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Advert The Railroad Series BY ALLEN CHAPMAN. Ralph Fairbanks was bound to become a railroad man, as his father had been before him. Step by step he worked his way upward, serving first in the Roundhouse, cleaning loco- motives; then in the Switch Tower, clearing the tracks; then on the Engine, as a fireman; then as engineer of the Over- land Express: and finally as Train Dispatcher. In this line of books there is revealed the whole workings of a great American railroad system. There are adventures in abundance — railroad wrecks, dashes through forest fires, the pursuit of a "wildcat" locomotive, the disappearance of a pay car with a large sum of money on board — but there is much more than this — the intense rivalry among railroads and railroad men, the working out of running schedules, the get- ting through " on time " in spite of all obstacles, and the manipulation of railroad securities by evil men who wish to rule or ruin. Books that every American boy ought to own. RALPH. THE TRAIN DISPATCHER Or The Mystery of the Pay Car. RALPH ON THE OVERLAND EXPRESS Or The Trials and Triumphs of a Young Engineer. IRAbPH ON THE ENGI?« Or The Young Fireman of the Limited Mail. RALPH OF THE ROUND HOUSE Or Bound to Become a Railroad Man. RALPH IN THE SWITCH TOWER Or Clearing the Track. i2mo. Illustrated. Handsomely bound in cloth. Price» GO Cents per Volt&tne. Postpaid. GROSSET & DUNLAP, - NEW YORK


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Advert THE DICK HAMILTON SERIES BY HOWARD R. GARIS A NEW LINE OF CLEVER TALES FOR BOYS DICK HAMILTON'S FORTUNE Or The Stirring Doings of a Millionaire's Son Dick, the son of a millionaire, has a fortune 'left to him by his mother. But before he can touch the bulk of this money it is stipu- lated in his mother's will that he must do certain things, in order to prove that he is worthy of possessing such a fortune. The doings of Dick and his chums make the liveliest kind of reading. DICK HAMILTON'S CADET DAYS Or The Handicap of a Millionaire's Son The hero, a very rich young man, is sent to a military academy to make his way without the use of money. A fine picture of life at an up-to-date military academy is given, with target shooting, broad- sword exercise, trick riding, sham battles, and all. Dick proves himself a hero in the best sense of the word. DICK HAMILTON'S STEAM YACHT Or A Young Millionaire and the Kidnappers A series of adventures while yachting in which our hero's wealth plays a part. Dick is marooned on an island, recovers his yacht and foils the kidnappers. The wrong young man is spirited away, Dick gives chase and there is a surprising rescue at sea. DICK HAMILTON'S FOOTBALL TEAM Or A Young Millionaire on the Gridiron A very interesting account of how Dick succeeded in developing a champion team and of the lively contests with other teams. There is also related a number of thrilling incidents in which Dick is the
 * entral figure.

i2mo. Handsomely printed and illustrated, and bound in cloth. Stamped in colors. Printed wrappers. Other volumes in preparation. andsomely printed and i' colors. Printed wrapper Price, 60 Cents per volume, postpaid GROSSET & DUNLAP - NEW YORK

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Advert The Dorothy Chester Series By EVELYN RAYMOND A series of stories for American giris, by one of the most popu- nar writers of fiction for girls' reading. The books are full of in- terest, winsome and thoroughly wholesome. i2mo. Handsomely printed on excellent paper, and finely il« lustrated. Handsomely bound in cloth, stamped in Colors. Price* 60 Cents per Volume* Postpaid* DOROTHY CHESTER The Haps and Mishaps of a Foundling The first volume tells how Dorothy was found on the doorstep, taken in, and how she grew to be a lovable girl of twelve; and was then carried off by a person who held her for ransom. She made a warm friend of Jim, the nobody ; and the adventures of the pair are as interesting as they are surprising. DOROTHY CHESTER AT SKYRIE Shows Dorothy at her country home near the Highlands of the Hudson. Here astonishing adventures befell her, and once again Jim, the nobody, comes to her assistance. Otber Voltames in Preparation* The Bobbsey Twins Books For Little Men and Women By LAURA LEE HOPE Copyright publications which cannot be obtained elsewhere. Books that will charm the hearts of the little ones, and of which they never will tire. Small i2mo. Handsomely printed and il- lustrated. Bound in cloth, stamped in Colors. Price* 35 Cents per Volume* Postpaid* THE BOBBSEY TWINS Or, Merry Days Indoors and Out THE BOBBSEY TWINS IN THE COUNTRY THE BOBBSEY TWINS AT THE SEASHORE GEOSSET & DUNLAP, I NEW TOKK


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 A LIST OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY Sir Isaac Pitman& Sons, Ltd. (Incorporating WHITTAKER & CO.) PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C.2 The prices given apply only to the British Isles, and are subject to alteration without notice. A complete Catalogue giving full details of the following books will be sent post free on application. ALL PRICES ARE NET. S. d. AERONAUTICAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION, ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF. A. W. Judge. 7 6 AEROPLANE STRUCTURAL DESIGN. T. H. Jones and J. D. Frier 21 AEROPLANES AND AIRSHIPS. W. E. Dommett. 1 9 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE MATERIALS FERROUS. A. W. Judge 25 AIRSHIP ATTACKS ON ENGLAND. F. T. Von Buttlar- Brandenfels 13 ALTERNATING-CURRENT WORK. W. Perren Maycock 10 6 ALIGNMENT CHARTS. E. S. Andrews. . .20 ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. Whit- taker's 36 ARITHMETIC OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS. E. H. Crapper. . . . . . .46 ARMATURE CONSTRUCTION. H. M. Hobart, and A. G. Ellis 25 ART AND CRAFT OF CABINET MAKING. D. Denning 7 6 ASTRONOMY, FOR GENERAL READERS. G. F. Chambers 40


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 5. d. ASTRONOMY FOR EVERYBODY. Prof. S. Newcombe 7 6 ATLANTIC FERRY : ITS SHIPS, MEN AND WORKING, THE. A. G. Maginnis 30 AUTOMOBILE IGNITION AND VALVE TIMING, START- ING AND LIGHTING, INCLUDING FORD SYSTEM. J. B. Rathbun 80 ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINERY ; PAPERS ON THE DESIGN OF. C. C. Hawkins, S. P. Smith and S. Neville 21 BAUDCT PRINTING TELEGRAPHIC SYSTEM. H. W. Pendry 60 CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS. J. Stoney 3 6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY : A PRACTICAL HAND- BOOK FOR CRAFTSMEN AND STUDENTS. B. F. and H. P. Fletcher 76 CENTRAL STATION ELECTRICITY SUPPLY. A. Gay and C. H. Yeaman 12 6 COLOUR IN WOVEN DESIGN : A TREATISE ON TEXTILE COLOURING. R. Beaumont * .21 ENGLISH-SPANISH COMMERCIAL TERMS. R. D. Monteverde. . . . <, . .36 COMPRESSED AIR POWER. A. W. and Z. W. Daw 21 CONCRETE STEEL BUILDINGS. W. N. Twelvetrees 12 CONTINUOUS-CURRENT DYNAMO DESIGN, ELEMEN- TARY PRINCIPLES OF. H. M. Hobart. . 10 6 CONTINUOUS CURRENT MOTORS AND CONTROL AP- PARATUS. W. Perren Maycock. . .76 DESIGN OF AEROPLANES. A. W. Judge. . 14 DESIGN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINERY. J. R. Barr and R. D. Archibald. . . 30 DETAIL DESIGN IN REINFORCED CONCRETE. By E. S. Andrews 60 DICTIONARY OF AIRCRAFT. W. E. Dommett. 2 DETAIL DESIGN OF MARINE SCREW PROPELLERS. D. H. Jackson 60 DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. J. R. Barr 15 DISSECTIONS, ILLUSTRATED. G. G. Brodie. . 25 DIVING MANUAL AND HANDBOOK OF SUBMARINE APPLIANCES. R. H. Davis. ,76 DRAWING AND DESIGNING, C, G, Leland. ,36


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 9. d. DYNAMO : ITS THEORY, DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE THE. C. C. Hawkins and F. Wallis. In two vols., Each. 12 6 ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING : A TREATISE ON WIRING FOR LIGHTING, HEATING, &c. S. C. Batstone. 6 ELECTRO-PLATERS' HANDBOOK. G. E. Bonney. 5 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING FOR AMATEURS. S. R. Bottone 60 ELECTRO MOTORS. How MADE AND How USED, S. R. Bottone 46 ELECTRIC BELLS AND ALL ABOUT THEM. S. R. Bottone 36 ELECTRIC TRACTION. A. T. Dover. . . 25 ELECTRIC MOTORS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS. A. T. Dover 18 ELECTRIC MOTORS CONTINUOUS, POLYPHASE AND SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS. H. M. Hobart. . 21 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER DISTRIBUTION. Vol. I. W. Perren Maycock. . . .106 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER DISTRIBUTION. Vol. II. W. Perren Maycock. . . 10 6 ELECTRIC MINING MACHINERY. S. F. Walker .15 ELECTRIC WIRING, FITTINGS, SWITCHES AND LAMPS. W. Perren Maycock 10 ELECTRIC WIRING DIAGRAMS. W. Perren Maycoc'.: 5 ELECTRIC WIRING TABLES. W. Perren Maycock. 5 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY AND CALCULATIONS. W. Perren Maycock 76 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS IN THEORY AND PRAC- TICE. Murdoch and Oschwald. . . 12 6 ELECTRIC LIGHTING IN THE HOME. L. Caster. 6 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS' POCKET BOOK. Whit- taker's 10 6 ELEMENTS OF ELECTRO-TECHNICS. A. P. Young 7 6 ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. A. J. Jukes-Browne. 3 ELEMENTARY TELEGRAPHY. H. W. Pendry. 4 ELEMENTARY AERONAUTICS, OR THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF AERIAL MACHINES. A. P. Thurston 86 ELEMENTARY GRAPHIC STATICS. J. T. Wight. 5


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 8. d. ENGINEER DRAUGHTSMEN'S WORK : HINTS TO BE- GINNERS IN DRAWING OFFICES. . . .26 ENGINEERING WORKSHOP EXERCISES. E. Pull. 3 6 ENGINEERS' AND ERECTORS' POCKET DICTIONARY : ENGLISH, GERMAN, DUTCH. W. H. Steenbeek 2 6 ENGLISH FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS. F. F. Potter. 2 EXPERIMENTAL MATHEMATICS. G. R. Vine Book I, with Answers. . . .10 II, with Answers. . . .10 EXPLOSIVES INDUSTRY, RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE BRITISH. . . . . . . 18 FIELD MANUAL OF SURVEY METHODS AND OPERA- TIONS. A. Lovat Higgins. . . . 21 FIELD WORK FOR SCHOOLS. E. H. Harrison and C. A. Hunter 20 FILES AND FILING. Fremont, Taylor. . . 21 FIRST BOOK OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. W. Perren Maycock. . . . . .60 FIVE FIGURE LOGARITHMS. W. E. Dommett. 1 6 FLAX CULTURE AND PREPARATION. F. Bradbury 10 6 FUSELAGE DESIGN. A. W. Judge ; * {. * .30 GAS, GASOLENE AND OIL ENGINES. J. B. Rathbun 8 GAS ENGINE TROUBLES AND INSTALLATIONS. J. B. Rathbun 80 GAS AND OIL ENGINE OPERATION. J. Okill. 5 GAS, OIL, AND PETROL ENGINES : INCLUDING SUCTION GAS PLANT AND HUMPHREY PUMPS. A. Garrard ... . .60 GAS SUPPLY IN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE : A GUIDE FOR THE GAS FITTER, GAS ENGINEER AND GAS CONSUMER. W. H. Y. Webber. .40 GERMAN GRAMMAR FOR SCIENCE STUDENTS. W. A. Osborne ..30 GREAT ASTRONOMERS. Sir R. Ball. . .76 GUIDE TO STUDY OF THE IONIC VALVE. W. D. Owen 26 HANDRAILING FOR GEOMETRICAL STAIRCASES. W. A. Scott 26 HIGH HEAVENS, IN THE. Sir R. Ball. . . 10 6 HIGH-SPEED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. A. W. Judge 18


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 *. d. HISTORICAL PAPERS ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. G. W. MacDonald 90 HOSIERY MANUFACTURE. W. Davis. . .90 HOUSING PROBLEM. J. J. Clarke. . . 21 How TO MANAGE THE DYNAMO. A. R. Bottone. 2 HYDRAULIC MOTORS AND TURBINES. G. R. Bodmer. . . . . . . 15 INDUCTION COILS. G. E. Bonney. . .60 INSULATION OF ELECTRIC MACHINES. H. W. Turner and H. M. Hobart. . . . 21 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING. A. F. Allen 10 6 LEATHER WORK. C. G. Leland. . . .50 LEKTRIK LIGHTING CONNECTIONS. W. Perren Maycock ....... 9 LENS WORK FOR AMATEURS. H. Orford. .36 LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS AND LIGHTNING GUARDS. Sir O. Lodge 15 LOGARITHMS FOR BEGINNERS C. N. Pickworth. 1 6 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY, AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE OF PRACTICAL. J. R. Ashworth. 3 MAGNETO AND ELECTRIC IGNITION. W. Hibbert. 3 6 MANAGEMENT OF ACCUMULATORS. Sir D. Salomons 7 6 MANUAL INSTRUCTION WOODWORK. Barter, S. 7 6 DRAWING. 4 MANUFACTURE OF EXPLOSIVES. 2 Vols. O. Guttmann 50 MATHEMATICAL TABLES. W. E. Dommett. . 4 6 MECHANICAL TABLES, SHOWING THE DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF IRON BARS, ETC. J. Foden 20 MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' POCKET BOOK. Whit- taker's 60 MECHANICS' AND DRAUGHTSMEN'S POCKET BOOK. W. E. Dommett ,.26 METAL TURNING. J. G. Horner. . . .40 METAL WORK REPOUSSE. C. G. Leland. .50 METRIC AND BRITISH SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. F. M. Perkin. . . .36 METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. W. E. Dommett. 2 6


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 MINERALOGY : THE CHARACTERS OF MINERALS, THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION. F. H. Hatch 60 MINING MATHEMATICS (PRELIMINARY). G. W. Stringfellow 16 Do. With Answers 20 MODERN ILLUMINANTS AND ILLUMINATING ENGIN- EERING. Dow and Gaster. . . . 25 MODERN PRACTICE OF COAL MINING. Kerr and Burns. Part 1, 5/- ; Parts 2, 3 and 4, each. 6 MODERN OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. H. Orford. 4 MODERN MILLING. E. Pull. . . .90 MOTION PICTURE OPERATION, STAGE ELECTRICS AND ILLUSIONS. H. C. Horstmann and V. H. Tousley < 7 6 MOTOR TRUCK AND AUTOMOBILE MOTORS AND MECHANISM. T. H. Russell. . .80 MOTOR BOATS, HYDROPLANES AND HYDROAERO- PLANES. T. H. Russell. . . .80 MOVING LOADS ON RAILWAY UNDERBRIDGES. H. Bamford. . . * * 5 6 OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. J. T. Taylor ... . .40 PIPES AND TUBES : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND JOINTING. P. R. Bjorling. . . .40 PLANT WORLD : ITS PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE, THE. G. Massee SO PLYWOOD AND GLUE, MANUFACTURE AND USE OF, THE. B. C. Boulton. .76 POLYPHASE CURRENTS. A. Still. . .76 POWER WIRING DIAGRAMS. A. T. Dover. .76 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN HEAT, LIGHT AND SOUND. J. R. Ashworth 26 PRACTICAL ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. F. C. Allsop 6 PRACTICAL SHEET AND PLATE METAL WORK. E. A. Atkins 10 PRACTICAL IRONFOUNDING. J. G. Horner. . 10 PRACTICAL TESTING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES. L. Oulton and N. J. Wilson. . ..60 PRACTICAL TELEPHONE HANDBOOK AND GUIDE TO THE TELEPHONIC EXCHANGE. J. Pooie. . 15 n


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 s. d. PRACTICAL ADVICE FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. G. W. Roberts 50 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND COLUMNS. W. N. Twelvetrees. 7 6 PREPARATORY COURSE TO MACHINE DRAWING. P. W. Scott. . . . . .19 PRIMER OF TRIGONOMETRY FOR ENGINEERS. W. G. Dunkley. . . ....... .50 PRIMER OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE. E. S. Andrews Part 1, 3s. ; Part 2, 2s. 6d. ; Complete. .46 PRINCIPLES OF FITTING. J. G. Horner. .76 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN-MAKING ,,. .40 PROPERTIES OF AEROFOILS AND RESISTANCE OF AERODYNAMIC BODIES. A. W. Judge. . 18 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR AUTOMOBILE STU- DENTS AND MECHANICS. T. H. Russell. .80 RADIO-TELEGRAPHIST'S GUIDE AND LOG BOOK. W. H. Marchant 56 RADIUM AND ALL ABOUT IT. S. R. Bottone. .16 RAILWAY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY. L. Serraillier 7 6 REINFORCED CONCRETE. W. N. Twelvetrees .21 RESEARCHES IN PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. W. R. G. Atkins 90 ROSES AND ROSE GROWING. R. G. Kingsley,. 7 6 ROSES, NEW ....... 9 RUSSIAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, TABLES OF. Redvers Elder 26 SCIENCE OF THE SOIL. C. Warrell. . .36 SIMPLIFIED METHODS OF CALCULATING REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS. W. N. Twelvetrees. . 9 SLIDE RULE. A. L. Higgins .... 6 SLIDE RULE. C. N. Pick worth. . . .36 SMALL BOOK ON ELECTRIC MOTORS, A. C.C. AND A.C. W. Perren Maycock. . . .50 STARRY REALMS, IN. Sir R. Ball. . . 10 6 STORAGE BATTERY PRACTICE. R. Rankin. .76 STEEL WORKS ANALYSIS. J. O. Arnold and F. Ibbotson 12 6 STRESSES IN HOOKS AND OTHER CURVED BEAMS. E. S. Andrews, f , ., ,.60


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 s. d. STRUCTURAL IRON AND STEEL. W. N. Twelve- trees. 76 SUBMARINE VESSELS, ETC. W. E. Dommett. 5 SURVEYING AND SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS. G. A. T. Middleton 60 TABLES FOR MEASURING AND MANURING LAND. J. Cullyer 30 TABLES OF SAFE LOADS ON STEEL PILLARS. E. S. Andrews. . . . . . .60 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK OF MANUAL TRAINING : METAL WORK. J. S. Miller. . . .40 TELEGRAPHY : AN EXPOSITION OF THE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM OF THE BRITISH POST OFFICE. T. E. Herbert 18 TEXT-BOOK OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING. A. Klemin 15 TEXT BOOK OF BOTANY. Part I THE ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS. M. Yates. . . 2 TRANSFORMERS FOR SINGLE AND MULTIPHASE CURRENTS. G. Kapp V. V.. 12 6 TREATISE ON MANURES. A. B. Griffiths. .76 TRIPLANE AND THE STABLE BIPLANE. J. C. Hunsaker. . . .30 TURRET LATHE TOOLS, How TO LAY OUT. 6 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION. R. Beaumont .21 VENTILATION OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY. W. H. F. Murdoch 36 VENTILATION, PUMPING, AND HAULAGE, THE MATHEMATICS OF. F. Birks. . . .50 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. J. B. Coppock. .36 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND HERTZIAN WAVES. S. R. Bottone 36 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY : A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR OPERATORS AND STUDENTS. W. H. Marchant. . . . . ..'76 WOODCARVING. C. G. Leland. . . * .. .. .50 Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Books post free. LONDON : SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2


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 Steam Locomotive Construction and Maintenance ' AHRONS

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 The Locomotive Publishing Co., Ltd, AMEN CORNER .-. LONDON, E.C.4 SEND FOR COMPLETE LIST OF RAILWAY PUBLICATIONS ! POST FREE. (5350A) I

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 The Locomotive Publishing Co, Ltd. AMEN CORNER /. LONDON, E.C.4 J L RAILWAY SIGNAL AND PERMANENT WAY ENGINEERS' POCKETBOOK. 260 pp. Price 5s. Postage 3d. GENERAL CONTENTS Railway Signalling. Development of Fixed Signals Board of Trade Requirements in regard to Signalling on Railways Descrip- tion of Various Types of Signals and Purposes for which used Signal Boxes Signal Lighting Signalling Systems Track Circuits and Automatic Signals Automatic Block Signals The Block System, Cab Signalling and Automatic Train Control Telephones on Railways Telegraphy. Permanent Way. Board of Trade Regulations Rails Sleepers Chairs Keys Fishplates Ballasting Super- Elevation and Tables Gauging and Checking of Curves Switches and Crossings Setting out of Permanent Way Calculation of Switch and Crossing Angles Improvement of Existing Curves Electrical Equipment of Railway Tracks relative to Permanent Way Maintenance. Useful Tables, and Metrical Equivalents. An Indispensable Compendium for the Engineer, Draughtsman, Inspector, Lineman Ganger, etc., etc. SUPERHEATING ON LOCOMOTIVES. By J. F. GAIRNS. Second Edition, 120 pp. (Illustrated.) Price '3s. 6d., Postage 3d. The Why and the Wherefore of Superheated Steam. Advantages Economics and Special Problems History and Development of the Superheater Locomotive Principal Superheaters in Use The Maintenance of Superheater Locomotives. LOCOMOTIVE RUNNING SHED NOTES. 98 pp. (Illustrated.) Price 3s. 6d., Postage 3tf. Locomotive Running Shed Management Training of Enginemen Locomotive Defects The Cure of Bad Steaming Engines The Slipping of Driving Wheels Runn ; ng Shed Breakdown Tools and Tackle Testing Locomotive Valves and Pistons in Steam How to Treat Big Ends Hydraulic Wheel Drops for Running Sheds Re-Meta'Hng and Fitting Eccentric Strap Liners Regrinding Steam Cocks Refitting Big End Brasses and Axle Brasses Protecting Boiler Plates Brake Rigging, etc. NOTES ON RAILWAY SIGNALLING. By J. PARSONS, A.M.I.S.E., and B W. COOKE, A.M.I.S.E. 74 pp. (I'lustrated.) Price 3s. 6d., Postage 3d. Written with the object of giving in a concise form a general idea of the methods and appliances adopted ; n Great Britain Evolution of Signalling Repeating and indicating Shunting Signals Connections to Points Compensation Facing Point Locks Locking Apparatus Signal Boxes Level Crossing Gates The Block System Single Line Working Track Circuit Fog Cab Signals, etc. J SEND FOR COMPLETE UST OF RAILWAY PUBLICATIONS POST FREE.

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text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Stanton, Henry Brewster


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive ::c.

On February 16, 1950, France requested U.S. military and economic assistance in prosecuting the Indochina War. The Secretary of Defense in a Memorandum for the President on March 6 stated that:

 * "The choice confronting the United States is to support the legal governments in Indochina or to face the extension of Communism over the remainder of the continental area of Southeast Asia and possibly westward..."

The same month, the State Department dispatched an aid survey mission under R. Allen Griffin to Indochina (and to Burma, Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaya). The Griffin Mission proposed (inter alia) aid for the Bao Dai government, since the State of Vietnam was considered:

 * " ... not secure against internal subversion, political infiltration, or military aggression.

 * "The objective of each program is to assist as much as possible in building strength, and in so doing ... to assure the several peoples that support of their governments and resistance to communist subversion will bring them direct and tangible benefits and well-founded hope for an increase in living standards. Accordingly, the programs are of two main types: (1) technical and material aid to essential services and (2) economic rehabilitation and development, focused primarily on the provision of technical assistance and material aid in developing agricultural and industrial output.... These activities are to be carried on in a way best calculated to demonstrate that the local national governments are able to bring benefits to their own people and thereby build political support, especially among the rural population....

 * "The aims of economic assistance to Southeast Asia ... are to reinforce the non-Communist national governments in that region by quickly strengthening and expanding the economic life of the area, improve the conditions under which its people live, and demonstrate concretely the genuine interest of the United States in the welfare of the people of Southeast Asia."

In a strategic assessment of Southeast Asia in April, 1950, the JCS recommended military assistance for Indochina, provided:

 * " ... that United States military aid not be granted unconditionally; rather that it be carefully controlled and that the aid program be integrated with political and economic programs..."

On May 1, 1950, President Truman approved $10 million for urgently needed military assistance items for Indochina. The President's Rh

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 and Negroes—the Mestizos, from Europeans and American indigenes—the Zambos, from these American indigenes and Negroes, &c., are permanently fertile. They practically constitute sub-races, with a general blending of the characters of the two parents, and only differing from fully-established races in more or less tendency to revert to one or other of the original types. It has been argued, on the other hand, that not all such mixed breeds are permanent, and especially that the cross between Europeans and Australian indigenes is almost sterile; but this assertion, when examined with the care demanded by its bearing on the general question of hybridity, has distinctly broken down. On the whole, the general evidence favours the opinion that any two races may combine to produce a new sub-race, which again may combine with any other variety. Thus, if the existence of a small number of distinct races of mankind be taken as a starting-point, it is obvious that their crossing would produce an indefinite number of secondary varieties, such as the population of the world actually presents. The working out in detail of the problem, how far the differences among complex nations, such as those of Europe, may have been brought about by hybridity, is still, however, a task of almost hopeless intricacy. Among the boldest attempts to account for distinctly-marked populations as resulting from the intermixture of two races, are Huxley’s view that the Hottentots are hybrid between the Bushmen and the Negroes, and his more important suggestion, that the Melanochroic peoples of southern Europe are of mixed Xanthochroic and Australioid stock.

The problem of ascertaining how the small number of races, distinct enough to be called primary, can have assumed their different types, has been for years the most disputed field of anthropology, the battle-ground of the rival schools of monogenists and polygenists. The one has claimed all mankind to be descended from one original stock, and generally from a single pair; the other has contended for the several primary races being separate species of independent origin. The great problem of the monogenist theory is to explain by what course of variation the so different races of man have arisen from a single stock. In ancient times little difficulty was felt in this, authorities such as Aristotle and Vitruvius seeing in climate and circumstance the natural cause of racial differences, the Ethiopian having been blackened by the tropical sun, &c. Later and closer observations, however, have shown such influences to be, at any rate, far slighter in amount and slower in operation than was once supposed. A. de Quatrefages brings forward (Unité de l’espèce humaine) his strongest arguments for the variability of races under change of climate, &c. (action du milieu), instancing the asserted alteration in complexion, constitution and character of Negroes in America, and Englishmen in America and Australia. But although the reality of some such modification is not disputed, especially as to stature and constitution, its amount is not enough to upset the counter-proposition of the remarkable permanence of type displayed by races, ages after they have been transported to climates extremely different from that of their former home. Moreover, physically different peoples, such as the Bushmen and Negroes in Africa, show no signs of approximation under the influence of the same climate; while, on the other hand, the coast tribes of Tierra del Fuego and forest tribes of tropical Brazil continue to resemble one another, in spite of extreme differences of climate and food. Darwin is moderate in his estimation of the changes produced on races of man by climate and mode of life within the range of history (Descent of Man, part i. ch. 4 and 7). The slightness and slowness of variation in human races having become known, a great difficulty of the monogenist theory was seen to lie in the apparent shortness of the Biblical chronology. Inasmuch as several well-marked races of mankind, such as the Egyptian, Phoenician, Ethiopian, &c., were much the same three or four thousand years ago as now, their variation from a single stock in the course of any like period could hardly be accounted for without a miracle. This difficulty the polygenist theory escaped, and in consequence it gained ground. Modern views have however tended to restore, though under a new aspect, the doctrine of a single human stock. The fact that man has existed during a vast period of time makes it more easy to assume the continuance of very slow natural variation as having differentiated even the white man and the Negro among the descendants of a common progenitor. On the other hand it does not follow necessarily from a theory of evolution of species that mankind must have descended from a single stock, for the hypothesis of development admits of the argument, that several simian species may have culminated in several races of man. The general tendency of the development theory, however, is against constituting separate species where the differences are moderate enough to be accounted for as due to variation from a single type. Darwin’s summing-up of the evidence as to unity of type throughout the races of mankind is as distinctly a monogenist argument as those of Blumenbach, Prichard or Quatrefages—

The main difficulty of the monogenist school has ever been to explain how races which have remained comparatively fixed in type during the long period of history, such as the white man and the Negro, should, in even a far longer period, have passed by variation from a common original. To meet this A. R. Wallace suggests that the remotely ancient representatives of the human species, being as yet animals too low in mind to have developed those arts of maintenance and social ordinances by which man holds his own against influences from climate and circumstance, were in their then wild state much more plastic than now to external nature; so that “natural selection” and other causes met with but feeble resistance in forming the permanent varieties or races of man, whose complexion and structure still remained fixed in their descendants (see Wallace, Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 319). On the whole, it may be asserted that the doctrine of the unity of mankind stands on a firmer basis than in previous ages. It would be premature to judge how far the problem of the origin of races may be capable of exact solution; but the experience gained since 1871 countenances Darwin’s prophecy that before long the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists would die a silent and unobserved death.

IV. Antiquity of Man.—Until the 19th century man’s first appearance on earth was treated on a historical basis as matter of record. It is true that the schemes drawn up by chronologists differed widely, as was natural, considering the variety and inconsistency of their documentary data. On the whole, the scheme of Archbishop Usher, who computed that the earth and man were created in 4004, was the most popular (see ). It is no longer necessary, however, to discuss these chronologies. Geology has made it manifest that our earth must have been the seat of vegetable and animal life for an immense period of time; while the first appearance of man, though comparatively recent, is positively so remote, that an estimate between twenty and a hundred thousand years may fairly be taken as a minimum. This geological claim for a vast antiquity of the human race is supported by the similar claims of prehistoric archaeology and the science of culture, the evidence of all three departments of inquiry being intimately connected, and in perfect harmony.

Human bones and objects of human manufacture have been found in such geological relation to the remains of fossil species of elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, bear, &c., as to lead to the distinct inference that man already existed at a remote period in localities

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text: The Dictionary of Australasian Biography/Dalley, Right Hon. William Bede


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive decision was taken in the context of the successful amphibious invasion of Nationalist-defended Hainan by a Communist Chinese army under General Lin Piao — with obvious implications for Indochina, and for Taiwan. One week later, on May 8, the Secretary of State announced U.S. aid for "the Associated States of Indochina and to France in order to assist them in restoring stability and permitting these states to pursue their peaceful and democratic development." Sixteen days later, Bao Dai's government and France were notified on May 24 of the U.S. intention to establish an economic aid mission to the Associated States. As the North Korean Army moved southward on June 27, 1950, President Truman announced that he had directed "acceleration in the furnishing of military assistance to the forces of France and the Associated States in Indochina..."

The crucial issue presented by the American decision to provide aid to Indochina was who should be the recipient — Bao Dai or France — and, hence, whose policies would U.S. aid support?

 * d.

While the U.S. was deliberating over whether to provide economic and military assistance to Indochina in early 1950, negotiations opened at Pau, France, among France and the Associated States to set the timing and extent of granting autonomy. Had these talks led to genuine independence for Bao Dai's regime, the subsequent U.S.–French relationship would probably have been much less complex and significantly less acerbic. As it was, however, the Pau accords led to little more independence than had the Ha Long Bay or Elysee Agreements. Moreover, France's reluctance to yield political or economic authority to Bao Dai was reinforced by its proclivity to field strong-willed commanders, suspicious of the U.S., determined on a military victory, and scornful of the Bao Dai solution. General Marcel Carpentier, Commander in Chief when the French applied for aid, was quoted in the New York Times on March 1950, as follows:

 * "I will never agree to equipment being given directly to the Vietnamese. If this should be done I would resign within twenty-four hours. The Vietnamese have no generals, no colonels, no military organization that could effectively utilize the equipment. It would be wasted, and in China the United States has had enough of that."

 * (1)

Carpentier's successor, High Commissioner-Commander in Chief General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, arrived in December, 1950, following the severe setback of the autumn. De Lattre electrified the discouraged French forces like General Ridgway later enheartened U.S. forces in Korea. De Lattre saw himself as leading an anti-Communist crusade. He calculated that he could win a decisive victory within fifteen months in Vietnam, and "save it from Peking and Moscow." He deprecated the idea that the French were still motivated by colonialism, and even told one U.S. newsman that France fought for the West alone: Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :"We have no more interest here... We have abandoned all our colonial positions completely. There is little rubber or coal or rice we can any longer obtain. And what does it amount to compared to the blood of our sons we are losing and the three hundred and fifty million francs we spend a day in Indochina? The work we are doing is for the salvation of the Vietnamese people. And the propaganda you Americans make that we are still colonialists is doing us tremendous harm, all of us — the Vietnamese, yourselves, and us."

Moreover, De Lattre was convinced that the Vietnamese had to be brought into the fight. In a speech, — "A Call to Vietnamese Youth" — he declared:

 * "This war, whether you like it or not, is the war of Vietnam for Vietnam. And France will carry it on for you only if you carry it on with her.... Certain people pretend that Vietnam cannot be independent because it is part of the French Union. Not true! In our universe, and especially in our world of today, there can be no nations absolutely independent. There are only fruitful interdependencies and harmful dependencies.... Young men of Vietnam, to whom I feel as close as I do to the youth of my native land, the moment has come for you to defend your country."

Yet, General De Lattre regarded U.S. policy vis-a-vis Bao Dai with grave misgivings. Americans, he held, afflicted with "missionary zeal," were "fanning the fires of extreme nationalism... French traditionalism is vital here. You cannot, you must not destroy it. No one can simply make a new nation overnight by giving out economic aid and arms alone." As adamantly as Carpentier, De Lattre opposed direct U.S. aid for Vietnamese forces, and allowed the Vietnamese military little real independence.

Edmund A. Gullion, U.S. Minister Counselor in Saigon from 1950 on, faulted De Lattre on his inability to stimulate in the Vietnamese National Army either the or  he communicated to the rest of the French Expeditionary Corps:

 * "... It remained difficult to inculcate nationalist ardor in a native army whose officers and non-coms were primarily white Frenchmen... The Vietnamese units that went into action were rarely unsupported by the French. American contact with them was mainly through the French, who retained exclusive responsibility for their training. We felt we needed much more documentation than we had to assess the army's true potential. We needed battalion-by-battalion reports on the performance of the Vietnamese in training as well as in battle and a close contact with intelligence and command echelons, and we never got this. Perhaps the most significant and saddest manifestation of the French failure to create a really independent Vietnamese Army

Rh

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text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Storey, Wilbur Fisk


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course the first thing to do was to make a grand survey of the country she was going to travel through. "It's something very like learning geography," thought Alice, as she stood on tiptoe in hopes of being able to see a little further. "Principal riversthere are none. Principal mountainsI'm on the only one, but I don't think it's got any name. Principal townswhy, what are those creatures, making honey down there? They can't be beesnobody ever saw bees a mile off, you know" and for some time she stood silent, watching one of


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Rh them that was bustling about among the flowers, poking its proboscis into them, "just as if it was a regular bee," thought Alice.

However, this was anything but a regular bee: in fact, it was an elephantas Alice soon found out, though the idea quite took her breath away at first. "And what enormous flowers they must be!" was her next idea. "Something like cottages with the roofs taken off, and stalks put to themand what quantities of honey they must make! I think I'll go down andno, I won't go just yet," she went on, checking herself just as she was beginning to run down the hill, and trying to find some excuse for turning shy so suddenly. "It'll never do to go down among them without a good long branch to brush them awayand what fun it'll be when they ask me how I liked my walk. I shall say'Oh, I liked it well enough' (here came the favourite little toss of the head), 'only it was so dusty and hot, and the elephants did tease so!'"


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48 "I think I'll go down the other way," she said after a pause: "and perhaps I may visit the elephants later on. Besides, I do so want to get into the Third Square!"

So with this excuse she ran down the hill and jumped over the first of the six little brooks.

"Tickets, please!" said the Guard, putting his head in at the window. In a moment everybody was holding out a ticket: they were about the same size as the people, and quite seemed to fill the carriage.

"Now then! Show your ticket, child!" the Guard went on, looking angrily at Alice. And a great many voices all said together ("like the chorus of a song," thought Alice), "Don't keep him waiting, child! Why, his time is worth a thousand pounds a minute!"


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Rh "I'm afraid I haven't got one," Alice said in a frightened tone: "there wasn't a ticket-office where I came from." And again the chorus of voices went on. "There wasn't room for one where she came from. The land there is worth a thousand pounds an inch!"

"Don't make excuses," said the Guard: "you should have bought one from the engine-driver." And once more the chorus of voices went on with "The man that drives the engine. Why, the smoke alone is worth a thousand pounds a puff!"

Alice thought to herself, "Then there's no use in speaking." The voices didn't join in this time, as she hadn't spoken, but, to her great surprise, they all thought in chorus (I hope you understand what thinking in chorus meansfor I must confess that I don't), "Better say nothing at all. Language is worth a thousand pounds a word!"

"I shall dream about a thousand pounds to-night, I know I shall!" thought Alice.


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50

All this time the Guard was looking at her, first through a telescope, then through a microscope, and then through an opera-glass. At last he said, "You're travelling the wrong way," and shut up the window and went away.

"So young a child," said the gentleman sitting opposite to her, (he was dressed in white paper,) "ought to know which way she's going, even if she doesn't know her own name!"


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Rh A Goat, that was sitting next to the gentleman in white, shut his eyes and said in a loud voice, "She ought to know her way to the ticket-office, even if she doesn't know her alphabet!"

There was a Beetle sitting next the Goat (it was a very queer carriage-full of passengers altogether), and, as the rule seemed to be that they should all speak in turn, he went on with "She'll have to go back from here as luggage!"

Alice couldn't see who was sitting beyond the Beetle, but a hoarse voice spoke next. "Change engines" it said, and there it choked and was obliged to leave off.

"It sounds like a horse," Alice thought to herself. And an extremely small voice, close to her ear, said,

Then a very gentle voice in the distance said, "She must be labelled 'Lass, with care,' you know"

And after that other voices went on ("What a number of people there are in the carriage!"


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52 thought Alice), saying, "She must go by post, as she's got a head on her" "She must be sent as a message by the telegraph" "She must draw the train herself the rest of the way" and so on.

But the gentleman dressed in white paper leaned forwards and whispered in her ear, "Never mind what they all say, my dear, but take a return-ticket every time the train stops."

"Indeed I shan't!" Alice said rather impatiently. "I don't belong to this railway journey at allI was in a wood just nowand I wish I could get back there!"

said the little voice close to her ear.

"Don't tease so," said Alice, looking about in vain to see where the voice came from; "if you're so anxious to have a joke made, why don't you make one yourself?"

The little voice sighed deeply: it was very unhappy, evidently, and Alice would have said something pitying to comfort it, "if it would


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Rh only sigh like other people!" she thought. But this was such a wonderfully small sigh, that she wouldn't have heard it at all, if it hadn't come quite close to her ear. The consequence of this was that it tickled her ear very much, and quite took off her thoughts from the unhappiness of the poor little creature.

the little voice went on;

"What kind of insect?" Alice inquired a little anxiously. What she really wanted to know was, whether it could sting or not, but she thought this wouldn't be quite a civil question to ask.

the little voice began, when it was drowned by a shrill scream from the engine, and everybody jumped up in alarm, Alice among the rest.

The Horse, who had put his head out of the window, quietly drew it in and said, "It's only a brook we have to jump over." Everybody seemed satisfied with this, though Alice


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54 felt a little nervous at the idea of trains jumping at all. "However, it'll take us into the Fourth Square, that's some comfort!" she said to herself. In another moment she felt the carriage rise straight up into the air, and in her fright she caught at the thing nearest to her hand, which happened to be the Goat's beard.

But the beard seemed to melt away as she touched it, and she found herself sitting quietly under a treewhile the Gnat (for that was the insect she had been talking to) was balancing itself on a twig just over her head, and fanning her with its wings.

It certainly was a very large Gnat: "about the size of a chicken," Alice thought. Still, she couldn't feel nervous with it, after they had been talking together so long.

"then you don't like all insects?" the


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  : that would fight in the way de Lattre meant was the absence, at Dienbienphu, of any Vietnamese fighting elements. It was a French show."

Gullion is not altogether correct with respect to Dien Bien Phu; nonetheless, statistics on the ethnic composition of the defending garrison do reveal the nature of the problem. The 5th Vietnamese Parachute Battalion was dropped to reinforce the garrison so that as of May 6, 1954, the troops at Dien Bien Phu included:

Thus, the Vietnamese comprised more than a third of the fighting forces (and nearly 40% of the enlisted troops); but among the leaders, they provided one-sixth of the non-commissioned officers and less than 3% of the officers.

The paucity of Viet officers at Dien Bien Riu reflected the general condition of the National Army: as of 1953, there were 2,600 native officers, of whom only a handful held rank above major; compared to 7,000 French officers in a force of 150,000 Vietnamese troops.

 * (2)

De Lattre's successor as High Commissioner, Jean Letourneau, was also the French Cabinet Minister for the Associated States. Letourneau was sent to Indochina to assume the same power and privilege in the "independent" State of Vietnam that any of France's Governor Generals had ever exercised from Saigon's Norodom Palace. In May, 1953, a French Parliamentary Mission of Inquiry accused the Minister-High Commissioner of "veritable dictatorship, without limitation or control":

 * "The artificial life of Saigon, the temptations of power without control, the security of a judgment which disdains realities, have isolated the Minister and his entourage and have made them insensible to the daily tragedy of the war ...

 * "It is no longer up to us to govern, but to advise. The big thing was not to draw up plans irresponsibly, but to carry on daily a subtle diplomacy. In Saigon our representatives have allowed themselves to be inveigled into the tempting game of power and intrigue.

Rh

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Rh Gnat went on, as quietly as if nothing had happened.

"I like them when they can talk," Alice said. "None of them ever talk, where I come from."

"What sort of insects do you rejoice in, where you come from?" the Gnat inquired.

"I don't rejoice in insects at all," Alice explained, "because I'm rather afraid of themat least the large kinds. But I can tell you the names of some of them."

"Of course they answer to their names?" the Gnat remarked carelessly.

"I never knew them do it."

"What's the use of their having names," the Gnat said, "if they won't answer to them?"

"No use to them," said Alice; "but it's useful to the people that name them, I suppose. If not, why do things have names at all?"

"I can't say," the Gnat replied. "Further on, in the wood down there, they've got no nameshowever, go on with your list of insects: you're wasting time."


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56 "Well, there's the Horse-fly," Alice began, counting off the names on her fingers.

"All right," said the Gnat: "half way up that bush, you'll see a Rocking-horse-fly, if you look. It's made entirely of wood, and gets about by swinging itself from branch to branch."

"What does it live on?" Alice asked, with great curiosity.

"Sap and sawdust," said the Gnat. "Go on with the list."

Alice looked at the Rocking-horse-fly with great interest, and made up her mind that it must have


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Rh

been just repainted, it looked so bright and sticky; and then she went on.

"And there's the Dragon-fly."

"Look on the branch above your head," said the Gnat, "and there you'll find a Snap-dragon-fly. Its body is made of plum-pudding, its wings of holly-leaves, and its head is a raisin burning in brandy."

"And what does it live on?" Alice asked, as before.

"Frumenty and mince-pie," the Gnat replied; "and it makes its nest in a Christmas-box."


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58 "And then there's the Butterfly," Alice went on, after she had taken a good look at the insect with its head on fire, and had thought to herself, "I wonder if that's the reason insects are so fond of flying into candlesbecause they want to turn into Snap-dragon-flies!"

"Crawling at your feet," said the Gnat (Alice drew her feet back in some alarm), "you may observe a Bread-and-butter-fly. Its wings are thin slices of bread-and-butter, its body is a crust, and its head is a lump of sugar."

"And what does it live on?"


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Rh "Weak tea with cream in it."

A new difficulty came into Alice's head. "Supposing it couldn't find, any?" she suggested.

"Then it would die, of course."

"But that must happen very often," Alice remarked thoughtfully.

"It always happens," said the Gnat.

After this, Alice was silent for a minute or two, pondering. The Gnat amused itself meanwhile by humming round and round her head: at last it settled again and remarked, "I suppose you don't want to lose your name?"

"No, indeed," Alice said, a little anxiously.

"And yet I don't know," the Gnat went on in a careless tone: "only think how convenient it would be if you could manage to go home without it! For instance, if the governess wanted to call you to your lessons, she would call out 'Come here,' and there she would have to leave off, because there wouldn't be any name for her to call, and of course you wouldn't have to go, you know."


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :"Instead of seeing the most important things and acting on them, instead of making on the spot investigations, of looking for inspiration in the village and in the ricefield, instead of informing themselves and winning the confidence of the most humble people, in order to deprive the rebels of their best weapon, the Norodom Palace clique has allowed itself the luxury of administering à la francaise and of reigning over a country where revolution is smouldering ...

 * "The press has not the right of criticism. To tell the truth, it has become official, and the principal newspaper in Saigon is at the disposition of the High Commissariat. Letters are censored. Propaganda seems to be issued just to defend the High Commissariat. Such a regime cannot last, unless we are to appear as people who are determined not to keep their promises."

The Parliamentary Mission described Saigon: "where gambling, depravity, love of money and of power finish by corrupting the morale and destroying will-power ...": and the Vietnamese government: "The Ministers [of the Bao Dai regime] appear in the eyes of their compatriots to be French officials ..." The report did not hesitate to blame the French for Vietnamese corruption:

 * "It is grave that after eight years of and of anarchy, the presence in Indochina of a resident Minister has not been able to put an end to these daily scandals in the life in regard to the granting of licenses, the transfer of piastres, war damages, or commercial transactions. Even if our administration is not entirely responsible for these abuses, it is deplorable that one can affirm that it either ignores them or tolerates them."

Commenting on this report, an influential French editor blamed the "natural tendency of the military proconsulate to perpetuate itself" and "certain French political groups who have found in the war a principal source of their revenues ... through exchange operations, supplies to the expeditionary corps and war damages ..." He concluded that:

 * "The generally accepted theory is that the prolongation of the war in Indochina is a fatality imposed by events, one of those dramas in history which has no solution. The theory of the skeptics is that the impotence or the errors of the men responsible for our policy in Indochina have prevented us from finding a way out of this catastrophic enterprise. The truth is that the facts now known seem to add up to a lucid plan worked out step by step to eliminate any possibility of negotiation in Indochina in order to assure the prolongation without limit of the hostilities and of the military occupation."

Rh

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60 "That would never do, I'm sure," said Alice: "the governess would never think of excusing me lessons for that. If she couldn't remember my name, she'd call me 'Miss!' as the servants do."

"Well, if she said 'Miss,' and didn't say anything more," the Gnat remarked, "of course you'd miss your lessons. That's a joke. I wish you had made it."

"Why do you wish I had made it?" Alice asked. "It's a very bad one."

But the Gnat only sighed deeply, while two large tears came rolling down its cheeks.

"You shouldn't make jokes," Alice said, "if it makes you so unhappy."

Then came another of those melancholy little sighs, and this time the poor Gnat really seemed to have sighed itself away, for, when Alice looked up, there was nothing whatever to be seen on the twig, and, as she was getting quite chilly with sitting still so long, she got up and walked on.

She very soon came to an open field, with a wood on the other side of it: it looked much


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Rh darker than the last wood, and Alice felt a little timid about going into it. However, on second thoughts, she made up her mind to go on: "for I certainly won't go back," she thought to herself, and this was the only way to the Eighth Square.

"This must be the wood," she said thoughtfully to herself, "where things have no names. I wonder what'll become of my name when I go in? I shouldn't like to lose it at allbecause they'd have to give me another, and it would be almost certain to be an ugly one. But then the fun would be, trying to find the creature that had got my old name! That's just like the advertisements, you know, when people lose dogsanswers to the name of "Dash:" had on a brass collarjust fancy calling everything you met 'Alice,' till one of them answered! Only they wouldn't answer at all, if they were wise."

She was rambling on in this way when she reached the wood: it looked very cool and shady. "Well, at any rate it's a great comfort," she said as she stepped under the trees, "after being so


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62 hot, to get into theinto theinto what?" she went on, rather surprised at not being able to think of the word. "I mean to get under theunder theunder this, you know!" putting her hand on the trunk of the tree. "What does it call itself, I wonder? I do believe it's got no namewhy, to be sure it hasn't!"

She stood silent for a minute, thinking: then she suddenly began again. "Then it really has happened, after all! And now, who am I? I will remember, if I can! I'm determined to do it!" But being determined didn't help her much, and all she could say, after a great deal of puzzling, was, "L, I know it begins with L!"

Just then a Fawn came wandering by: it looked at Alice with its large gentle eyes, but didn't seem at all frightened. "Here then! Here then!" Alice said, as she held out her hand and tried to stroke it; but it only started back a little, and then stood looking at her again.

"What do you call yourself?" the Fawn said at last. Such a soft sweet voice it had!


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Rh "I wish I knew!" thought poor Alice. She answered, rather sadly, "Nothing, just now."

"Think again," it said: "that won't do."

Alice thought, but nothing came of it. "Please, would you tell me what you call yourself?" she said timidly. "I think that might help a little."

"I'll tell you, if you'll come a little further on," the Fawn said. "I can't remember here."


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64 So they walked on together through the wood, Alice with her arms clasped lovingly round the soft neck of the Fawn, till they came out into another open field, and here the Fawn gave a sudden bound into the air, and shook itself free from Alice's arms. "I'm a Fawn!" it cried out in a voice of delight, "and, dear me! you're a human child!" A sudden look of alarm came into its beautiful brown eyes, and in another moment it had darted away at full speed.

Alice stood looking after it, almost ready to cry with vexation at having lost her dear little fellow-traveller so suddenly. "However, I know my name now," she said, "that's some comfort. AliceAliceI won't forget it again. And now, which of these finger-posts ought I to follow, I wonder?"

It was not a very difficult question to answer, as there was only one road through the wood, and the two finger-posts both pointed along it. "I'll settle it," Alice said to herself, "when the road divides and they point different ways."


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Rh But this did not seem likely to happen. She went on and on, a long way, but wherever the road divided there were sure to be two finger-posts pointing the same way, one marked 'TO TWEEDLEDUM'S HOUSE,' and the other 'TO THE HOUSE OF TWEEDLEDEE.'

"I do believe," said Alice at last, "that they live in the same house! I wonder I never thought of that beforeBut I can't stay there long. I'll just call and say 'How d'ye do?' and ask them the way out of the wood. If I could only get to the Eighth Square before it gets dark!" So she wandered on, talking to herself as she went, till, on turning a sharp corner, she came upon two fat little men, so suddenly that she could not help starting back, but in another moment she recovered herself, feeling sure that they must be


text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Stork, Charles Augustus Gottlieb


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive ::e.

Despite U.S. recognition of the grave imperfections of the French administration in Vietnam, the U.S. was constrained to deal with the Indochina situation through France "both by the overriding importance of its European policy and by the impotence and ineptitude of the Bao Dai regime. The U.S. attempted to persuade Bao Dai to exercise more vigorous leadership, but the Emperor chose differently. For example, immediately after the Pau negotiations, the Department of State sent these instructions to Edmund Gullion:

Rh

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bulgaria

BULGARIA (see ). Political History 1908–12.—The condition of Macedonia and Thrace, which since the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 had been a constant source of anxiety and difficulties for Bulgaria, became even worse under the regime of the Young Turks. The Serbs, whose hopes of reunion with their own kin and of an outlet on the Adriatic had been destroyed by the annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908, began to seek expansion in Macedonia towards the Aegean. Rival bands of Serbs, Greeks, Bulgars, Wallachs, Albanians and Turks now carried on the propaganda of their respective nationalities in Macedonia by force of arms, and the life of the peasant became unbearable. The perpetual menace of war with Turkey and, latterly, the strained relations with Greece and Serbia, entailed on Bulgaria a military expenditure which in 1909 was proportionately higher than that of any other European state. Bulgaria was obliged, moreover, to support thousands of destitute refugees who had escaped over her frontier from Turkish territory; current consular reports stated that the Bulgarian population of Macedonia had diminished to a quarter of what it had been 15 years earlier. There was again a fear that the Young Turks meant to exterminate the Bulgars of Thrace and Macedonia altogether, and the Macedonians living in Sofia, many of whom were men of ability and influence, were continually urging the Government to take energetic steps with regard to Macedonia.

Treaty of Bucharest.—This treaty, which was signed on Aug. 10 1913 after a fortnight’s conference, deprived Bulgaria of almost all her territorial gains of the first Balkan War and also of any immediate prospect of the reunion into one state of all Bulgarian-speaking people. Rumania acquired from Bulgaria that portion of the Dobruja which had been Bulgarian since 1878, from Tutrakan on the Danube to Balchik on the Black Sea. The inhabitants of this region were almost exclusively Bulgarian and it comprised some of the best cereal-growing land which had been held by the Bulgars. Serbia and Greece divided Macedonia between them, with the exception of the mountainous region of the Perin and Despoto Dagh. Bulgaria thus retained one outlet on the Aegean, in the shallow-water port of Dede Aghach; her so-called harbour at Porto Lagos consisted only of a short length of quay and a score of buildings. Turkey regained Adrianople and most of Thrace. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 thus resulted in an increase of territory for Serbia and Montenegro by four-fifths and for Bulgaria by one-fifth, while Greece almost doubled her territory. Serbia and Montenegro increased their respective populations by three-sevenths, Bulgaria by one-twentieth and Greece by two-thirds. The total casualties of the two wars were in inverse ratio to the gains of the three states concerned, viz.:—Bulgaria, 150,000; Serbia, 79,500, and Greece, 50,000. The terms of the Treaty of Bucharest—King Charles of Rumania himself said of it: “It is not a treaty, it is only a truce and it cannot last”—were punitive rather than pacific in tendency, and the attempts of Russia, and possibly of Austria-Hungary also, to secure some modifications for Bulgaria were unsuccessful.

Period of Neutrality (Aug. 1914-Oct. 15 1915).—At the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the great majority of Bulgars wished to preserve neutrality; from force of circumstances, however, Bulgaria was already more than half way towards the Central Powers. The policy of the Radoslavov Cabinet, the German loan, the establishment of friendly relations with Turkey, resentment against Russia for her non-intervention in Aug. 1913, together with the deep sense of humiliation and disappointment created by the Treaty of Bucharest, all combined to indicate the direction in which Bulgarian sympathy was likely to be drawn. Moreover, Macedonia, the fate of which had been the dominant factor in the policy of Bulgaria during the whole of her existence and the cause of her sacrifices in the two Balkan Wars, was now in the hands of Serbia and Greece. The Bulgarians naturally asked themselves which group of Powers would be able to help them to realize their national ideal and their material ambitions. It seemed to them unlikely that the Powers which were ranged on the side of Serbia would be willing to deprive their ally of the fruits of her victory in 1913 and to restore Macedonia to Bulgaria. The victory of the Entente might mean Russia at Constantinople, the union of the Serb peoples in one important state and the permanent loss of Macedonia. To the King, who held the direction of the policy of the country absolutely in his hands, the victory of the Entente might mean the loss of his throne and the end of his dynasty. From an early date it was clear that Turkey would join the Central Powers, while the attitude of Rumania and Greece was uncertain. Owing to her geographical position Bulgaria would evidently be unable to preserve her “benevolent neutrality” for an indefinite time. Should she abandon it, it would be to join the winning side, and there were many in Bulgaria, including the King himself, who believed that Germany was invincible.

It is not yet known at what precise moment Ferdinand secretly promised his support to the Central Powers, but the Agrarian leader, Stamboliiski, as early as Aug. 1914 accused the Government of having bound itself to the Central Powers, and there are certainly indications that the decision had been taken in the early part of 1915. The Opposition press at the outbreak of war appeared to be decidedly pro-Entente, though non-interventionist in tendency. Gueshov and Stamboliiski constantly pressed for an agreement among the Balkan states themselves.

During the year in which Bulgaria maintained her neutrality, the rival groups of Powers made considerable efforts to secure her coöperation. It may be that Ferdinand had from an early date committed himself to a line of policy, but among Bulgars it is thought that, had the Entente encouraged the Opposition, who represented the great majority of the people; had the mentality of the people been better understood; had the Entente been definite in the proposals which from time to time were put before Bulgaria; had these proposals been made at propitious and not always at unpropitious moments; had the Entente been skilful and vigorous in its propaganda, it might well have been that the people would have imposed their will on the rulers whom they hated and despised. But the Entente policy pursued no certain course: the Entente Governments were slow to recognize the importance of Bulgarian coöperation; they were unwilling to pay the price which was asked for that coöperation; they did not realize the importance of the personal element in dealing with the Bulgars and with the King. The best propaganda for the Entente was the declaration that they were fighting for the cause of small nations and for the principle of nationality, since to the Bulgar this declaration meant protection for the Bulgarian state and reunion with the Bulgars of Macedonia and Thrace.

The most propitious moment to secure the support of Bulgaria would have been at the time of the Russian successes in the Carpathians in 1915, as the old feeling for Russia had never died out among the peasants. The chances of winning Bulgaria for the Entente lessened after the failure to pass the Dardanelles in March. German propaganda was skilfully handled; war news came chiefly through German sources; Tarnowski, the Austro-Hungarian minister at Sofia, either from personality or from force of circumstances, apparently controlled the situation there. The Entente proposals were hedged about with conditions; at the end of May 1915, they offered the Enos-Midia line and the uncontested zone in Macedonia, provided that, at the end of the war, Bosnia and the Herzegovina had been united to Serbia. Early in June, Austria-Hungary promised to Bulgaria, as the price of her neutrality, all Serbian Macedonia as well as the territory claimed by Bulgaria and now occupied by Rumania and Greece. On June 15 Bulgaria replied to the Entente note, asking for more specific guarantees. During July personal pressure was brought to bear at Sofia by special missions—a British mission composed of Mr. O'Beirne, Sir Valentine Chirol and Mr. G. Fitzmaurice; a French mission, and, on behalf of Germany, by Prince Hohenlohe—while active negotiations continued with Turkish delegates. On Aug. 3 the Entente answered the Bulgarian note of June 15; the Entente offered to Bulgaria, if she declared war on Turkey, the occupation of half the non-contested zone at once, the fate of the rest of this zone and of the contested zone to be decided at the peace; the immediate occupation of Seres and the promise of Kavalla, if Bulgaria would renounce all claims to Salonika, Kastoria and Vodena; and the promise of the Enos-Midia line. As these terms involved the retrocession of certain territories and places then occupied by Serbia and Greece, the allied representatives in Belgrade and Athens had the ungrateful task of trying to persuade Serbia and Greece to give up what they had won by force of arms, as the price of Bulgaria’s coöperation. Greece, inspired by Germany, refused absolutely to consider any cession of territory and Serbia, where the military party was at the time dominant, was equally intransigeant.

On Aug. 19 Gen. Fichev, Minister of War, who was thought to be averse to further military adventures, resigned, and was succeeded by Gen. Jekov, who had lately been acting as negotiator

with the Turks. The Opposition, becoming increasingly anxious, in vain demanded that the Sobranye should meet. On Aug. 23 Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on Aug. 25 Venizelos returned to power. The moment had now come when the Central Powers desired the entry of Bulgaria into the war, and the Duke of Mecklenburg, who as special personal representative of the Kaiser and from his ability and personality was known to have a strong influence on the King, was sent from Germany to make the final arrangements. On Sept. 6 a military convention and treaty between Bulgaria and the Central Powers was signed at Pless. By this convention Germany and Austria-Hungary each agreed to send six infantry divisions within a space of 30 days, and Bulgaria four infantry divisions within 35 days, against the Serbs; F.-M. von Mackensen was to be commander-in-chief of the combined force. Turkey was, if so desired, to send troops to Dede Aghach to prevent an enemy landing. Germany agreed to advance 200 million francs to Bulgaria for military expenses, and to provide as much military material as she could spare. On Sept. 10 the existence of the treaty was admitted by Radoslavov, who stated that Bulgaria was “coming in on the side of the victors.” On Sept. 12 the Opposition issued a manifesto, signed by many notable Bulgars, protesting against the policy of the Government and urging all citizens to unite to prevent the fatal step; the manifesto was, however, suppressed and the Opposition then demanded an audience of the King. On Sept. 15 the Entente made a final effort to induce Bulgaria to declare war on Turkey; Macedonia was promised unconditionally and the allied troops would occupy Macedonia for the time being, if Bulgaria so desired, as a guarantee that it would eventually be handed over to Bulgaria. On Sept. 17, at 11 P.M., the King received the Opposition leaders in audience. Malinov warned the King that if Bulgaria remained neutral, she might become the battlefield between the Germans invading Serbia and the Allies who would land at Salonika; and that, if she joined the Central Powers, she would be fighting against three Balkan peoples and four Great Powers and that it would mean the end of her national existence. Stamboliiski—it was the first time a representative of the Agrarians had entered the palace—put the views of his party before the King with characteristic vigour and brusquerie. The Agrarians, he said, desired to preserve neutrality; they demanded the convocation of the Sobranye and the formation of a national Government. He rejected all appeal to sentiment, whether on behalf of Russia or of Germany, and he warned the King that the people were still suffering from the terrible effects of the débâcle of 1913 and that they had lost all confidence in their rulers, including the King himself. He told the King that after the Treaty of Bucharest, it was only the leaders of the Agrarians who prevented a general movement against the authors of the pogrom, among whom the King held the chief place, and that, should the King repeat the criminal act of plunging his country into war, the leaders would not check the revolt against him but would themselves head it. Tsanov, the Radical leader, spoke with equal emphasis and sincerity. An account of the audience was published, but its circulation was forbidden, and Stamboliiski was condemned to imprisonment for life on a charge of lèse-majesté. On Sept. 22 the terms of the Turco-Bulgarian agreement were published; the Bulgarian frontier was to follow the Tunja valley as far as the suburbs of Adrianople, including the railway station, and then to follow the left bank of the Maritsa southwards at a distance of about 2 km., thus safeguarding Bulgarian railway communication between Sofia and Dede Aghach.

Mobilization was decreed on Sept. 22, the Greek army being mobilized immediately afterwards. On Oct. 4, Savinski, Russian minister at Sofia, informed the Bulgarian Government that he had been instructed to leave the country if within 24 hours Bulgaria did not break with the enemies of the Slav cause and forthwith send away the military officers of hostile belligerent states. On Oct. 5 the Bulgarian Government replied that the mobilization was a measure of internal importance only, that the landing of Allied troops at Salonika did not tend to

reassure Bulgaria as to the friendly intentions of the Entente, and that it was impossible to send away the German officers, as, with the exception of officially accredited military attachés, there were no such officers serving with the Bulgarian army. It is still maintained by the Bulgars that no German officers arrived till after the departure of the Entente ministers. On the receipt of this note the ministers representing the Entente Powers asked for their passports and left Sofia for Dede Aghach. On Oct. 12 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia; on Oct. 15 Great Britain declared war on Bulgaria, while France and Italy declared war on her on Oct. 16 and Oct. 17 respectively.

The World War 1915–6.—The King’s proclamation to his people showed the same duplicity as had marked all his diplomatic dealings with the Entente. After enlarging on his efforts to maintain neutrality, he said: “Both groups of belligerent Powers acknowledge the great wrong inflicted on us by the partitioning of Macedonia, and both belligerent parties are agreed that the greater part of Macedonia should belong to Bulgaria. Only our treacherous neighbour, Serbia, has remained obdurate to the counsels of her friends and allies. Serbia not only refused to listen to their advice, but, inspired by envy and cupidity, even attacked our territory, and our brave troops have been obliged to fight in defence of their own land. . . . Our Allies the Serbs were then (in 1913) the chief cause of our losing Macedonia. . . . The European War is drawing to a close. The victorious armies of the Central Empires are in Serbia and are rapidly advancing.” Mobilization, as eye-witnesses have stated, was not effected with the willingness which marked the mobilization of 1912—there were even attempts at mutiny in some centres—though the presence in Sofia of the Macedonian divisions to whom Serbian acts of oppression in Macedonia were a burning personal wrong and not merely a pretext for war, served to stimulate public enthusiasm. When once the country was actually at war, the Opposition became silent, partly from force majeure and partly from patriotic motives; all Bulgars realized that the fate of their country was at stake. Malinov, to whom the King made overtures, declined to take office in the Radoslavov Cabinet, and Stamboliiski, who was perhaps the only man in the country who could have led a revolution, was already in prison. Public meetings were forbidden and a strict censorship of the press established. The Bulgarian campaign in Serbia was, in spite of gallant opposition by the Serbs, completely successful. By the end of the year the Serbian army had retreated through Albania to the Adriatic and the Entente troops had retired within the Greek frontier, which the Bulgars did not then attempt to cross, although they themselves were confident that they could have taken Salonika. But on the one hand the attitude of Greece was still uncertain, and on the other it was to the interest of Germany that Entente troops should remain at Salonika and thus reduce the numbers available for the western front. In June 1916 the Bulgarian army occupied Seres, Drama, and Kavalla. The Sobranye had met in Dec. 1915, but, in spite of the apparently complete success of the campaign, the Radoslavov Government narrowly escaped defeat in the budget debates in July 1916. Several of the Agrarian deputies who were deemed compromised by their earlier negotiations with an agent of the Entente were imprisoned, and the Government secured the return of their own supporters in their place. On Aug. 27 1916 Rumania declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in spite of the efforts of Malinov and others to induce the Government to remain neutral, Bulgaria declared war on Rumania on Sept. 1. This war was, however, more popular than the campaign against Serbia, for the resentment caused by the action of Rumania in July 1913 was specially bitter. The Bulgarian troops were, nevertheless, unwilling to cross the Danube, as they considered that their work was finished when once the Dobruja was again in their possession; some mutinies even took place. Though the Bulgarian forces here were commanded by Gen. Tochev, F.-M. von Mackensen actually directed the operations, and, almost immediately, friction developed between the allies, resulting in Tochev’s supersession. The harvest of 1916 was not a good one; the whole

population was rationed for meat, bread, sugar, rice, soap and salt, and considerable discontent arose when it was found that large quantities of produce, especially of wheat and eggs, were going to Germany. German officials took over the technical control of the railways, especially the Macedonian, Dobruja and Trans-Balkan lines, which were worked with great efficiency; the railway employés remained Bulgarian. The Germans did not otherwise interfere with the civil administration of the country, while, on the military side, they restricted their active intervention to the broader issues in the conduct of the campaign. In addition to the larger formations which Germany contributed to the Bulgarian fronts in accordance with the military convention, many German technical units reinforced the Bulgarian army and were allotted to the more important sections of the front: these included machine-gun, artillery, air force, wireless and railway construction units, and hospital staffs. These units were highly efficient, and, on the whole, the two personnels worked amicably together. In Nov., Monastir was taken by the allies.

1917.—In March news of the revolution in Russia roused once more the instinctive sympathy of the Bulgars for Russia. No stenographic reports of the debates in the Sobranye have been published, but it is known that the Opposition pressed their view that Bulgaria, having gained Macedonia and the Dobruja, should now retire from the war. A war credit of 350 million levas was, however, voted in March. It was by no means certain that Bulgaria’s allies would allow her to retain all her gains: neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary was willing that Bulgaria should remain in northern Dobruja, and Turkey opened negotiations for the return of that portion of the Maritsa valley which had been ceded to Bulgaria by the Turco-Bulgarian agreement of 1915. During the summer secret negotiations were carried on in Switzerland between agents of the Entente and Bulgarian agents, but though Ferdinand may have been aware of the negotiations, the Bulgarian representatives lacked the authority and personality necessary for bringing matters to a definite issue. In Oct. the Kaiser visited Sofia and attempted, by the bestowal of decorations, to restore cordial relations with Bulgaria, but it was a matter of common knowledge that the personal relations between the Kaiser and the King were anything but friendly.

1918.—The winter of 1917–8 brought a further shortage of supplies and increased discontent and suffering. The Bulgarian soldier had been accustomed to campaigns which, though they entailed severe fighting and hardships, had only lasted a short time: in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 fighting had lasted a fortnight; in the first Balkan War, some six months; and in the second Balkan War, a nominal 40 days. The Bulgarian women had as a matter of course replaced the men in all agricultural work, but the Bulgarian soldiers, most of them peasant proprietors, were anxious to be at home for the harvest, and their restlessness showed itself in an increased number of desertions. Trench warfare was, moreover, peculiarly uncongenial to troops who were accustomed to open warfare. In Jan., Germany ceased to pay the annual subsidy of 50 million francs, which she had given Bulgaria since she entered the war, and after March she sent her no further supplies of munitions and equipment. The publication of President Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Jan.) had great influence on feeling in Bulgaria. Relations had never been broken off with the United States, and attempts were made to induce the President to promise Macedonia to Bulgaria. Articles in praise of the United States were allowed to appear in the press, and the Bulgars, on their part, professed to be ready to desist from the offensive which was then projected, and to make a separate peace. In May, Rumania signed the Treaty of Bucharest, by which the Dobruja was ceded to the Central Powers in condominium, Bulgaria regaining what Rumania had taken from her in 1913. In June the Radoslavov Cabinet, which was despised and detested throughout the country, fell and the King selected Malinov to form a new ministry. The change of Government did not mean a definite change of policy, and Malinov was reproached later for not insisting at once on a separate

peace, as he fully realized that all was not going well. At home, the new Cabinet endeavoured to improve the food conditions and to put an end to the corruption and inefficiency in the public service which had prevailed under Radoslavov. After the Austro-Hungarian defeat in Albania in July, when it became necessary to extend the Bulgarian front still further, the Bulgars pressed Germany to send the help which from the first had been promised to them. Of the six German divisions guaranteed by the military convention, only three had actually materialized and when at last German troops, in response to further urgent appeals, began to arrive in Bulgaria, the Bulgarian line had already been broken, Serbs were at the frontier and Allied troops were actually invading Bulgaria. On Sept. 25 Malinov asked for an armistice and delegates left at once for Salonika accompanied by the diplomatic representative of the United States. On Sept. 30 the Armistice was signed, the Bulgars accepting the Allied terms unconditionally. Stamboliiski, who with other Agrarian deputies had been in prison since 1915, was released on Sept. 25 and went immediately to the front where there was great unrest among the troops. At one moment it seemed probable that a revolution would take place and a republic be proclaimed, and there was serious fighting outside Sofia in which many lives were lost, the German troops being employed to restore order. On Oct. 4 the King was informed by his ministers that he had better abdicate; that same night he left Sofia by train, having nominated his son Boris as his successor. His departure was received with absolute indifference by the people; there were no demonstrations either of regret or joy. Radoslavov fled the country immediately afterwards. On Nov. 28 Malinov resigned, as a protest against the installation of Rumanian officials in the southern Dobruja contrary to the terms of the Armistice. Todorov, who had been Gueshov’s second in command, succeeded in forming a coalition Cabinet.

Treaty of Neuilly.—On Nov. 27 1919 the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria was signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine, Stamboliiski signing on behalf of his country. The territorial provisions (Arts. 27-35) included the cession to Rumania of the southern Dobruja; the cession to Serbia of the Bulgarian towns of Tsaribrod and Strumitsa and the renunciation (Art. 48) “in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers of all rights and title over the territories in Thrace which belonged to the Bulgarian Monarchy, and which being situated outside the new frontiers of Bulgaria. . . have not at present been assigned to any State.” The Powers undertook “to ensure the economic outlets of Bulgaria to the Aegean Sea.”

At the conference of San Remo in April 1920, a small portion of Eastern Thrace was assigned to Turkey and the remainder of Thrace to Greece. Bulgaria was not represented at the conference, though some 400,000 Bulgarians were concerned in the decisions as to Thrace; the Bulgarian delegate who had been sent from Sofia in the hope that the Allies would allow him to put the Bulgarian case before them was prevented by the French authorities from crossing the Italian frontier until the session had practically concluded.

The reparation (Arts. 121-146) payable to the Allies was fixed at two and a quarter milliards of francs (gold) or £90,000,000 sterling, to be paid in half-yearly instalments within 37 years; the cost of the armies of occupation and of various commissions was also to be borne by Bulgaria. The Reparation Commission, which began work in March 1921, could at their discretion reduce or postpone particular payments and could assume full control and management of the taxes and sources of revenue.

The military clauses (Arts. 64-104) provided for the disarmament of Bulgaria. The total numbers armed with rifles, including military forces, gendarmes, frontier and forest guards and police, were limited to a maximum of 33,000 men. The troops were to be recruited on a voluntary basis and to be exclusively employed for maintenance of order and frontier guard duties. All officers were to be regulars, serving for 20 consecutive years;

other ranks were to serve for 12 years. Only one military training school and one State controlled munition factory were allowed. The manufacture of tanks, armoured cars, poison gas and aeroplanes, the export and import of arms, instruction in the use of arms in schools, clubs or organizations, arrangements for mobilization, new fortifications were all prohibited. Only four torpedo boats and six motor boats were permitted, all without torpedoes and all manned by civilian crews. No artillery of calibre greater than 4.1 inches was authorized. All surplus war material had to be destroyed or surrendered within three months of the signing of peace.

Recruiting for the forces as constituted by the treaty proved very unsatisfactory, as but few Bulgars of a good stamp could be induced to leave their homes for a long period of service.

In Aug. 1919, elections were held which resulted in the following distribution of seats:—Agrarians, 86; Communists, 47; Social Democrats, 28; Nationalists, 19; Danevists, 8; Radicals, 8; Radoslavists, 3. The Agrarians had been weakened by the secession of Draghiev and his followers in 1915, and even with the support of Gueshov and the Nationalists, were in a minority in the Sobranye. Stamboliiski became prime minister. In Feb. 1920, the Sobranye was dissolved; new elections gave the Agrarians a majority of two, and in April, Stamboliiski became premier of a Cabinet composed of his own supporters. In the course of the year 1920 Bulgaria was admitted into the League of Nations.

Finance and Trade.—The following table shows the effect of the wars on finance and trade :—

The budget estimates for 1921–2—the financial year begins in April—thus showed a deficit of over £11,000,000. The consolidated and non-consolidated debts, including the war indemnity, amounted to £909,434,547, and, further, there was liability for military pensions, which would, for the next few years, amount to 7 or 8 million pounds annually. The outlook, according to the Finance Minister, was not very satisfactory. The debt per head of the population was £240 (as against £6 in 1912), and taxation had, in his opinion, reached the highest possible limit, viz. 500-540 levas per head. The townspeople had suffered much more than the peasants both during and after the war; according to the director of statistics, the annual bread budget for a family of five was 17 times higher in 1920 than in 1900; the meat budget was 28 times higher; and clothing showed a very large increase in price. During the World War, the savings banks had, owing to high prices for agricultural produce, shown a steady increase of deposits, but in 1919, withdrawals exceeded deposits by £800,000; and in 1920, by about £300,000. In 1920, although Bulgaria comprised 25% more land fit for cultivation than in 1911, cultivation had decreased by 20% as compared with 1911, and her production of cereals was smaller than in 1911. On the other hand, owing to the greatly increased selling price of tobacco—it had risen from 1 to 2.50 francs per kilo before the World War to 36 francs per kilo in 1919—the area cultivated in tobacco was more than double in 1920 what it had been in 1911; also the 1920 potato crop was double what it was in 1911. The attar of rose industry, which in Europe is almost peculiar to Bulgaria, naturally suffered during the wars, and only 15,000 ac. are now under rose cultivation; it is estimated that, although the demand for rose essence is now increasing, several years must pass before the industry is fully reëstablished and equipped with modern machinery.

Bulgaria’s international trade had always been primarily with Austria-Hungary and Germany owing partly to the fact that the Danube has hitherto constituted her chief means of communication and partly to the fact that these countries made a more careful study of Bulgarian markets than seemed worth the while of more distant countries. For the first six months of 1920–1, imports, which reached £68,000,000, nearly doubled exports in value. After the treaty, Bulgaria’s unfavourable rate of exchange tended to direct her commerce yet more towards Central Europe.

Communications.—Better means of communication and capital are needed to develop the natural resources of the country—forests, mines and water power. Railway construction practically ceased with the outbreak of the first Balkan War in 1912, but the Trans-Balkan Trnovo-Stara Zagora line was completed since that date,

and proved of great importance during the World War for the transport of war material from the Central Powers to Turkey. In 1912, Bulgaria owned about 1,200 m. of normal gauge railway; in 1920 about 1,600 m., including some 250 m. of 2 ft. gauge which had been laid for military purposes. The following are among the railways projected and partly constructed:

1. Rakovska-Mastanli, part of the line planned in 1913 to connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos on the Aegean. Length, about 60 m.; gauge 30 in.

2. Sarambe-Lyana-Nevrokop, passing through the pine forests of the Upper Myesta. Length, about 110 m.; gauge, 30 in.

3. Mezdra-Vratsa-Vidin, begun in 1906 and now in operation as far as Alexandrovo, 25 m. from Vidin.

Some 500 m. of link lines and some short lengths of railway for the exploitation of forests are also projected, but work is held up for lack of funds. A law of 1921 sanctioned the construction of railways not only by local bodies but by individuals, and special privileges were offered in the hope of attracting private enterprise. In 1921, Bulgaria owned some 9,900 m. of telegraph line, and some 2,700 m. of telephone line. There were four fixed radio telegraphic stations: Sofia (Telefunken 10 kilowatts) Varna (Marconi), Shumen and Kyustendil, Kyustendil being not yet completed: according to the terms of the treaty, these stations may only be used for commercial purposes.

Social Conditions.—The programme of the Agrarian Government under the leadership of Stamboliiski was framed primarily in the interests of the peasants in contradistinction to those of the bourgeoisie. Some of the measures already in operation or contemplated in 1921 evoked much hostile criticism on the part of the Opposition, but though they involved some radical changes there seemed no probability of an outbreak of Bolshevism in Bulgaria. Stamboliiski had no wish to change the constitution, and King Boris had won the respect and affection of the people. The peasants were too much attached to their own homes and to their own way of life to desire great changes, provided they were spared further wars and were given a fair chance of peace and prosperity.

The Bulgars have always put a high value on education, and statistics show a steady increase in the number of those able to read and write; in 1910, Bulgaria ranked first in this respect among Balkan peoples, having 33.7% of literates, and in 1919–20, only 17% of the children of school age had failed to attend school: but the type of education so far provided had led to the overstocking of the clerical professions and to the neglect of technical occupations. The educational programme of the Agrarian Government aimed at giving a more practical bent to instruction generally and at affording equal opportunities to all classes of the community. The total period of compulsory education was to be extended from four to seven years; a large number of additional primary schools had already been opened and many pro-gymnasia were to be established, as well as professional schools, where a training could be obtained in agriculture, industries and practical science. Great results, both material and moral, were expected from the law of May 1920 which imposed a period of forced labour on all members of the community. This law, as originally drafted, provided for one year’s service for all males on completion of their 20th year and six months for females on completion of their l6th year, the time being devoted half to theoretical training and half to manual labour on works of public utility. Bulgaria’s neighbours, however, suspected that a military organization of the country might be effected by means of this compulsory service and, in deference to the Council of Ambassadors, the law had not been fully put in force in the spring of 1921. All classes of the community now give ten days' service annually to the State, and the results of the reconstruction work undertaken—bridge building, road making, repairs to buildings, forestry, etc.—seem satisfactory. Much, of course, depends on the technical supervision provided and on the practical organization of the work. School children, numbering 600,000, and students devoted in March-April 1921 a week to manual labour—cleansing buildings and streets, preparing gardens, planting trees, etc.

Other legislative measures taken include up to May 1921 expropriation of Crown and Church lands as well as of private properties of over 300 décares (say 75 ac.), the expropriated land being allotted to landless peasants; the commandeering of private houses for public purposes or for the accommodation of necessitous families; and proceedings by court-martial under Article 4 of the Law for Prosecution of War Criminals, against persons accused of being parties to the entry of Bulgaria into the World War and of contravention of laws during the war. The prosecutions resulted in long terms of imprisonment and heavy fines, and were naturally regarded by those affected who belonged to the bourgeois class, as vindictive and arbitrary acts of oppression. The Sobranye assented in March 1921 to the prosecution of Radoslavov and his Cabinet for violation of the constitution, notably by raising a loan in Germany with the object of directing the policy of Bulgaria towards the Central Powers and by declaring war on Serbia in 1916 without the consent of the Sobranye.

Bibliography.—H. N. Brailsford, Macedonia, its Races and their Future (1905); Victor Bénard, La Macédoine, Pro Macedonia (1897, 1904); Sir E. Pears, Turkey and its People (1911); P. Howell, Campaign in Thrace (1913); W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire 1801–1913

(1913) ; Noel Buxton, With the Bulgarian Staff (1913); Sir R. Rankin, Inner History of the Balkan War (1914); J. G. Schurman, Balkan Wars 1912–1913 (1914); Lt.-Col. Immanuel, La Guerre des Balkans de 1912–13 (1913); Anonymous, “Questions militaires,” “Bulgares contre Serbes,” Revue Bleue (1913–4); A. de Penennrun, La Guerre des Balkans, la campagne en Thrace en 1912 (1913), 40 Jours de Guerre (1914); H. Barby, Brégalnitsa (1913); Boucabeille, La Guerre Turco-Balkanique (1913); Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Report of the International Commission to enquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan War (Washington, 1914); R. W. Seton-Watson, Rise of Nationality in the Balkans (1917); A Diplomatist, Nationalism and War in the Near East (1915); L. Gueshov, The Balkan League (1915); Nekludov, Diplomatic Reminiscences, 1911–1917 (1920); Balkanicus, Aspirations of Bulgaria (1915), Diplomaticheski Dokumenti po namecata na Bulgaria v evropeiskata voina, vol. i, 1913–1915 (1920); M. Dunan, L’été bulgare, 1915 (1917); Noel Buxton and C. L. Leese, Balkan Problems and European Peace (1919); Leland Buxton, Black Sheep of the Balkans (1920); G. Clenton Logio, ''Bulgaria. Problems and'' Politics (1919); Bulgaria. “Nations of To-day” Series (1921); Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria and Protocol (London, 1920); Léon Lamouche, La Question Macédonienne et la paix; le traité de paix avec la Bulgarie (1919); J. Cvijich, Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian Slavs (1906); M. Bogichevich, Causes of the War, with special reference to Serbia and Russia (1920); Publications Plumon, La Bulgarie, la vie technique et industrielle (1921); M. Turlakov, Exposé sur la situation financière de la Bulgarie (1921); J. D. Bourchier, The Final Settlement in the Balkans (1917); The Four Treaties of Bucharest (1918); Echo de Bulgarie (Sofia, 1920–1).

title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bulgaria


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive

AMLEGATION

 * SAIGON

 * 384

DEPT wishes to have FOL MSG delivered to Bao Dai personally by MIN IMMED after Chief of State's arrival in Saigon. It SHLD be delivered informally without submission written text with sufficient emphasis to leave no doubt in Emperor's mind that it represents DEPTS studied opinion in matter now receiving ATTN highest auths US GOVT. Begin MSG:

Bao Dai will arrive in Saigon at moment when Vietnam is facing grave crisis outcome of which may decide whether country will be permitted develop independence status or pass in near future to one of Sino-Soviet dominated satellite, a new form of colony immeasurably worse than the old from which Vietnam has so recently separated herself.

The US GOVT is at present moment taking steps to increase the AMT of aid to FR Union and ASSOC States in their effort to defend the territorial integrity of IC and prevent the incorporation of the ASSOC States within the COMMIE-dominated bloc of slave states but even the resources of US are strained by our present UN commitments in Korea, the need for aid in the defense of Western Europe and our own rearmament program. We sometimes find it impossible to furnish aid as we WLD wish in a given AMT at a given time and in a given place. Rh

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text:
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 THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON

October 10, 1941

MEMORANDUM FOR MR. WHEELER