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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Serbia

SERBIA (Kraljevina Srbija), a former kingdom in the Balkan Peninsula, now a constituent part of Jugoslavia, between lat. 42° 26' and 44° 59' N. and between long. 19° 18' and 22° 52' E. It is bounded north by Slavonia and Banat, the natural boundaries being the rivers Save and the Danube, east by Rumania and Bulgaria, west, after the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 and in conformity with the Treaty of Bucharest (1913), by Bosnia (from which it is separated by the river Drina), Montenegro, and Albania, and south by Greece. Its area is 33,891 square miles, of which 15,241 square miles were added after the Balkan Wars.

Topography, etc. — The greater part of the country with Shumadiya (forest-covered land) as its centre, forms a high plateau in which intermingle the four mountain systems: the Dinaric Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans and the Rhodopes. The Carpathian system is

gradually from Banat into Serbia across the Danube where it is broken by a very narrow defile, below Orsova, called “Djerdap” (Iron Gate) and consists chiefly of schist and other crystalline rocks and partly also of chalky limestone interrupted accidentally by certain species of rock of volcanic origin intermingled with different ores and coal. The high plateau formed in the northeast by the Golubinje mountains, between the rivers Morava and Timok, the precipitous heights in the mountain range Lukavitza (with Rtanj 1566 metres), the deep gorges and snow-covered summits of the Suva Planina and Shar Planina, offer most picturesque and romantic scenery. The mountain range in western Serbia with the Kopaonik, Jastrebac, Jadar, Rudnik, Cer, Ovchar, Kablar, Cer, etc., encircle central Serbia, which is densely covered by woods (oak, beech, pine, etc.). The Macdva and Morava valleys are considered the most fertile and beautiful regions of the kingdom. The rivers for the most part flow to the north, and none of them is navigable although the Morava, which traverses the land and divides it in almost two equal parts, and the Drina have large volumes of water. The Danube and the Save are navigable for small boats, and their banks are for the most part very low; thus they irrigate abundantly the adjacent valleys. Among the tributaries of the Danube the most important are the Save, the Morava, the Timok (which with the Danube separate Serbia from Rumania), the Mlava, the Pek and Porechka. Of the tributaries of the Morava the principal are the Nishava and the Ibar. The newly acquired territories of Old Serbia and Macedonia are watered by the Vardar, which might eventually be joined to Morava and form thus a most important waterway from Belgrade to Salonica, the Bregalnica, the Drim (or Drin), the Crna and the Treska.

Climate and Soil. — On the whole the climate in Serbia is centro-European, although the country is situated in the same latitude as northern and central Italy. Alongside the Save and the Danube the climate is rather temperate, the average annual temperature being +13° C, varying between 8, 34° and 15, 63°, but the more one goes to the south the more rigid winters prevail, which may be explained by the mountainous configuration of the soil of central and southern Serbia. Severe winters prevail in the region between the Suva Planina and Rudnik, lasting sometimes five to six months, and very low temperatures have been recorded, the lowest, however, being -25° C. Rains are abundant, especially in the spring and autumn, and most frequent in October, but summers are often alarmingly droughty, so that the peasantry often have recourse to superstitious rites (“dodole”) and religious processions imploring Nature for rain. The most important winds are the Severatz (north wind) and the Koslava (east wind), neither of which, however, is as trying as in most other Mediterranean countries. The soil of Serbia is very fertile; all kinds of cereals growing in abundance, notwithstanding the very primitive manner in which they are cultivated. Of all the cereals maize is most widely cultivated for it serves as the principal food of the population. Wheat of a high quality is also grown and constitutes Serbia's chief

article of exportation. Of no less importance are barley and oats which grow in abundance and serve chiefly as food for horses. All kinds of fruit are cultivated, apples, pears, peaches, grapes, etc., but the most important are plums of which there are many varieties, especially in the districts of Kruseval, Macva, Sabac, Obrenovac and Kragnjerac. Plums are exported to a large extent, fresh and dried, also crushed and preserved in their own juice pekmez (marmalade). Excellent brandy “Slivovica” is made in a primitive manner from the surplus of plums and is highly esteemed in western Europe. A great area of southern Serbia is covered by vineyards producing delicious grapes, but Serbian wines have no quality on account of the very primitive method employed in this industry and they are for the most part exported to France for improvement whence they are re-exported over the world under the name of “Bordeaux.” Flax and more especially hemp grow mostly in the central districts of Vranja and Vlasotinci and are acknowledged to be of the best quality known in the world. Tobacco of delicious flavor and aroma grows in Serbian Macedonia and the districts of Nish and Alexinac, but this industry is wholly monopolized by the government which makes the use of tobacco almost prohibitive.

Mining. — The mining industry in Serbia seems to be the oldest and the most developed, for there are archæologic remains in the mercury mines of Mount Avela, in the district of Belgrade, indicating that they have been worked from the Neolithic Age, and according to history silver mining constituted in the Middle Ages the principal source of wealth of the Nemanjichi's kingdom. As for gold there are remarkable formations in the diluvial and alluvial deposits of the rivers Timok and Pek, as also in the quartz veins and crystalline masses found in the department of Negotin and in the Majdanpek and Deli-Jovan. The Black River is famous for its alluvial washings, containing gold in trachytic rocks. But the most important of all Serbian ores are undoubtedly the unusually rich deposits of copper found in Bor, district of Pozharevatz, mostly in the shape of anticular masses of various pyrites but also, and especially at Majdanpek, in conjunction with iron sulphates, zinc and lead. Other important copper deposits have been found, and to some extent worked, in the mountains of Maljen, Povlen, Subovar and Vis. Lead ores are found in many parts in the valley of the Sava River (Podrinje), but none is of any great importance. However the Serbian government has built factories for smelting lead in the mountain of Krupanj. Zinc ores are frequent in Kuchajna and Rudnik, and nickel in connection with chrome oxide occurs in small quantities near the town of Kraljevo in the mountain of Suvobar. The most important mines of brown coal are those at Senje, and coal-beds of the Tertiary period and Tertiary lignite are to be found almost everywhere along the rivers Drina, Sava and Morava. There are several mines of liasic coal, mixed with sandy clay, at Dobra, Zajechar and along the river Timok, but the working of them is wholly inadequate and primitive. The quarrying industry (granite, lithographic stone, millstone and marble), and mineral waters is very sadly

despite the most liberal concessions which the government grants to those who wish to exploit them.

Commerce and Industries. — As Serbia is pre-eminently an agricultural and cattle-breeding country the principal articles of exportation are cereals of all description, fruit (fresh and dried), cattle, sheep, wool, pigs and products thereof, wax, honey, and certain domestic dyes. But the foreign commerce in Serbia has been greatly hindered by the insufficient mileage of railways, navigable rivers and other ways of communication; most especially has Serbian commerce suffered on account of the absence of an outlet to the sea. Under the new régime Serbia enjoys the great advantage of seaports. Austria-Hungary was the natural consumer of Serbian products, but that powerful monarchy at all times exercised a rigorous policy toward Serbia, limiting the number of heads of Serbian cattle and pigs to a small minimum and subjecting the same to most vexing regulations, which led directly at first to the Tariff War in 1905 and then to the European War of 1914. The principal articles of importation into Serbia are paper and paper products, colonial ware, metallic products, clothes, glass and china, and machinery of all description. Before the outbreak of the European War Serbia had concluded treaties of commerce with all the most important countries, granting to the United States of America the clause of the most favored nation. Besides their agricultural and pastoral pursuits the Serbian population busy themselves with the manufacture of raw materials and some domestic industries, which are not only primitive but show a marked decadence. This is chiefly due to the apparent superiority and comparatively low prices of imported products over those made by the peasants themselves. Women work the wool, the hemp and the flax from which they make, with an admixture of cotton not only linen for shirts and underwear but even the cloth for outer clothing of both men and women of the family, while men — and especially those who have no large landed property — show great mechanical skill in shoe-making, for industry and other most elementary handicrafts. Much more could be said of the textile industry which is developed to a considerably high degree and which has earned a world-wide reputation for the Serbian rugs (manufactured chiefly in Pirot) woven on hand looms by women. Those rugs are much sought for on account of their solid workmanship, their original domestic designs and, most especially, their bright and permanent, natural coloring. But the most successful industry is flour-milling, which has been developed considerably owing to the natural advantage of water power and to the fact that the duty imposed by the late Dual-monarchy of Austria-Hungary on Serbian cereals was so high that the peasantry were forced to export them in the form of flour. The brewing industry is also prosperous in Serbia for it supplies almost the entire home consumption, but beer is not by any means a popular or widespread drink among Serbian peasants. Sugar refining, manufacture of cheese, meat-packing, and, to some extent, timber and metal industry constitute almost the entire employment of the land. With the exception of a few factories on the banks of the

Danube and the Save, there are only small factories in the interior of Serbia; among those mention should be made of that at Vranjska Banja for treatment of hemp, at Leskovatz and Parachin for textiles. But on the whole industries in Serbia are only in their infancy, and the government realizing the great advantages which domestic industries bring to a country, is always prepared and even eager to grant most liberal concessions to persons, whether Serbian or foreign citizens, desiring to establish a new industry. The government grants to such enterprises not only free land necessary for the construction of factories and lodgings for workmen, but even exempts them from paying any custom duties on machinery, raw materials, and half-wrought articles of which they may have need in such factories. Furthermore the government sells to such industrials coal at the cost price and reduces the railway rates by 25 per cent from the fixed tariff.

Education and Religion. — Illiteracy in Serbia is very high, there being only about 20 per cent of the entire population who can read and write. Elementary schools are now to be met with it in nearly every little village and primary education is free and compulsory. In larger towns there are “gymnasia” (Real and classic) corresponding somewhat to the American high schools. In Belgrade there is a university with faculties of philosophy, law and engineering, a military academy, a state academy of commerce and a theological seminary. All these schools are entirely maintained by the state, and there are very few private educational institutions. The Royal Serbian Academy of Science publishes and rewards the works of deserving writers, scientists and artists, and spreads knowledge all over the country by means of its excellent periodical Glas Akedemije Nauka, Prior to the 7th century the Serbians, and indeed all the Southern Slavs, were pagans, but there is only a slender material available concerning their worship of nature. Soon after the Serbian immigration into the Balkan Peninsula, during the 7th and 8th centuries, Christianity which was already deeply rooted with the Byzantines, easily destroyed the ancient faith, not, however, without great struggle. Owing to the absence of competent interpreters of the Christian faith, and to the unintelligible manner and language in which it was enforced, as it were, on the population, great numbers of survivors of paganism remained in the Serbian provinces; most especially around the river Neretva. In the course of some thousand years Greco-Oriental myths and legends, ancient Illyrian and Roman propaganda and Christian legends and apocryphal writings, exercised so great an influence upon the ancient religion of the people that it is impossible to unravel from the tangled skein of such evidence as is available a purely Southern-Slavonic mythology, and throughout the Middle Ages, nay even to this day, the ancient worship of popular pagan divinities has persisted.

According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus the Serbians adopted the Christian faith at two different periods, first during the reign of the Emperor Heraclius, who had requested the Pope to send a number of priests to convert those peoples to the Christian faith. Yet the

Dalmatian Serbs remained pagans as late as the reign of Pope John IV (640-642). The Croatians already belonged to the Roman Church at the time when its priests were converting the Serbians to Christianity between the years 642 and 731, i.e., after the death of Pope John IV and before Leon of Isauria had broken off his relations with Rome. The second conversion of those Serbians who remained pagans was effected about 879, by the Emperor Basil I. The Grand Zupan Stefan Nemanja overthrew that subjection, but the Pope again succeeded, after Nemanja's death, in imposing his hegemony, only to be definitely overthrown by Nemanja's son Stefan Prvovenchani. The first Serbian archbishop was Rastko (later Saint Sava), Nemanja's youngest son, who was crowned by the Royal Wreath which King Stefan Prvovenchani obtained from the Pontifex Maximus. But the great Serbian ruler, Emperor Dushan the Mighty, brought the Serbian Church to its apogee when he elevated (in 1346) the Serbian archbishopric to the degree of Patriarchate, an act which drew upon it an anathema from the ever-jealous Patriarchate of Constantinople. When the Serbian Empire was lost on the battlefield of Kosovo (1389), and subjugated by the Osmanli Turks, the Church became a centre of nationalism, and in the course of nearly five centuries of Ottoman dominion, planned the insurrection against the oppressors. But the dominion was unbearable, and Serbian patriarch Arsenije Crnojovich fled to Austria-Hungary, together with 37,000 Serbians. His example was followed by one of his successors (1738) whose name was also Arsenije. In the beginning of the 19th century the Greek Phanariots associated themselves with the tyrannic Pachas in the Serbian lands and gave a mortal blow to the Serbian Patriarchate of Pech (Ipek) and abolished even the Serbian episcopal see. But Prince Milos Obrenovich of Serbia succeeded in restoring the autonomy of the Church, giving the entire rule to the archbishop of Belgrade, Melentius, with the title of Metropolitan of Serbia. The election of the Metropolitan, however, was subject to the approval of the Patriarch of Constantinople who was to receive also a tribute in money; and it was only in 1879 that the Serbian Church became entirely independent. The present state religion in Serbia and Montenegro is the Eastern-Orthodox, and it maintains a union with the Universal Eastern Church. Serbia is divided in eparchies, the eparchs being elected by the Council of Bishops, which has the highest ecclesiastical authority. There are the High Ecclesiastic Judicial Court, the diocesan ecclesiastic courts, the department arch-priests and the deans of districts, and the parish priests. Public worship by other denomination (Catholics, Protestants, Jews and Mohammedans) is allowed in Serbia by the law, but the authorities of all religions are placed under the control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Public Worship.

Finance. — The principal revenues are derived from direct and indirect taxes imposed on every citizen and owner of property, customs duties, excise, state monopolies of salt, sugar, tobacco, matches and petroleum. Prior to the Treaty of Berlin, Serbia had practically no debts but the construction of the International railway from Ostend to Constantinople forced

Serbia to construct her part and to enter into European financial markets and to conclude, in a rapid succession, the following loans: (1) Russian loan ($1,200,000); (2) Lottery Loan of 1881 (2 per cent) $4,945,000; (3) Loan from the Serbian State Mortgage Bank (5 per cent) $1,455,000; (4) Primary loan of 1888, $1,835,000; (5) Unified loan of 1895 (4 per cent) $67,580,000; (6) Railway loan of 1899 (5 per cent) $960,000; (7) Monopoly loan of 1902 (5 per cent) $2,300,000; (8) State loan of 1906 (4½ per cent) $18,835,000. The war loans of 1912-18 are yet unknown but they certainly exceed $1,000,000,000. The State Budget in recent years has exceeded annually $60,000,000 one-third of which is generally expended by the war office.

Railroads and Transportation. — Railways in Serbia have a total length of about 1,000 miles consisting of the following lines: (1) Belgrade-Nish; (2) Belgrade-Semendria; (3) Nish-Vranja-Risbovatz-Uskub-Gjevgeli; (4) Stalat-Uritze; (5) Nish-Pirot-Tzaribrod; (6) Belgrade-Valjevo; (7) Nish-Knjazevatz; (8) Paratyin-Zaietchar-Negotin; (9) Uskub-Mitrovitza; (10) Monastir-Greek frontier. Navigation on the Danube and the Save is of enormous importance in Serbian economic life. Apart from the steamships (about 15 in number) owned by the Serbian government and private companies, there are two foreign navigation companies, one Austrian and the other Russian. Roads and highways connecting principal towns in Serbia are fairly well constructed but the roads between smaller towns and villages are in very bad condition chiefly owing to the mountains and the rocky nature of the soil. The rivers Morava and Vardar, which traverse the country, are navigable only for very small boats.

History. — The region inhabited at present by the Serbian race (Serbia proper, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Istria, Backka, Banat, Syrmia (Srem), the Sandjak of Novi Bazaar and Macedonia, was originally populated mostly by Thracian and Ulyrian tribes, and ruled at first by Macedonia, then, during the 1st century, by the Romans. In this fertile and picturesque country flourishing towns sprang up on the banks of the Danube (Singidunum, to-day Belgrade) and the Morava (Naessus-Nish), but during the following centuries, lying as it does close to the great highway through Europe, it was overrun in succession by the Huns, East Goths and Langobards, and brought, about A.D. 550, under the sway of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, only to be torn from his successors by the Avars, who again laid it waste. It was at the beginning of the 7th century that the Serbians descended from the Carpathian slopes to the shores of the Black Sea, thence moved westward along the northern bank of the Danube, and, crossing the river, settled mostly in the same territories which they inhabit at the present time. Under what circumstances and under what leaders they effected their migration is unknown, but the ancient inhabitants of these regions (Latins, Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, and the Pelasgs) seem to have been easily driven toward the Adriatic Coast. Their emperor, Heraclius (610-641), unable to oppose an effective resistance, ceded to the Serbians all the provinces which they had occupied and peace

was thus purchased. The pagan and uncultured Serbians came now into constant intercourse with the civilized Byzantines, and soon (from 7th to 9th century) were converted to Christianity, especially by the so-called Slav apostles Cyrillos and Methodius, who translated the teaching of Christ into the ancient Slavonic language. As the Serbians during the 7th and 8th centuries were divided into many tribes, they became, despite their warlike character and innate bravery, an easy prey to the attacks of the Byzantines, the Fino-Bulgars and the Franks, but they never were subjugated by any of their aggressors. The Serbians, however, were forced to realize that only by centralization of their power could they offer resistance as a nation, and several efforts were made to found a state on the banks of the Morava, with Korea Margi (now called Chupriya) as its capital, in the early part of the 9th century, but owing to the hostility of the Bulgarians, this proved abortive. At about that time, Bosnia, which was one of the Serbian Zhupanias (county), severed her relations with the other Serbians and formed an autonomous banstro (i.e., province, ruled by a ban or prince). Zupan (or Zhupan, count or prince) Vlastimir succeeded in emancipating his province from the Byzantine suzerainty and established an independent state called Rashka, extending around the rivers Piva, Tara and Lim, touching the basin of the river Ibar in the east and that of Vrbas in the West. But in the very beginning of their civil life there were dissensions among the leaders which facilitated the interference of the Bulgarian chieftain Simeon, who took into captivity a Serbian rebel Chaslav and supported him in his claims to the throne of Rashka. At about 931, however, Chaslav succeeded in wresting from his Bulgarian ally Simeon a new state which comprised, together with Rashka, the territories of Zetta (to-day Montenegro), Trebinje, Neretva and Hum. After his death great disorder reigned in the principality. In the course of the following century the Byzantine emperors, having again brought the now enfeebled Bulgaria within their rule, also overpowered Rashka, whose Grand Zhupan fled. The ruler of Zetta Zhupan Vojislav (1031-51) took the opportunity of declaring himself king of the Slavs {rex Sclavorum). He was acknowledged in that dignity by Pope Gregory VII in the year 1077. Under the rule of King Bodin, the son of Mihajlo, the Serbian of Chaslav was restored, and Bosnia was annexed. But after Bodin's death new disorder ensued, caused mainly by the dissensions among the several and ever malcontent pretenders to the throne. Despite all the unfortunate internecine strife, which has been the most fatal, and constant, feature of Serbian rulers of all times, the Grand Zhupan Stefan Namanja (1169-96) defeated, in a deadly battle, his own three brothers, and then began an epoch of two centuries of complete independence for Serbia and a dynasty which covered the country with military glory. Nemanja succeeded not only in uniting under his sceptre all the provinces held by his predecessors, but also in annexing those (Ham, Scutari, Cattaro, etc.) which never had been Serbian before, and he placed Ben Kulin, an ally, upon the throne of Bosnia. Nemanja abdicated in favor of his

able son Stefan, and withdrew into monastic life, together with his youngest son Saint Sava. Stefan Nemanjich, who was the first crowned king of Serbia, had to struggle with his elder brother, Vukan, and with the Holy See. Vukan as the rightful heir to the throne antagonized his brother Stefan, using the influence of Hungary and the popes. When the Crusaders took Constantinople, Saint Sava, Nemanja's youngest son, succeeded in emancipating the Serbian Church from the influence of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and obtained complete autonomy (1219), becoming himself the first Serbian archbishop. King Stefan Prvovenchani was succeeded by his worthless son Radoslav (1227-33), only to be dethroned by his brother Vladislav (1233-42), who was in no wise of any greater importance to the Serbian people, and who was removed from the throne by his third brother Urosh the Great (1242-76). This ruler wisely availed himself of the German miners who were ousted by the Tartar invaders of Hungary, and who developed to a high degree the exploitation of the Serbian mines (especially silver); thus the Serbian state became one of the wealthiest in Europe. But this prince was dethroned by his eldest son, Dragutin, after a bloody battle in Herzegovina, only to be himself ousted from the throne to a monastery by his brother Urosh II Milutin, whose reign (1281-1321) was marked by his conquest of Macedonia. He also reduced to obedience Shishman, a Tartar satrap of the Bulgarian province of Vidin. In the meantime Dragutin obtained from his mother-in-law, the Queen of Hungary, as fief, the lands between the rivers Danube, Save and Drina, and assumed the title of King of Sirmia, but he yielded the greater part of that territory and his title to his brother Milutin, while the remainder was left under the suzerainty of the kings of Hungary. After Milutin's death, the usual fatal discord arose concerning the succession to the throne. However, order was re-established by Milutin's son Stefan Dechanski, whose reign is remarkable for his glorious and complete victory over the Bulgarians in the memorable battle of Velbuzhd (Kustandil) 1331, in which the Bulgarian ruler was killed. In commemoration of that victory Stefan built the magnificent monastery of Dechani, from which he obtained his name “Dechanski.” The whole of Bulgaria came under the sway of a Serbian king. Stefan Dechanski was dethroned, and, according to all appearances, strangled by his own son Dushan the Mighty (1331-55), under whose glorious rule Serbia reached the summit of power. He aimed to establish his sway over the entire Balkan Peninsula, for he had a curious presentment of the Ottoman invasion, and having overpowered nearly the whole of the Byzantine Empire, he proclaimed himself, in agreement with the Vlastela (Assembly of Great Nobles), Tsar of Serbia. Furthermore, that prince elevated the Serbian archbishopric to the dignity of the patriarchate and subdued the whole of Albania and Epirus as far as Janina. Thanks to the dissensions between Emperor John V. Paleologus and the notorious Prince Kantakuzen, Dushan succeeded in overpowering and annexing to his state the whole of Macedonia, with the exception of Salonica and Thessaly. In 1349 Ban Stefan Kutromanich of Bosnia

Trebinje, but Tsar Dushan was unable to chastise that rebel on account of the threatening danger from the Turks, whom Kantakuzen had now brought over to forward his ambitions. Always conscious of the Turkish danger, Tsar Dushan espoused Princess Helen, the daughter of the newly-elected Bulgarian ruler John Strazimirovich, and started energetic negotiations for an alliance between Serbia, Bulgaria, Venice, Hungary and Pope Innocent; to the people he promised even to introduce the Catholic faith provided he were named the commander-in-chief of all the Christian armies in a crusade against the Turks. His sudden death, in December 1355, frustrated his ingenious plan and marked the beginning of the Serbian downfall. In the interior administration, Tsar Dushan's epoch is marked by the development of commerce and industry, construction of roads and highways, and most especially by his memorable “Zakonik” (code of laws) governing customs and ordinances of his predecessors and ratifying the privileges of the clergy and nobility. As Dushan's son, Urosh the Weak, was not of age at the time of his father's death, the rule of the country passed to one of the vassals of Macedonia, King Vukashin, who, together with his brother and other lords, held independently the whole territory adjoining Prizren to the south of the mountain in Sar. Profiting by the dissensions amongst the Serbian lords and the weak rule of Urosh (1356-67), the Byzantines rescued Macedonia while the Hungarians took back Belgrade. Soon Epirus, Acamania and Thessaly were lost, and governors of other provinces in rapid succession renounced obedience to the new king. In 1371 Emperor Urosh the Weak was killed while hunting (according to all likelihood by the hand of King Vukashin), and with him the dynasty of Nemanjices died out and Serbia virtually lost her independence. The haughty Vukashin proclaimed himself king, and in co-operation with his brothers, gathered an army of about 80,000 men to resist the already well-advanced Turkish invasion now threatening Serbia. His armies, however, although successful at first, were surprised on the night of 20 Sept. 1371, by the Turkish cavalry and annihilated on the banks of the Marica. Both King Vukashin and his brother perished in that disaster, and Prince (Kraljevich) Marko, the favorite hero of the Serbian National Poetry, proclaimed himself king of the Serbians, but the assembly of nobles, in their session at Pech (Ipek) in 1374, placed the crown of Serbia on the head of Lazar Hrebeljanovich, who assumed the modest title of Kneh (prince), and who subdued not only Prince Marko but also the other princes and barons. Furthermore, Prince Lazar caused the Patriarch of Constantinople to withdraw his anathema from the Serbian Church, and even to recognize the autonomy of the Serbian patriarchate, but Ban Turtko of Bosnia, who was a descendant of the Nemanjich dynasty, endeavored to uphold that tradition and crowned himself king of all Serbia in the Monastery Mileshevo. Prince Lazar, instead of declaring war on that ambitious prince, succeeded in making an alliance with him, and gathered an army of about 100,000 men with which he faced the forces of Sultan Murat (numbering over 300,000) but, partly because

one of the malcontents, Vuk Brankovich, betrayed his sovereign by misleading his 12,000 horsemen, and partly because the alliance with Ban Turtko proved abortive, the Serbian armies were utterly annihilated in the disastrous battle of Kossovo (15 June 1389). Prince Lazar was captured and beheaded, and Sultan Murat perished by the hand of a Serbian knight, Prince Milosh Obilich. That unfortunate disaster, although it did not crush the Serbian state, left upon the Serbian people a deep impression and a cycle of most beautiful epic poetry immortalized the event. (See — Serbian National Poetry). The tottering Serbian state came now under the sceptre of Lazar's son Stefan Lazarovich (1389-1427) who fought the Turks in several battles of minor importance, but, owing to overwhelming numbers of the enemy, was compelled to cede his realm to the victor. After his death he was succeeded by the grandson of Lazar's daughter Djuradj Brankovich (1427-57), but all his efforts to shake off the Ottoman dominion remained without avail. When Despot Djuradj died the nobles could not agree concerning his successor, and in the disorder that ensued the Turks completed their conquest of Serbia in 1459 and invaded Bosnia. The last Tomashevichs fled to Rome, and the flower of Serbian aristocracy which survived the Battle of Kossovo, took refuge in the Orthodox Courts in Wallachia and Moldevia, in Dalmatia and Hungary. Some of them fled even as far as Scotland and Ireland. The subjugation of Bosnia was an accomplished fact by 1453, and Herzegovina followed her fate in 1482. But the only orthodox Serbian state that never succumbed to the Turkish pashas was Montenegro (Zrna Gora), whose mountains, inaccessible to the Ottoman horsemen, became the nests of Hajduks and Uskoks (guerilla warriors), members of the Serbian high aristocracy. Albania, with her chieftain of Serbian descent, George Kastriotovich, surnamed Skandarbeg (1443-68), offered a stubborn resistance in a series of battles (see ), but finally was subdued by the overwhelming foe. The cruel nature of Turkish rule soon forced thousands of Serbia's best families to emigrate and join their brothers in Southern Hungary (Bachka, Banat, Croatia and Syrmia). Those who remained were either forced to embrace Islam (which was especially the case in Bosnia), or to live as raya (slaves), for the Turkish spahis (landlords) confiscated the land hitherto belonging to the native nobles.

But when the hajduks and uskoks abandoned their original plan — that of exercising a check on occasional tyranny of certain haughty Turkish pashas and sparing and protecting the helpless Christian population, and made both highway robbery and murder their profession, the iron hand of the Turkish rule was bitterly felt, and with the beginning of the 17th century, especially after the wars between the Turkish and Austro-Hungarian empires in which the Serbian volunteers helped Austrian ambitions, an epoch of terror began on the part of the Turks, and cruelties of indescribable baseness became the regular occupation of the Janissaries and Dahis for, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Svishtov (1791) the Sublime Porte gave guarantee that the Serbian

would not be punished for their uprising and four Dahies were murdered, the pacific vizer of Belgrade, the Mustafa Pasha, as well as more than a hundred popular and prominent Serbians. This they did for fear lest a fresh insurrection should be instigated by the leaders. There were some prominent Serbians who took refuge in the mountains, inaccessible to the Turkish horsemen, and elected George Petrovitch (or as the Turks called him Kara-George, i.e., Black George) as their leader. The rebellion was organized and started in January 1804. Under the leadership of this great strategist the Serbians fought successfully and recovered from the Dahies the entire Pashalik of Belgrade. However, the Turks profited by the engagement of Europe, and more especially of Russia, in the struggle with Napoleon, and sent large armies in three different directions which subdued the insurgents and subjugated the territories won by them. George Petrovitch and other leaders left the country to seek aid, first in Austria and later in Russia. In this absence Milosh Obrenovich, one of Kara-George's lieutenants, made a fresh attempt to liberate the Serbian people from the Ottoman yoke, and in 1815 was successful in re-establishing the autonomy of the Belgrade Pashalik. During the progress of his operations, George Petrovitch returned to Serbia, but was assassinated at Smederevo (Semendria) by order of Milosh, who then proclaimed himself hereditary prince of the occupied territory, and was approved as such by the Sublime Porte in October 1815. While very wise in home affairs, Milosh openly opposed Russian influence in Serbia and incurred the bitter hostility of that power, which forced him to abdicate in 1839 in favor of his son Mihajlo. This young prince was a very subtle diplomat, and rescued from the Turks, and annexed to his independent state several important Serbian towns. He was banished in 1842 and was succeeded by Alexander Karageorgevich (1842-60) son of Kara-George Petrovitch. Under the prudent, though meek, rule of that prince Serbia obtained a modern constitution, but an unfortunate foreign policy and the corruption of the Serbian statesmen forced him to abdicate the throne and leave the country. The Skupshtina (or national assembly) restored Milosh in 1860, but he died the same year. His son Mihailo succeeded (1860-68), but was assassinated at Topchider, near Belgrade. As Milan, the only heir, was not of age, a regency of three (Blaznavaz, Gavrilovich and Ristich) was appointed, and secured from the Porte an acknowledgment of the young prince as hereditary ruler. They framed (in 1869) a constitution measurably satisfactory to the conflicting political parties. When Milan attained his majority in 1872 he ascended the throne and soon precipitated a war against Turkey (1876-78) which resulted in the annexation to Serbia of a few new districts. The Treaty of Berlin acknowledged Serbian independence, and in 1882 the principality of Serbia was proclaimed a kingdom. The unfortunate war against Bulgaria in 1885, which was instigated by Austria and by which Milan hoped to prevent his neighbors from annexing East Rumelia, forced that haughty prince (in 1888) to grant a liberal constitution to his people in order to retrieve his lost position. However,

his unpopularity, aggravated by his enforced divorce from Queen Nathalie, made it necessary for him to abdicate in favor of his 12 years old son Alexander. During Alexander's minority the executive power was delegated to a regency under the leadership of Ristich. At the age of 16 Alexander deposed the Regency by a well-planned coup d'état (in 1893), and in the following year he abrogated the constitution of 1888 and restored that of 1869. In 1900 he married his former mistress, Draga Mashin, under whose influence he entered upon a period of tyranny almost Neronian in type, thus alienating his people and his friends and playing into the hands of his enemies who finally murdered him in 1903. The National Assembly (Skupstina) immediately elected to the throne Prince Peter Karageorgevitch son of Prince Alexander and grandson of Kara-George Petrovitch, who had spent a long life in exile and whose reign forms a most important epoch in Serbian history. Strictly constitutional, he gave carte blanche to his cabinet headed mostly by M. Nikola Pashitch, to whom Serbia was indebted for avoiding war with Austria on more than one occasion. With the growth of trade and industry, for which M. Pashitch established a new and solid basis, Serbia's position of complete economic dependence, on the openly hostile or extortionate markets of Austria-Hungary, became more and more impossible, for exportation to and importation from that monarchy began rapidly to diminish, and in order to obtain some relief from this thraldom Serbia concluded, in 1906, a customs treaty with Bulgaria. To this Austria replied by a war of tariffs, the so-called “Pig-War”; swine being one of the most important items of Serbia's export trade. The resulting economic crises, which, however, were soon overcome by new routes to Egypt, France and England, greatly embittered the peasantry against Austria-Hungary and indirectly led to a closer reapproachment with Russia. Still more hostile was the dual monarchy, when she clearly saw that her policy of impoverishing her neighbors and then crushing them, proved futile, for Serbia revised and concluded new treaties of commerce with almost all European countries and manifestly showed herself as a fully-grown member in the family of nations. Profiting by the disorder caused in Turkey by the young Turks, and bitterly opposed to the just aspirations to a union of the Southern Slavs (or Jugoslavs), Austria threw a bombshell among the European Powers, signatory of the Treaty of Berlin, in wanton violation of that “scrap of paper” by annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina, which provinces of the Ottoman Empire she had administered for the previous 30 years. Serbia was in no mood to acquiesce, for all the Jugoslav provinces, notably Bosnia and Herzegovina, were conscious of their fundamental unity of race, language and aspirations with the Serbians, and were looking to the free kingdom of Serbia to lead them all toward independence, as Piedmont had led the other Italian states in 1860. In July 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and later Greece formed a league, known as the Balkan Alliance, and the respective governments delivered to the Porte an ultimatum embodying the demand that autonomy should be granted to the European provinces under

rule. At the same time, on 30 Sept. 1912, they began to mobilize their forces, to which Turkey replied with similar measures. The Powers at once made an ineffectual attempt to intervene and urged patience on the Balkan Alliance, while a joint note was presented to Turkey inviting immediate discussion of reforms in Macedonia. But the Balkan Allies, having determined not to be played with any longer, pushed events beyond the control of diplomacy, and on 17 September Turkey declared war on the recalcitrants. The Serbian forces totalled 330,000 men and were divided into four armies. While the first three armies converged upon Skoplje (Uskub) the fourth army was detailed to clear the Turks out of the Sandjac of Novi Bazaar and to proceed to the assistance of Montenegro. The decisive battle of the entire campaign, in which the Ottoman forces were crushed, took place on the field of Kumanivo before Uskub. In Albania the Serbians and Montenegrins took Ljesh (Alessio) and Drach (Durazzo), and in Macedonia the Serbian troops were successful in every battle, notably in those for Prilip, the birthplace of Serbia's national hero Prince Marko, and Bitolj (Monastir), while the Bulgarians invested Adrianople which finally fell into the hands of the Allies, thanks to the powerful help of the Serbians (50,000 men and 120 siege guns) rendered beyond the stipulations of the treaty. The London Conference (1912-13), hard pressed by the Austro-German menace, erected a new political state (which had never in history existed as such) under the name of Albania. The Montenegrins were ordered by the Powers to quit Scutari and the Serbians to evacuate the dearly won ports on the Adriatic, being allowed only a commercial route to that sea. The results of the entire campaign exceeded all the expectations of the Allies. As the Bulgarians had promised in that treaty to help Serbia with 200,000 men in case Austria should attack her, and as that aid was not needed nor given, but, on the contrary, Serbia had helped Bulgaria to secure Adrianople and Thrace, and in order to preserve European peace from threatening Germany and Austria, Serbia had abandoned Albania and her absolutely indispensable ports on the Adriatic, the necessity for a revision of that treaty was strongly felt, Bulgaria, however, absolutely refused to entertain the suggestion, exacting from Serbia the abandonment of the southern part of Macedonia as far as Monastir and the lakes which had fallen to the Serbians, and insisted on forcibly occupying Salonica which was conquered by the Greeks. The Bulgarian government even refused to submit, in accordance with the third article of the Secret Appendix of the Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty of Alliance of 1912, the case for a final decision to Russia, and advanced secretly, and endeavored to surprise the Serbian, armies on the night of 29 June. But the ingenious Serbian General Putnik utterly routed the Bulgarian forces in the memorable battle of Bregalniza. By the peace that was concluded at Bucharest, Serbia shared the Sandjak with Montenegro and retained Macedonia north of the Ochrida-Doiran line with the promise of a railway outlet on the Adriatic. Having settled the point in a broad and generous spirit, Serbia gladly hung up her sword and prepared for a period of

peace and recuperation of social and industrial advancement. On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Hapsburg throne, and his consort were murdered, under most mysterious circumstances, in the streets of Serajevo, the capital of Bosnia, by two fanatic malcontents who were natives of Bosnia and Austrian subjects. On 20 July the Austro-Hungarian Minister in Belgrade handed to the Minister for Foreign Affairs a note charging Serbia with fomenting a revolutionary propaganda within the territory of the Dual Monarchy. It was asserted that the Serajevo assassinations were planned, and the murderers equipped, in Belgrade. Among other demands the Austro-Hungarian government exacted from the Serbian government (paragraph 4) the removal from the army and civil service of a number of officers and officials guilty of anti-Austrian propaganda, whose names would be furnished by the Austrian government (paragraph 5); to accept the collaboration in Serbia of agents appointed by the Austro-Hungarian government, for the suppression of the subversive movement (paragraph 6); to institute a judicial inquiry into the crime of 28 June; this inquiry to be held in Serbian territory, Austro-Hungarian delegates to take part in this investigation, etc. The French and British Ambassadors and the Russian Chargé d'affaires expressed indignation at the form, contents and the time-limit (48 hours) of that note and declared it to be inacceptable by any sovereign state in the world. The Serbian government unreservedly accepted all the demands of Austria-Hungary, except paragraphs 5 and 6, and promised to revise those articles of the constitution which stood in the way of these demands, and declared its readiness to refer any disputed point either to the Hague Tribunal or to the Powers who had taken part in the settlement of the controversy concerning the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Refusing the Serbian answer, the Austro-Hungarian government declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, which was followed by a desultory bombardment of the defenseless city of Belgrade. In spite of the German ambassador's assurances that Russia, being unprepared, would remain passive, and that the war on Serbia would be a mere “punitive expedition” which would be ended before the Powers could intervene, Austria awoke to the startling fact that Russia was beginning to move, and on 31 July, Vienna consented to eliminate from the ultimatum those demands which involved the violation of the sovereignty of Serbia. It was too late. Germany, having jockeyed Austria into a position from which there was no escape, declared war on Russia the next day. The Serbian army was entirely unprepared for the new war, for little or none of the wastage in the Balkan wars had as yet been made good, and the orders placed abroad, chiefly in France, for cannon, rifles, munitions, clothing and stores, had not yet been filled; heavy guns, automobiles and flying machines were almost completely lacking. Not before 12 August did the Austro-Hungarian troops (80,000 men) make a definite invasion at Loznitza and Lesnitza, but Vojuoda Putnik met them in the Cer mountain and routed them at Belikamen. It was not to be expected that Austria would accept as definite the blow inflicted on her

military prestige at the battles of Belikamen and Jadar. Having made good their heavy losses the Austrians advanced again with a fresh army of 250 battalions of infantry and numerous guns, and took by surprise the Suvohor mountain. Retreat on the part of the Serbians was imperative on account of the lack of ammunition. However when the long-expected munitions arrived, about 23 December, the Serbians rapidly retook the line Lazaravac-Valjero-Uzice, and the enemy was hurled back across the Drina. Belgrade, which had been evacuated by the Serbians, soon fell a victim to the violent artillery of the Serbian attacks from the surrounding hills. The pontoon-bridges having been subject to a fierce fire from the Serbian heavy guns the Austrian debacle was complete. They left behind in Serbia 40,000 prisoners and hundreds of guns, with the transports and stores of a vast army. Almost the entire year that ensued passed in a comparative quietness that gave the Serbians time to rest and recuperate. But in July 1915 Bulgaria signed a secret treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary and renewed those concluded in 1908. This gave hopes to the Austrians, and aided by several Prussian and Bavarian divisions, they attacked Serbia in October 1915 from the north and the Bulgarians attacked from the south. Against these odds the Serbians fought desperately, but finally were forced to retreat through Albania, which they found as hostile as their own ally Greece. This retreat constitutes the summit of human endurance and the saddest page in Serbian history. The few remnants of the Serbian army, and the great mass of the non-combatant population, found a refuge in Corfu, Italy and in southern France. The mysterious surrender of Montenegro and the escape of King Nikolas to France and his son Prince Mirko to Vienna aggravated the national cataclysm of the Serbian people. See.

An agreement was reached at Geneva, 7 Nov. 1918, by the Serbian Prime Minister and delegates to the National Council at Agram as the governing body of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Under this agreement the Jugoslavs of the former empire of Austria-Hungary became incorporated with Serbia and sought recognition from the Entente Powers of the Agram National Council as the de facto and de jure government of the new Jugo-Slav state. The government of the new state is republican in form, with Joseph Pogaonik as first President. By 21 December the terms of union between Serbia and her sister Slovak states were agreed upon and a ministry representing them all was formed.

Government. — After the catastrophe of 15 June 1903 in which the last member (Alexander) of the Obrenovitch dynasty perished, the constitution of 1888 was restored. By that constitution the legislative power is shared by the king (the dynasty of Karageorgevitch) and the Skupshtina (or National Assembly), while the executive authority is in the hands of the Council of Ministers (eight in number) appointed by the sovereign. The Skupshtina, too, can force the Cabinet to resign as soon as it cannot command the confidence of the national representatives. The members of the Skupshtina are elected by scrutin de liste by entire counties (i.e., departments), the number

of which varies (from 4 to 12) according to the population of each department. The deputies are inviolable and irresponsible during their term of office, before the courts for whatever they say in the Skupshtina. All Serbians who are of age and pay direct taxes are eligible, but each department must have at least two candidates, apart from the general conditions and requisites prescribed by the constitution, who must possess a university degree or its equivalent in order to assure the representation of the educated classes, for nine-tenths of the Serbian population are illiterate peasants. The Skupshtina consists of only one chamber, whose deputies are elected almost by universal suffrage as the voting right is granted to all Serbians who are 21 years of age and who pay 15 dinars (about $5) yearly in direct taxes. The deputies have the right to impeach ministers of the state and possess the sovereign right of controlling the budget. Although the sovereign has the right of convoking the Skupshtina in ordinary or extraordinary session, of closing and proroguing the sessions and of dissolving the Assembly, he cannot paralyze its work or exercise a determining power over the course of state affairs, for the constitution expressly ordains that the Skupshtina shall be convoked in ordinary sessions each year which cannot be closed before the budget for the following year has been voted. The constitution provides also for a Council of State (Senate with 12 members) which is the highest administrative body, passing resolutions in judgments between the state authorities and the autonomous authorities, exercising supreme supervision over the carrying out of the various electoral functions, and its advice must be taken upon all projects of law (bills) which are to be presented to the Skupshtina. The members of the Council of State are irremovable and independent, and six of their number are elected by the Skupshtina from a list of candidates presented by the king, and the remainder are appointed by the king from a list of candidates drawn up by the Skupshtina. Besides the ordinary Skupshtina there exists the Great Skupshtina which is convoked only on very important occasions, such as election of the new sovereign or establishment of succession to the throne, amendments of the constitution, cession or exchange of the territories of the state; or it can be called even by the king himself if he deems consultation imperative. Serbia is divided into departments (okrugs), arrondissements (srezovi) and communes (opshtine). The governor of the department is the representative of the central power. Justice is rendered by the courts of the communes, courts of the departments, the court of appeals and the Supreme Court or the Court of Cassation.

Army. — In accordance with the Law for the Organization of the Army, voted by the National Skupshtina in 1901, compulsory service in the army is general for all able-bodied men; those who are unfit for military service must pay 30 per cent additional indirect taxes. The military forces are divided into the national army and the home defense, the former beginning at the age of 21 and ending at 45 inclusive and consisting of three categories, while the latter lasts from 17 years to 21 and from 45 to 50. The terms of service in the standing army are

two years in the cavalry and artillery and 18 months in all other arms. For the educated classes there exists a shorter term of six months, provided the candidate passes successfully the examination qualifying him for the rank of sub-lieutenant in the reserve. Those who fail at the examination must serve 14 months. The enrolment of recruits takes place every year in July and August. The minimum height of the recruits is 150 centimetres and chest 78 centimetres (60 and 32 inches respectively). Previous to the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 (since which Serbia has doubled her territory and population) the standing army consisted of five divisions of infantry; one division of cavalry of four cavalry regiments, each of four squadrons and two-horse batteries; one fortress artillery team of two battalions; one regiment of mountain artillery of seven batteries; one command of engineers and one battalion of pioneers; two companies of cantoneers; one company of railway men; one company of telegraph men; one company of miners; and the royal guard consisting of one squadron of cavalry and one company of infantry. In the Balkan War of 1912 the entire Serbian army numbered 350,000, but in 1914 its strength was estimated between four and five hundred thousand. At Belgrade there is a very high class military academy for the training of officers, and at Kragujevatz there is an artillery, school for non-commissioned officers. The standard of military education can be compared favorably with that of any first-class military power in Europe.

Political Divisions and Population. — The departments of Serbia, with their areas and populations, are as follows:

The area of Serbia is therefore 33,891 square miles, with a population of 4,615,567, of whom 2,911,701 inhabit Old Serbia and 1,703,866 New Serbia. In Old Serbia, 1910, 2,528,819

were rural dwellers and 382,882 were urban dwellers, 2,890,602 were Serbian citizens and 21,086 were foreigners, comprising 6,060 Turks, 6,605 subjects of Austria and 5,518 Hungarians. Serbian was the language of 2,778,706 and 32,556 could speak Serbian and Rumanian, while a few thousands spoke German, Albanian, Hungarian, Greek, Turkish, etc. In 1900, over 2,000,000 were dependent on agriculture, 166,599 on industries, 109,998 on commerce, 116,566 on public offices and the liberal professions, and 6,440 on primary production other than agriculture. Of the Jews, 2,636 spoke Serbian or other Slav language; 1,544 Spanish, 462 German, 40 Hungarian and 1,047 spoke other languages. Of the gipsies, 27,846 spoke Serbian, 4,709 Rumanian, 181 Turkish and 13,412 Gipsy. Less than 20 per cent of the population are able to read and write. Belgrade is the most populous centre with 90,890 inhabitants. Other important cities are: Nish, with a population of 24,949; Kragouyévatz, with 18,452; Leskovatz, 14,266; Pozarévatz, 13,411; Vranyé, 11,439; Pirot, 10,737. In the new territories are the cities of Monastir (Bitobj), with 59,856 inhabitants; Uskub (Skoplyé), 47,384; Prizren, with 21,244; and Novi Bazar, with 13,434 inhabitants.

Bibliography. — Auboyneau, ‘Essai de Bibliographie pour servir a l'histoire de l'Empire Ottoman’ (Paris 1911); Baily, H., ‘Les victoires Serbes’ (Paris 1916); Bain, R. N., ‘Siege of Belgrade,’ English History Review (April 1892); Balkanicus, ‘Aspirations of Bulgaria’ (London 1915); Bengescu, ‘Essai d'une notice bibliographique sur la Question d'orient, 1821-1897’ (Paris 1897); Borchgrave, Emile de, ‘L'Empereur Etienne Duchan; La Serbie et la Peninsule balkanique au XIV$e$ siècle,’ ''Bull. de l'Acad. royale de Belgique'' (Brussels 1884); Boucabeille, ‘La Guerre turco-balkanique’ (Paris 1912); Bowring, Sir John, ‘Servian Popular Poetry’ (London 1827); Brückner, A., ‘Ursitze der Slawen und Deutschen’ Archiv für Slavische Philologie (Vol. XXIV); Chadwick, ‘The Heroic Age’ (Cambridge 1910); Cognelle, ‘Le royaume de Serbie’ (Paris 1894); Cohn, G., ‘Gemeinderschaft und Haus-genossenschaft’ (Stuttgart 1898); Denton, W., ‘Servia and the Servians’ (London 1862); Djordjcvic, Vladan, ‘Die Servische Frage’ (Stuttgart 1909); and ‘Das Ende der Obrenovic’ (Leipzig 1905); ‘Diplomatist,’ ‘Nationalism and War in the Near East’ (Oxford 1915); Forbes, ‘The Balkans’ (Oxford 1915); Gibbons, H. A, ‘New Map of Europe’ (London 1914); Gopcevic, ‘Serbian und Serben’ (Leipzig 1888); Goubernatis, ‘La Serbie et les Serbes’ (Paris 1898); Gueshoff, W. E., ‘The Balkan League’ (London 1915); Jagic, ‘Verwandtschafts-Verhältnisse innerhalb der Slavischcn Sprachen’ (Archiv für Slavische Philologie, Vols. XIX, XX, XXII); and ‘Zur Enstehung Geschichte der Kirchen-slavischen Sprache’ (‘Denkschriften Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,’ Vol. XVII, Vienna); Jirecek, C., ‘Die Hearstrasse von Belgrad nach Konstantinopel und die Balkanpässe’ (Prague 1877); and ‘Die Handelstrassen und Bergwerke von Serbien und Bosnia während des Mittelalters’ (1853); und ‘Geschichte der Serben’ (Gotha 1911); Jovanovic, ‘The Near Eastern Question, 1481-1906’ (Belgrade 1909); Kanitz, ‘Serbien,

Reisestudien’ (Leipzig 1868); Karic, ‘Srbija’ (Belgrade 1888); Kohn, ‘Serbien in geo-ethnographisch-administrativ-volkswirtschaftlicher und kommerzieller Hinsicht’ (Zemlin 1895); Kallay, B., ‘Geschichte der Serbien’ (Leipzig 1878); Kanitz, ‘Das Königreich Serbien’ (Leipzig 1904-09); Leger, L., ‘Le monde Slave’ (Paris 1885), and ‘La Save, le Danube et le Balkan’ (Paris 1884); Millicevic, ‘Knezevina Srbija’ (Belgrade 1878); and ‘Kraljevina Srbija’ (Belgrade 1834); Millet, ‘La Serbie economique et commerciale’ (Paris 1889); Miklosic, ‘Monumenta Serbica’ (Vienna 1858); Miller, W., ‘Medieval Serbian Empire,’ Quarterly Review (London October 1916); Mallatt, J., ‘Le Serbie contemporaine’ (Paris 1902); Markovic, M., ‘Die Serbische Hauscommunion (Zadruga)’; Mijatovic, Cedomilj, ‘Servia and the Servians’ (London 1908); Newbigin, Marion L., ‘Geographical Aspects of Balkan Problems’ (London 1915); Novakovic, Stojan, ‘Zakonik Cara Dusana,’ Emperor Dusan's Code (Belgrade); and ‘Die Wiedergeburt des Serbischen Staates’ (Serajevo 1912); and ‘On the Zadruga’ (in ‘Serbian Academy Proceedings,’ Vol. XXIV); Prince Lazorovic-Hrebeljanovic, ‘The Serbian People: its past Glory and Destiny’ (New York 1910; London 1911); Petrovic, W. M., ‘Serbia: Her People, History and Aspirations’ (New York 1916); and ‘Hero Tales and Legends of the Serbians’ (New York 1915); Peisker, ‘Die Serbische Zadruga’ (Graz 1896-1900); Protic, Stojan, ‘The Secret Treaty between Servia and Austria-Hungary’ (Fortnightly Review, May 1909); Royal Serbian Academy of Sciences, ‘Essai de bibliographie française sur les Serbes et les Croates, 1554-1900’ (Belgrade 1900); Racic, F., ‘Le royaume de Serbie’ (London 1901); Safarik, ‘Elenchus actorum spectantium ad historiam Serborum et reliquorum Slavorum meridionalium, qui in archivo Venetiarum reperiuntur’ (Belgrade 1858); Seton-Watson, R. W., ‘The Southern Slav Question’ (London 1911); Sedonius, S., ‘Les Patriarchats dans l'Empire Ottoman et specialement en Egypte’ (Paris 1907); Steed, H. W., ‘The Hapsburg Monarchy’ (London 1912); Salesbury, ‘Two Months with Tchernaieff in Servia’ (London 1877); Stead, Alfred, ‘Servia by the Servians’ (London 1909); Safarik, ‘Slavosche Alterthümer’ (Leipzig 1834-44); Tuma, A., ‘Serbien’ (Hanover 1894); Thalloczy, ‘Studien zur Geschichte Bosniens und Serbiens im Mittelalter’ (Munich 1914); Von Ranke, Leopold, ‘History of Serbia,’ (English trans, from the German, London 1853); Vivian, H., ‘The Servian Tragedy’ (London 1904); and ‘Servia, the Poor Man's Paradise’ (London 1897); Belimizobiv, Nicholas, ‘Religion and Nationality in Serbia: the Soul of Serbia’ (London 1915-16). See .


text: Observations on an autograph of Shakespeare, and the orthography of his name

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rh The man-servant knocks and asks if he is to bring the lamp.

"Make up the fire first," Signor Odoardo says.

The wood crackles and snaps, and sends up showers of sparks; then it bursts into flame, blazing away with a regular, monotonous sound, like the breath of a sleeping giant. In the dusk the firelight flashes upon the walls, brings out the pattern of the wall-paper, and travels far enough to illuminate a corner of the desk. The shadows lengthen and then shorten again, thicken and then shrink; everything in the room seems to be continually changing its size and shape. Signor Odoardo, giving free rein to his thoughts, evokes the vision of his married life, sees the baby's cradle, recalls her first cries and smiles, feels again his dying wife's last kiss, and hears the last word upon her lips,—Doretta. No, no, it is impossible that he should ever do anything to make his Doretta unhappy! And yet he is not sure of resisting Signora Evelina's wiles; he is almost afraid that, when he sees his enchantress on the morrow, all his strong resolves may take flight. There is but one way out of it.

"Doretta," says Signor Odoardo.

"Father?"

"Are you going to copy out your letter to your grandmamma this evening?"


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130 "Yes, father."

"Would n't you rather go and see your grandmamma yourself?"

"With whom?" the child falters anxiously, her little heart beating a frantic tattoo as she awaits his answer.

"With me, Doretta."

"With you, daddy?" she exclaims, hardly daring to believe her ears.

"Yes, with me; with your daddy."

"Oh, daddy, daddy!" she cries, her little arms about his neck, her kisses covering his face. "Oh, daddy, my own dear daddy! When shall we start?"

"To-morrow morning, if you're not afraid of the snow."

"Why not now? Why not at once?"

"Gently—gently. Good Lord, does n't the child want her dinner first?"

And Signor Odoardo, gently detaching himself from his daughter's embrace, rises and rings for the lamp. Then, instinctively, he glances once more towards the window. In the opposite house all is dark, and Signora Evelina's profile is no longer outlined against the pane. The weather is still threatening, and now and then a snowflake falls. The servant closes the shutters and draws the curtains, so that no profane gaze may penetrate into the domestic sanctuary.

"We had better dine in here," Signor Odoardo


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Rh says. "The dining-room must be as cold as Greenland."

Doretta, meanwhile, is convulsing the kitchen with the noisy announcement of the impending journey. At first she is thought to be joking, but when she establishes the fact that she is speaking seriously, it is respectfully pointed out to her that the master of the house must be crazy. To start on a journey in the depth of winter, and In such weather! If at least they were to wait for a fine day!

But what does Doretta care for the comments of the kitchen? She is beside herself with joy. She sings, she dances about the room, and breaks off every moment or two to give her father a kiss. Then she pours out the fulness of her emotion upon the cat Melanio and the doll Nini, promising the latter to bring her back a new frock from Milan.

At dinner she eats little and talks incessantly of the journey, asking again and again what time it is, and at what time they are to start.

"Are you afraid of missing the train?" Signor Odoardo asks with a smile.

And yet, though he dissembles his impatience, it is as great as hers. He longs to go away, far away. Perhaps he may not return until spring. He orders his luggage packed for an absence of two months.

Doretta goes to bed early, but all night long


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Rh treasure, and the seat of empire, were all in their hands. To divert the Prætorian bands from these dangerous reflections the firmest and best established princes were obliged to mix blandishments with commands, rewards with punishments, to flatter their pride, indulge their pleasures, connive at their irregularities, and to purchase their precarious faith by a liberal donative; which, since the elevation of Claudius, was exacted as a legal claim on the accession of every new emperor.

The advocates of the guards endeavoured to justify by arguments the power which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, according to the purest principles of the constitution, their consent was essentially necessary in the appointment of an emperor. The election of consuls, of generals, and of magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the senate, was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. But where was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst the mixed multitude of slaves and strangers that filled the streets of Rome; a servile populace, as devoid of spirit as destitute of property. The defenders of the state, selected from the flower of Italian youth, and trained in the exercise of arms and virtue, were the genuine representatives of the people, and the best entitled to elect the military chief of the republic. These assertions, however defective in reason, became unanswerable, when the fierce Prætorians increased their weight, by throwing, like the barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords into the scale.

The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne, by the atrocious murder of Pertinax; they dishonoured the majesty of it, by their subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, for even the præfect Lætus, who had excited the tempest, prudently declined the public indignation. Amidst the wild disorder, Sulpicianus, the emperor's father-in-law, and governor


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schaff, David Schley

SCHAFF, shäf, David Schley, American Presbyterian clergyman and educator, son of Philip Schaff (q.v.): b. Mercersburg, Pa., 17 Oct. 1852. He was graduated at Yale in 1873 and in 1877 was ordained in the Presbyterian ministry. He served as pastor in 1877-1907; was professor of church history at Lane Theological Seminary in 1897-1903; and since 1903 has been professor of ecclesiastical and doctrinal history there. He was a delegate to the Pan-Presbyterian Council at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1913. He was one of the editors of the ‘Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia’ (4 vols., 1883); and of ‘History of the Christian Church’ (Vols. I-II, 1907-10); and author of ‘Commentary on Acts’ (1882); ‘Life of Philip Schaff’ (1897); ‘John Huss’ (1915), etc. He translated ‘The Church’ by Huss (1915).


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132 she tosses about under the bed-clothes, waking her nurse twenty times to ask: "Is it time to get up?"

Signor Odoardo, too, is awake when the man-servant comes to call him the next morning at six o'clock.

"What sort of a day is it?"

"Very bad, sir—just such another as yesterday. In fact, if I might make the suggestion, sir, if it's not necessary for you to start to-day—"

"It is, Angelo. Absolutely necessary."

At the station there are only a few sleepy, depressed-looking travellers wrapped in furs. They are all grumbling about the weather, about the cold, about the earliness of the hour, and declaring that nothing but the most urgent business would have got them out of bed at that time of day. There is but one person in the station who is all liveliness and smiles—Doretta.

The first-class compartment in which Signor Odoardo and his daughter find themselves is bitterly cold, in spite of foot-warmers, but Doretta finds the temperature delicious, and, if she dared, would open the windows for the pleasure of looking out.

"Are you happy, Doretta?"

"Oh, so happy!"

Ten years earlier, on a pleasanter day, but also in winter, Signor Odoardo had started on


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Rh his wedding-journey. Opposite him had sat a young girl, who looked as much like Doretta as a woman can look like a child; a pretty, sedate young girl, oh, so sweetly, tenderly in love with Signor Odoardo. And as the train started he had asked her the same question:

"Are you happy, Maria?"

And she had answered:

"Oh, so happy!" just like Doretta.

The train races and flies. Farewell, farewell, for ever, Signora Evelina.

And did Signora Evelina die of despair?

Oh, no; Signora Evelina has a perfect disposition and a delightful home. The perfect disposition enables her not to take things too seriously, the delightful home affords her a thousand distractions. Its windows do not all look towards Signor Odoardo's residence. One of them, for example, commands a little garden belonging to a worthy bachelor who smokes his pipe there on pleasant days. Signora Evelina finds the worthy bachelor to her taste, and the worthy bachelor, who is an average-adjuster by profession, admires Signora Evelina's eyes, and considers her handsomely and solidly enough put together to rank A on Lloyd's registers.

The result is that the bachelor now and then looks up at the window, and the Signora Evelina now and then looks down at the garden. The


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134 weather not being propitious to out-of-door conversation, Signora Evelina at length invites her neighbor to come and pay her a visit. Her neighbor hesitates and she renews the invitation. How can one resist such a charming woman? And what does one visit signify? Nothing at all. The excellent average-adjuster has every reason to be pleased with his reception, the more so as Signora Evelina actually gives him leave to bring his pipe the next time he comes. She adores the smell of a pipe. Signora Evelina is an ideal woman, just the wife for a business man who had not positively made up his mind to remain single. And as to that, muses the average-adjuster, have I ever positively made up my mind to remain single, and if I have, who is to prevent my changing it?

And so it comes to pass that when, after an absence of three months, Signor Odoardo returns home with Doretta, he receives notice of the approaching marriage of Signora Evelina Chiocci, widow Ramboldi, with Signor Archimede Fagiuolo.

"Fagiuolo!" shouts Doretta, "Fagiuolo!" The name seems to excite her unbounded hilarity; but I am under the impression that the real cause of her merriment is not so much Signora Evelina's husband as Signora Evelina's marriage.


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User:TalBot/soft redirect maintenance/January 2012/redirects

 * Author:Emily Dickinson/Index -> Author:Emily Dickinson
 * Brown v. Board of Education (349 U.S. 294) -> Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (349 U.S. 294)
 * Brown v. Board of Education (349 U.S. 294)/Opinion of the Court -> Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (349 U.S. 294)/Opinion of the Court
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 * Folklore (journal)/Volume 31/List of Members -> Folk-Lore/Volume 31/List of Members
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 * Scientific American/Volume 1 -> Scientific American/Series 1/Volume 1
 * The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Der Arme Heinrich -> The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Der arme Heinrich


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HERE are many who write down every evening what they have done during the day; some who keep a record of the plays they have seen, the books they have read, the cigars they have smoked—but is there one man in a hundred, nay, in a thousand, who, at the end of the year, or even once in a lifetime, draws up a list of the people he has known? I don't mean his intimate friends, of course the few whom he sees, or with whom he corresponds; but the multitude of people met in the past, and perhaps never to be encountered again, of whom the recollection returns from time to time at longer and longer


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138 intervals as the years go by, until at length it wholly fades away. Which of us has not forgotten a hundred once familiar names, lost all trace of a hundred once familiar lives? And yet to my mind this forgetfulness implies such a loss in the way of experience, that if I could live my life over again I should devote at least half an hour a day to the tedious task of recording the names and histories of the people I met, however uninteresting they might appear.

What strange and complex annals I should possess had I kept such a list of my earliest school-friends, supplementing it as time went on by any news of them that I could continue to obtain, and keeping track, as best I might, of the principal changes in their lives! As it is, of the two or three hundred lads that I knew there are but twenty or thirty whom I can recall, or with whose occupations and whereabouts I am acquainted—of the others I know absolutely nothing. For a few years I kept them all vividly in mind; three hundred rosy faces smiled at me, three hundred schoolboy jackets testified more or less distinctly to the paternal standing, from the velvet coat of the mayor's son to the floury roundabout of the baker's offspring; I still heard all their different voices; I saw where each one sat in school; I recalled their words, their attitudes, their gestures. Gradually all the faces melted into a rosy blur, the jackets into a


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Rh uniform neutral tint; the gestures were blent in a vague ripple of movement, and at last a thick mist enveloped all and the vision disappeared.

It grieves me that it should be so, and many a time I long to burst through the mist and evoke the hidden vision. But, alas! my comrades are all scattered; and were I to try to seek them out, one by one, how many devious twists and turns I should have to make, and to what strange places my search would lead me! From a sacristy I should pass to barracks, from barracks to a laboratory, thence to a lawyer's office; from the lawyer's office to a prison, from the prison to a theatre, from the theatre, alas! to a cemetery, and thence, perhaps, to a merchant vessel lying in some American or Eastern port. Who knows what adventures, what misfortunes, what domestic tragedies, what transformations in appearance, in habits, in life, would be found to have befallen that mere handful of humanity, within that short space of time!

And yet those are not the friends that I most long to see again. Indeed, if we analyze that sense of mournful yearning which makes us turn back to childhood, we shall be surprised to find how faint is the longing for our old comrades, nay, we may even discover that no such sentiment exists in us. And why should it, after all? We were often together, we were merry, we sought each other out, we desired each other's


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140 ; but there was no interchange between us of anything that draws together, that binds closer, that leaves its mark upon the soul. Our friendships were unmade as lightly as they were made. What we wanted was somebody to echo our laughter, to climb trees with us, and return the ball well; and as the pluckiest, liveliest, and most active boys were best fitted to meet these requirements, it was upon them that our choice usually fell. But did we feel kindly towards the weaklings? Did it ever occur to us, when a comrade looked sad, to ask: What ails you? or, if he answered that somebody lay dead at home, did we have any tears for his sorrow? Ah, we were not real friends!

It has probably happened to many of you to come across a companion of your primary-school days, after the lapse of fifteen years or so. You receive a letter in an unfamiliar hand, you glance at the signature, and you shout out: "What? Is he alive?"

On with your hat and off you rush to the hotel. Your heart thumps as you run, and you race upstairs to his door in hot haste, laughing, rejoicing, and thinking to yourself that you would n't have missed those few minutes for any amount of money. Well, those few minutes are the best. You bounce into the room, and find yourself embracing a strange man in whom, as you look at him more closely, you can just discern some faint


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Rh resemblance to the lad you used to know; one of you exclaims, "How are you, old man?" the other plunges breathlessly into some old school reminiscence; and then. . . that's all.

You begin to say to yourself: "Who is this strange man? what has he been doing all these years? what has been going on in his soul? is he good or bad, a believer or a sceptic? I have nothing in common with him, I don't know the man! He must be observed and studied first—how can I call him a friend?"

What you think of him, he thinks of you, and conversation languishes. With your first words you may have discovered that you and he have followed opposite paths in life; he betrays his democratic tendencies, you, your monarchical leanings; you try him on literature, he retaliates with the culture of silk-worms. Before telling him that you are married, you take the precaution to ask if he has a wife; he answers, "What do you take me for?" and you take leave with a touch of the finger-tips and a smile that has died at its birth.

The friends of infancy! Dear indeed above all others when the years of boyhood have been spent with them; mere phantoms otherwise! And childhood itself! I have never been able to understand why people long to return to it. Why mourn for years without toil, without suffering, without intelligent belief, without those outbursts of fierce and bitter sorrow that purify the soul and


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142 uplift the brow in a splendid renewal of hope and courage? Better a thousand times to suffer, to toil, to fight and weep, than to let life exhale itself in a ceaseless irresponsible gayety, causeless, objectless, and imperturbable! Better to stand bleeding on the breach than to lie dreaming among the flowers.

seventeen years old when I made the acquaintance of my dearest friends, in a splendid palace which I see before me as clearly as though I had left it only yesterday. I see the great courtyard, the stately porticos, the saloons adorned with columns, statues and bas-reliefs; and, amidst these beautiful and magnificent objects, vestiges of the bygone splendors of the ducal residence, the long lines of bedsteads and school-benches, the hanging rows of uniforms, dirks and rifles. Five hundred youths are scattered about those courts and corridors and staircases; a dull murmur of voices, broken by loud shouts and sonorous laughter, reverberates through the most distant recesses of the huge edifice. What animation! What life! What varieties of type, of speech and gesture! Youths of athletic build, with great moustaches and stentorian voices; youths as slim and sweet as girls; the dusky skin and coal-black eyes of Sicily; the


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Rh fair-haired, blue-eyed faces of the north; the excited gesticulation of Naples, the silvery Tuscan intonation, the rattling Venetian chatter, a hundred groups, a hundred dialects; on this side, songs and noisy talk, on that side running, jumping, and hand-clapping; men of every class, sons of dukes, senators, generals, shopkeepers, government employés; a strange assemblage, suggesting the university, the monastery, and the barracks; with talk of women, war, novels, the orders of the day; a life teeming with feminine meannesses and virile ambitions; a life of mortal ennui and frantic gayety, a medley of sentiments, actions, and incidents, absurd, tragic, or delightful, from which the pen of a great humorist could extract the materials for a masterpiece.

Such was the military college of Modena in the year 1865.

recall the two years that I spent there without being beset by a throng of memories from which I can free myself only by passing them all in review, one after another, like pictures in a magic-lantern; now laughing, now sighing, now shaking my head, but feeling all the while that each episode is dear to me and will never be forgotten while I live.


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144 How well I remember the first grief of my military life, a blow that befell me a few days after I had entered college all aglow with the poetry of war. It was the morning on which caps were distributed. Each new recruit of the company found one that fitted him, but all were too small for me, and the captain turned upon me furiously.

"Are you aware that the commissary stores will have to be reopened just for you?" And I heard him mutter after a pause, "What are you going to do with a head like that?"

Great God, what I underwent at that moment! What—be a soldier? I thought. Never! Better beg my bread in the streets—better die and have done with it!

Then I remember an officer, an old soldier, gruff but kindly, who had a way of smiling whenever he looked at me. How that smile used to exasperate me! I had made up my mind to demand an explanation, to let him know that I didn't propose to be any man's butt, when one evening he called me to him, and having given me to understand that he had heard something about me and that he wanted to know if it were really true (I was to speak frankly, for it would do me no harm), he finally, with many coughs and smiles and furtive glances, whispered in my ear: "Is it true that you write poetry?"

I recall, too, the insuperable difficulty of


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Rh accomplishing the manual tasks imposed upon me, especially that of sewing on my buttons—how every few seconds the needle would slip through my fingers, till the thread was tangled up in a veritable spider's web, while the button hung as loose as ever, to the derision of my companions and the disgust of the drill-sergeant, whose contemptuous—"You may be a great hand at rhyming, but when it comes to sewing on buttons you're a hundred years behind the times," seemed to exile me to the depths of the eighteenth century.

I see the great refectory, where a battalion might have drilled; I see the long tables, the five hundred heads bent above the plates, the rapid motion of five hundred forks, of a thousand hands and sixteen thousand teeth; the swarm of servants running here and there, called to, scolded, hurried, on every side at once; I hear the clatter of dishes, the deafening noise, the voices choked with food crying out: "Bread—bread!" and I feel once more the formidable appetite, the herculean strength of jaw, the exuberant life and spirits of those far-off days.

The scene changes, and I see myself locked in a narrow cell on the fifth floor, a jug of water at my side, a piece of black bread in my hand, with unkempt hair and unshorn chin, and the image of Silvio Pellico before me; condemned to ten days' imprisonment for having made an address


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146 of thanks to the professor of chemistry on the occasion of his closing lecture, thereby committing an infraction of article number so-and-so of the regulation forbidding any cadet to speak in public in the name of his companions. And to this day I can hear the Major saying: "Take my advice and never let your imagination run away with you;" citing the example of his old schoolfellow, the poet Regaldi, who had got into just such a scrape, and concluding with the warning that "poetry always made men make asses of themselves."

Yes, I see it all as vividly as though I were reliving the very same life again—the silent march of the companies at night down the long, faintly-lit corridors; the professors behind their desks, deafening us with their Gustavus-Adolphuses, their Fredericks the Great, and their Napoleons; the great lecture-rooms full of motionless faces; the huge, dim dormitories, resounding with the respirations of a hundred pairs of lungs; the garden, the piazza, the ramparts, the winding Modenese sheets, the cafés full of graduates devouring pastry, the picnics in the country, the excursions to neighboring villages, the intrigues, the studies, the rivalries, the sadnesses, the enmities, the friendships.


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days before the graduating examinations we were given leave to study wherever we pleased. There were two hundred of us in the second class, and we dispersed ourselves all over the palace, in groups of five or six friends, each group in a separate room, and began the long, desperate grind, cramming away day and night, with only an occasional interruption to discuss the coming examination and our future prospects.

How cheerily we talked, and how bright our anticipations were! After two years of imprisonment, home, freedom, and epaulets were suddenly within our reach. Aside from the common satisfaction of being promoted to be an officer, each one of us had his own special reasons for rejoicing. With one of us it was the satisfaction of being able to say to the family that had pinched and denied itself to pay for his schooling, "Here I am, good people, nineteen years old and able to shift for myself;" with another, the fun of swaggering in full uniform, with clanking heels and rattling sword, into the quiet house where the old uncle who had been so generous sat waiting to welcome him home; with a third, the joy of mounting a familiar staircase, brevet in pocket, and knocking at a certain door, behind which a girlish voice would be heard exclaiming,