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 carnivorous or parasitic, and prey upon both vertebrates and invertebrates. In relation to their parasitic habit one or two suckers are always developed, the one at the anterior and the other at the posterior end of the body. In one subdivision of the leeches, the Gnathobdellidae, the mouth has three chitinous jaws which produce a triangular bite, though the action has been described as like that of a circular saw. Leeches without biting jaws possess a protrusible proboscis, and generally engulf their prey, as does the horse leech when it attacks earthworms. But some of them are also ectoparasites. The leech has been used in medicine from remote antiquity as a moderate blood-letter; and it is still so used, though more rarely than formerly. As unlicensed blood-letters, certain land-leeches are among the most unpleasant of parasites that can be encountered in a tropical jungle. A species of Haemadipsa of Ceylon attaches itself to the passer-by and draws blood with so little irritation that the sufferer is said to be aware of its presence only by the trickling from the wounds produced. Small leeches taken into the mouth with drinking-water may give rise to serious symptoms by attaching themselves to the fauces and neighbouring parts and thence sucking blood. The effects of these parasites have been mistaken for those of disease. All leeches are very extensile and can contract the body to a plump, pear-shaped form, or extend it to a long and worm-like shape. They frequently progress after the fashion of a “looper” caterpillar, attaching themselves alternately by the anterior and the posterior sucker. Others swim with eel-like curves through the water, while one land-leech, at any rate, moves in a gliding way like a land Planarian, and leaves, also like the Planarian, a slimy trail behind it. Leeches are usually olive green to brown in colour, darker patches and spots being scattered over a paler ground. The marine parasitic leech Pontobdella is of a bright green, as is also the land-leech Trocheta.

The term “leech,” as an old English synonym for physician, is from a Teutonic root meaning “heal,” and is etymologically distinct from the name (O. Eng. lyce) of the Hirudo, though the use of the one by the other has helped to assimilate the two words.

 LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, 1st (1631–1712), English statesman, commonly known also by his earlier title of, son of Sir Edward Osborne, Bart., of Kiveton, Yorkshire, was born in 1631. He was great-grandson of Sir Edward Osborne (d. 1591), lord mayor of London, who, according to the accepted account, while apprentice to Sir William Hewett, cloth worker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing Anne (d. 1585), the daughter of his employer, whom he afterwards married. Thomas Osborne, the future lord treasurer, succeeded to the baronetcy and estates in Yorkshire on his father’s death in 1647, and after unsuccessfully courting his cousin Dorothy Osborne, married Lady Bridget Bertie, daughter of the earl of Lindsey. He was introduced to public life and to court by his neighbour in Yorkshire, George, 2nd duke of Buckingham, was elected M.P. for York in 1665, and gained the “first step in his future rise” by joining Buckingham in his attack on Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint treasurer of the navy with Sir Thomas Lyttelton, and subsequently sole treasurer. He succeeded Sir William Coventry as commissioner for the state treasury in 1669, and in 1673 was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created Viscount Osborne in the Scottish peerage on the 2nd of February 1673, and a privy councillor on the 3rd of May. On the 19th of June, on the resignation of Lord Clifford, he was appointed lord treasurer and made Baron Osborne of Kiveton and Viscount Latimer in the peerage of England, while on the 27th of June 1674 he was created earl of Danby, when he surrendered his Scottish peerage of Osborne to his second son Peregrine Osborne. He was appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter.

Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the leaders of the Cabal ministry, Buckingham and Arlington. His principal aim was no doubt the maintenance and increase of his own influence and party, but his ambition corresponded with definite political views. A member of the old cavalier party, a confidential friend and correspondent of the despotic Lauderdale, he desired to strengthen the executive and the royal authority. At the same time he was a keen partisan of the established church, an enemy of both Roman Catholics and dissenters, and an opponent of all toleration. In 1673 he opposed the Indulgence, supported the Test Act, and spoke against the proposal for giving relief to the dissenters. In June 1675 he signed the paper of advice drawn up by the bishops for the king, urging the rigid enforcement of the laws against the Roman Catholics, their complete banishment from the court, and the suppression of conventicles, and a bill introduced by him imposing special taxes on recusants and subjecting Roman Catholic priests to imprisonment for life was only thrown out as too lenient because it secured offenders from the charge of treason. The same year he introduced a Test Oath by which all holding office or seats in either House of Parliament were to declare resistance to the royal power a crime, and promise to abstain from all attempts to alter the government of either church or state; but this extreme measure of retrograde toryism was successfully opposed by wiser statesmen. The king himself as a Roman Catholic secretly opposed and also doubted the wisdom and practicability of this “thorough” policy of repression. Danby therefore ordered a return from every diocese of the numbers of dissenters, both Romanist and Protestant, in order by a proof of their insignificance to remove the royal scruples. In December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression of coffee-houses because of the “defamation of His Majesty’s Government” which took place in them, but this was soon withdrawn. In 1677, to secure Protestantism in case of a Roman Catholic succession, he introduced a bill by which ecclesiastical patronage and the care of the royal children were entrusted to the bishops; but this measure, like the other, was thrown out.

In foreign affairs Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials. He desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad. He was a determined enemy both to Roman influence and to French ascendancy. He terminated the war with Holland in 1674, and from that time maintained a friendly correspondence with William; while in 1677, after two years of tedious negotiations, he overcame all obstacles, and in spite of James’s opposition, and without the knowledge of Louis XIV., effected the marriage between William and Mary that was the germ of the Revolution and the Act of Settlement. This national policy, however, could only be pursued, and the minister could only maintain himself in power, by acquiescence in the king’s personal relations with the king of France settled by the disgraceful Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included Charles’s acceptance of a pension, and bound him to a policy exactly opposite to Danby’s, one furthering French and Roman ascendancy. Though not a number of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his own denial, Danby must, it would seem, have known of these relations after becoming lord treasurer. In any case, in 1676, together with Lauderdale alone, he consented to a treaty between Charles and Louis according to which the foreign policy of both kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles received an annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking advantage of the growing hostility to France in the nation and parliament, raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded through Ralph Montagu (afterwards duke of Montagu) six million livres a year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby guided through parliament a bill for raising money for a war against France; a league was concluded with Holland, and troops were actually sent there. That Danby, in spite of these compromising transactions, remained in intention faithful to the national interests, appears clearly from the hostility with which he was still regarded by France. In 1676 he is described

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Lees being a short but decisive counter-reply to the few friendly hints of the Rev. Charles B. Stennett, at present an officiating priest in the Religious College of Maynooth, and late a lieutenant of grenadiers in the North York Regiment of Militia.' Dublin, 1820, 8vo; 14th edit. 1821. 4. 'A Letter to Mr. Wilberforce, containing some Reflections on a late Address of Lord John Russell's and the Past and Present Conduct of the Whigs.' Dublin, 1820. 6. 'An Address to the King's Friends throughout the British Empire on the present Awful and Critical State of Great Britain, containing just and necessary Strictures on a late Speech of Henry Brougham, esq., in the House of Lords in defence of the Queen.' Dublin, 1820, 8vo; 11th edit. 1821. 6. 'A Cursory View of the Present State of Ireland.' Dublin, 1821, 8vo. 7. 'Nineteen Pages of Advice to the Protestant Freemen and Freeholders of the City of Dublin, containing Observations on the Speeches and Conduct of a late Aggregate Meeting in Liffey St. Chapel, the first of June; recommended to the deep and serious consideration of every Protestant in Ireland.' Dublin, 1821, 8vo. 8. 'Most Important. Trial of Sir Harcourt Lees, Bart. Before Chief Justice B and Serjeant Flummery on Saturday, the 11th January, 1823, by a jury of Special-Dust Churchmen, on charges of Barratry and Eavesdropping.' Dublin, 8vo. 9. 'Theological Extracts selected from a late Letter written by a Popish Prelate to his Grace the Archbishop of Dublin, with Observations on the same, and a well-merited and equally well-applied literary flagellation of the titular shoulders of this mild and humble Minister of the Gospel; with a complete exposure of his friend the Pope and the entire body of holy impostors,' Dublin, n.d.

 LEES, WILLIAM NASSAU (1825–1889), major-general in the Indian army and orientalist, fourth son of Sir Harcourt Lees [q. v.], bart., was born on 26 Feb. 1825, and educated at Nut Grove and at Trinity College, Dublin, but took no degree. He was appointed to a Bengal cadetship in 1846, and was posted to the late 42nd Bengal native infantry as ensign in March 1846. He became lieutenant in July 1853, captain in September 1858, major in June 1865, lieutenant-colonel in 1868, colonel in 1876, and major-general in 1885, having been placed on the supernumerary list in 1884. He was for some years principal of the Madrásá or Mohammedan College, Calcutta (averaging four hundred students), in which institution he was also professor of law, logic, literature, and mathematics. He was likewise secretary to the college of Fort William, Persian translator to the government, and government examiner in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu for all branches of the service, besides being for some years part proprietor of the ‘Times of India’ newspaper, and was an incessant contributor to the daily press on all Indian topics, political, military, and economical. In 1857 the university of Dublin conferred on him the honorary degree of LL.D., and he was also a doctor in philosophy of Berlin. He became a member of the Royal Asiatic Society, London, in 1872. A staunch conservative in politics, he twice sought to enter parliament, but without success. He died at his residence in Grosvenor Street, London, on 9 March 1889, aged 64.

Lees was a distinguished oriental scholar. In 1853, when still an ensign, he brought out an edition of the Arabic ‘Fatúh'sh-Shám,’ or account of the Muslim conquest of Syria, and edited or co-edited various native works (see Centenary Review of the Bengal Asiatic Society, 1885). The Arabic work for which his memory is more particularly honoured by Eastern scholars is his ‘Commentary of Az-Zamakhshari,’ an exegesis of the Koran, much reverenced by Sunnites. In Persian, his ‘Nafahatu l'Uns’ of Jámí (an account of famous saints and Sufites modernised from an older chronicle) and the ‘Vis u Rámin,’ which has been described as a poetical version of an original Páhlévi romance, are not less worthy. Lees assisted in the production by native writers of the ‘A'aris i Buzurgan’ (1855), consisting of obituary notices of Mohammedan doctors (edited by Lees and the Maulavi Kaberu 'd din Ahmad); a ‘History of the Caliphs’ (1856); a ‘Book of Anecdotes, Wonders, Pleasantries, Rarities, and Useful Extracts’ (1856); and the ‘Alamgirmáneh’ (1868). Among his many contributions to the Royal Asiatic Society's ‘Journal’ may be mentioned his ‘Materials for the History of India during the 600 years of Mohammedan Rule previous to the Foundation of the British Empire in India,’ which appeared in 1868 (Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. vol. iii.), and contains a thoughtful review of the relations of the natives of India to their English rulers. To the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal’ he contributed an article on the application of Roman alphabetical characters to oriental languages, six other papers, and many valuable notes. He supervised the printing of Mr. Morley's edition of the


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 ,’ and in part superintended that of the Maulávi Sáiyid, Ahmad Khan's edition (1868) of the ‘Tárikh-i-Firuz Sháhi by Ziyáu 'd-Din Barani,’ an interesting account of which will be found in vol. iii. of Dr. Rieu's ‘Catalogue of Persian MSS.’ in the British Museum. He was joint editor (1863) of the ‘Tabakát i Nasiri,’ by Minháju 'd-Din al Jurjáni, and (1864) of the ‘Muntakh-abu't Tawárikh’ of Abd'ul Kádir Badáuni, stated by Dr. Hoernle to be second as a history ‘to none in the whole range of historical works by Mohammedan authors.’ The publication of the ‘Ikbál Námeh-i-Jahángíri’ of M'Ulamád Khan, and the ‘Badsháh Námeh’ of Abd'ul-Hámed Lahauri was likewise indebted to his superintendence.

He also published:
 * 1) 'Instruction in Oriental Languages, especially as regards Candidates for the East India Company's Service, and as a National Question.' London and Edinburgh, 1857.
 * 2) 'A Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and Poet, Jámí' London, 1859.
 * 3) 'Guide to the Examinations at Fort William.' Calcutta, 1862.
 * 4) 'Resolutions, Regulations, Despatches, and Laws relating to the Sale of Waste Lands and Immigration to India,' Calcutta, 1863.
 * 5) 'The Drain of Silver to the East, and the Currency of India.' London, 1864(1865).
 * 6) 'Memoranda written after a Visit to the Tea Districts of E. Bengal.' Calcutta, 1866.
 * 7) 'Land and Labour in India.' a review, London, 1867.
 * 8) 'Indian Mussulmans.' three letters reprinted from the 'Times.' four articles from the 'Calcutta Englishman,' an article on the prince consort, and an appendix, London, 1871.

 LEEVES, WILLIAM (1748–1828), poet and composer, son of Henry Leeves, esq. of Kensington, was born on 11 June 1748. He entered the first regiment of foot-guards as ensign on 20 June 1769, and was promoted lieutenant on 23 Feb. 1772. In 1779 he decided to take holy orders, and was appointed to the living of Wrington in Somerset, the birthplace of Locke and the abode of Hannah More, at whose house he was a frequent and welcome visitor. Leeves continued rector of Wrington until his death there on 28 May 1828. A portrait of him in his lieutenant's uniform was painted in 1773, and this was engraved for Mrs. Moon's 'Memoir.' He married^ on 4 May 1786, Anne, youngest daughter of Samuel Wathen, M.D. She was possessed of great musical talent, and was a skilful performer on the violin. Their eldest son, William Henry, had & splendid bass voice. Another son, Henry Daniel, was in holy orders, and was chiefly instrumental in the erection of the English church at Athens. George was in the navy, on retiring from which he settled in America. Marianne married the Rev. Robinson Elsdale, son of [q. v.] the autobiographer.

Leeves was a good musician and a competent performer on the violoncello. In 1772 he wrote the music to the song 'Auld Robin Gray.' by Lady [q. v.] The autograph is in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 29387). Lady Anne had originally written her words to a Scottish melody previously known as 'The Bridegroom greets.' but Leeves's music at once superseded the old tune. According to Oliphant, in his edition of 'Auld Robin Gray.' published in 1843, Leeves brought out about 1790, in conjunction with Dr. Harrington of Bath and Mr. Broderip of Wells, a volume of glees. In 1812 he published 'Six Sacred Airs, intended as a Domestic Sunday Evening Recreation, accompanied by a Pianoforte or Harpsichord, two of them by a Violoncello Obligato or Violin.' In the dedication to his friend, Thomas Hammersley, Leeves first publicly acknowledged the composition of 'Auld Robin Gray.' owing, it was said, to the delight with which he had recently heard the air sung by Miss Stephens, afterwards Countess of Essex. Besides musical compositions he was author of a considerable number of short occasional poems, some of which were published.

 LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814–1873), novelist and journalist, born at Dublin on 28 Aug. 1814, was son of Thomas Philip Le Fanu, dean of Emly, by his wife Emma, daughter of Dr. Dobbin, fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. The father, the eldest son of Joseph Le Fanu, by Alicia, sister of Richard Brinsley Sheridan [see ], was a descendant of an old and ennobled Huguenot family, and the appointment of Joseph Le Fanu, the novelist's grand-father, to the office of clerk of the coast of Ireland brought the family into official connection with that country. Le Fanu gave early proof of his literary tendencies by writing verses as a child, and is said to have produced at fourteen a long Irish poem (cf. Purcell Papers, Preface). He was privately educated under the direction of his father, until in 1833 he entered Trinity College,


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 Dublin. There his career was sufficiently distinguished, though exhibiting perhaps more brilliancy than solid achievement, and among unusually gifted contemporaries he took nearly the highest place as a debater in the college historical society. While at the university Le Fanu made his first appearance as an author in the pages of the then recently founded 'Dublin University Magazine.' Of this periodical he soon (1887) joined the staff, and maintained the closest connection with it, first as contributor, and afterwards (1869) as editor and proprietor, until within a year of his death. About 1837 he produced his two brilliant Irish ballads, 'Phaudhrig Croohore' and 'Shamus O'Brien.' The latter was recited with great success by Samuel Lover in the United States, and won a wide popularity. Its authorship was for a time erroneously attributed to the reciter {Dublin Univ. Mag. xxxvi. 109; Notes and Queries, 4th ser. iii. 60). In 1839 Le Fanu was called to the Irish bar, but made no serious attempt to practise, and soon devoted himself wholly to journalism. In the year of his admission to the bar he purchased 'The Warder.' a Dublin newspaper, soon afterwards secured possession of the 'Evening Packet.' and later became part proprietor of the 'Dublin Evening Mail.' He thereupon amalgamated the three papers, issuing the combined venture daily under the title of ' The Evening Mail.' with a weekly reprint, to which he attached the name of 'The Warder.' He proved himself a strenuous advocate of the conservative cause. In 1844 he married Susan, daughter of George Bennett, Q.C., and on her death in 1858 he withdrew altogether from society, where he had long been one of the most familiar and acceptable figures.

Le Fanu's career as a novelist belongs almost altogether to the period of his retirement. While still in college be had contributed to the 'Dublin University Magazine' the first of the 'Purcell Papers'—Irish stories purporting to be edited by the Rev. Francis Purcell of Drumcoolagh, and in 1845 and 1847 had made two sustained attempts at fiction in 'The Cock and Anchor.' a tale of old Dublin, and 'Torlogh O'Brien.' Both these works were published anonymously, and met with no great success, but after his wife's death Le Fanu turned once more to fiction, and in 1863 published 'The House by the Churchyard.' This work at once met with a cordial reception. 'Uncle Silas.' in many respects his most powerful and original work, confirmed his reputation in the following year, and between that date and his death, nine years later, he published twelve more volumes of fiction. It was his curious habit to write most of his stories in bed on scraps of paper and in pencil. He died at his residence, 18 Merrion Square South, Dublin, on 7 Feb. 1873. His last work, 'Willing to Die.' was completed only a few days before. He was buried in Mount Jerome cemetery. Le Fanu was a man of handsome presence and great charm of manner. As a journalist and politician he took an active part in the electoral contests in his university, and a good specimen of his humorous and satirical power may be found in a pamphlet called 'The Prelude.' an electioneering squib, written under the pseudonym of 'J. Figwood.' Of modern Irish novelists he stands next to Lever in popularity, and, if inferior to Lever in narrative vigour, is his superior in imaginative power. The supernatural had a powerful charm for him, probably deepened by the melancholy of his later life, and this trait gives to his novels an effect that recalls some characteristics of Hawthorne. In the ingenuity of his plots he rivals Wilkie Collins. The following is a list of his works: With the exception of Nos. 1 and 2 all were published in London. New editions of most of them were published in the lifetime of the author.
 * 1) 'The Cock and Anchor.' Dublin, 1845.
 * 2) 'Torlogh O'Brien.' Dublin, 1847.
 * 3) 'The House by the Churchyard.' 1863.
 * 4) 'Uncle Silas: a Tale of Bartram Haugh.' 1864.
 * 5) 'Wylder's Hand,' 1864.
 * 6) 'Guy Deverell,' 1865.
 * 7) 'All in the Dark.' 1866.
 * 8) 'The Tenants of Malory.' 1867.
 * 9) 'A Lost Name.' 1868.
 * 10) 'Haunted Lives.' 1868.
 * 11) 'The Wyvern Mystery.' 1869.
 * 12) 'Checkmate.' 1870.
 * 13) 'The Rose and the Key.' 1871.
 * 14) 'Chronicles of Golden Friars.' 1871.
 * 15) 'In a Glass Darkly.' 1872.
 * 16) 'Willing to Die.' 1875.
 * 17) 'The Purcell Papers.' with a memoir by Alfred Percival Graves, 1880.

LE FANU, PHILIP (fl. 1790), divine, son of William Le Fanu, by his wife Henriette Roboteau de Pugebaut, was born in Ireland about 1735. His ancestors were refugee Huguenots who fled from Caen in Normandy on the revocation of the edict of Nantes (, p. 450). He graduated M.A. at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1755, and took the degree of D.D. in 1776. He translated the Abbé Guenée's 'Lettres de certaines Juives à Monsieur Voltaire,' under the title 'Letters of certain Jews to Voltaire, containing an Apology for their People and for


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 the Old Testament,' against Voltaire's aspersions, both by way of indirect attack upon Christianity, 2 vols. Dublin, 1777; 2nd edit. 1790. He is also said to have written a 'History of the Council of Constance,' Dublin, 1787, 8vo.

A brother, (fl. 1778), was author of 'an occasional prelude.' entitled 'Smock Alley Secrets.' which was produced at the Dublin Theatre in 1778 (, Biog. Dram.)

Le Fanu's sister-in-law, (1753-1817), was eldest daughter of Thomas Sheridan, and favourite sister of the dramatist  [q. v.] She was born in January 1768, and married in 1776 Philip's brother, Joseph Le Fanu. She was the author of a patriotic comedy entitled 'Sons of Erin, or Modern Sentiment.' which was acted 'once only' at the Lyceum Theatre, London, on 13 April 1812 (, viii. 279). She died on 4 Sept. 1817 at Dublin, and was buried in St. Peter's graveyard. Of her three children the eldest, Thomas Philip, was dean of Emly and father of [q. v.] the novelist. Another of Philip's brothers, Henry Le Fanu, a captain in the 56th regiment, married Anne Elizabeth, youngest child of Thomas Sheridan, who died at Leamington on 4 Jan. 1837, aged 79 (Gent. Mag. 1837, ii. 585), leaving a daughter Alicia Le Fanu (fl. 1812-1826), who, in addition to some long-winded historical romances, and stories in verse, published in 1824 'Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mrs. Frances Sheridan, mother of the late Right Hon. R. B. Sheridan, by her Grand-daughter' (see Gent. Mag. 1824, i. 583).

 LEFEBURE, NICASIUS or NICOLAS (d. 1669), chemist. [See ]

 LEFEBVRE, ROLAND (1608–1677), painter, was born at Anjou in 1608. He painted both history and portraits, and studied for many years in Italy. For a long time he resided at Venice, whence he is sometimes known as 'Lefebvre de Venise.' He was admitted a member of the Venetian Academy of Painting and Sculpture on 6 Jan. 1663, but after quarrelling because he was only admitted as a portrait-painter and not as a history-painter, he was excluded from the Academy on 14 March 1665. Lefebvre thereupon came over to England. He obtained the patronage of Prince Rupert by revealing to him a new method of staining marble. He painted portraits and small history pictures, but was not much esteemed. He died in Bear Street, Leicester Fields, in 1677, and was buried in St. Martin's-in-the-Fields. A portrait of Lefebvre, in a fur cap, formerly in the possession of Philip Mercier the painter, was engraved for Walpole's 'Anecdotes of Painting.' He must be carefully distinguished from Claude Lefebvre, a well-known painter in Paris at the same time, who did not come to England, and also from Valentin Lefebvre, who resided many years at Venice, where he engraved works of Titian, Paolo Veronese, and others.

 LEFEVRE, CHARLES SHAW, (1794–1888). [See ]

 LEFEVRE, GEORGE WILLIAM, M.D. (1798–1846), physician, was born in 1798 at Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire. After apprenticeship to a local practitioner of medicine in Shropshire, he studied medicine at Edinburgh, and at Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospitals in London, and graduated M.D. at Aberdeen, 4 Aug. 1819. He was threatened with pulmonary disease, and on the advice of Dr. [q. v.] decided to go abroad. After ineffectual attempts to obtain an Indian appointment, he went to Pau with a patient, who died there of phthisis. Lefevre then returned to England and tried to get into practice. He was admitted a licentiate of the College of Physicians of London 1 April 1822, but having failed in his candidature as physician to a dispensary, he decided to go abroad again, and, through the influence of [q. v.] the surgeon, became physician to a Polish nobleman, with whom he travelled for nine years, five in France and the rest in Austria, Poland, and Russia. His position gave him the opportunity of seeing much of the domestic life of the Polish nobility, in many of whose castles he stayed (Life of a Travelling Physician). He finally left the Pole at Odessa and went to St. Petersburg, where he engaged in private practice and became physician to the embassy. In 1831 he was appointed to the charge of a district during the cholera epidemic, and published, in London, 'Observations on the Nature and Treatment of the Cholera Morbus now prevailing epidemically in St. Petersburg.' His experience led him to oppose the indiscriminate use of calomel


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268 18, 1787.

Rome is threatened with a great artistic loss. The King of Naples has ordered the Hercules Farnese to be brought to his palace. The news has made all the artists quite sad. However, on this occasion we shall see something which was hidden from our forefathers.

The aforesaid statue, namely, from the head to the knee, and afterward the lower part of the feet, together with the sockle on which it stood, were found within the Farnesian domain: but the legs, from the knee to the ankle, were wanting, and had been supplied by Giuglielmo Porta; on these it had stood since its discovery to the present day. In the meantime, however, the genuine old legs were found in the lands of the Borghesi, and were to be seen in their villa.

Eecently, however, the Prince Borghese has achieved a victory over himself, and has made a present of these costly relics to the King of Naples. They are removing Porta's legs, and replacing them by the genuine ones; and every one is promising himself—however well contented he has been hitherto with the old—quite a new treat and a more harmonious enjoyment.

Jan. 18, 1787.

Yesterday, which was the Festival of the Holy Abbot St. Anthony, we had a merry day. The weather was the finest in the world: though there had been a hard frost during the night, the day was bright and warm.

One may remark, that all religions which enlarge their worship or their speculations must at last come to this,—of making the brute creation in some degree partakers of spiritual favours. St. Anthony—abbot or bishop—is the patron saint of all four-footed creatures: his festival is a kind of Saturnalian holiday for the otherwise oppressed beasts, and also for their keepers and drivers. All the gentry must on this day


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Rh either remain at home, or else be content to travel on foot. And there are no lack of fearful stories, which tell how unbelieving masters, who forced their coachmen to drive them on this day, were punished by suffering great calamities.

The church of the saint lies in so wide and open a district, that it might almost be called a desert. On this day, however, it is full of life and fun. Horses and mules, with their manes and tails prettily, not to say gorgeously, decked out with ribbons, are brought before the chapel (which stands at some distance from the church), where a priest, armed with a brush, and not sparing of the holy water, which stands before him in buckets and tubs, goes on sprinkling the lively creatures, and often plays them a roguish trick, in order to make them start and frisk. Pious coachmen offer their wax-tapers, of larger or smaller size. The masters send alms and presents, in order that the valuable and useful animals may go safely through the coming year without hurt or accidents. The donkeys and horned cattle, no less valuable and useful to their owners, have, likewise, their modest share in this blessing.

Afterward we delighted ourselves with a long walk under a delicious sky, and surrounded by the most interesting objects, to which, however, we this time paid very little attention, but gave full scope and rein to joke and merriment.

Jan. 19, 1787.

So, then, the great king, whose glory filled the world, whose deeds make him worthy of even the Papists' paradise, has gone at last from this life, to converse with heroes like himself in the realm of shades. How disposed one feels to be still after bringing the like of him to his rest.

This has been a very good day. First of all, we visited a part of the Capitol which we had previously neglected; then we crossed the Tiber, and drank some


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270 Spanish wine on board a ship which had just come into port. It was on this spot that Romulus and Remus are said to have been found. Thus keeping, as it were, a double or treble festival, we revelled in the inspiration of art, of a mild atmosphere, and of antiquarian reminiscences.

20, 1787.

What at first furnishes a hearty enjoyment, when we take it superficially only, often weighs on us afterward most oppressively, when we see that, without solid knowledge, the true delight must be missed.

As regards anatomy, I am pretty well prepared: and I have, not without some labour, gained a tolerable knowledge of the human frame; for the continual examination of the ancient statues is continually stimulating one to a more perfect understanding of it. In our medico-chirurgical anatomy, little more is in view than an acquaintance with the several parts; and, for this purpose, the sorriest picture of the muscles may serve very well: but in Rome the most exquisite parts would not even be noticed, unless as helping to make a noble and beautiful form.

In the great Lazaretto of San Spirito, there has been prepared, for the use of the artists, a very fine anatomical figure, displaying the whole muscular system. Its beauty is really amazing. It might pass for some flayed demigod,—even a Marsyas.

Thus, after the example of the ancients, men here study the human skeleton, not merely as an artistically arranged series of bones, but rather for the sake of the ligaments with which life and motion are carried on.

When now I tell you that in the evening we also study perspective, it must be pretty plain to you that we are not idle. With all our studies, however, we are always hoping to do more than we ever accomplish.


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Rh Jan. 22, 1787.

Of the artistic sense of Germans, and of their artistic life,—of these one may well say, one hears sounds, but they are not in unison. When now I bethink myself what glorious objects are in my neighbourhood, and how little I have profited by them, I am almost tempted to despair; but then, again, I console myself with my promised return, when I hope to be able to understand these masterpieces, around which I now go groping miserably in the dark.

But, in fact, even in Rome itself, there is but little provision made for one who earnestly wishes to study art as a whole. He must patch it up and put it together for himself out of endless, but still gorgeously rich, ruins. No doubt but few of those who visit Rome are purely and earnestly desirous to see and to learn things rightly and thoroughly. They all follow, more or less, their own fancies and conceits; and this is observed by all alike who attend upon the strangers. Every guide has his own object, every one has his own dealer to recommend, his own artist to favour; and why should he not? for does not the inexperienced at once prize as most excellent whatever may be presented to him as such?

It would have been a great benefit to the study of art—indeed a peculiarly rich museum might have been formed—if the government (whose permission even at present must be obtained before any piece of antiquity can be removed from the city) had on such occasions invariably insisted on casts of the objects removed being delivered to it. Besides, if any Pope had established such a rule, before long every one would have opposed all further removals; for in a few years people would have been frightened at the number and value of the treasures thus carried off,—to do which, there is a way of obtaining permission secretly, on some occasions, and by all manner of means.


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272 22, 1787.

The representation of the "Aristodemo" has stimulated, in an especial degree, the patriotism of our German artists, which before was far from being asleep. They never omit an occasion to speak well of my "Iphigenia." Some passages have from time to time been again called for, and I have found myself at last compelled to a second reading of the whole. And thus also I have discovered many passages which went off the tongue more smoothly than they look on the paper.

The favourable report of it has at last sounded even in the ears of Reiffenstein and Angelica, who entreated that I should produce my work once more for their gratification. I begged, however, for a brief respite; though I was obliged to describe to them, somewhat circumstantially, the plan and movement of the plot. The description won the approbation of these personages more even than I could have hoped for; and Signor Zucchi, also, of whom I least of all expected it, evinced a warm and liberal sympathy with the play. The latter circumstance, however, is easily accounted for by the fact that the drama approximates very closely to the old and customary form of Greek, French, and Italian tragedy, which is most agreeable to every one whose taste has not been spoilt by the temerities of the English stage.

Jan. 25, 1787.

It becomes every day more difficult to fix the termination of my stay in Rome: just as one finds the sea continually deeper the farther one sails on it, so it is also with the examination of this city.

It is impossible to understand the present without a knowledge of the past; and to compare the two, requires both time and leisure. The very site of the city carries us back to the time of its being founded. We see at once that no great people, under a wise


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88 countries; that is, leaving to them free the direct trade between the enemy and themselves in articles of their respective growth, etc., but to prohibit the re-exportation of any articles the growth, etc., of the enemies' countries or their colonies, or the carriage of them to any other country but their own."

Perceval's first suggestion was far from being so radical as the measure at last adopted. He proposed to cut off France from her colonies and force all trade between those colonies and Europe to pass through British hands; but an American ship laden with American cotton or wheat might still sail from the United States direct to France and return to the United States, or might carry provisions and lumber to Martinique and Cuba, carrying French or Spanish sugar back to New York. This so-called "direct" trade was to be untouched; the "indirect" or carrying trade between the West Indies and the continent of Europe was to be permitted only under special licenses to be issued by British authorities.

In this shape Perceval sent his suggestions to the Prime Minister, the Duke of Portland, who gave his entire approval to the principle of retaliation as against France, but wished to retaliate against France alone: "Considering the unpopularity which, it cannot be denied, we are held in throughout the Continent, I very much doubt whether we should limit this intercourse beyond the actual dominions of


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1807. France. I am well aware that by admitting the intercourse with Holland and Spain, France will obtain circuitously those supplies which she will stand in want of."

This disadvantage, the Duke thought, could be largely compensated by a rigid observance of the navigation laws. The Duke's opinion was very short, and barely hinted at the American question.

John Fane, Earl of Westmoreland, Lord Privy Seal,—Sot Privé, or Privy Fool, as Canning afterward nicknamed him by a pun on the French word sceau, —gave next his written opinion on the subject. Going beyond either Perceval or Portland, he urged the expediency of stopping all trade with the enemy except through the medium of England,—"the effect of which must be either to distress them to such a degree as to induce a relaxation of their decrees, or to cause a great trade from this country. Its effect in case of an extension of hostility can certainly not be ascertained; but I am disposed to think that we cannot carry on war allowing our enemy advantages of commerce as in peace, and that if we only do what is right we must take our chance for the consequences."

The next opinion was apparently that of Lord Hawkesbury, the Home Secretary, who was also clear that Perceval's plan wanted energy. While supporting the Duke of Portland in narrowing its scope


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Author:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

Works

 * Catalogue des mammifères du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (1813), not quite completed
 * Philosophie anatomique - t. i., Des organes respiratoires... (1818), t. ii. and iii, Des monstruosités humaines (1822), t. iv., Fragments sur la structure et les usages des glandes mammaires des cétacés (1834)
 * Système dentaire des mammifères et des oiseaux (1st pt., 1824)
 * Sur le Principe de l'unité de composition organique (1828)
 * Cours de l'histoire naturelle des mammifères (1829)
 * Principes de philosophie zoologique (1830)
 * Études progressives d'un naturaliste (1835)
 * Fragments biographiques (1832)
 * Notions synthétiques, historiques et physiologiques de philosophie naturelle (1838)

Works about Saint-Hilaire

 * Great artists and great anatomists by Robert Knox, 1791-1862; 1852 external link
 * Vie, travaux, et doctrine scientifique d'Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
 * Vie, travaux, et doctrine scientifique d'Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

title: Author:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire


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Author:Jean Victoire Audouin

Works

 * Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle (1822)
 * Histoire naturelle du littoral de la France (1832)
 * Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la vigne et particulièrement de la Pyrale (1842)

title: Author:Jean Victoire Audouin


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90 to France, or at the utmost to Holland, he favored harsher treatment of America:

 * "I incline strongly to the opinion that it is expedient to put an end, as far as in us lies, to all intercourse by sea between neutrals and the continental dominions of France, and possibly of Holland. I am satisfied that the measure of retaliation as proposed in the enclosed paper would have no other effect than to raise the price of colonial produce in France to a small degree.  It would offend neutrals, particularly the Americans, and inflict no adequate injury upon the enemy.  But if we should determine to prevent all intercourse whatever with the ports of France except by British license, we should have it in our power to destroy at once all the remaining commerce of France, which by means of neutrals is not inconsiderable, and to strike a most important blow against her agriculture by preventing the exportation of her wines."

Lord Hawkesbury kept in view the retaliatory character of the measure as a punishment of France. Lord Castlereagh, the Secretary for War, was not quite so careful. He acquiesced in Perceval's scheme, provided it should reserve the right to extend its own application whenever the balance of advantage should favor the extension; but he added,—

 * "I am of opinion that some decisive measure, in vindication of our own commerce and in counteraction of the unsocial system of France,—the principle of which is not the growth of this war, but was acted upon by


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Author:William Hopkins

Works

 * Elements of Trigonometry, (1833) external link
 * Abstract of a Memoir on Physical Geology (1836)
 * "On the State of the Interior of the Earth" in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1837)
 * Investigation of Effects of the Sun's and Moon's Attraction according as the earth is solid, or a fluid surrounded by a rigid shell (1847)
 * Theoretical Investigations on the Motion of Glaciers (1842)
 * "Researches in Physical Geology" in Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. 6, part 1, pp. 1-84 (PDF)
 * "Transport of Erratic Blocks" in Transactions of Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. viii. pt. ii. (1844)
 * "Geology" in Cambridge Essays (1857)
 * On the Causes which may have produced changes in the Earth's superficial Temperature (1851)

title: Author:William Hopkins


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 MRS. CORNELIA BRANCH STONE, PRESIDENT U. D. C.


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CLEMENT ANSELM EVANS

Gen. C. A. Evans is a native Georgian; practiced law, served as County Judge and State Senator preceding the war of the sixties. He has also been a minister of the gospel.

Enlisting promptly in the Confederate Army, he was made Major and was advanced successively to Colonel and Brigadier General, and to Acting Major General in Army of Northern Virginia, so serving to the end.

After the surrender of General Lee at Appomattox, he returned to the practice of law in Georgia. In later years he has served as Prison Commissioner for his State, and devotes much time to literary work. He edited the "Confederate Military History", twelve volumes, and has been active in Confederate organizations throughout. He has commanded the Georgia Division, U. C. V., as Major General, the Army of Tennessee Department and Lieutenant General. He was elected Commander in Chief United Confederate Veterans after the death of Gen. Stephen D. Lee, and reëlected since.


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 VIRGINIA FRAZER BOYLE, Poet Laureate, United Confederate Veterans.

IN BEHALF OF THE UNITED CONFEDERATE VETERANS.


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 PERFECTED BUST TO COL. RICHARD OWEN BY MISS BELLE KINNEY


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 MRS. DAISY McLAURIN STEVENS, PRES.-GEN. UNITED DAUGHTERS CONFEDERACY


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CONFEDERATE MILITARY HISTORY. is one of those matters in military history that is an enigma," and proceeds, "Situated as he was, Walthall and his Mississippians made one of the bravest defenses that occurred anywhere at any time during the war. It was sublimely heroic under fearfully exasperating circumstances." Then transferred to Missionary ridge, with his 600 remaining men, Walthall’s heroic qualities shone out in the midst of fatal disaster. Throwing his brigade across the ridge, he checked the headlong rush of the enemy, and after nightfall withdrew in good order. Though wounded in the foot he kept in the saddle until the fight was over, and his men went into camp on the other side of Chickamauga creek. He shared the honors of his division and corps commanders, Cheatham and Hardee, and was mentioned by Bragg as "distinguished for coolness, gallantry and successful conduct throughout the engagements and in the rear guard on the retreat." Going into the Atlanta campaign with his brigade in Hood's corps, he held for two days with great steadiness under the concentrated fire of the enemy, an important position on the field of Resaca, and was promoted major-general and given command of Cantey’s division of Polk’s corps. He was an important factor throughout the whole of the campaign, at the front in the repulse of the Federal attack at Kenesaw mountain, charging with gallantry and gaining a foothold in the enemy’s works at Peachtree creek, and making a desperate fight at Ezra Church. The disastrous Tennessee campaign followed. At Franklin his men charged with wonderful heroism upon the Federal intrenchments. He was in the heat of the fight and had two horses shot under him. After the first day’s fight before Nashville, French’s division was added to his command, and on the retreat, with eight picked brigades, Walthall was depended upon to defend the rear of the broken army, in conjunction with Forrest’s cavalry. After a terrible experience amid the discomforts of a rigorous winter he finally reached the vicinity of Tupelo with a


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Y aim in the following pages has been to convey to my readers some of the enjoyment and interest which I have experienced while rambling through the picturesque cities of Holland, its pleasant villages, and its quaint waterways; and also some of my own admiration for a people so famous in history, in enterprise, and in Art.

Thanks are due from me to my friends Mr. Henry Perrin, for many photographs; Heer Adolf Le Comte, Heer W. L. Bruckman, and Mr. Norman H. Hardy, for


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 sketches; and, lastly, to Mr. David S. Meldrum, the author of “Holland and the Hollanders.” CHARLES E. ROCHE.

July, 1909.


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Rh steam flats and lighters, which carry cargo as high as Guildford, and occasionally some miles beyond that town; there is also a small steamboat plying regularly to the Vasse; there are also several small yachts, both at Perth and Fremantle.

of the Colony has kept pace with the trade, and the Expenditure with the Revenue, as will appear from the following table:—

This is exclusive of the expenditure incurred by Great Britain for the Convicts, Pensioners, &c., which in 1876 amounted to £55,773, making the total expenditure for that year £235,257. The cost of the Convict Department has, however, much decreased, the amount expended in 1868 for Military and Convicts was £115,628.

The Colonial Expenditure (with the exception of £655 19s. 5d. in 1876 for the Volunteer Corps), is for Civil Services, including Schools, Clergy, &c. By the Ordinance "to provide for the establishment of a Legislative Council" (No. 13, 1st Session 1870), the sum of £4,480 was made payable, out of the Revenue of the Colony, to the Crown for the maintenance of the Executive, and thus appropriated:


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22 "Just what I say," retorted Tom; "you cannot check the free and healthful play of competition."

"Yes, you can," replied the doctor; "give men a share in the results of their labour, and their work will be doubly effective, whilst the reward of all parties will be augmented. 'Is it not better,' said the founder of the 'Maison La Claire,' 'to make 500 francs a day and give 300 to the workmen, than to earn 200 francs and keep it all yourself?'"

"But the trouble is," persisted the little man, "your workmen say, 'Share the profits with us, bear the losses yourself!'"

"Not necessarily. Labour will take its fair risk if you put it in a position to do so. Pay the men in cash a quarter of what you give them now. Let the remainder of their interest be invested in the concern."

"But how can they live on a quarter of what they starve on now? You'll be called a sweater, and have the agitators down on you again."

"Men can exist comfortably, if accepted principles of co-operation and economy be adopted, on the fourth of what is now expended. For instance, a man now earns £2 a week. Most of it is expended in the cost of living; nothing remains at the end of the year."

"Owing to your Protection run mad," remarked Tom.

"No doubt the cost of living is ruinous to the working-man, but unavoidably so under existing circumstances. Everything now tends to draw men to the city. Lead back some of them to the country. Let them, through their managers, be their own provisioners and salesmen, and they can live on a fourth of that they now spend."

"The squatter can feed a family well on ten shillings a week," suggested the clergyman.

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Rh "But what are you going to do with them in the country? The squatter and farmer don't want them."

"I'd bind them together, maintaining them for the cost of their house-rent in town. Then put them in the way of cultivating the soil and supporting themselves otherwise."

"But these men, who are 'on strike' wherever they get a chance, are not going to work for their 'tucker,'" objected Tom.

"Yes, they will," observed Frank Brown, "if they see a prospect of ultimately winning by their industry a home and independence for themselves and their children."

"What do they care for that?" growled the little man.

"Everything," continued the clergyman. "Scratch the Englishman, wherever he lives, and you find the farmer beneath the surface, and the earth-hunger in his breast."

"And a lot of good it does him!"

"It makes him the colonizing creature of the world. Leads him to cross seas, subdue wildernesses, make gardens of howling deserts, and ports for the commerce of England on every shore," said the cleric.

"But you have not stuff to deal with like that. The race is degenerate. Your men are loafers."

"You should have seen them at the doctor's meeting the other day. You should have noted the eager, intelligent manner in which they received his suggestions," continued the clergyman, warmly.

"Where were the idlers I see gathering on waste lands beside your streets and lounging in your parks?" asked Tom.

"Not there," replied Frank. "Our scheme has no attraction for them. They like relief works, so much a

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24 week, and soup-kitchens, and all the means adopted for pauperizing them. Our better fellows would starve rather than avail themselves of such methods."

"Was our friend the agitator with the broken nose present?" inquired the little man, poking the doctor playfully with the end of his pipe. "I did not think, Courtenay, that you were coming to that, when I knew and respected you in the old country!"

"He was there, sure enough, looking blacker than ever," replied Frank, "but kept in check by an older man who talked like a book, and brandished his arms."

"My right-hand man," added the doctor, "a fellow named Elms, who knows something of everything."

"A dangerous kind of character," remarked Tom. "But what's coming of all this talk?—we've heard the like before, you know."

"Yes, and you are going to see something of it put into practice at length."

"But Where's your money? You must have capital, abuse it as you may."

"I do not underrate it, I assure you," said the doctor; "but I want labour to rely more on itself, to learn its true strength, the vast fund of resource it has in reserve, if it will combine for production rather than for destruction."

"But Where's your money to begin with?" persisted the little man. "You know I'm a man of business."

"Excuse me, old fellow, I never knew that before!" said the doctor, slapping the thigh of his neighbour. "I observe that if ever there is a thick-skulled, narrow-minded, short-sighted machine of a dotard knocking around, he claims to be a business man above everything. None of your schemes for him!"

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text: Things Seen in Holland/Chapter I

title: Things Seen in Holland/Chapter I


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title: Things Seen in Holland/Chapter II


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text: Things Seen in Holland/Chapter IV

title: Things Seen in Holland/Chapter IV


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