bulletin of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (“A Study of Engineering Education,” C. R. Mann, 1918); Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Education, especially 1916. No. 31, “The Co-operative System of Education,” C. W. Park; 1913, No. 4, “Present Standards of Higher Education in the United States,” G. E. MacLean. Catalogues of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Illinois, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, University of Cincinnati.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Theological

EDUCATION, Theological. A system of training for the work of the ministry. From remotest times religion centred in ritual acts and gave rise to a system of training men to fill the office of the necessary priesthood. The priests of the great temples in ancient Babylonia, Egypt and other lands, as well as those at the prehistoric shrines, naturally took pains to train young men to perform the duties of the sacred office which eventually they had to surrender. When religion consisted in the main of the public performance of ritual acts the training of the priest was a simple affair. It consisted, of course, in imparting a knowledge of the principles underlying established practices but mostly it was a course of ritualistic instruction. The case of Samuel (1 Samuel c. i ff) brought up at the shrine of Shiloh is an illustration

of this early sort of training for the priesthood. When religious systems clashed in a strife for supremacy in the world, the priest had not only to administer the ritual of the altar but to defend and proclaim the doctrines of his faith with converting power. This was conspicuously the situation when Christianity sought to get a foothold. Among the early Christians the preaching of doctrine outranked the performance of ritual. With the increasing importance of doctrine a fuller and more thorough instruction on the purely intellectual side of religion necessarily entered into the preparation for the ministry. During the first few centuries of Christian history individual enthusiasm was so intense that the ministry was adequately supplied by men who in a sense were self-educated, self-prepared. As churches multiplied and the need of uniformity in Church teaching and practice became more urgent, systematic efforts had to be made by the bishops to train men to fill the priestly offices. The simplest and surest way was for the bishops to take young men into their own homes and educate and train them. In New England it was for a long time quite the common thing for young men who thought of entering the ministry to take up residence with a regularly ordained clergyman and read divinity with him very much as a young man preparing for the law entered the office of a lawyer and read law there. Eventually the monasteries became the training schools for priests and the universities naturally became a place of theological education. Down to as late a time as the Council of Trent theological training was in an exceedingly chaotic condition, a condition greatly emphasized by the events of the Reformation. One of the steps taken by the Catholic Church to meet the situation of this stormy period was the establishing of the theological curriculum for the diocesan seminaries, a curriculum which has continued practically unchanged to the present time. In Europe where the Protestant religion became the religion of the state Protestant theological education was from the first provided by the great public universities. The Protestant denominations dissenting from the established Church provided schools of their own.

The United States. — The earliest educational institutions in New England were theological in purpose and inspiration as is evident from a contemporary account (1643) of the founding of Harvard University: “After God had carried us safe to New England and wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our livelihood, rear'd convenient places for God's worship, and settled the civill government: One of the next things we longed for and looked after was to advance learning and perpetuate it to posterity; dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the churches, when our present ministers shall lie in the dust.” That this purpose might be doubly ensured against miscarriage free tuition was offered to candidates for the ministry, while students for other purposes were charged a fee. This practice has been almost universally followed. These early institutions did not confine themselves to the teaching of theological subjects and by the end of the 18th century secular students had so outrun divinity that it became necessary to create within these old universities separate schools of theology. When toward the end of

the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries different denominations began to establish their own theological seminaries there was manifest a widespread desire to isolate these schools from all institutions of higher learning by building them at considerable distances from such institutions. This guarded against secularization and helped to make the minister a more ardent denominationalist. Of the existing theological schools three were established before the 19th century: the seminary at New Brunswick, N. J., of the Dutch Reformed Church, founded in 1784; the Roman Catholic Seminary of Saint Mary's, Baltimore, Md., 1791; and the United Presbyterian Seminary, established 1794, at Service, Beaver County, Pa., and later removed to Xenia, Ohio. Later other denominations established seminaries. The first Congregational seminary was opened in Andover, Mass., 1808 (now located in the neighborhood of Harvard University). The Protestant Episcopal Church founded its first seminary in New York city in 1819, At Hartwick Seminary, N. Y., the Evangelical Lutherans built their first theological school in 1815; Colgate Seminary, now a part of Hamilton College, was established by the Baptists in 1820; at Newbury, Vt., the Methodist Episcopal Church opened its first theological school in 1841; this school is now a department of the Boston University. In 1819 the divinity school of Harvard University was organized as a separate institution and became the first non-sectarian divinity school in the country. During the first 25 years of the 19th century 18 seminaries were organized representing 11 denominations. Four of these were Presbyterian; three Congregational; Baptist and Protestant Episcopalian 2 each. The period of greatest activity in establishing theological schools was from 1850 to 1875, 71 being the number of new schools founded. Of the 169 theological schools reported by the United States Commissioner of Education for the year 1916 26 were organized after 1899. Of the 165 seminaries reported in the statistics of 1899, 38 are not found in the statistics for 1916, having disappeared by amalgamation or otherwise. The 169 theological schools reported in 1916 represent 27 denominations. (For statistics see ). In 1916, seven were listed as non-sectarian, four as interdenominational, three had no sectarian designation. Since the beginning of the 20th century three important theological schools have abandoned sectarian designation: Union Theological Seminary, New York city, changed its designation from Presbyterian to interdenominational; Yale from Congregational to undenominational; the theological school of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., from Methodist Episcopal to non-sectarian. Of these 169 schools 41 admit both men and women. In 1898 1,693 were graduated from 165 schools and in 1916 2,088 were graduated from 169 schools. The practice generally followed for over a century was to establish theological schools fairly remote from other institutions of higher learning. It has come to be recognized that this practice has seriously impaired the scholastic and practical value of these schools. The past 20 or 25 years has witnessed an increasing movement toward bringing these schools into closer touch with colleges and universities. As instances of this, the

of Andover Theological Seminary to Cambridge, Mass., and its affiliation with Harvard; the affiliation of the Chicago Theological Seminary with Chicago University; the arrangement effected by the Meadville, Pa., Theological School to send its students to the Chicago University for a part of their course may be cited. A century ago the importance of this plan was recognized by Thomas Jefferson and advocated by him in his report as rector of the University of Virginia.

Roman Catholic — In the diocesan seminaries for the training of men for the priesthood the curriculum of to-day is but little changed from that outlined by the Council of Trent. The course extends over a period of six years divided into a philosophical course of two years followed by a theological course of four. Candidates for admission to the seminary must offer a B.A. from some college of recognized standing or a satisfactory equivalent. This latter provision is made so that the Church may not lose the services of a man peculiarly fitted by nature for the office of priest who has not been able to secure a collegiate training. Unlike Protestant seminaries, where the courses of like subjects are by no means the same even in schools of the same denomination, the courses are alike in all Catholic seminaries though the quality of scholarship may not be uniform. The first two years are devoted to logic, ontology, psychology, natural theology, Church history, general history, Old and New Testaments, Latin, Hebrew, Greek, science, biology and chemistry. The purpose of science in this curriculum is well explained by Leo XIII: “It is enough that their (the seminaries') pupils have an accurate knowledge of the main principles and summary conclusions (of physical and natural sciences), so as to be able to solve the objections which infidels draw from these sciences against the teachings of Revelation.” These two years are designed to furnish a sufficient preparation for the rigorous and intensive study of theological subjects of the next four years. The subjects pursued are apologetics (an exposition and defense of the grounds of Catholic beliefs), dogmatic and moral theology (the aim of moral theology is to prepare the future priest for the competent and practical care of souls, teaching him how to judge and estimate the morality of the actions of those who may fall within the province of his direction as a priest and confessor), pastoral theology (the proper care and government of the charges entrusted to him and the faithful and successful discharge of his sacred ministry), homiletics, canon law, Church history, biblical exegesis. Sociology is a seminary subject and is intended to afford an opportunity for the students who so wish to secure a thorough knowledge of modern social and economic problems and movements. By constant participation in the ritual the young priest is trained to the proper administration of the Church's sacraments. Similarly the student is prepared to organize and manage the Church's many social activities through service in those societies which have to do with the immediate work of human helpfulness.

Jewish. — Theological education for the Jewish ministry differs somewhat from the Christian scheme. The course at Hebrew Union College extends over a period of nine years — four years preparatory and five years in the

collegiate department. In the preparatory department the students are given a thorough grounding in the grammar and vocabulary, which enables them to read the unpunctuated text of the Pentateuch and other Hebrew literature. A general knowledge of Rabbinical literature and history of the prayerbook and Psalms and the doctrines and ceremonies of Judaism is also aimed at. The collegiate department is divided into two parts, “the three lower grades being devoted to the acquisition of material and the upper two to systematic and specific theological knowledge.” The principal subjects of study are Bible Exegesis and the Talmud and all the important Hebrew literature, as well as the New Testament; the history of the Jewish people. The study of the origin and development of Mosaic and Rabbinical Judaism paves the way to systematic theology. The study of comparative religions is pursued to give a foundation for Jewish apologetics. Practical theology divides itself into the study of homiletics and the rites and ceremonies of Judaism. Ethics and pedagogy are important subjects, the latter being designed to prepare the student for the task of religious instruction. Applied sociology or the science of philanthropy forms a part of the curriculum, and is designed to teach the rabbi “how to combine the new method with the ancient spirit of Judaism in the field of practical righteousness and Social Service.”

Protestant. — In the education for the Protestant ministry the strictly theological subjects differ little from the major subjects in the Catholic curriculum. Systematic, dogmatic, practical theology, exegesis, church history and homiletics — these for many generations were the sum of Protestant theological education. A recent writer has summarized the instruction given in the leading theological schools until recently in such a way as to indicate the different values assigned to these subjects. Out of a possible 1,536 hours of study the time is actually divided in this way: Theology and apologetics, 480 hours; Hebrew and Old Testament, 288 hours; Greek and New Testament, 224 hours; ecclesiastical and Biblical history, 256 hours; preaching and social problems, 96 hours; rhetoric and elocution, 144 hours. A word or two by way of explanation will help to a better understanding of the actual significance and purpose of these studies. The study of Hebrew is designed to enable the student to get the text of “the divine law and covenant.” Greek is required that he may get “the letter

of the New Covenant and the precise word of the latest inspiration.” Dogmatic theology “weaves into a single system the separate strands of truth gathered from Scripture” and tradition. Apologetics is studied that the preacher may go out equipped to defend “the established doctrines against critics and heretics.” The study of Church history acquaints the student with “the way in which previous dogmatic theologians have done their work; including the forms and institutions in which the Christian truth has found embodiment.” Homiletics “is the art of fitting a doctrine to a text and proclaiming it convincingly.” Practical theology is studied to prepare the student to conduct and administer properly the services of the particular Church the ministry of which he is to enter. While in a considerable number of theological schools this is the extent and character of the education given in these days, the modern minister must come to his position prepared to manage, initiate, inspire many secular or semi-secular enterprises as well as fill the place of a spiritual administrator. The services of worship and spiritual instruction have become the smaller part of a minister's activities. There are men's clubs, girls' societies, boys' clubs, reading-rooms, gymnasiums, banquets, sociables and many other activities designed to aid in the development of community life. In response to these new demands the theological seminaries are radically changing their curricula, not by abolishing the old subjects but by the addition of new ones, or rather by changing the rank of the subjects — studying the old subjects from an entirely different angle. To quote from one seminary's catalogue, “The social teachings of the Old and New Testaments are studied with the purpose of estimating the nature of the contribution of Biblical history and theology to moral and social progress.” The sociological now ranks with and in some cases ahead of the theological in an increasing number of schools. The much-debated question whether Hebrew and Greek should be required is being answered by putting these subjects in the elective groups. In some instances students are allowed to present themselves as candidates for the degree of B.D. by offering as substitute for Hebrew and Greek a satisfactory “acquaintance with scientific philosophical, or historical method.” The course on “Social Ethics” offered by the Divinity School of Harvard University is a good illustration of how the theological schools are trying to educate the minister to meet the

problems which confront the clergyman of to-day. The subjects explain themselves. “Social Problems in the Light of Christian Ethics,” “The Development of Modern Philanthropic Theory and Practice,” “The Minister's Relation to Social Agencies,” “American Population Problems,” “The Housing Problem,” “Unemployment and Related Problems,” “Rural Social Development.” The intimate association of the theological schools of Chicago with the Chicago Commons Social Settlement and the Chicago Institute of Social Service are indicative of the attempts now made to educate the minister by introducing him while in the seminary into the midst of the complex human problems — a sort of sociological clinic. The preceding table presents a brief survey of the course of study planned out for a candidate for the ministry in some of the leading Protestant seminaries.

The emphasis in much, of theological education to-day then is put on “Psychology, sociology, philanthropy, legal principles, and practical problems involved in applying the spirit of Christianity to modern life.” In some schools the comparative study of religions is given an important place, on the ground that the more one knows of the religious systems of the world the sounder is one's understanding of his own religion.

Two recent developments deserve fuller mention than can be made here. A few words from the charter of the Hartford Seminary Foundation (1913) are to the point (this is the reincorporation of the old Hartford Theological Seminary). The object of the Seminary Foundation in addition to preparing men for the ministry is said to be “to train men and women for the work of religious education in all its branches and for such other callings and forms of service as seek to promote Christian worship and work; to train men and women for service in such institutions as are established for the social welfare of mankind in the name and spirit of the Christian faith; to train men and women for service in the foreign field.” To this end there has been added to some of the seminaries a school of religious pedagogy which aims to offer its theological student fuller opportunities to prepare himself on the Sunday school and social service work of the church, and also to educate men and women to fill what might be called the office of assistant to the pastor. A school of missions has been added to give those who plan to enter the foreign field a chance to specialize in studies peculiarly fitted to that end. Another feature is the summer schools of theology, which offer to men already in the regular work of the ministry an opportunity to pursue the old seminary studies or take up new ones in the hopes of better fitting themselves for the tasks met with in their parishes. The work pursued in these summer schools, conducted by several of the leading seminaries, may be credited toward a degree. Another and not less useful innovation is the correspondence courses in theology carried on by a few of the seminaries. These correspondence courses afford the man in the field an opportunity to secure the education he feels in need of under the guide of competent instructors. In some instances the work done in these courses may be credited toward a

All this is simply indicative of the desire on the part of the seminaries to create a finely educated ministry for the churches.

The question of educational qualification for admission to theological seminaries has been pretty thoroughly debated for many years. While there is evidently a constant stiffening of these requirements, a college training being more and more in demand, it is felt now, as it has been all along, that the terms of admission should be flexible enough to let in persons who, lacking collegiate training, nevertheless have intellectual and spiritual qualifications which make them desirable additions to the ministry. To compensate for this lack of scholastic preparation most of the seminaries provide courses in essentially preparatory subjects, and so pass these students on into the regular courses or else the students are admitted to special courses. However, many of the seminaries award degrees only to those who enter with a collegiate degree; though usually any student is allowed to present himself as a candidate for the degree if he submits evidence of scholarship fully equivalent to a college training. In most instances tuition is free in the theological schools, and financial assistance is readily granted to needy students. This has been severely criticised. But whether it deserves the criticism or not, it is difficult to break up a long established custom and one that has been productive of some excellent results.


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Author:Charles Graves

Works

 * A Century of Village Unitarianism (1904)
 * A History of Unitarianism (1917)

title: Author:Charles Graves


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schenectady

SCHENECTADY, N. Y., city, county-seat of Schenectady County, on the Mohawk River, new Barge Canal and on the New York Central and Hudson River and the Delaware and Hudson railroads, 16 miles west of Albany. It has connection with the Boston and Maine Railroad at Scotia and with the West Shore Railroad at South Schenectady. Local lines connect the city with Troy, Mechanicville, Saratoga Springs and other nearby places. That part of the city along the bank of the river is the oldest; most of the modern buildings have been erected on the surrounding heights.

Buildings and Municipal Improvements. — The principal public buildings are the post office, county courthouse, municipal buildings, Van Curler Opera House, a State armory, Home of the Friendless, Children's Home, Ellis Hospital, the Young Men's Christian Association building and the church and school buildings. The location, in the Mohawk Valley, is in a fertile agricultural region. The slope to the river is such as to make the natural surface drainage almost sufficient, but a good sewerage system has been introduced. The water is distributed by means of the Holly system.

Manufacturing. — Figures relative to the number employed here show a total of over 26,000. Unlike many other cities all but 2,000 of these are employed in two large industries.

The census of 1914, like that of 1909, with reference to manufactures, excluded the hand trades, the building trades and the neighborhood industries, and took account only of establishments conducted under the factory system. In the last census, also, as in that for 1909, statistics were not collected for establishments having products for the census year

valued at less than $500, except that reports were taken for establishments idle during a portion of the census year, or which began operation during that year and whose products for such reason were valued at less than $500. Schenectady is also the headquarters for the General Electric Company and for the American Locomotive Company whose plants in this city alone are employing 24,000.

Summary for the City. — A comparative summary for the city for 1909 and 1914 follows:

Churches and Schools. — There are 70 churches, embracing all denominations. The educational institutions are ../Union University/ (q.v.), 24 public schools, two parish schools, two business colleges, three private schools, a free public library and the college and high school libraries.

Banking and Finances. — There are two national banks with a combined capital of $200,000, a savings bank with deposits of about $5,500,000 and two trust companies with $500,000 capital and surplus. The annual cost for municipal maintenance and operation is about $850,000.

History. — Schenectady was settled in 1661 by Arent Van Curler, and letters patent were granted in 1684. On 8 Fob. 1690 the place was attacked by a force of French and Indians, who massacred all but 60 of the inhabitants and burned the town. In 1765 it was incorporated as a borough and in 1798 chartered as a town. In 1819 a disastrous fire destroyed nearly all the business portion of the city. Among the early steam railroads in the United States was one from Albany to Schenectady. The water communication by means of the Mohawk, increased by the new Barge Canal and the railroad communication at an early date, all contributed toward making the city a commercial and industrial centre. It has increased steadily in population and industries. Pop. (1880) 13,655; (1890) 19,902; (1900) 31,682; (1910) 72,826; estimated population (1914) 91,000.


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CMS 156943/DC

Mr John Walter Jones

Chair

S4C Authority

Parc Tŷ Glas

Llanishen

Cardiff

CF14 5DU

October 2010

2010 SPENDING REVIEW

This letter sets out the funding settlement for S4C covering the financial years 2011-12 to 2014-15.

The Government is committed to the future of Welsh Language programming and to the future of S4C as a strong and independent Welsh TV service. Subject to the Public Bodies Bill, we can today confirm a 24.4% cut to S4C's funding in real terms over the 4 years of the spending review period. This is better than my overall Departmental cut.

The Government wants to ensure that S4C offers the best possible Welsh Language service to the audience and feel that the best way to secure its future while delivering a better service is through partnership with the BBC. Therefore, from 2013/14, the cost of S4C will be met from a combination of continued exchequer funding, advertising revenue and the Licence Fee. The funding for S4C over the next four years is set out below.

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Department for Culture, Media and Sport This means that S4C's funding is secure for the next 4 years and will enable you to structure yourself for the modern broadcasting environment. You will also retain your commercial freedom.

In order to deliver this, we envisage a partnership between the Authority and the BBC comprising a combined board to oversee delivery of a service licence and a joint management board with a majority of independent directors appointed by the Welsh Authority and the BBC Trust. This should ensure that S4C remains as a unique entity and retains its editorial distinctiveness. We intend for this partnership to be up and running as soon as possible from 2012/13.

We envisage a review of S4C's strategy and finances to conclude in good time before the end of the period covered by the CSR.

We recognise this will be a radical change but believe it is the best option for providing a sustainable and independent future for Welsh language programming. We look forward to working closely with you and the BBC Trust to develop the detail of these arrangements. My officials will be in touch in due course.

JEREMY HUNT

Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schenk, Leopold

SCHENK, Leopold, Austrian embryologist: b. Urmeny, Hungary, 23 Aug. 1840; d. Schwanberg, Styria, 17 Aug. 1902. He was graduated at Vienna in 1865 and was appointed assistant professor of embryology there in 1873. He attained world-wide notoriety and the censure of the medical profession generally for his theories concerning sex control of the embryo through the diet of the mother. He also worked the theory into an elaborate plan

for control of the development of the race. He was eventually forced to resign his position in the university. Besides several textbooks he was author of ‘Einfluss auf das Geschlechtsverhältniss des Menchen und der Thiere’ (1898; Eng. trans., ‘The Determination of Sex,’ 1898).


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Diocese of Eichstätt

Eichstätt, Diocese of (EYSTETTENSIS OF AYSTETTENSIS), in Bavaria, lies north of the Danube, and is suffragan to Bamberg. The diocese was founded by St. Boniface, who consecrated his nephew St. Willibald (born 700 of an Anglo-Saxon royal family) first as abbot and regional bishop (741), and then (745) circumscribed and organized the diocese. Willibald called to his aid his brother Wunibald, who, together with St. Boniface, had been active on the German mission of Thuringia, and also his sister St. Walburga. He erected for them the monastery of Heidenheim on the Hahnenkamm, where the saintly pair labored most effectively and found their resting-place (Wunibald d. 761, Walburga d. 779). Willibald, well known for his knowledge of the Christian Orient and as a pilgrim to Palestine, founded in Eichstätt a flourishing school over which he presided as magister. He died in 781. The unbroken series of his successors down to the present time (1909) counts seventy-five names. Bishop Erchanbold (882-912) of the Carlovingian line laid the foundation for the secular power of the see. Gradually this increased, especially through the inheritance of the Counts of Hirschberg (extinct in 1305), under Bishop Johann von Dirpheim (1305-1306), who was also chancellor of Emperor Albrecht I. Like other German princes, the bishops of Eichstätt acquired sovereignty (under Bishop Hartwig in 1220), and after various struggles became, from the fourteenth century, independent rulers over a territory which at one time comprised 437 square miles with 56,000 subjects. In the "secularization" of 1803 these domains were made over to Bavaria.

There were many illustrious incumbents of the See of Eichstätt Bishop Reginold (965-989) was admired as a poet, musician, scholar, and orator. Bishop Heribert (1022-1042) was a patron of the cathedral school. Gundekar II (1057-1075) rebuilt the cathedral, composed the "Pontificale", in which the lives of his predecessors, the "Vitae Pontificum Eystettensium", and many other subjects, especially liturgical, are treated. This work, still preserved in the original (Codex M), is of great value for the history of the diocese. Gundekar is venerated as a saint. His predecessor was Gebhard I (1042-1057), the chancellor and friend of Henry III. Hildebrand, afterwards Gregory VII, did not rest until this emperor allowed the reluctant Gebhard to assume the papal dignity. He was the first pope whom in a long time the clergy and people of Rome had chosen freely. As Victor II (1055-1057) he was friendly to reforms, an extremely energetic man, and saintly in his life. Had he lived longer he would have taken rank among the greatest of the popes; he died in 1057 at the age of thirty-nine. Bishops Eberhard I (1099-1112), Ulrich II (1112-1125), Gebhard II (1125-1149), and Otto (1182-1195) vigorously inaugurated reforms that were perfected and confirmed in the diocesan synod of 1186. A similar activity was displayed by Bishops Henry IV (1246-1259), Reimboto (1279-1297), and Philipp von Rathsamshausen (1306-1322). The last-named was a prolific writer, patron of the cathedral school, and by synods tried to raise clergy and people to a higher level. Berthold (1354-1365), a Hohenzoller by birth, built the Willibaldsburg, provided for the material welfare of the clergy, and protected them against the attacks of laity, nobility, and princes (Constitutio Bertholdiana). On all sides we meet with evidence of his regulating and stimulating zeal (Synodal statutes of 1354).

The Western Schism left its traces on the diocese. Bishop Johann III von Eich (1446-1464), a saintly man, did all in his power to efface them. He reformed the monasteries, organized the instruction of the clergy, issued pastoral directions, protected vigorously the property of the Church, and attracted to Eichstätt a number of scholars (among them the Humanist Albert of Eyb). Having been, before his election, chancellor of the emperor and his representative at the Council of Basle, he continued as bishop to serve the State on diplomatic missions of great importance. Thus, he represented the emperor in the congress of princes which Pius II called at Mantua. His friend and successor, Wilhelm von Reichenau (1464-1496), the tutor of Maximilian I, was a statesman, diplomat, and patron of the fine arts, but also a bishop who walked in the footsteps of his predecessor and left after him the memory of a brilliant administration. In 1480 he made a visitation of the whole diocese. The original records of this visitation, the oldest thus far known, are still extant, and give us an interesting picture of religious life in the Middle Ages, in which, however, there are not lacking deep shadows. His successors, the cultured Gabriel von Eyb (1496-1535) and the noble Moritz von Hutten (1539-1552), were men who fully understood the critical situation and set themselves against the perilous innovations of their time, but they could not prevent the imperial cities of Nuremberg and Weissenburg, the margraves of Ansbach and the palgraves of the Rhine, from annexing a large part of the territory of the diocese in order to restore their finances by means of church property, and from forcing the people to apostatize. Bishop Moritz gathered about him men of ability (Vitus von Ammerbach, Cochlaeus), and convoked (1548) a diocesan synod whose records exhibit the spreading spiritual desolation.

Bishop Martin von Schaumberg (1560-1590) founded the first Tridentine seminary (1564) one year after the close of the council, and secured for it excellent teachers (Robert Turner, Peter Stewart, Frederick Staphylus). Bishop Konrad von Gemmingen (1593-1612) rebuilt the Willibaldsburg, founded the "Hortus Eystettensis", a garden well known to all European botanists, ordered frequent visitations of the diocese, and embellished the cathedral with precious jewels. Bishop Christoph Johann von Westerstetten (1612-1636) invited the Jesuits to Eichstätt, built a magnificent (Renaissance) church for them, and committed the episcopal seminary to their care. In 1634 the Swedes reduced almost the whole episcopal city to ashes, but it soon rose to new splendor under the long and prosperous reign of Bishop Marquard II (1636-1685), a scion of the family of Schenk von Castell. He reorganized the ecclesiastical and secular administration of the diocese, won part of its territory (in the Upper Palatinate) back to Catholicism, and was for years imperial plenipotentiary at the diets and eminent as a diplomat.

The eighteenth century brought peace and prosperity, and many a magnificent structure in city and diocese rose under the gifted prince-bishops of those days (residence and garden, the fountains called Marienbrunnen and Willibaldsbrunnen, castle of Hirschberg, monastery of Notre-Dame). Bishop Raymund Anton, Count of Strassoldo (1757-1781), prepared for his clergy the well-known "Instructio Pastoralis", a book of pastoral direction, which in its latest (fifth) edition (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1902) is even yet much admired. The "secularization" (1803) robbed the Bishop of Eichstätt of his ancient secular authority, but the diocese remained and was reorganized by the Bull of circumscription of 1821. Cardinal Karl August von Reisach (Bishop of Eichstätt, 1835-1846) renewed its ecclesiastical and religious life, opened the seminary for boys (1838) and the lyceum (1844), with a philosophical and a theological faculty, and in union with Joseph Ernst (d. 1869), president (Regens) of the latter institution, breathed into it the true spirit of the Church, a spirit which since then has never failed. Bishop Georg von Oettl (1847-1866) and his successor, Franz Leopold von Leonrod (1867-1905), faithfully continued and completed the work begun by Reisach. The conditions of the diocese are as well regulated as is possible; its people are solidly grounded in the Faith, while the learning, life, and labors of the clergy are considered exemplary throughout Germany.

The diocese is rich in monuments of ecclesiastical architecture and art. The Gothic cathedral exhibits many excellent works of art from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century; especially noteworthy is its mortuarium. The Gothic church of Our Lady in Ingolstadt and the conventual churches of Kaste (Romanesque) and Freystadt (Renaissance) are important monuments. Among ecclesiastical artists may be mentioned: Hans Paur (fifteenth century), Hans Pildschnitzer (fifteenth century), Loy Hering (sixteenth century), Gabriel de Gabrielis (seventeenth-eighteenth century), Ignaz Breitenauer (eighteenth century). In the Middle Ages Eichstätt possessed a flourishing cathedral school dating from the time of St. Willibald. Mostly with ecclesiastical funds and through the zeal of Wilhelm von Reichenau, the University of Ingolstadt was founded in 1472. Many of its professors became famous. Among its theologians are Johann Eck, P. Canisius, Gregory of Valencia, Salmeron, Jacob Gretser; among its canonists: Reiffenstuel, Pirhing, Schmalzgrueber; among its jurists, Wiguleus Kreittmayr, Ad. Ickstatt; among its philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians: Johann Reuchlin, Conrad Celtes, Christoph Scheiner, Caspar Scioppius, Philipp and Petrus Apian, Fuchs Leonhard, and others. Early in the nineteenth century the university was transferred to Landshut, thence to Munich.

The most important monastery of the diocese in olden times was the Benedictine abbey founded by St. Willibald in 740 and out of which grew the diocese. At the end of the tenth century it became the cathedral chapter with secular canons. Heidenheim was at first a double monastery, founded by St. Willibald; it was changed (800) to a chapter of canons; later it became again a Benedictine monastery. Before the change the monks moved to Herrieden and erected there, under Abbot Dietker and through the benevolence of Charlemagne, a new monastery, which was changed to a chapter of canons in 888 and secularized in 1804. The nuns moved from Heidenheim to Monheim, taking with them some of the relics of St. Walburga, which were lost in the "secularization" of the sixteenth century. St. Walburg (Benedictine nuns) in Eichstätt (founded 870) was endowed in 1035 by Count Leodegar and reorganized by Bishop Heribert. It is yet flourishing despite its temporary secularization (1802-1835), and possesses some relics of St. Walburga. Kastel in the Upper Palatinate, founded 1098 (Benedictines from the Cluniac congregation), took a prominent part in the reforms of the twelfth century; it was secularized in 1556, and in 1636, during the Counter-Reformation, its domains were transferred to the Jesuit college in Amberg, and after the suppression of the Jesuits (1773) to the Knights of Malta; in 1806 it was secularized once more. Plankstetten (Benedictines, founded 1129) was also secularized in 1802. Heilsbronn (Cistercians, founded 1132), also zealous for ecclesiastical reforms, was secularized in 1530 by the margraves of Ansbach. Rebdorf (Augustinian canons, founded 1159 through the powerful help of Frederick Barbarossa) was the home of Prior Kilian Leib (1471-1552), linguist and historian; the abbey was secularized in 1802. Bergen (Benedictine nuns, founded 976) was suppressed in 1552 by the Protestant princes of Neuburg; its estates passed later into the hands of the Jesuits, who used them to found the seminary and gymnasium in Neuburg on the Danube (1664). The "Schottenkloster zum heiligen Kreuz" (The Irish Monastery of the Holy Cross), an Irish foundation of 1140 in Eichstätt, passed over to the Capuchins in 1623, lived through the "secularization" of the early nineteenth century, and is still flourishing. In the thirteenth century arose the monasteries of Engelthal (suppressed in 1550 by the people of Nuremberg); Seligenporten (Cistercian nuns), secularized in 1556, after the re-Catholicizing of the Upper Palatinate given to the Salesian nuns of Amberg and Munich, and again secularized in 1802; Gnadenthal in Ingolstadt (Franciscan nuns, founded in 1276), still flourishing. In the fifteenth century were founded: Gnadenberg (Brigittines), Mariastein near Rebdorf (Augustinian nuns), Königshofen, Marienburg near Abenberg, all of which disappeared during the last secularization (1802-1806). Eichstätt had still other monasteries in the Middle Ages: thus the Dominicans had a monastery in the city (founded 1279, secularized in 1802); the Carmelites in Weissenburg, the Franciscans in Ingolstadt (1275). From the seventeenth century the Jesuits had flourishing colleges in Eichstätt and Ingolstadt, the Capuchins in Eichstätt and Wemding (1669). The Teutonic Knights had a flourishing commandery in Ellingen which was secularized in 1802.

At present (1909) the diocese numbers one monastery of the Benedictines (Plankstetten), four of the Franciscans (Ingolstadt, Dietfurt, Berthing, Freystadt), two of the Capuchins (Eichstätt, Wemding), two convents of nuns (St. Walburg and Gnadenthal), nd about forty-six houses of female congregations, among them the flourishing institute of the English Ladies in Eichstätt. The seminary, restored by Reisach, was enlarged in 1844 by the addition of a philosophico-theological academy (lyceum), and under eminent scholars has attained a high degree of prosperity and scientific fame. (Professors: Johann Pruner, d. 1907; G. Suttner, d. 1888; Franz Morgott, d. 1900; Valent. Thalhofer, d. 1891; Alb. Stöckl, d. 1895; Math. Schneid, d. 1893; Phil. Hergenrother, d. 1890; Mich. Lefflad, d. 1900.) Since about 1898 bishops of the United States have been sending students to the Lyceum for training in philosophy and theology. During the nineteenth century the Diocese of Eichstätt also contributed several prominent men to the Church in the United States, among them Archbishop Michael Heiss of Milwaukee. Foundations of Benedictine nuns were also made in the United States from the convent of St. Walburg. In 1908 the diocese had about 185,000 Catholics, 206 parishes, 63 benefices, 79 assistancies, 373 secular and 39 regular priests.

JOSEF HOLLWECK


text:
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Eimhin

Eimhin,, Abbot and Bishop of Ros-mic-Truin (Ireland), probably in the sixth century. He came of the royal race of Munster, and was brother of two other saints, Culain and Dairmid. Of the early part of his religious life little is known. When he became abbot of the monastery of Ros-mic-Truin, in succession to its founder, St. Abban, he had been apparently connected with one of the religious houses of the south of Ireland, since it is recorded that a number of monks "followed the man of God from his own country of Munster". Ros-mic-Truin lies in South Leinster on the bank of the River Barrow, and is distant only eight miles, by water, from the confines of Munster, at the point where the Suir and Barrow meet, and in confluence enter the Atlantic. Although the Abbey of Ros-mic-Truin was founded by St. Abban, it is said to have been colonized by St. Eimhin, and from the number of religious and students belonging to the south of Ireland who dwelt there the place came to be called "Rosglas of the Munstermen". St. Eimhin is said by some to have been the author of the life of St. Patrick, called the "Vita Tripartita" (ed. Whitley Stokes in R. S.), originally published by Father John Colgan, O.S.F. It contains a greater variety of details concerning the mission of the Apostle of Ireland than any other of the lives extant. St. Eimhin was famous for many and great miracles. The date of his death has not been recorded; however competent authorities assign it to the earlier half of the sixth century. After St. Eimhin's death, it is said, his consecrated bell was held in great veneration, and was used as a swearing relic down to the fourteenth century, oaths and promises made upon it being deemed inviolable. Among the MSS. of the library of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, is a prose tract entitled "Caine Emine" (i.e. the tribute or rule of Eimhin), also a poem of several stanzas relating to the saint's bell. St. Eimhin is given in the Irish calendars on December 22.

J. B. CULLEN

title: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Eimhin


text:
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Einhard

Einhard (less correctly ), historian, born c. 770 in the district watered by the River Main in the eastern part of the Frankish Empire; d. March 14, 840, at Seligenstadt. His earliest training he received at the monastery of Fulda, where he showed such unusual mental powers that Abbot Baugulf sent him to the court of Charlemagne. His education was completed at the Palace School, where he was fortunate enough to count among his masters the great Alcuin, who bears witness to his remarkable talent in mathematics and architecture, and also to the fact that, in spite of his unattractive person, he was among the emperor's most trusted advisers. Charlemagne gave Einhard charge of his great public buildings, e.g. the construction of the Aachen cathedral and the palaces of Aachen and Ingelheim, for which reason he was known in court circles as Beseleel, after the builder of the tabernacle (Ex., xxi). Charlemagne also availed himself of Einhard's tact and prudence to send him on various diplomatic missions. Thus, in 802 he placed in his hands the negotiations for the exchange of distinguished Saxon hostages, and in 806 he was dispatched to Rome to obtain papal approbation for the partition of the empire, which the emperor had just decided upon.

During the reign of Louis the Pious he retained his position of trust, and proved a faithful counsellor to Louis's son, Lothair. Unsuccessful, however, in his attempts to settle the contests for the crown which had been stirred up by Empress Judith, and unable to bring about a lasting reconciliation between Louis and his sons, Einhard, in 830, withdrew to Mühlheim (Mulinheim) on the Main, which he had been granted as early as 815, together with other estates, as a mark of imperial favor. He transferred thither the relics of Sts. Marcellinus and Peter, and called the place Seligenstadt. Moreover, between 831 and 834 he established here a Benedictine abbey, where, after the death of his wife, Emma (or Imma), sister of Bishop Bernhar of Worms (not daughter of Charlemagne), he spent the rest of his life as abbot. It is not certain whether he was ordained priest. His epitaph was written by Rabanus Maurus.

The most important of Einhard's works is the "Vita Caroli Magni" (in "Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script", II; printed separately, 4th ed., Hanover, 1880; also in Jaffé, "Bibliotheca rerum germanicarum", IV; Germ. tr. by Abel, 3rd ed., Berlin, 1893, in "Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit"). This, the best biography of the whole period of the Middle Ages, written in close imitation of Suetonius, particularly his "Vita Augusti", shows the emperor from the standpoint of the most intimate personal acquaintance with all sides of his character, and with a genuine attempt at truth of portrayal. The diction is in general elegant, though not polished. The annals of the Carlovingian Empire, which have been handed down as Einhard's (ed. Kurze, 1895), are, in their present form, older materials worked over. Those for the years between 796 and 820 may date back to Einhard. In addition, we have from his hand the "Translatio et Miracula SS. Marcellini et Petri" (Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., XV), containing data which are important for the history of culture. The seventy-one letters, written by Einhard between 825 and 830 (ed. Jaffe, "Bibliotheca", Berlin, 1867, IV) in a clear, simple style, constitute an important source for the history of Louis the Pious. A collective edition of Einhard's works was published by Teulet (Paris, 1840-43), with French translation.

PATRICIUS SCHLAGER

title: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Einhard


text:
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Eithne

Eithne,, styled "of the golden hair", is commemorated in the Irish martyrologies under the 11th of January. She was daughter of Leoghaire, Ard-Righ, or Hy-Sovereign of Ireland at the time of St. Patrick's first visit, as a missionary, to the court of Tara (433). According to the prevailing custom of those days the children of kings and princes were frequently placed, at an early age, in charge of the family of some of the chieftains who coveted the honor of guardianship of the royal offspring. Hence it is assumed that Eithne and her younger sister were fostered close to Cruachan Magh Ai, the dwelling-place, or royal residence, of the Gaelic kings of Connaught. However the brief story of the saint's life centers in the one scene, which took place beside the brook of Clebach, County Roscommon, and is described in the "Acts" of the national apostle of Ireland.

On his way to the royal abode, during his mission to the western province, it is told that St. Patrick and his disciples camped one evening close to the Well of Clebach. On the following day the clerics rose at dawn to chant the Divine Office, and prepare for the mystic sacrifice. It would appear that the two royal princesses were accustomed to visit the same fountain in the early morn, and on this occasion were surprised at the appearance of the strange company who were in possession of the place. They were not, however, dismayed, and Eithne, the elder of the sisters, accosted Patrick and his companions, asking who they were and whence they came. Whereupon the apostle said—"It were better for you to confess your faith in our true God than ask about our race." Then, at their request, St. Patrick unfolded to them the doctrines of Christianity, which, under the influence of Divine grace, they accepted with heart and soul. Having baptized them, the saint placed on their brows the veil of virginity.

Then, it is related, Eithne and her sister asked "to see the face of Christ, the Son of the true God", but Patrick said: "You cannot see the face of Christ unless you taste death, and receive the Sacrifice". Whereupon they besought him to give them the Sacrifice that they might see their Spouse, the Son of God. So, by the brink of the fountain, the Sacrifice was offered, and having received their First Communion, Eithne and her sister, in an ecstasy of rapture, swooned away and died. When the days of mourning were ended both were laid side by side, close by the scene of their death, where afterwards a church was raised over the grave.

J. B. CULLEN

title: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Eithne


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ekkehard

Ekkehard, name of five monks of the (Swiss) Abbey of St. Gall from the tenth to the thirteenth century.

(I) EKKEHARD I (MAJOR, "the Elder"), d. January 14, 973. He was of noble birth, of the Jonschwyl family in Toggenburg, and was educated in the monastery of St. Gall; after joining the Benedictine Order, he was appointed director of the inner school there. Later, under Abbot Kralo, who trusted him implicitly, he was elected dean of the monastery, and for a while directed all the affairs of the abbey. Ekkehard made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he was retained for a time by Pope John XII, who presented him with various relics of St. John the Baptist. After Kralo's death Ekkehard refused the abbatial succession, because of lameness resulting from a fractured leg. However, he directed the choice of Burkard, son of Count Ulrich of Buchhorn, who governed St. Gall with the advice and cooperation of Ekkehard. The latter erected a hospice in front of the monastery for the sick and strangers, and was in many other ways a model of charity. He was also distinguished as a poet, and wrote a Latin epic "Waltharius", basing his version on an original German text. He dedicated this poem to Bishop Erkanbald of Strasburg (965-991). It describes the elopement of Walter of Aquitaine with the Burgundian princess Hildegunde, from the land of the Huns, followed by the battle of Wasgenstein between Walter and the followers of Gunther and Hagen (ed. Peiper, Berlin, 1873). He also composed various ecclesiastical hymns and sequences, e.g. in honor of the Blessed Trinity, St. John the Baptist, St. Benedict, St. Columbanus, St. Stephen (Meyer, "Philologische Bemerkungen zum Waltharius" in "Abhandl. der bayr. Akad. d. Wissenschaften", Munich, 1873; Strecker, "Ekkehard and Virgil" in "Zeitschrift f. deutsches Altertum", 1898, XLII, 338-366).

(2) EKKEHARD II (PALATINUS, "the Courtier"), d. April 23, 990. He and Ekkehard III were nephews of the preceding, who educated also at St. Gall his other nephews, Notker the physician and Burkard, later abbot of the monastery. Ekkehard II was taught by his uncle and the monk Geraldus, and was later a teacher in the monastery school. A number of his pupils joined the order; others became bishops. According to the "Carus Sancti Galli" he was called later to Hohentwiel, the seat of the Duchess Hadwig of Swabia, widow of Burkard II. The duchess was wont occasionally to visit St. Gall, and eventually (973) asked for and obtained the services of Ekkehard as her tutor in the reading of the Latin classics. Nevertheless, he continued to render great services to his monastery, especially on the occasion of the differences between St. Gall and Reichenau (Abbot Ruodmann); in many other ways also he proved himself useful to the monks by the influence he had obtained as tutor of the duchess. Ekkehard was also prominent at the imperial court of Otto I. Later he became provost of the cathedral of Mainz, where he died April 23, 990. He was buried in the church of St. Alban, outside the city gates. He was the author of various ecclesiastical hymns, known as sequences, all of which are lost, except one in honor of St. Desiderius.

(3) EKKEHARD III, also a nephew of Ekkehard I and a cousin of the preceding. He shared the educational advantages of his cousin and, at his invitation, accompanied him to Hohentwiel to superintend and direct the studies of the local clergy. On his return to St. Gall he was made dean of the abbey, and is reported to have filled this office for thirty years. He died early in the eleventh century.

(4) EKKEHARD IV.—According to the testimony in his "Chronicle" (especially in view of his statement that he had heard from eyewitnesses of the great conflagration at St. Gall in 937), the date of his birth is usually placed about 980; he died October 21, but the year of his death is unknown (1036?-1060?). The same "Chronicle" indicates Alsace as his birthplace, though we do not know with certainty either the place of his birth, or his family origin. His boyhood was spent at St. Gall where he had for tutor Notker Labeo the German, one of the most learned scholars of his time. From him Ekkehard acquired a profound knowledge of the Latin and Greek classics; he also studied mathematics, astronomy, and music, and was acknowledged while living as a scholar of note even outside the monastery. After the death of Notker Labeo (1022) Ekkehard was called to Mainz by Archbishop Aribo, where he became director and teacher in the cathedral school, and held both offices until the death of his patron (1031), distinguishing himself as head of the school; indeed, he was noted as a successful teacher and promoter of learning. A treatise on the "Jube me, Domine, benedicere", inscriptions, and benediction prayers remain as evidences of his literary activity. Emperor Conrad II, when at Ingelheim near Mainz, distinguished him by marks of personal favor (Easter, 1030). Shortly after his return to St. Gall Abbot Tietbald died (1034) and Norbert of Stavelot, who introduced the reforms of Cluny, was elected to succeed him. A dissension, therefore, arose among the monks, the seniors being dissatisfied with the new reforms. Ekkehard, meanwhile, began work on the ancient abbey chronicle, the famous "Casus S. Galli", begun by Ratpert and continued to Abbot Salomon (883), and carried it on from that date to Notker (972). This work is a most important document for the contemporary history of St. Gall (ed. von Arx in "Mon. Germ. Historica: Scriptores "II, Hanover, 1829; ed. Meyer von Knonau in "St. Gallische Geschichtsquellen" in "Mitteil. zur vaterland. Geschichte" (new series, nn. 5 and 6, St. Gall, 1877); it is also the main source of our knowledge concerning the Ekkehards. The "Casus" is mostly a compilation of anecdotes and traditions concerning distinguished monks. They contain, however, many historical errors and misrepresentations, and the Latin diction is often barbarous. Nevertheless, owing to the excellence and simplicity of the narrative, they are a valuable source of contemporary history, especially of its culture. The second important literary work of Ekkehard is his "Liber Benedictionum". It comprises metrical inscriptions for the walls of the Mainz cathedral, and benedictions (also in verse) for use in choir-service and at meals, also poems in honor of the festivals of various saints, partly from his own pen and partly by Notker Labeo. In poetical merit these works are inferior enough; nevertheless they betray a very fair knowledge of Latin. The glosses from his pen, both on his own manuscripts and others belonging to the abbey, remain as proof of his lifelong zeal in pursuit of knowledge. He was also skilled in music, especially ecclesiastical music, always diligently and successfully cultivated at St. Gall.

(5) EKKEHARD V (MINIMUS), d. about 1220. He is the last of the St. Gall Ekkehards, and flourished towards the end of the twelfth, and the beginning of the thirteenth, century. No particulars are known concerning his life, and tradition is silent as to his origin, the year of his birth and of his death. He was dean of the abbey in the reign of Innocent III. About 1214 he wrote a life of St. Notker Balbulus, a learned monk of St. Gall, who lived towards the end of the ninth, and the beginning of the tenth, century (Acta SS., April, I, 579), from which work we gather that its author was versed in ecclesiastical music.

J. P. KIRSCH

title: Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ekkehard


text:
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ekkehard of Aura

Ekkehard of Aura, Benedictine monk and chronicler, b. about 1050; d. after 1125. Very little is known of his life. About 1101 he went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and in 1106 took part in the Council of Guastalla. Apparently he belonged at first to the monastery of St. Michael at Bamberg, and later (1108 or 1113) was abbot of the monastery of Aura, founded by Bishop Otto of Bamberg, on the Franconian Saale, near Kissingen, Bavaria; this monastery followed the Rule of Hirschau. The "Chronicon universale", called after Ekkehard, is the chief source for the history of Germany during the years 1080-1125. In its present form it is divided into five books: the first contains ancient history from the Creation to the building of the city of Rome; the second extends to the birth of Christ; the third reaches the time of Charlemagne; the fourth goes to the opening of the reign of Emperor Henry V; the fifth contains an account of the reign of this ruler. No other medieval general chronicle covers so much ground; in the manuscripts now extant it is evidently not the work of one man but represents rather a fusion of various recensions and continuations. Bresslau, in his acute investigation of the subject (Neues Archiv für Ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, VII), traces these changes, for the most part, to Frutolf, prior of St. Michael's (d. February 17, 1103). It is now believed that Ekkehard simply rewrote the greater part of the chronicle, and that his original contribution is the account of the reign of Emperor Henry V. The chronicle, taken as a whole, is a very skillful compilation, and shows in the selection and arrangement of the matter a sound understanding and mastery of the material at hand. The language is good and simple, and the presentation clear and well summarized. Continuations were written by various chroniclers, among whom may be mentioned Conrad of Lichtenau and Albert of Stade. Ekkehard's chronicle has been published several times (Mon. Germ. Hist., Script., VI, 13-265; Migne, P.L., CLIV, 459-1060). A German translation was issued by Pflüger (Leipzig, 1893), as vol. LI of the series "Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit".

PATRICIUS SCHLAGER