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The New International Encyclopædia/Jason of Cyrene

JASON OF CYRENE, sḯ-rē'nḗ. An author whose history in five books is mentioned in II. Maccabees ii. 23. The original work is lost, and known to us only in the epitome made by the author of II. Maccabees. (See .) There is some evidence that it was used by Gorionides. It was unquestionably written in Greek. Whether Jason was a Greek or a Hellenistic Jew is not altogether known. Büchler defends the former opinion and ascribes to him those parts of II. Maccabees dealing with the Syrian wars under ../Antiochus IV./, ../Antiochus V./, and ../Demetrius I./ (qq.v.). But there is reason to believe, as Willrich has shown, that the work comprised the whole history of the Asmonean dynasty, and that only the part of it dealing with events that occurred between B.C. 175 and 161 was epitomized. In that case it is more natural to suppose that he was a Jew. He may, however, have had access to written sources not of Jewish origin. This would account for some facts that have recently led Niese to ascribe to II. Maccabees, and consequently to Jason, a higher age and a greater credibility than to I. Maccabees. It is not likely that this view will prevail. But even if preference is given to I. Maccabees, this may not affect Jason so much as the author of II. Maccabees. The latter has confessedly exercised much freedom. Not only has he abridged, but also added to, and probably altered Jason's work. Kosters and Kamphausen have gone so far as to declare Jason a fictitious personage behind whose name the author indulged in polemics against I. Maccabees. There is no convincing evidence, however, of acquaintance with I. Maccabees, and such a fiction seems to most scholars wholly improbable. If Jason's work included the whole dynasty, Willrich is probably right in assuming that he wrote in the reign of Claudius. Others maintain that he lived in the second century B.C. The Ἰάσων κυρήναιος discovered on a temple wall in Egypt (Revue des études grecques, 1894, p. 297), seems to belong to the third century B.C. Consult: Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel (Breslau, 1857); Wellhausen, Pharisäer und Sadducäer (Greifswald, 1874); Kosters, in Theologisch Tijdschrift (Leyden, 1878; pp. 491 sqq.); Trieber, Zur Kritik des Gorionides (Göttingen, 1895); Kamphausen, in Kantzsch's Apokryphen (Tübingen, 1900); Willrich, Judaica (Göttingen, 1900);

Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3d ed., Leipzig, 1901); Büchler, Tobiaden und Oniaden (Vienna, 1899); Niese, Kritik der beiden Makkabäerbücher (Berlin, 1900); Torrey, article “Maccabees,” in Encyclopædia Biblica (London, 1902).


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Page:Confederate Cause and Conduct.djvu/237

 Rh While I can write about it, I cannot speak of it to old soldiers without more emotion than I wish to show. The result of that great battle the world knows. Except for the unsurpassed—the wonderful campaign of 1864— this is perhaps the finest illustration of General Lee's genius for war, and yet, in writing to Jackson he says: "I have just received your note, informing me that you were wounded. I cannot express my regret at its occurrence. Could I have directed events, I would have chosen, for the good of the country, to have been disabled in your stead, I congratulate you on the victory, which is due to your skill and energy."

See the noble spirit of our great commander! Not further removed is pole from pole than was any mean jealousy or thought of self in his great soul. He obeyed the hard command that

"In honor ye prefer one another." This note displays his greatness, yet it is also history, in that we know, on his testimony, that Jackson shared with him the glory of that battle. These great soldiers loved and trusted one another, and in death they are not divided. How sacred is the soil of Lexington! for here they rest side by side.

I have already told the story of Jackson's death; it is so familiar to you all, that, though intimately associated with its scenes, I will not narrate it again. I will only declare that he met this great enemy as he had met all others, calmly and steadily, expecting as always to conquer, but now trusting, not in his own strength—not as heretofore in the prowess of mortal arms, nor in the splendid fibre of mortal courage, but in the unseen strength upon which he had always relied—the strength that never failed him—and so, foreseeing the rest that awaited him on the other side, he crossed over tHe river. "My hand is on my mouth, and my mouth is in the dust."

Already I have told you much that you already knew. In this I beg you to observe I have but fulfilled my promise. My apology is that my thoughts are in Lexington, and that I stand by the grave of Jackson. Under such circumstances love does not seek new stories to tell, new incidents to relate. Just to its own heart

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 214 Never can I forget the eagerness and intensity of Jackson on that march to Hooker's rear. His face was pale, his eyes were flashing. Out from his thin compressed lips came the terse command: "Press forward, press forward." In his eagerness, as he rode he leaned over on the neck of his horse as if in that way the march might be hurried. "See that the column is kept closed and that there is no straggling," he more than once ordered—and "Press on, press on" was repeated again and again. Every man in the ranks knew that we were engaged in some great flank movement, and they eagerly responded, and pressed on at a rapid gait. Fitz. Lee met us and told Jackson he could show him the whole of Hooker's army if he went with him to the top of a hill near by. They went together, and Jackson carefully inspected through his glasses the Federal command. He was so wrapped up in his plans that on his return he passed Fitz. Lee without saluting or thanking him, and when he reached the column he ordered one aide to go forward and tell General Rodes, who was in the lead, to cross the Plank road, and go straight on to the turnpike, and another aide to go to the rear of the column and see that it was kept closed up, and all along the line he repeatedly said "Press on, press right on." The fiercest energy possessed the man, and the fire of battle fell strong upon him. When he arrived at the Plank road he sent this, his last message, to Lee: "The enemy has made a stand at Chancellorsville. I hope as soon as practicable to attack. I trust that an ever kind Providence will bless us with success." And as this message went to Lee, there was flashing along the wires—giving brief joy to the Federal Capital—Hooker's message: "The enemy must either ingloriously fly, or come out from behind his defences and give us battle on our own ground, where certain destruction awaits him."

Contrast the two. Jackson's—modest, confident, hopeful—relying on his cause and his God. Hooker's—frightened, boastful, arrogant, vainglorious. The two messages are characteristic of the two men and of the two people. But this battle has been so often described in its minutest detail I forbear to tax your patience. I forbear for another reason.


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Page:Confederate Cause and Conduct.djvu/235

 Rh of their army, which was absent with Longsteet. Lee and Jackson! How well I remember their meeting before this battle and their confiding conference! How these two men loved and trusted each other! Where in all history shall we find a parallel to their mutual faith and love and confidence? I can find none. Said Jackson, "Lee is a phenomenon, I would follow him blind-fold." And Lee said to an aide-de-camp of Jackson's, who reported that Hooker had crossed the river, "Go back and tell General Jackson that he knows as well as I what to do." After they arrived in front of Hooker our movements are described in a hitherto unpublished letter of General Lee's. That great commander, after saying that he decided not to attack in front, writes as follows: "I stated to General Jackson, we must attack on our left as soon as practicable," and he adds, "In consequence of a report from General Fitz. Lee, describing the position of the Federal army, and the roads which he held with his cavalry leading to its rear, General Jackson—after some inquiry concerning the roads leading to the Furnace—undertook to throw his command entirely in Hooker's rear, which he accomplished with equal skill and boldness." General Jackson believed the fighting qualities of the Army of Northern Virginia equal to the task of ending the war. During the winter preceding Chancellorsville, in the course of a conversation at Moss Neck, he said: "We must do more than defeat their armies; we must destroy them." He went into this campaign filled with this stern purpose; ready to stretch to the utmost every energy of his genius and push to its limit all his faith in his men in order to destroy a great army of the enemy. I know this was his purpose, for after the battle, when still well enough to talk, he told me that he had intended, after breaking into Hooker's rear, to take and fortify a suitable positon, cutting him off from the river and so hold him, until, between himserf and General Lee, the great Federal host should be broken to pieces. He had no fear. It was then that I heard him say, "We sometimes fail to drive them from position; they always fail to drive us."


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Page:United States Reports, Volume 545.djvu/1006

 , J., concurring the appropriateness of looking to potential future uses of the product to determine its “capability.”

Here the record reveals a significant future market for noninfringing uses of Grokster-type peer-to-peer software. Such software permits the exchange of any sort of digital file—whether that file does, or does not, contain copyrighted material. As more and more uncopyrighted information is stored in swappable form, it seems a likely inference that lawful peer-to-peer sharing will become increasingly prevalent. See, e.g., App. 142, ¶20 (Decl. of Brewster Kahle) (“The [Internet Archive] welcomes [the] redistribution [of authorized films] by the Morpheus-Grokster-KaZaa community of users”); id., at 166, ¶8 (Decl. of Busher) (sales figures of $1,000 to $10,000 per month through peer-to-peer networks “will increase in the future as Acoustica’s trialware is more widely distributed through these networks”); id., at 156–163, ¶¶21–40 (Decl. of Sinnreich).

And that is just what is happening. Such legitimate noninfringing uses are coming to include the swapping of: research information (the initial purpose of many peer-to-peer networks); public domain films (e.g., those owned by the Prelinger Archive); historical recordings and digital educational materials (e.g., those stored on the Internet Archive); digital photos (OurPictures, for example, is starting a P2P photo-swapping service); “shareware” and “freeware” (e.g., Linux and certain Windows software); secure licensed music and movie files (Intent MediaWorks, for example, protects licensed content sent across P2P networks); news broadcasts past and present (the BBC Creative Archive lets users “rip, mix and share the BBC”); user-created audio and video files (including “podcasts” that may be distributed through P2P software); and all manner of free “open content” works collected by Creative Commons (one can search for Creative Commons material on StreamCast). See Brief for Distributed Computing Industry Association as Amicus Curiae 15–26; Merges, A New Dynamism in the Public Domain, 71


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Page:Shrinking the Commons.djvu/58

 gap by referring to language in the Patent Act. A court may be less willing to borrow language from the Patent Act where the effect is not to fill in a gap, but rather to displace language (to wit, the termination provisions) that actually appears in the Copyright Act. Furthermore, patent abandonment is a component of a larger regime that places the burden of seeking protection squarely on the inventor. It makes sense to extend binding force to an inventor’s decision to abandon an invention (or to take one of the other steps that negates patentability) in a regime that makes the inventor’s action determinative of the invention’s legal status; where protection exists automatically irrespective of the author’s conduct, as in copyright, courts may be less inclined to attach permanent and irreversible consequences to the author’s statements. Finally, absent an authoritative construction of the statute from the Supreme Court, lingering uncertainty as to the proper judicial construction of the copyright statute and whether the courts will permit termination, may itself chill the use of open-content licenses in the interim. The better alternative, therefore, may be to seek a statutory amendment.

V.
Congress, seemingly acting from a praiseworthy desire to benefit authors, unwittingly created an obstacle to the ability of authors purposefully to expand the commons through the use of open-content licenses. The statutory termination provisions, which were designed to remedy unremunerative transfers, may apply by their terms even to licensing arrangements that pose none of the risks that moved Congress to act. With the courts ill-positioned to remedy the problem, it makes sense to seek legislative action to place a firmer legal footing under open-content projects.

The termination provisions, as with much of the remainder of the Copyright Act, presuppose a production scheme in which authors’ proprietary interests dominate; indeed, Congress justified the termination provisions precisely because they further authors’ interests in capturing the economic returns for their work. The statute’s baseline assumption that all authors wish to capture the full economic value of the works they produce has been placed in doubt by the success of the open-content movement. That

title: Page:Shrinking the Commons.djvu/58


text: Page:Cricket, by WG Grace.djvu/422

title: Page:Cricket, by WG Grace.djvu/422


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User talk:Hazzane

Hello World!

title: User talk:Hazzane


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User:Hazzane

Hello World!

title: User:Hazzane


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Page:Science (journal) Volume 1 1883.djvu/11

 AN ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL PUBLISHED WEEKLY. Vérité sans peur.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 9, 1883.

THE FUTURE OF AMERICAN SCIENCE. progress of science in any age is determined largely by the circumstances of its environment. The soil in which it is rooted, the atmosphere from which it draws the materials of its life, and the stimulus of light and heat which it receives, all have a strong determining influence upon its growth. Nowhere, probably, has this influence of the surroundings been more potent than in our own land. The intense activity of our people, the high intellectual, commercial, and social pressure under which they live, their enthusiastic interest in scientific knowledge and the generous liberality with which they foster it,—all these agencies have had a powerful influence in creating the position which American science assumes to-day. We may not, indeed, boast of a scientific record as full and complete as that of other countries; but we may and should take an honest pride in the achievements in pure science which we have already actually accomplished. The names of Agassiz and of Peirce, of Bache, Henry, and Draper, of Hare and Silliman, of Bond, Watson, and Chauvenet, of Rittenhouse and Saxton, of Rogers, Hitchcock, and Cleaveland, are worthy to be enrolled high up in the temple of scientific fame. The work done by these men in the direction of original research will ever stand the test of time, and will always keep their memories green. The leading feature of American science, however, and that which most distinctively characterizes it, is its utilitarianism. True, there are in our country able investigators working in scientific fields which do not offer the promise of material reward; but notwithstanding this, it remains still true that those sciences whose principles are capable of useful application are the most zealously cultivated among us, and attract the largest number of students. Nor is this to be at all regretted. Research is none the less genuine, investigation none the less worthy, because the truth it discovers is utilizable for the benefit of mankind. Granting, even, that the discovery of truth for its own sake is a nobler pursuit, because a less purely selfish one; does it become any the less noble when it is ascertained that the truth thus discovered is capable of important applications which increase tenfold the happiness of human life? It may readily be conceded that the man who discovers nothing himself, but only applies to useful purposes the principles which others have discovered, stands upon a lower plane ^^^^^'^ '^ investigator. But when the investigator becomes himself the utilizer; when the same mind that made the discovery contrives- also the machine by which it is applied to useful purposes,—the combined achievement must be ranked as superior to either of its separate results.

The inventive genius of this country is preeminent. We reap the benefits of it on every side. Our houses are more comfortable, our railways more safe, our fabrics cheaper, and our education more thorough, because of useful inventions. Becoming restive at the slow progress of discovery, the inventor has himself assumed the role of investigator; and the re-ults of his researches appear in the records of the patent-office. In the olden times the investigator was content to make his discoveries, and to publish them, consecrating to science the knowledge thus obtained. His more modern representative carefully treasures what he has discovered, until he has exhausted its practical applications. In consequence, the No. 1. – 1883.


text:
Author:Samuel Johnson (1691-1773)

Works

 * Hurlothrumbo

title: Author:Samuel Johnson (1691-1773)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, Peter


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, Richard James Holwell


text:
Author:Owen Ruffhead

Works

 * The Statutes at Large (1762-5)
 * Volume 1 (1763)
 * Volume 2 (1763)
 * Volume 3 (1763)
 * Volume 4 (1763)
 * Volume 5 (1763)
 * Volume 6 (1764)
 * Volume 7 (1764)
 * Volume 8 (1764)
 * Volume 9 (1765)
 * Considerations on the present dangerous crisis (1763)
 * The life of Alexander Pope, Esq.: compiled from original manuscripts: with a critical essay on his writings and genius (1769)

title: Author:Owen Ruffhead


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, Thomas (1705-1766)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, Thomas Ledlie


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birchensha, John


text:
Index talk:Ruffhead - The Statutes at Large, 1763.djvu

General guidelines

 * The guidelines at WS:MOS apply
 * Use Ruffhead/chapter for chapter headings
 * The actual footnotes at the bottom of the source pages are to the original language version, and should not be transcribed. (added Jarnsax (talk) 00:21, 18 July 2021 (UTC))

Typographic considerations

 * Use conventional modern letterforms for s,r,l,c,a,t,f etc, as opposed to arachic forms such as long s, or rotunda r.
 * Use straight quotes.
 * Replace stylistic ligatures like,  ,   with their expanded equivalents  ,  ,
 * Diacritic ligatures such as  and   should be preserved whenever they appear as such in the scan.

Ammenda, Eratum

 * Alternate readings, or (indicated in the margins or footnotes) are marked with
 * Noted printer erratum are also indicated with
 * Ammenda which insert text indicated as not in the original are marked with ⟨⟩, the insertion from the margin being placed inside the chevrons. An inline reference note can also be included.

Headings, Sectioning

 * Use rh for page headings.
 * A convention for how to apply sections has not yet been determined.
 * Note: the actual text used in the section label does not matter, so long as the sections are divided consistently and transclude correctly
 * Side headings (i.e sidetitles) are to be placed at the start of the relevant section, below the chapter heading but before the relevant section typically identified by roman numerals. Side-titles placed subsequently within the same (roman) numbered section are to be co-joined with a ";".
 * The entire sideheading is typically formated using.
 * Side headings for clear preamble sections at the start of a statute use ruffhead/preamble. (These typically restate or 'rehearse' certain previous statutes.)
 * In the initial preamble, a paragraph break is inserted (at discretion) after the words of enactment even though it's not part of the original. The "section" for the subsequent part is numbered 1, and uses.
 * Intermediate numbering, typically (1),(2) in brackets is added 'inline' as indicated in the text, appropriate level anchor should be added.
 * Use style anchors as  conflicts with the anchors added by the Pagenumber script on transclusion. ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 06:36, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

Bilingual content
Regarding content that is presented in two languages side-by-side:
 * Only transcribe the English content here
 * Transcribe the non-English content on the appropriate language Wikisource.

Sidenote handling

 * Sidenotes are used in the original work for:
 * Annotations such as translation or errata (see Ammenda and Erattum above.)
 * Cross references to related statutes with explanation. (typically in italic text.). These are placed at the end of the chapter or statute, in italic text with a 1em offset from the left margin. Footnotes marking these are placed inline.
 * Side titles - titles or summaries of sections of text - for formatting conventions see "headings and sections" above
 * Back references to earlier statutes, these are placed inline.
 * Forward references to later statutes and references to a statutes by authorities or other works, are placed on the right using (or ) with each entry being a footnote  inside the template. A  tag being placed at the end of the Chapter or Section or statute (as well as the following in the Page footer:

—Beleg Tâl (talk) 17:46, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Updated ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 06:14, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Further updated. What do you mean by "conventional s,r,l,c,t" ? —Beleg Tâl (talk) 12:51, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Updated ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 06:14, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Modified to 2 columns smallrefs, as most references are very short. Jarnsax (talk) 00:12, 18 July 2021 (UTC)

Identification of references
In this work a Number of cross references to other works are given in abbreviated form, It would be appreciated if someone could provide expansions for them below:- ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 06:53, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
 * A helpful resource: https://legal-abbreviations.lawjournal.eu —Beleg Tâl (talk) 15:22, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

 * Talk:The Statutes at Large (Ruffhead)/Authorities

 * Per Blackstone...

 * Edward Coke's "Reports" (he gets cited without name) i.e. 1 Rep. 25, not 1 Coke's Rep 25...2 Rep. Pref. is the preface
 * Also Edward Coke's "Institutes". 4 vols, Co. Litt = 1 Inst, then 2 Inst. 3 Inst. 4 Inst.
 * Co. Litt is a commentary on Litt. en:w:Thomas_de_Littleton (a cite is Blackst. is "Litt. §. 212. 4 Inst. 274."}
 * "Judge Croke" gets special citation too. 1 Cro. = Cro. Eliz., 2 Cro. = Cro. Jac., 3 Cro = Cro. Car. (for Elizabeth, James, and Charles V)
 * Hal. Hist. = Hist. C.L. = Hale Hist. C.L. is "Hale's History of the Common Law", if it comes up.
 * Jarnsax (talk) 11:17, 17 July 2021 (UTC)

 * Also, see the (long) footnote at Page:William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (3rd ed, 1768, vol I).djvu/101 for an explanation of statute law citations. Jarnsax (talk) 23:31, 20 July 2021 (UTC)

Sidenotes
When adding the 'forward references' sidenotes, the long lists of later statutes, please list each reference on one line, inside the template, as I have done at the first page. This is purely for editing sanity, as the linebreaks will be collapsed in the rendered page.... it just makes actually getting the list correct much easier. Jarnsax (talk) 22:53, 17 July 2021 (UTC)
 * To explain my logic here a bit, not only does having them displayed in the wikitext as a list make it easier to proofread them (at least for me) as ones that don't match the style become more obvious, but it seems likely that this will be edited by 'random people' in the future, specifically to add crosslinks to the references, and it will be easier (and less likely to break stuff) if they are easily identifiable in the markup. Jarnsax (talk) 21:54, 20 July 2021 (UTC)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birchington, Stephen


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Charles Smith


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, John (d.1558)


text:
Page:Letters from Abroad to Kindred at Home (Volume 1).djvu/165

162 Bohemian glass, and of the stag-horn jimcracks so curious; cured by the peasants; even Monsieur Jugel's bookshop was deserted. The English are, for the most part, the buyers, and they do not buy on Sunday. We went into the Kur-Saal Garden, which at this hour is alive with people, hundreds meeting at their little tables in the gravelled area between the hall and a pretty artificial lake, smoking, sipping coffee, wine, end Seltzer-water, and eating ices. A band of capital musicians were playing. We had some discussions whether we should go into the Kur-Saal, and finally, determining to see as much as we womankind can of what characterises the piece, we altered. The Kur-Saal (cure-hall) belongs to the duke, and its spacious apartments are devoted to banqueting, dancing, and gambling. The grand saloon is a spacious apartment with rows of marble pillars, and behind them niches with statues, alternating with mirrors. It was an odd scene for us of Puritan blood and breeding to witness. A circular gambling-table in the midst of the apartment was surrounded with people five or six deep, some players but more spectators. The game was, I believe, roulette. It was most curious to see with what a cool, imperturbable manner these Germans laid down their gold, and won or lost, as the case might be, on the instant. There were not only old and practised gamblers, but young men, and people apparently of all conditions, and among them women, ladies. These are a small minority, seldom, as I am told, more than half a dozen among a hundred men.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birch, Jonathan


text:
Page:Letters from Abroad to Kindred at Home (Volume 1).djvu/166

Rh I watched their faces; they looked intent and eager, but I did not, with their change of fortune, detect any change of colour or expression. We walked through the smaller rooms, and found in all gambling-tables and players in plenty, and that where there were fewest spectators the passions of the players were more unveiled.

This buying and selling, and vicious amusement, is indeed a profaning of the day when God has ordained his earth to be a temple of sacred rest from labour, and sordid care, and competitions. When and where will it be so used as to do the work it might achieve—regenerate the world?

We soon emerged into the garden again, and were glad to see a great many more people outside than in. This garden, or rather, ornamented ground, for the greater part of it is merely in grass and trees, extends up the narrowing valley for two miles to the ruins of the old Castle of Sonnenberg. We passed the little lake with its fringe of bright flowers, its social squads of ducks and its lordly swans, and many a patch of bright flowers and shrubberies, and rustic benches with tête à tête pairs or family groups,and kept along a path by a little brook that seems good-naturedly to run just where it looks prettiest and is most wanted, till we mounted the eminence where the feudal castle guarded the pass between two far-reaching valleys, and where the old keep, chapel, and masses and fragments of wall still standing, extend over a space half as large as our village covers. Fragments of the wall form one side


text:
Page:The Mediaeval Mind Vol 1.djvu/147

CHAP. VII time of receiving Latin culture, they were intermediaries between the classic sources and the Teutons, who also were to drink of these magic draughts, but not so deeply as to be transformed to Latin peoples. The rôle of the Teutons in the mediaeval evolution was to accept Christianity and learn something of the pagan antique, and then to react upon what they had received and change it in their natures.

Central Europe seems to have been the early home alike of Celts and Teutons. Thence successive migratory groups appear to have passed westwardly and southerly. Both races spoke Aryan tongues, and according to the earliest notices of classic writers resembled each other physically—large, blue-eyed, with yellow or tawny hair. The more penetrating accounts of Caesar and Tacitus disclose their distinctive racial traits, which contrast still more clearly in the remains of the early Celtic (Irish) and Teutonic literatures. Whatever were the ethnological affinities between Celt and Teuton, and however imperceptibly these races may have shaded into each other, for example, in northern France and Belgium, their characters were different, and their opposing racial traits have never ceased to display themselves in the literature as well as in the political and social history of western Europe.

The time and manner of the Celtic occupation of Gaul and Spain remain obscure. It took place long before the turmoils of the second century, when the Teutonic tribes began to assert themselves, probably in the north of the present Germany, and to press south-westwardly upon Celtic neighbours on both sides of the Rhine. Some of them pushed on towards lands held by the Belgae, and then passed southward toward Aquitania, drawing Belgic and Celtic peoples with them. Afterwards turning eastwardly they invaded the Roman Provincia in southern Gaul, and through their victories threatened the great Republic. This

title: Page:The Mediaeval Mind Vol 1.djvu/147


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, John (1709-1776)


text:
Page:Letters from Abroad to Kindred at Home (Volume 1).djvu/167

164 of a range of cottages, serving a better purpose than when they were the bulwark of a half-savage warrior.

Sonnenberg is kept in beautiful order by the duke's command and money. There are plantations of furze about the old walls, narrow labyrinthine walks enclosed with shrubbery and imbowered with clematis, and seats wherever rests are wanted. I unluckily disturbed a tête à tête to-day, which, if there be truth in "love's speechless messages," will make a deep mark in the memory of two happy-looking young people.

There is a compact village nestled close under the ruins of the castle. Here it was that the feudal dependants of the lord lived, and here the rural population is still penned. These villages are picturesque objects in the landscape, but, on a close infection, they are squalid, dirty, most comfortless places, where the labouring poor are huddled together without that good gift—sweet air, and plenty of it, which seems as much their right as the birds'.

When I see the young ones here playing round a heap of manure that is stacked up before the door, I think how favoured are the children of the poorest poor of our New-England villages—but softly—the hard-pressed German peasant, in his pent-up village, has a look of contentment and cheerfulness that our people have not. If his necessities are greater, his desires are fewer. God is the father of all, and these are his compensations.

We got home to Burgh-strasse just as the last hues


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Robert Merttins


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126 was the peril of the Cimbri and Teutones, which Marius quelled by the waters of the Durance and then among the hills of Piedmont. The invasion did not change the ethnology of Gaul, which, however, was not altogether Celtic in Caesar's time. The opening sentences of his Commentaries indicate anything but racial unity. The Roman province was mainly Ligurian in blood. West of the province, between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, were the "Aquitani," chiefly of Iberian stock. The Celtae, whose western boundary was the ocean, reached from the Garonne as far north as the Seine, and eastwardly across the centre of Gaul to the head waters of the Rhine. North of them were the Belgae, extending from the Seine and the British Channel to the lower Rhine. These Belgae also apparently were Celts, and yet, as their lands touched those of the Germans on the Rhine, they naturally show Teutonic affinities, and some of their tribes contained strains of Teuton blood. But it is not blood alone that makes the race; and Gaul, with its dominant Celtic element, was making Gauls out of all these peoples. At all events a common likeness may be discerned in the picture of Gallic traits which Caesar gives.

Gallic civilization had then advanced as far as the native political incapacity of the Gauls would permit. Quick-witted and intelligent, they were to gain from Rome the discipline they needed. Once accustomed to the enforcement of a stable order, their finer qualities responded by a ready acceptance of the benefits of civilization and a rapid appropriation of Latin culture. Not a sentence of the Gallic literature survives. But that this people were endowed with eloquence and possessed of a sense of form, was to be shown by works in their adopted tongue. Romanized and Latinized, they were converted to Christianity and then renewed with fresh Teutonic blood. So they enter upon the

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bird, Samuel


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306 found to be delinquent. Among these was Asa Boatright. That calculating young gentleman knew his words and felt safe. The class had spelled around three or four times when lo! the contingency which Allen Thigpen had suggested did come to pass. Betsy Wiggins missed her word; Heneritter Bangs (in the language of Allen) hern; and Mandy Grizzle hern; and thus responsibilities were suddenly cast upon Asa which he was wholly unprepared to meet and which, from the look of mighty reproach that he gave each of these young ladies as she handed over her word, he evidently thought it the height of injustice that he should have been called upon to meet. Mr. Meadows, closing his book, tossed it to Asa, who, catching it as it was falling at his feet, turned and, his eyes swimming with tears, went back to his seat. As he passed Allen Thigpen, the latter whispered: "What did I tell you? You heerd the pin drap, too!"

Now Allen was in no plight to have given this taunt to Asa. He had not given five minutes study to his arithmetic during the whole morning. But Mr. Meadows made a rule (this one for himself, though all the pupils knew it better than any rule he had) never to allow Allen to miss a lesson; and as he had kindly taken this responsibility upon himself, Allen was wont to give himself no trouble about the matter.

Brinkly Glisson was the last to recite. Brinkly was no great hand at pronunciation. He had been reading but a short time when Mr. Meadows advanced him into geography, with the purpose, as Brinkly afterward came to believe, of getting the half-dollar extra tuition. This morning he thought he knew his lesson; and he did, as he understood it. When called to recite, he went up with a countenance expressive of mild happiness, handed the book to Mr. Meadows, and, putting his hands in his pockets, awaited the questions. And now it was an interesting sight to see Mr. Meadows smile as Brinkly talked of


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Rh of twilight were fading from the clouds, and just as K. was taking off her hat she remembered that, after coming down from the castle, she turned aside to gather some flowers, and meanwhile hung her bag, containing sundry articles belonging to herself and my purse, on the railing of a bridge. What was to be done? We hoped that in the dusky twilight it might have escaped observation. K. proposed sending for a donkey and going herself in search of it. I consented, being most virtuously inclined (as those to whom it costs nothing are apt to be) to impress on Miss K. a salutary lesson. The donkey came, and off she set, attended by François and followed by a deformed donkey driver with the poking-stick, and everlasting A-R-R-H, much to the diversion of the denizens of Burgh-strasse, who were all on their doorsteps looking on. She was hardly out of my sight before I repented sending her off with these foreign people into the now obscure and deserted walk. I thought there was an evil omen in the donkey boy's hump-back, and, in short, I lost all feeling for "my ducats" in apprehension for "my daughter;" and when she returned in safety without the bag, I cared not for Herr Leisring's assurance "that it would yet be found; that it was rare anything was lost at Wiesbaden."

morning "my ducats" rose again to their full value in my esteem, and just as I was pondering on all I might have done with them, Leisring's broad,


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CHAP. VII mediaeval period; and when, after the millennial year, the voices of the Middle Ages cease simply to utter the barbaric or echo the antique, it becomes clear that nowhere is there a happier balance of intellectual faculty and emotional capacity than in these peoples of mingled stock who long had dwelt in the country which we know as France.

Since the Celts of Gaul have left no witness of themselves in Gallic institutions or literature, it is necessary to turn to Ireland for clearer evidence of Celtic qualities. There one may see what might come of a predominantly Celtic people who lacked the lesson of Roman conquest and the discipline of Roman order. The early history of the Irish, their presentation of themselves in imaginative literature, their attainment in learning and accomplishment in art, are not unlike what might have been expected from Caesar's Gauls under similar conditions of comparative isolation. Irish history displays the social turmoil and barbarism resulting from the insular aggravation of the Celtic weaknesses noticeable in Caesar's sketch; and the same are carried to burlesque excess in the old Irish literature. On the other hand, Irish qualities of temperament and mind bear such fair fruit in literature and art as might be imagined springing from the Gallic stem but for the Roman graft.

No trustworthy story can be put together from the myth, tradition, and conscious fiction which record the unprogressive

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birdsall, John Augustine


text:
User:Ivaowlu

Jedwab czy nawet czlowieka wlokno co sprawia, ze

title: User:Ivaowlu


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birinus


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Rh (made through the French) which owes most of its vogue during the Restoration rather to its reckless indecency than to its intrinsic merit. Dryden’s free translations of Juvenal (1693) and Virgil (1697) treat the original authors with a cavalier freedom, but at least they preserve the meaning, if not the conciseness and point, of the Latin.

Among the multitudinous English translations of the 18th century it is only necessary to mention Pope’s versions of the Iliad (1715–1720) and the Odyssey (1725–1726), and Cowper’s rendering of Homer, issued in 1791. These neat translations necessarily fail to convey any impression of Homer’s epical grandeur, and they set a mischievous fashion of artificial “elegance” which has been too often adopted by their successors; but both Pope and Cowper conform faithfully to the mistaken canon of their age, and both have fugitive moments of felicity. A posthumous translation of Don Quixote bearing the name of Charles Jarvis appeared in 1742, has been reprinted times innumerable ever since, and has helped to make Cervantes’s masterpiece known to generations of English-speaking people. Defective in point of exact scholarship, it has the merit of agreeable perspicuity, and there seems no reason to believe the remark, ascribed by Warburton to Pope, that Jarvis “translated Don Quixote without knowing Spanish”: the available evidence is strongly against this malicious theory. The most remarkable translations of the 18th century, however, appeared in Germany: these are the versions of the Odyssey (1781) and Iliad (1793) by Voss, and A. W. von Schlegel’s rendering of Shakespeare (1797–1810), which gave a powerful impulse to the romantic movement on the Continent.

Byron’s version of a Spanish ballad and Shelley’s renderings of Calderón are interesting exhibitions of original genius voluntarily accepting a subordinate role. More importance attaches to Carlyle’s translation of Wilhelm Meister (1824), a faithful rendering free from the intolerable mannerisms and tricks which the translator developed subsequently in his original writings. William Taylor had long before translated Bürger’s Lenore, Lessing’s Nathan and Goethe’s Iphigenia; but such interest as the English nation has been induced to take in German literature dates from the appearance of Carlyle’s translation. If he did nothing more, he compelled recognition of the fact that Germany had at last produced an original genius of the highest class. Calderón found accomplished translators in Denis Florence MacCarthy (1848–1873) and in Edward FitzGerald (1853), who also attempted to render Sophocles into English; but these are on a much lower plane than the translation of the Rubaiyát (1859) of Omar Khayyam, in which, by a miracle of intrepid dexterity, a half-forgotten Persian poet is transfigured into a pessimistic English genius of the 19th century. Versions of Dante by Longfellow (whose translations of poems by minor authors are often admirable), of Latin or Greek classics by Conington, Munro, Jowett and Jebb, maintain the best traditions of the best translators. William Morris was less happy in his poetical versions of Virgil (1875) and the Odyssey (1887) than in his prose translations of The Story of Grettir the Strong (1869) and The Volsunga Saga (1870)—both made in collaboration with Magnússon—and in his rendering of Beowulf (1895). In his Lays of France (1872) Arthur O’Shaughnessy skirts the borders of translation without quite entering into the field; he elaborates, paraphrases and embroiders rather than translates the lais of Marie de France.

Most versions of modern foreign writers are mere hackwork carelessly executed by incompetent hands, and this is even more true of England than of France and Germany. But, with the development of literature in countries whose languages are unfamiliar, the function of the translator increases in importance, and in some few cases he has risen to his opportunity. Through translations the works of the great Russian novelists have become known to the rest of Europe, and through translations of Ibsen the dramatic methods of the modern stage have undergone a revolution.

 TRANSOM (probably a corruption of Lat. transtrum, athwart, in a boat; equivalents are Fr. traverse, croisillon, Ger. Losholz), the architectural term given to the horizontal lintel or beam which is framed across a window, dividing it into stages or heights. In early Gothic ecclesiastical work transoms are only found in belfry unglazed windows or spire lights, where they were deemed necessary to strengthen the mullions in the absence of the iron stay bars, which in glazed windows served a similar purpose. In domestic work, on account of the opening casements, they are more frequently found. In the later Gothic, and more especially the Perpendicular period, the introduction of transoms became very general in windows of all kinds.  TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the term adopted by the Roman Catholic Church to express her teaching on the subject of the conversion of the Bread and Wine into the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist. Its signification was authoritatively defined by the Council of Trent in the following words: “If any one shall say that, in the Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist there remains, together with the Body and Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the substance of the Bread and Wine, and shall deny that wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance of the Bread into (His) Body and of the Wine into (His) Blood, the species only of the Bread and Wine remaining—which conversion the Catholic Church most fittingly calls Transubstantiation—let him be anathema.” The word Transubstantiation is not found earlier than the 12th century. But in the Eucharistic controversies of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries the views which the term embodies were clearly expressed; as, for example, by Radbertus Paschasius (d. 865), who wrote that “the substance of the Bread and Wine is efficaciously changed interiorly into the Flesh and Blood of Christ,” and that after the consecration what is there is “nothing else but Christ the Bread of Heaven.” The words “substantially converted” appear in the formula which Berengarius was compelled to sign in 1079. Assuming that the Expositio canonis missae ascribed to St Pietro Damiani (d. 1072) is doubtful, we may take it that the first use of the word is in a passage of Hildebert de Savardin (d. 1133), who brings it into an exhortation quite informally, as if it were in common use. It is met with in a Decretal of Innocent III. The fourth Council of Lateran fully adopted it (1215). It is clear from the treatise of Radbertus Paschasius already quoted that the word “substance” was used for reality as distinguished from outward appearance, and that the word “species” meant outward appearance as opposed to reality. The terms, therefore, were not invented by St Thomas Aquinas, and are not mere scholastic subtlety. The definition of the Council of Trent was intended both to enforce the accepted Catholic position and to exclude the teaching of Luther, who, whilst not professing to be certain whether the “substance” of the Bread and Wine could or could not be said to remain, exclaimed against the intolerance of the Roman Catholic Church in defining the question.

 TRANSVAAL, an inland province of the Union of South Africa between the Vaal and Limpopo rivers. It lies, roughly, between 22½° and 27½° S. and 25° and 32° E., and is bounded S. by the Orange Free State and Natal, W. by the Cape province and the Bechuanaland Protectorate, N. by Rhodesia, E. by Portuguese East Africa and Swaziland. Save on the south-west the frontiers, for the main part, are well defined natural features. From the south-west to the north-east corners of the colony is 570 m.; east

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Transom

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Transom


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birkbeck, George


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Transubstantiation


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Transvaal

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Transvaal


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birkenhead, John


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128 turbulence of pre-Christian Ireland. But the Irish character and capacities are clearly mirrored in this enormous Gaelic literature. Truculence and vanity pervade it, and a passion for hyperbole. A weak sense of fact and a lack of steady rational purpose are also conspicuous. It is as ferocious as may be. Yet, withal, it keeps the charm of the Irish temperament. Its pathos is moving, even lovely. Some of the poetry has a mystic sensuousness; the lines fall on the ear like the lapping of ripples on an unseen shore; the imagery has a fantastic and romantic beauty, and the reader is wafted along on waves of temperament and feeling. The Irish art of illumination presents analogies to the literature. The finesse of design and execution in the Book of Kells (seventh century) is astonishing. Equally marvellous was the work of Irish goldsmiths. Both arts doubtless made use of designs common upon the Continent, and may even have drawn suggestions from Byzantine or late Roman patterns. Nevertheless, illumination and the goldsmith's art in Ireland are characteristically Irish and the very climax of barbaric fashions. Their forms pointed to nothing further. These astounding spirals, meanders, and interlacings, combined with utterly fantastic and impossible drawings of the human form, required essential modification before they were suited to form part of that organic development of mediaeval art which followed its earlier imitative periods.

Irish illumination was carried by Columba to Iona, and spread thence through many monasteries in the northern part of Britain. It was imitated in the Anglo-Saxon monasteries of Northumbria, and from them passed with Alcuin to the Court of Charlemagne. Through these transplantings the Irish art was changed, under the hands of men conversant with Byzantine and later Roman art. The influence of the art also worked outward from Irish monasteries upon the Continent, St. Gall, for example. The Irish goldsmith's art likewise passed into Saxon England, into Carolingian France, and into Scandinavia. See J. H. Middleton, Illuminated Manuscripts (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1892), and the different view as to the sources of Irish illuminating art in Muntz, Études iconographiques (Paris, 1887); also Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst, i. 607-619; Margaret Stokes, Early Christian Art in Ireland (South Kensington Museum Art Hand-Books, 1894), vol. i. p. 32 sqq., and vol. ii. pp. 73, 78; Sophus Müller, Nordische Altertumskunde, vol. ii. chap. xiv. (Strassburg, 1898).

Whatever themes sprang from the pagan age, probably nothing was written down before the Christian time, when Christian matter might be foisted into the pagan story. The Sagas belonging to the so-called Ulster Cycle afford the best illustration of early Irish traits. They reflect a society

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birks, Thomas Rawson


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birmingham, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birnie, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birnie, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birnie, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Birrel, Robert


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 to west its greatest extent is 397 m. The total area is 111,196 sq. m., a little less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland. The boundaries of the Transvaal have varied from time to time. The most important alteration was made in January 1903 when the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid, which then formed the south-eastern part of the country were annexed to Natal. The area thus lost to the Transvaal was 6970 sq. m. (For map see .)

Physical Features.—About five-sixths of the country lies west of the (q.v.), the mountain range which forms the inner rim of the great tableland of South Africa. For a few miles on the Natal–Transvaal frontier the Drakensberg run east and west and here is the pass of Laing’s Nek. Thence the mountains sweep round to the north, with their precipitous outer slopes facing east. For some 250 m. within the province the mountains form a more or less continuous range, the highest point being the Mauchberg (8725 ft.) in 24° 20′ 10″ S. 30° 35′ E., while there are several heights of 7000 or more feet. Eastward from the foot of the Drakensberg stretches a broad belt of low land beyond which rise the Lebombo hills running north and south along the parallel of 32° E. and approaching within 35 m. of the sea at Delagoa Bay. The Lebombo hills are flat topped but with a well-defined break on their seaward side. This eastern edge forms the frontier between Transvaal and Portuguese territory.

The country west of the Drakensberg, though part of the main South African tableland, is not uniform in character, consisting of (1) elevated downs, (2) their slopes, (3) the flat “bottom” land. The downs or plateaus occup all the southern part of the country, sloping gradually westward from the Drakensberg. That part of the plateau east of Johannesburg is from 5000 to 6400 ft. high; the western and somewhat larger half is generally below 5000 ft. and sinks to about 4000 ft. on the Bechuanaland border. This plateau land is called the high veld, and covers about 34,000 sq. m. The northern edge of the plateau follows an irregular line from somewhat north of Mafeking on the west to the Mauchberg on the east. This edge is marked by ranges of hills such as the Witwatersrand, Witwatersberg and Magaliesberg; the Witwatersrand, which extends eastward to Johannesburg, forming the watershed between the rivers flowing to the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Farther north, beyond the intervening slopes and low bush, are two elevated regions covering together over 4000 sq. m. They are the Waterberg, and, more to the east, separated from the Waterberg by the valley of the Magalakwane tributary of the Limpopo, the Zoutpansberg. The Zoutpansberg has steep slopes and is regarded as the northern termination of the Drakensberg. An eastern offshoot of the Zoutpansberg is known as the Murchison Range. The low land between the high veld and the Waterberg and Zoutpansberg is traversed by the Olifants River, an east flowing tributary of the Limpopo.

The true high veld, extending east to west 120 m. and north to south 100 m., consists of rolling grass covered downs, absolutely treeless, save where, as at Johannesburg, plantations have been made by man, the crest of the rolls being known as builts and the hollows as laagtes or vleys. The surface is occasionally broken by kopjes—either table-shaped or pointed—rising sometimes 100 ft. above the general level. Small springs of fresh water are frequent and there are several shallow lakes or pans—flat bottomed depressions with no outlet. The largest of these pans, Lake Chrissie, some 5 m. long by 1 m. broad, is in the south-eastern part of the high veld. The water in the pans is usually brackish. The middle veld is marked by long low stony ridges, known as rands, and these rands and the kopjes are often covered with scrub, while mimosa trees are found in the river valleys.

The banken veld, formed by the denudation of the plateau, is much broken up and is rich in romantic scenery. It covers about 27,000 sq. m., and has an average breadth of 40 m. In places, as between Mafeking and Johannesburg, the descent is in terrace-like steps, each step marked by a line of hills; in other places there is a gradual slope and elsewhere the descent is abrupt, with outlying hills and deep well-wooded valleys. The rocks at the base of the slopes are granite, the upper escarpments are of sedimentary rocks. Thence issue many streams which in their way to the ocean have forced their way through the ranges of hills which mark the steps in the plateau, forming the narrow passes or poorts characteristic of South African scenery.

As in the middle veld, rands and kopjes occur in the low or bush veld, but the general characteristic of this part of the country, which covers over 50,000 sq. m., is its uniformity. The low veld east of the Drakensberg begins at about 3000 ft. above the sea and slopes to 1000 ft. or less until it meets the ridge of the Lebombo hills. The lowest point is at Komati Poort, a gorge through the Lebombo hills only 476 ft. above the sea. West and north of the Drakensberg the general level of the low veld is not much below that of the lowest altitudes of the middle veld, though the climatic conditions greatly differ. North of the Zoutpansberg the ground falls rapidly, however, to the Limpopo flats which are little over 1200 ft. above the sea. Near the north-west foot of the Zoutpansberg is the large saltpan from which the mountains get their name. The low veld is everywhere covered with scrub, and water is scarce, the rivers being often dry in the winter season.

River Systems.—There are four separate river basins in the Transvaal. Of these the (q.v.) and its affluents, and the Pongola and its affluents rise in the high veld and flowing eastward to the Indian Ocean drain but a comparatively small area of the province, of which the Pongola forms for some distance the south-eastern frontier. The rest of the country is divided between the drainage areas of the Vaal and Limpopo. The (q.v.) rises in the high veld in the Ermelo district not far from the source of the Komati and that of the Usuto tributary of the Pongola. The Vaal drains the greater part of the plateau, flowing westward towards the Atlantic. The waters of the northern escarpments of the plateau and of all the region farther north are carried to the Indian Ocean by the (q.v.) and its tributaries the Olifants, Great Marico, Great Letaba, &c. Both the Vaal and the Limpopo in their main course have high steep banks. They carry an immense volume of water during the summer rains, but are very small streams in the winter, when several of their tributaries are completely dry. None of the rivers is navigable within the limits of the province. The absence of alluvial deposits of any size is another characteristic of the Transvaal rivers. For a considerable distance the Vaal forms the frontier between the province and the Orange Free State and in similar manner the Limpopo separates the Transvaal from Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. Since the first advent of white colonists many springs and pans and small streams have dried up, this desiccation being attributed, not so much to decreased rainfall, as to the burning off of the grass every winter, so that the water, instead of soaking in, runs off the hard, baked ground into the larger rivers.

Geology.

A broad ring of crystalline rocks (Swaziland schists) encircles the Transvaal except on the south, where the Karroo formation extends over the Vaal River. Within this nearly complete circle of crystalline rocks several geological formations have been determined, of which the age cannot be more definitely fixed than that they are vastly older than the Karroo formation and newer than the Swaziland schists.

The following subdivisions have been recognized by Molengraaff: Karroo System, Transvaal System, Vaal River System, South African Primary System. Each of these systems is separated from the other by a strong unconformity.

South African Primary System.—The South African Primary System includes a complex of rocks as yet little understood. According to Molengraaff it includes the two following series:—

Barberton Series.—Molengraaff considers the Barberton series to be the metamorphosed equivalent of the Hospital Hill series, while Hatch regards it to be older and to form a portion of his Archaean series (Swaziland schists) to which position it is here assigned. The chief outcrops are in the south-western Transvaal, around Zoutpansberg and in Swaziland. They show a great variety of type made up of slates, quartzites, occasional conglomerates, schists with large masses of intrusive granites and gneiss.

Witwatersrand Series.—It is now generally acknowledged that this important series consists of two main groups. Their chief occurrences are in the districts of Witwatersrand, Heidelberg, Klerksdorp and Venterskroon. The lower group (Hospital Hill slates) consists of quartzites and shales, resting on the eroded surface of the older granites and schists, and estimated to be from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. thick. There are occasional bands of conglomerates, sometimes auriferous. In the absence of fossils their age cannot be determined. The upper group consists of conglomerates, grits and quartzites with a few bands of shales. It has obtained notoriety from the conglomerates along certain bands containing gold, when they constitute the famous “banket.” The thickness varies from 2300 to over 11,000 ft. The conglomerate beds occur in belts forming in descending order the Elsburg series, Kimberley series, Bird Reef series, Livingstone Reef series, Main Reef series. The richest in gold are to be found among the Main Reef series, which yields by far the greater part of the total output of gold from the Transvaal. The individual beds, seldom more than a few feet in thickness and sometimes only a few inches, are interstratified with an immense thickness of quartzites. The conglomerates consist almost entirely of pebbles of quartz set in a hard

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisby, Nathaniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bischoff, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Biscoe, John


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CHAP. VII apparently at the "Homeric" stage of development, though the Irish heroes suffer in comparison with the Greek by reason of the immeasurable inferiority of these Gaelic Sagas to the Iliad and Odyssey. There is the same custom of fighting from chariots, the same tried charioteer, the hero's closest friend, and the same unstable relationship between the chieftains and the king.

The Achilles of the Ulster Cycle is Cuchulain. The Tain Bo Cuailgne (Englished rather improperly as the "Cattle-raid of Cooley") is the long and famous Saga that brings his glory to its height. Other Sagas tell of his mysterious birth, his youthful deeds, his wooing, his various feats, and then the moving, fateful story of his death. Loved by many women, cherished by heroes, beautiful in face and form, possessed of strength, agility, and skill in arms beyond belief, uncontrolled, chivalric, his battle-ardour unquenchable, he is a brilliant epic hero. But his story is weakened by hyperbole. Even today we know how sword-strokes and spear-thrust kill. So do great narrators, who likewise realize the literary power of truth. Through the Iliad there is no combat between heroes where spear and sword do not pierce and kill as they do in fact. So in the Sagas of the Norse, the man falls before the mortal blow. But in the Ulster Cycle, day after day, two heroes may mangle each other in every impossible and fantastic way, beyond the bounds of the faintest shadow of verisimilitude. In this weakness of hyperbole the Irish Sagas are

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bishop, Ann


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bishop, George


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130 outdone only by the monstrous doings of the epics of India.

Besides hyperbole, Irish tales display another weakness, which is not unpleasing, although an element of failure both in the people and their literature. This is the quality of non-arrival. Some old tales evince it in the unsteadfast purpose of the narrative, the hero quite forgetting the initial motive of his action. In the Voyage of Mældun, for instance, a son sets out upon the ocean to seek his father's murderers, a motive which is lost sight of amid the marvels of the voyage. As may be imagined, qualities of vanity, truculence, irrationality, hyperbole, and non-arrival or lack of sequence, frequently impart an air of bouffe to the Irish Sagas, making them humorous beyond the intention of their composers.

Yet true heroic notes are to be heard. And however rare the tales which have not the makings of a brawl on every page, these truculent Sagas sometimes speak with power and pathos, and sweetly present the loveliness of nature or the charms of women; all in a manner happily indicative of the impressionable Irish temperament. Examples are the moving tales of The Children of Usnach and the Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne. They bring to

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bishop, Henry Rowley


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bishop, John (1665-1737)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bishop, John (1797-1873)


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CHAP. VII mind the Tristram story, which grew up among a kindred people. The first of them only belongs to the Ulster Cycle. Both are stories of a beautiful and headstrong maiden betrothed to an old king. Each maid rebels against union with an old man; each falls in love with a young hero, and, unabashed, asks him to flee with her. In the former tale the heroine's charms win the hero, while in the latter he is overcome by the violent insistence of a woman not to be gainsaid. In both stories love brings the hero to his death.

The Irish genius also showed an aptitude for lyric expression, and at an early period developed elaborate modes of rhymed and alliterative verse. Peculiarly beautiful are the poems reflecting the Gaelic belief in a future life. A charming description of Elysium is offered by The Voyage of Bran, a Saga of the Otherworld, dating from the seventh century. Its verse portions preponderate, the prose serving as their frame. But it opens in prose, telling how one day, walking near his stronghold, Bran heard sweet music behind him, and as often as he turned the music was still behind him. He fell asleep at last from the sweetness of the strains. When he awoke, he found by him a branch silvery with white blossoms. He took it to his home, where was seen a woman who sang:

"A branch of the apple-tree from Emain I bring; Twigs of white silver are on it, Crystal boughs with blossoms. There is a distant isle, Around which sea-horses (waves) glisten:"

And the woman sings on, picturing "Mag Mell of many flowers," and of the host ever rowing thither from across the sea; till at last Bran and his people set forth in their boat and row on and on, till they are welcomed by sweet women with music and wine in island-fields of flowers and bird-song. There is no sad strain in the music from this Gaelic land beyond the grave.

Irish traits observed in poem and Saga are reflected in accounts of not improbable events, and exemplified in

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132 Christian saints; for the Irish did not change their spots upon conversion. How Christianity failed to affect the manners of the ancient Irish is illustrated in the story of the Cursing of Tara, where tradition says the high-kings of Ireland held sway. The account is scarcely historical; yet Tara existed, and fell to decay in the sixth century. Its cursing was on this wise. King Dermot was high-king of Ireland. His laws were obeyed throughout the land, and over its length and breadth marched his spear-bearer asserting the royal authority, and holding the king's spear across his body before him. Every town and castle must open wide enough to let this spear pass, carried crosswise. The spear-bearer comes to the strong house of Ædh. He finds the outer palisade breached to let the spear through, but not the inner house. The bearer demands that it be torn open. "Order it so as to please thyself," quoth Ædh, as he smote off his head.

King Dermot sent his men to lay waste to Ædh's land and seize his person. Ædh flees, and at last takes refuge with St. Ruadhan. The king again sends messengers, but they are foiled, till he comes himself, seizes the outlaw, and carries him off to hang him at Tara. Thereupon St. Ruadhan seeks St. Brendan of Birr and others. They proceed to Tara and demand the prisoner. The king answers that the Church cannot protect law-breakers. So all the clergy rang their bells and chanted psalms against the king before Tara, and fasted on him (in order that their imprecations might be more potent), and he fasted on them. King and clergy fasted on each other, till one night the clergy made a show of eating in sight of the town, but passed the meat and ale beneath their cowls. So the king was tricked into taking meat; and an evil dream came to him, by which he knew the clergy would succeed in destroying his kingdom.

In the morning the king went and said to the clergy: "I'll have ye done to undo my kingdom, because I maintained the righteous cause. Be thy diocese, Ruadhan, the first one ruined, and may thy monks desert thee."

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CHAP. VII Said the saint: "May thy kingdom droop speedily."

Said the king: "Thy see shall be empty, and swine shall root up thy churchyards."

Said the saint: "Tara shall be desolate, and therein shall no dwelling be for ever."

It was the custom of ancient bards to utter an imprecation or "satire" against those offending them. The irate fasting and cursing by the Irish clergy was a thinly Christianized continuation of the same Irish habit, inspired by the same Irish temper. There was no chasm between the pagan bards and the Christian clergy, who loved the Sagas and preserved them. They had also their predecessors in the Druids, who had performed the functions of diviners, magicians, priests, and teachers, which were assumed by the clergy in the fifth and sixth centuries. Doubtless many of the Druids became monks.

Christianity came to the Irish as a new ardour, effacing none of their characteristics. Irish monks and Irish saints were as irascible as Irish bards and Saga heroes. The Irish temper lived on in St. Columba of lona and St. Columbanus of Luxeuil and Bobbio. Both of these men left Ireland to spread monastic Christianity, and also because, as Irishmen, they loved to rove, like their forefathers. Christianity furnished this Irish propensity with a definite aim in the mission-passion to convert the heathen. It likewise brought the ascetic hermit-passion, which drove these travel-loving islanders over the sea in search of solitude; and so a yearning came on Irish monks to sail forth to some distant isle and gain within the seclusion of the sea a hermitage beyond the reach of man. There are many stories of these explorers. They sailed along the Hebrides, they settled on the Shetland Islands, they reached the Faroes, and even brought back news of Iceland. But before the seventh century closed, their sea hermitages were harried by Norsemen who were sailing upon quite different ventures. From an opposite direction they too had

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisset, James (1762?-1832)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisset, James (1795-1872)


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134 reached the Shetlands and the Hebrides, and had pushed on farther south among the islands off the west coast of Scotland. So there come sorry tales of monks fleeing from one island to another. These harryings and flights had gone on for a century and more before the Vikings landed in Ireland, apparently for the first time, in 795. There followed two centuries of fierce struggle with the invaders, during which much besides blows was exchanged. Vikings and Irish learned from each other; Norse strains passed into Irish literature, and conversely the Norse story-tellers probably obtained the Saga form of composition.

The rôle of the Irish in the diffusion of Christianity with its accompaniment of Latin culture will be noted hereafter, and a sketch of the unquestionably Irish saint Columbanus will be given in illustration. A few paragraphs on his almost namesake of lona, whose career hardly extended beyond Celtic circles, may fitly close the present chapter on the Celtic genius. In him is seen the truculent Irishman and the clan-abbot of royal birth, violent, dominating by his impetuosity and the strident fervour of his voice; also the saint, devoted, loving, to his followers. Colum, surnamed Cille, "of the church," from his incessant devotions, and by his Latin name known as Columba, was born at Gartan, Donegal, in the extreme north-west of Ireland, about the year 520. His family was chief in that

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisset, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisset, William (d.1747)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bisset, William (1758-1834)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bix, Angel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bizari, Pietro


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Blaauw, William Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Blacader, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Blacater, Adam


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Black, Adam


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Black, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Black, James


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 matrix consolidated by the deposition of secondary silica. The conglomerate bands and quartzites contain large quantities of iron pyrites deposited subsequent to their formation, that in the conglomerates containing the gold. Sericite in the form of scales and films characterizes those portions which have been faulted, squeezed or sheared. Sheets of diabase, apparently volcanic flows, and numerous dykes interfere with the regularity of the stratification. The theory of the subsequent infiltration of the gold is that generally accepted. No fossils have been discovered, and except that they represent some portion or portions of rocks of the Pre-Cape formation the age of the upper Witwatersrand beds, as well as that of the lower division, remains an open question. They may safely be considered to be among the oldest auriferous sediments of the world.

Vaal River System.—This consists largely of rocks of igneous origin, of which the amygdaloidal diabase of Klipriversberg forms the type. The other rocks include igneous breccias, shales, coarse conglomerates and grits. Near Reitzburg the coarse conglomerates reach a thickness of 400 ft. and about 500 ft. at Kroomdraai. This system rests unconformably on the Witwatersrand series and is unconformably overlain by the Transvaal system. It must, however, be acknowledged that these relationships are very imperfectly understood. Compared with other formations they occupy restricted areas, being only met with south of Johannesburg, around Wolmaransstad, Lichtenburg and east of Marico.

Transvaal System.—This is a very definite sequence of rocks covering immense areas in the centre of the country. The following groups are recognized: Waterberg Series, Pretoria Series, Dolomite Series, Black Reef Series.

The Black Reef Series is composed of quartzites, sandstone, slates and conglomerate. It varies in thickness from 100 ft. in the southern Transvaal to 1000 ft. at Lydenburg. Thin bands of conglomerate, sometimes auriferous, occur near the base.

The Dolomite Series, known to the Dutch as “Olifants Klip,” consists of a bluish-grey magnesian limestone with bands of chert. The thickness varies from 2600 ft. in the Witwatersrand area to 5000 ft. around Pretoria; and is about 2600 ft. about Lydenburg. It is worn by solution into caves and swallow-holes (Wondergarten). Gold, lead, copper and iron ores occur as veins. So far it has proved to be unfossiliferous. Dykes and intrusive rocks are common.

The Pretoria Series, formerly known as the Gatsrand series, consists of repeated alternations of flagstones and quartzites, shales and sheets of diabase. These follow conforrnably on the Dolomite series. In the Marico district the shales become highly ferruginous and resemble the Hospital Hill slates of the Witwatersrand series. Near Pretoria duplications of the beds, due to over-thrusting, are not uncommon.

The Waterberg Series lies unconformably on the Pretoria series. The colour is usually red, forcibly recalling the Old Red Sandstone and Trias of England. Sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates and breccia make up the formation. They occur to the north-east of Pretoria and occupy still wide areas in the Waterberg district.

A complex of igneous rocks of different ages covers immense areas in the central Transvaal. Various types of granite are the predominant variety. Syenites, gabbros, norites and volcanic rocks are also represented. The granite contains two varieties. One is a red granite intruded subsequently to the Waterberg sandstones; another is a grey variety considered to be older than the Black Reef series and possibly older than the Witwatersrand series.

The Karroo System attains its chief development in the south-eastern Transvaal in the districts of Ermelo, Standerton and Wakkerstroom.

The latest classification of Molengraaff subdivides the beds as follows:—

The Dwyka conglomerate resembles the same bed in the Cape province. The boulders consist of very various rocks often of large size. Many of them show glacial striae. The direction of striae on the underlying quartzitic rocks, particularly well seen near the Douglas colliery, Balmoral, point to an ice movement from the north-north-west to south-south-east.

The Ecca series, as in the Cape, consists of sandstones and shales. Seams of coal lie near the base, some of them exceeding 20 ft. in thickness, but in this case layers of shaly coal are included. The overlying sandstones afford good building stones, and frequently, as at Vereeniging, yield many fossil plants. These include among others, Glossopteris browniana, Gangamopteris cyclopteroides, Sigillaria Brardi, Bothrodendron Leslii, Noeggerathiopsis Hislopi.

The Karroo beds lie almost horizontally, in marked contrast to the highly inclined older rocks. Their distribution, other than in the south-eastern districts, is imperfectly understood. Remnants have been found of their former existence in the neighbourhood of Pretoria; and portions of the Bushveld Sandstone have recently been relegated to the Karroo formation.

The diamond pipes probably represent some of the most recent rocks of the Transvaal. They may be of Cretaceous age or even later, and in any case belong to the same class as those of Kimberley. The recent deposits of the Transvaal may be considered to be insignificant. They include the gravels and alluviums of the present streams and the almost ubiquitous red sand of aeolian origin.

Climate.—Although lying on the border of and partly within the tropics, the Transvaal, owing to its high general elevation, and to the absence of extensive marshy tracts, enjoys on the whole a healthy invigorating climate, well suited to the European constitution. The climate of the high veld is indeed one of the finest in the world. The air is unusually dry, owing to the proximity of the Kalahari Desert on the west and to the interception on the east by the Drakensberg of the moisture bearing clouds from the Indian Ocean. The range of temperature is often considerable—in winter it varies from about 100° F. in the shade at 1 p.m. to freezing point at night. During summer (Oct.–April) the mean temperature is about 73°; during winter about 53°. Nov.–Jan. are the hottest and June–July the coldest months. The chief characteristic of the rainfall is its frequent intensity and short duration. During May to August there is practically no rain, and in early summer (Sept.–Dec.) the rainfall is often very light. The heaviest rain is experienced between January and April and is usually accompanied by severe thunderstorms. On the eastern escarpment of the Drakensberg the rainfall is heavy, 50 or 60 in. in the year, but it diminishes rapidly towards the centre of the plateau where it averages, at Johannesburg about 30 in., while in the extreme west as the Kalahari is approached it sinks to about 12 in. The winds in winter are uniformly dry while dust storms are frequent at all seasons—a fact which renders the country unsuitable for persons suffering from chest complaints. In the eastern part of the plateau snow occasionally falls, and frost at night is common during winter.

The banken veld district is also generally healthy though hotter than the plateaus, and malarial fever prevails in the lower valleys. Malarial fever is also prevalent throughout the low veld, but above 3000 ft. is usually of a mild type. Nearly all the country below that elevation is unsuitable for colonization by whites, while the Limpopo flats and other low tracts, including the district between the Drakensberg and the Lebombo hills are extremely unhealthy, blackwater fever being endemic. In the low veld the shade temperature in summer rises to 113° F., but the nights are generally cool, and down to 2000 ft. frost occurs in winter. The rainfall in the low country is more erratic than on the plateau, and in some districts a whole year will pass without rain.

Flora.—The general characteristic of the flora is the prevalence of herbaceous over forest growths; the high veld is covered by short sweet grasses of excellent quality for pasturage; grass is mingled with protea scrub in the middle veld; the banken veld has a richer flora, the valley levels are well wooded, scattered timber trees clothe their sides and the hills are covered with aloe, euphoria, protea and other scrub growths. Among the timber trees of this region is the bolkenhout of terblanz (Faurea Saligna) which yields a fine wood resembling mahogany. The scrub which covers the low veld consists mainly of gnarled stunted thorns with fattened umbrella shaped crowns, most of the species belonging to the sub-order mimoseae. A rare species is the acacia erioloba Rameel doorn, akin to the acacia giraffae of Bechuanaland. The wild seringa (Burkea africana) is also characteristic of the low veld and extends up the slopes of the plateau. The meroola (sclerocarya caffra) a medium sized deciduous tree with a rounded spreading top is found in the low veld and up the slopes to a height of 4500 ft. It is common in the lower slopes of the rands of the low veld. Cotton and cotton-like plants and vines are also native to the low veld. Few of the low veld bushes are large or straight enough to furnish any useful wood, and timber trees are wholly absent from the level country. The forest patches are confined to the deep kloofs of the mountains, to the valleys of the larger rivers and to the sea slopes of the Drakensberg and other ranges, where they flourish in regions exposed to the sea mists. These patches, called “woodbushes,” contain many hardwood trees of great size, their flora and fauna being altogether different from that immediately outside the wood. Common species in the woodbush are three varieties of yellow wood (Podocarpus), often growing to an enormous size, the Cape beech (myrsine), several varieties of the wild pear (Olinia) and of stink wood (Oreodaphne) ironwood and ebony. The largest forest areas are in the Pongola district and the Haenertsburg and

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(　Note　) .—The most of the foregoing pieces are printed in

"MERRY SONGS AND BALLADS

Privately Printed for Subscribers only.

MDCCCXCVII."

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Black, Joseph


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 Woodbush districts north of the Olifants river. Mimosa and the wild wilge-boom (Salix capensis) are the common trees on the banks and rivers, while the weeping willow is frequent round the farmsteads.

Many trees have been introduced and considerable plantations made, as for instance on the slopes between Johannesburg and Pretoria. Among the most successful of the imported trees are citrus trees, the Australian wattle and the eucalyptus. Tobacco and the vine both flourish and most European fruits and vegetables thrive. Of native fruits the misple (Vangueria infausta), miscalled the wild medlar, is of excellent flavour. It is common on the rands and kopjes of the bush veld. Rose and other flowering shrubs and trees grow well on the banken veld and in the valleys. A large yellow tulip (Homerica pallida) is one of the most abundant flowers on moist vlei lands on the high veld and is occasionally met with in the low veld; slangkop (Urginea Burkei) with red bulbs like a beetroot is a low bush plant apparently restricted to the Transvaal and adjacent Portuguese territory. Both these and many other plants such as gift-blaar and drouk-gras are poisonous to cattle. These poisonous plants are found chiefly in the banken and low veld.

Fauna.—When first entered by white men the Transvaal abounded in big game, the lion, leopard, elephant, giraffe, zebra and rhinoceros being very numerous, while the hippopotamus and crocodile were found in all the rivers. The indiscriminate destruction of these animals has greatly reduced their numbers and except in the Pongola district, at one or two other places on the Portuguese frontier, and along the Limpopo the hippopotamus, rhinoceros and crocodile are now extinct in the province. A few elephants, giraffes and zebras (equus burchelli—the true zebra is extinct) are still found in the north and north-eastern districts and in the same regions lions and leopards survive in fair numbers. Other animals fairly numerous are the spotted hyena, long-eared fox, jackal, aard wolf, red lynx, wild cat, wild dog and wart hog. Many species of antelope are found, mostly in small numbers, including the kudu, hartebeest, the sable and roan antelope, the white tailed and the brindled gnu, water buck, red buck, duiker, blesbok, palla, springbuck (numerous), steinbok, grysbok and klipspringer. The Africander breed of cattle is a well-marked variety, and a characteristic native domestic animal. Whether originally imported from Europe by the Portuguese or brought from the north by Africans is not certain. It is not found in a wild state and the buffalo (bos caffer) is almost if not quite extinct in the Transvaal. Among edentata the ant-bear, scaly ant-eater and porcupine are plentiful. The spring hare (pedetes capensis) abounds. Baboons and other apes are fairly common and there are several species of snakes. The ostrich is found in the Marico and Limpopo districts, and more rarely elsewhere; the great kori bustard and the koorhaan are common.

Insects abound, the greatest pest being the tsetse fly, common in the low veld. Six species of tick, including the blue tick common throughout South Africa, are found, especially in the low veld, where they are the means of the transmission of disease to cattle. Mosquitoes, locusts and ants are also common.

The baba or cat fish and the yellow fish are plentiful in the rivers and the trout has been acclimatized.

To preserve the native fauna the low country on the Portuguese frontier has been made a game reserve. It is nearly 300 m. long with an average breadth of 50 m. Other reserves have been constituted in the north of the province.

Inhabitants.—The population of the Transvaal, on the 17th of April 1904, when the first complete census of the country was taken, was 1,269,951 (including 8215 British soldiers in garrison), or 11.342 persons per sq. m. Of these 20.67%, namely 297,277, were European or white. Of the coloured population 937,127 were aboriginals; and 35,547 were of mixed or other coloured races. Of the whites 178,244 (59.95 %) were males. The white population is broadly divisible into the British and Dutch elements, the percentage of other whites in 1904 being but 8.6. The Dutch, as their usual designation, Boers, implies, are mainly farmers and stock-raisers and are still predominant elsewhere than in the Witwatersrand and Pretoria districts. They speak the patois of Dutch known as the Taal. The British element is chiefly gathered in Johannesburg and other towns on the Rand and in Pretoria.. The total white population in the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria in 1904 was 135,135, and the strength of the British in these districts is shown by the fact that only 20% was Transvaal born. Of those born outside the Transvaal 24.6% came from other British possessions in Africa and 24.92% from Great Britain or British colonies other than African. Of the non-British or Boer whites Russians form 3.01%, Germans 1.62% and Dutch (of Holland) 1.14%.

The natives are found chiefly in Zoutpansberg district, where there were 314,797 at the 1904 census, and the adjoining districts of Lydenburg and Waterberg, i.e. in the northern and north-eastern region of the country. The natives belong to the Bantu negro race and are represented chiefly by Basuto, Bechuana, Bavenda, and Xosa-Zulu tribes. None of these peoples has any claim to be indigenous, and, save the Bavenda, all are immigrants since c. 1817–1820, when the greater part of the then inhabitants were exterminated by the Zulu chief Mosilikatze (see § History). After that event Basuto entered the country from the south, Bechuana from the west and Swazi, Zulu, Shangaan and other tribes from the east and south-east.

The Basuto, who number 410,020 and form 40% of the total population, are now found mostly in the central, northern and north-eastern districts, forming in Lydenburg about 67%, and in Zoutpansberg about 50% of the inhabitants. The Bechuana, who number 64,751, are almost confined to the western and south-western districts.

Next, numerically, to the Basuto and Bechuana peoples are the tribes known collectively as Transvaal Kaffirs, of whom there were 159,850 enumerated at the 1904 census. Altogether the Transvaal Kaffirs form 50% of the inhabitants of Waterberg district, 30% of Zoutpansberg district and 18% of Middelburg district. Zulus number 75,601 and form 54% of the population in Wakkerstroom district and 18% in Standerton district. Elsewhere they are very thinly represented. Swazis form more than half the total population of the Barberton and Ermelo districts and are also numerous in Wakkerstroom. In Barberton, Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg districts Shangaan and other east coast tribes are settled, 80,834 being returned as born in the Transvaal. The Shangaan are members of a Bantu tribe from the Delagoa Bay region who took refuge in the Transvaal between 1860 and 1862 to escape Zulu raids. They were for some time ruled by a Portuguese, Joao Albasini, who had adopted native customs. Since 1873 Swiss Protestant missionaries have lived among them and many of the Shangaans are Christians and civilized. Several other east coast tribes, such as the Bankuna, are of mixed Zulu and Shangaan blood. Among the mixed and other coloured races in the census returns figure 1592 Bushmen, 3597 Hottentots and 1147 Koranna; these people are found chiefly in the south-western regions and are remnants of the true aboriginal population.

Besides the tribes whose home is in the Transvaal considerable numbers of natives, chiefly members of east coast tribes, Cape Kaffirs and Zulus, go to the Witwatersrand to work in the gold and other mines. In all there were, in 1904, 135,042 Bantus in the country born elsewhere. Many east coast natives after working in the mines settle in the northern Transvaal. Of the aboriginal South Africans in the Transvaal, at the 1904 census, 77.69% were born in the Transvaal. Among the aborigines the number of females to males was 114 to 100. (See further ; ; ; ; ; and for languages ).

The number of Asiatics in the Transvaal in April 1904 was 12,320, including 904 Malays, natives of South Africa, and 9986 British Indians. They were nearly all domiciled in the Witwatersrand and in the towns of Pretoria and Barberton, where they are engaged mainly in trade.

Administrative Divisions and Chief Towns.—The province is divided into sixteen magisterial districts. Zoutpansberg, 25,654 sq. m.; Waterberg, 15,503 sq. m.; Lydenburg, 9868 sq. m., occupy the north and north-eastern parts of the country and include most of the low veld areas. Barberton district, 5106 sq. m., is east central. Piet Retief district (in the south-east), 1673 sq. m., lies between Swaziland and Natal. Along the southern border, going east to west from Piet Retief, are the districts of Wakkerstroom, 2128 sq. m.; Standerton, 1959 sq. m.; Heidelberg, 2410 sq. m.; Potchefstroom, 4805 sq. m.; Wolmaransstad, 2169 sq. m., and, occupying the south-western corner of the province, Bloemhof, 3003 sq. m. In the west are the districts of Lichtenburg, 4487 sq. m.; Marico, 3626 sq. m. and Rustenberg, 9511 sq. m. The central regions are divided into the districts of Witwatersrand, 1653 sq. m.; Pretoria, 6525 sq. m.; Middelburg, 4977 sq. m.; Carolina, 1877 sq. m.; Ermelo, 2995 sq. m. and Bethel, 1959 sq. m. It will be seen that twenty districts are enumerated, these being the divisions under the Boer government and still commonly used. In 1904 Bloemhof was officially included in Wolmaransstad; Bethel in Standerton; Piet Retief in Wakkerstroom, and Carolina in Ermelo. Each district is sub-divided into field-cornetcies, the cornetcies being themselves divided, where necessary, into urban and rural areas. For parliamentary purposes the districts are divided into single member constituencies. The capital of the

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Report by Dr. Hunter McGuire, Chairman, ... 1

I. Slavery not the cause of the war.

II. Attempt of Northern writers to misrepresent the South and its cause.

III. The Northern cause will be finally adjudged the "Lost Cause."

IV. Criticism of the writings of Mr. John Fiske, and of "Our Country," by Cooper, Estill and Lemon.

V. All the South asks that the truth be stated.

Report by Judge Geo. L. Christian, Acting Chairman,. 33

I. The right of secession established by Northern testimony.

II. The North the aggressor in bringing on the war, established by their own testimony.

Report by Judge Geo. L. Christian, Chairman, ... 69

A contrast between the way the war was conducted by the Federals and the way it was conducted by the Confederates, drawn almost entirely from Federal sources.

Report by Judge Geo. L. Christian, Chairman,. . .107

On the treatment and exchange of prisoners.

Report by Judge Geo. L. Christian, Chairman,. . .141

North Carolina and Virginia in the Civil War.

Report of the History Committee of the U. C. V., made to the Reunion of Confederate Veterans, held at Richmond, Va., May 30th-June 3d, 1907, by Judge Geo. L. Christian, of Richmond, Va., ..... 173 I. Which side was responsible for the existence of the cause or causes of the war? II. Which side was the aggressor in provoking the conflict?

III. Which side had the legal right to do what was done?

IV. Which side conducted itself the better, and according to the rules of civilized warfare, pending the conflict?

V. The relations of the slaves to the Confederate cause?


text:
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title: User talk:Naddy