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 ment he sailed in the Theseus, accompanied by a small squadron, for Teneriffe. In the pliant but unsuccessful attempt upon this island Oldfield commanded the force of royal marines which effected a landing from the squadron. His boat was swamped, but he swam to shore, and on landing received a contusion in the right knee. He materially contributed to the saving of the British detachment, whose temerity in attacking with so inferior a force was only equalled by the gallantry with which they carried the attack into execut ion. Its failure may be attributed to the loss of the cutter Fox, 10 guns, which was sunk by the enemy's fire, with a considerable part of the force destined for the enterprise. It was in this affair that Nelson lost his arm. In a private letter, written after the battle of the Nile, Oldfield said that 'it was by no means so severe as the affair at Teneriffe, or the second night of the bombardment of Cadiz.'

Until the Theseus was detached to join Nelson (who had shifted his flag to the Vanguard, and gone in pursuit of the French squadron up the Mediterranean), Oldfield remaining with the fleet under the orders of the Earl of St. Vincent. At the battle of the Nile Oldfield was the senior officer of royal marines in the fleet, and obtained the rank of major for his services, his commission dating 7 Oct. 1798. Oldfield relates in a private letter how, after the disappointment of not finding the French fleet at Alexandria, the Zealous made the signal at midday on 1 Aug. that it was in the bay of Aboukir. At half-past three the French fleet was plainly seen, and an hour afterwards Nelson bade the Theseus go ahead of him. Oldfield in the Theseus was alongside the Guerrier at a quarter to seven o'clock, and having poured in a broadside which carried away ner main and mizen masts, he passed on to the Sparticle and anchored abreast of her, the admiral anchoring on the other side ten minutes later. After the action Oldfield was sent with his marines on board the Tonnant, and from 1 to 14 Aug. he only occasionally lay down on deck. Upwards of six hundred prisoners were on board, of whom 150 were wounded. Nelson sent word to Oldfield that nothing would give him greater pleasure than to serve him; but Oldfield replied that he wanted nothing.

The Theseus remained for some time at Gibraltar and Lisbon to repair damages. Early in the spring of 1799 she sailed to join Sir Sidney Smith off the coast of Syria, and Oldfield took part in the defence of St. Jean d'Acre. On 7 April, at daybreak, a sortie in three columns was made, Oldfield commanding the centre column, which was to penetrate to the entrance of the French mine. The French narrative of General Berthier, chef d'état-major of the French army in Egypt, relates how Oldfield's column advanced to the entrance of the mine and attacked like heroes ; how Oldfield's body was carried off by their grenadiers and brought to the French headquarters. He was dying when taken, and breathed his last before he reached headquarters. 'His sword,' says Berthier, 'to which he had done so much honour, was also honoured after his death. . . . He was buried among us, and he has carried with him to the grave the esteem of the French army.' His gallant conduct was eulogised in the official despatch of Sir Sidney Smith, and Napoleon, when on passage to St. Helena, spoke of Oldfield's gallantry to the marine officers on board the Northumberland.

Oldfield was of middle stature and dark complexion. He was of a social and generous disposition, and had a strong sense of religion. A tablet in his memory has been erected in the garrison chapel at Portsmouth.

 OLDFIELD, THOMAS HINTON BURLEY (1755–1822), political historian and antiquary, born in 1755, was according to the 'Gentleman's Magazine,' 1822, pt. ii. p. 566, 'an attorney of great celebrity.' His name, however, is unknown to the 'Law List.' He died at Exeter on 25 July 1822. Oldfield was a zealous pioneer of parliamentary reform, and the author of (1) 'An Entire and Complete History, Political and Personal, of the Boroughs of Great Britain, together with the Cinque Ports; to which is prefixed an original Sketch of constitutional rights from the earliest Period until the present Time,' &c., London, 1792, 3 vols. 8vo; 2nd ed. 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. (2) 'History of the Original Constitution of Parliaments from the Time of the Britons to the present Day; to which is added the present State of the Representation,' London, 1797, 8vo.

Both works were subsequently reprinted under the title 'A Complete History, Political and Personal, of the Boroughs of Great Britain, together with the Cinque Ports; To which is now first added the History of the Original Constitution of Parliaments,' &c., London (no date), 3 vols. 8vo. A final edition, revised and amplified, entitled 'The Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland; being a History of the House of Commons, and of the Counties, Cities, and Boroughs of the United Kingdom from the earliest Period,' appeared in 1816, London,


text: Author:George N. Olcott

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title: Author:George N. Olcott


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Apostle

APOSTLE (literally one sent out, from the Greek apostellein, to send out) and in the Christian Church the title given to the 12 men whom Jesus selected to attend Him during His ministry, witness His miracles, learn His doctrines and thus be able to promulgate His religion. Their names were Simon Peter and Andrew his brother; James the greater, and John his brother, who were sons of Zebedee; Philip of Bethsaida; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus, commonly called James the less; Lebbeus, his brother, who was surnamed Thaddeus, and was called Judas or Jude; Simon the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot. Of this number Simon Peter, John, James the greater and Andrew were fishermen; and Matthew a publican or tax-gatherer. When the apostles were reduced to 11 by the suicide of Judas, who had betrayed Christ, Matthias was chosen by lot on the proposition of Saint Peter. Soon after, their number became 13 by the miraculous vocation of Saul, who, under the name of Paul, became one of the most zealous propagators of the Christian faith. The Bible gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (Acts xiv, 14), and Paul seems to give it to Andronicus and Junia, his relations and companions in prison. Generally, however, the name is used in the narrower sense to designate those whom Christ selected himself while on earth, and Paul, whom he afterward called. In a wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen countries are frequently termed Apostles; for example, Saint Denis, the apostle of the Gauls; Saint Boniface, the apostle of Germany; Saint Augustine, the apostle of England; the Jesuit Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert of Prague, apostle of Prussia proper. Tradition reports that several of the early apostles were married. The wife of Saint Peter is said to have accompanied him on his journeys, and died a martyr. The tradition further states that Saint Peter had a daughter Petronilla, who was also a martyr; this at least say Saint Augustine, Saint Epiphanius and Saint Clement of Alexandria. Saint Philip also is said to have been married and to have had several daughters, among whom was Saint Hermione. Hegesippus speaks of two martyrs, grandsons of Saint Jude. His wife was called Mary. Saint Bartholomew is also said to have been married. Their history is largely a matter of tradition, save as it is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles.


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 6 vols. 8vo. Oldfield also compiled 'A Key to the House of Commons, being a History of the last General Election in 1818; and a correct State of the virtual Representation of England and Wales,' London, 1820, 8vo.

 OLDHALL, WILLIAM (1390?–1466?), soldier, son and heor of Sir Edmund Oldhall of Narford, Bodney, and East Dereham, Norfolk, by Alice, daughter of Geoffrey de Fransham of the same county, was born about 1390. As an esquire in the retinue of Thomas Beaufort, earl of Dorset, afterwards duke of Exeter [q. v.] he was present at the siege of Rouen in 1418-19. He also served under Thomas de Montacute, earl of Salisbury [q. v.], in the expedition for the relief of Crevant, July 1423, and won his spurs at the hard-fought field of Verneuil on 17 Aug. 1424. About this date he was made seneschal of Normandy. By his prowess in the subsequent invasion of Maine and Anjou he further distinguished himself, and was appointed constable of Montsoreau and governor of St. Laurent des Mortiers. In the summer of 1426 he was employed in Flanders on a mission to the Duke of Burgundy concerning Jacqueline, duchess of Gloucester, then a prisoner in the duke's hands. In October 1428 he was detached by the council of Normandy to strengthen the garrison of Argentan, then in danger of falling by treachery into the hands of the Duke of Alençon. He was present at the great council held at Westminster, 24 April-8 May 1434, on the conduct of the war in France, and also at the council of 24 Feb. 1438-9. In 1440 he was chamberlain to Richard, duke of York, and a member of his council, and the following year was made feoffee to his use and that of his duchess Cecilia of certain royal manors. In the disastrous struggle for the retention of Normandy he commanded the castle of La Ferté Bernard, which fell into the hands of the French on 16 Aug. 1449.

Oldhall was with the Duke of York in Wales in September 1450; was returned to parliament for Hertfordshire on 15 Oct. of the same year, and on 9 Nov. following was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, Indicted in 1452 for complicity in the injunction of Jack Cade and the subsequent rebellion of the Duke of York, he was found guilty, outlawed, and attainted on 22 June. He took sanctuary in the chapel royal of St. Martins-le-Grand, where he remained in custody of the king's valet until after the battle of St. Albans on 22 May 1455, but obtained his release and the reversal of his outlawry and attainder on 9 July. He was again attainted in November 1459 as a fautor and abettor of the recent Yorkist insurrection; but on the accession of Edward IV the attainder was treated as null and void. He died between 1460 and 1406. Oldhall married Margaret, daughter of William, lord Willoughby of Eresby—buried in the church of the Grey Friars, London—by whom he had issue an only daughter Mary, whose husband, Walter Gorges of Wraxall, Somerset (ancestor of Sir Ferdinando Gorges q. v.), succeeded to Oldhall's Norfolk estates, and died in September 1466. An alleged son, Sir John Oldhall, appears to be mythical. Besides his Norfolk estates Oldhall held (by purchase) the manors of East wich and Hunsdon, Hertfordshire. On the latter estate he built, at the cost of seven thousand marks, a castellated brick mansion, which remained in the crown, notwithstanding the avoidance of his second attainder, and was converted by Henry VIII into a royal residence. In 1558 it was granted by Elizabeth to Sir Henry Cary [q. v.] It has since been transformed into the existing Hunsdon House.

 OLDHAM, HUGH (d. 1519), bishop of Exeter, founder of the Manchester grammar school, and a great benefactor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, was a native of Lancashire. This fact is expressly stated in the original statutes of Corpus Christi College, where one fellowship and one scholarship were appropriated to that county in his honour, but the exact place, as well as the date, of his birth is uncertain. Mr. Cooper (Athenæ Cantabr.) thinks it was Crumpsell in the parish of Manchester, whereas Roger Dodsworth maintains that it was Oldham. William Oldham, abbot of St. Werburgh, Chester, and bishop of Man, is said to have been his brother. He was educated in the household of Thomas Stanley, earl of Derby,


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 There is also another engraving—but whether it was taken from the same original or not is difficult to say—sketched and published by S. Harding. No original is named on the print.

 OLDHAM, JOHN (1600?–1636), one of the 'pilgrim' settlers in New England, was born in England about 1600. He arrived at Plymouth, New England, by the ship Anne in July 1623. He and nine others were 'particulars,' or private adventurers, and did not belong to the regular body of the colonists. He brought a wife, and probably children and servants, and was a man of some importance, as in the allotments at Plymouth in 1624 ten acres were assigned to him and his dependents, being more than to any other person. Soon after his arrival he was invited by the governor to take a seat at the council. He 'was a man of parts,' says Nathaniel Morton, 'but high spirited, and extremely passionate, which marred all' (New England's Memorial, 1855, p. 79). One cause of his unpopularity may be explained by his episcopalian views. With another restless person, John Lyford, a minister, he attempted 'reformations in church and commonwealth.' The governor called a court; the two were charged with plotting against church and state, and expelled the colony, although Oldham's wife and family were allowed to remain (ib. pp. 75-6). Oldham went to Nantasket, afterwards known as Hull, whither he was followed by Roger Conant and Lyford. In April 1625 he returned to Plymouth without permission, and was expelled a second time in an ignominious manner.

The Dorchester adventurers, who had commenced a settlement at Cape Ann, chose Conant as governor, and asked Oldham, who had great skill in dealing with the natives, to manage their Indian trade. He preferred to remain independent at Nantasket. In 1626 he took a voyage to Virginia, and was wrecked on Cape Cod. In the midst of danger he made 'a free and large confession of the wrongs he had done to the church and people of Plimouth' (ib. p. 78), regained the confidence of the colonists, and was entrusted by them to convey a rioter to England. While in England he and John Dorrell purchased a lam tract of land near the mouth of the Charles river, title to which was contested by the company (first general letter to Endicott, 17 April 1629, in, Chronicles, 1846, pp. 147-50). He is believed to have returned to America in 1629. A grant was registered to him and another, 2 Feb. 1630, of a tract of country, four miles by eight, on the Saco river (, The English in America, 1887, i. 431). On 18 May 1631 he was admitted a freeman.

He was one of the first settlers in Watertown, where a larger measure of civil and religious liberty prevailed than in any of the other early plantations about the bay (, Family Memorials of Watertown, Boston, 1855, p. 863). Oldham doubtless took an active part in the resistance of the Watertown people to taxation without representation, and in May 1632 he was appointed the representative of that town at the first meeting of the deputies of the several plantations which met to confer with the court about levying taxes for public purposes (, History of New England, 1853, i. 91-2). His house at Watertown, near the weir, was burnt on 14 Aug. 1632 (ib. i. 104). He was the projector of the first plantation on the river or in the state of Connecticut. He travelled from Boston in 1633, with three companions, following the Indian trails, and lodging in their cabins (ib. i. 132). He was chairman of the first committee appointed by the court to consider the question of the enlargement of Boston. In September 1634 he was made 'overseer of powder and shot and all other ammunition for Watertown and Medford' (, p. 863).

In November 1634 the Indian chief Canonicus gave Oldham an island of one thousand acres in Narragansett Bay (, i. 175). Oldham and some of his fellow-townsmen took possession of Pyquag, on the Connecticut, and named it Watertown, changed to Wethersfield by the court on 21 Feb. 1636-7. In May 1635, though not re-elected deputy, he was one of the committee appointed to report on the charge against Endecott of having defaced the king's colours.

Oldham was murdered by Indians in July 1636, near Block Island, Rhode Island, while trading in his pinnace with the natives along the shore of Narragansett Bay (ib. i. 225-34;, General History of New England, 1848, pp. 248-9). The murder was one of the causes of the Pequot war. His affairs seem to have been left in an involved state (, Genealogical Dictionary of First Settlers, 1861, iii. 308). [Besides the authorities quoted in the text, see Farmer's Genealogical Begister of First Settlers, Lane 1829; Francis's Historical Sketch of Water-


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  and killed the heir of the chief of the Ui Eathach, their allies. In 1005 he plundered Conaille Murtheimhne, a level district of Louth, but was attacked and defeated with great loss by Maelseachlainn II [q. v.], king of Ireland; but next year he again invaded Ulidia, and slew another lord of Lethchathail, Cuuladh Mac Aenghasa, taking home seven hostages. In 1008 he plundered the rich idain called Magh Breagh in the south of Sleath, and in 1010 in alliance with Munstermen under Murchadh, son of Brian (926-1014) [q. v.], king of Ireland, and with some of the southern O'Neills from Meath, he attacked Cinel Luighdheach, now the barony of Kilmacrenan, co. Donegal, then the patrimony of the O'Donnells, and carried off three hundred cows. Later in the year he demolished Dun Eathach, a fortress in Ulidia. lie invaded the Cinel Conaill as far as Moy, co. Donegal, in 1012, and later marched right through it to Drumcliff, co. Sligo. In his absence, Maelseachlainn invaded Tyrone, but retired, and Flaithbheartach attacked the Ards, co. Down, and again obtained a great spoil from the Ulidians. In 1013 he attacked Meath by way of Maighin attaed, a place not hitherto identified, but which is clearly Moynalty, Co. Meath, since the chronicle adds, 'i ttaobh Ceanannsa' (near Kells), a phrase which, by a misprint in O'Donovan's translation of the 'Annals of the Four Masters,' is rendered 'by the son of Cenanus.' The pass by which the Ulstermen came down may still be traced in the hills on the right bank of the river Borora, which here divides Cavan from Meath. He slew Muireadhach Ua Duibheoin, chief of Ui Micuaisbreagh in Meath, in 1017, and in 1018 was at war with Maelseachlainn, the king of Ireland. Next Year he again ravaged O'Donnell's country. He was defeated by the people of Magh Breagh in 1025, but again invaded Meath in 1025. In 1030 he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, and came back in 1031. It was a year of plenty, and he was able to lead a force into Inishowen. In 1036 he died, iar ndeighbheathaidh agus iar bpennain' ('after a good life and penance'), says the chronicle. He had two sons: Domhnall, who died in 1027; and Muireadhach, who was slain by the Ui Labhradha, a sept of the Ulidians, in 1039.

O'NEILL, HENRY (d. 1392), Irish chief, called by Irish writers Enrí aimhreidh or the Contentious, was son of Niall mór O'Neill, chief of the Cinel Eoghain, son of Aedh reamhar or the Fat, also chief, who died in 1364, and was descended from Brian O'Neill, who was slain at the battle of Down in 1260, and was twelfth in descent from (d. 943) [q. v.], son of [q. v.] These points of descent explain several references to him in poetry. Some verses by [q. v.] in the poem 'Temair gach baile i mbi ri' ('Any demesne whatever in which there is a king may justly be held to be Tara'), addressed to (d. 1489) [q. v.], great-nephew of Enrí aimhreidh, suggest that the Irish Enrí is not Henricus, but énri, sole king. Enrí aimhreidh is the earliest O'Neill of the name. The 'Annals of Loch Cé' state that he was called the Contentious by antiphrasis because he was so peace-loving. His descendants were among the most turbulent of the Ulstermen. He lived at Ardsratha, now called Ardstraw, co. Tyrone, not far from Strabane, where a gateway, flanked by towers and other fragments of his castle, is still to be seen, at the foot of Slieve Truim, a mountain often marked on maps as Bessy Bell. He never became chief of Cinel Eoghain, as he died in 1392, before his elder brother, Niall óg, whose son, Owen Eoghan, is noticed separately. Enrí married his cousin Aiffric, daughter of Aedh O'Neill. She died in 1389, having borne him six sons: Domhnall, Brian, Niall, Huaidhri, Seaan, and Enrí. The six sons, their followers, and descendants formed a sept known as Clann Enrí, and afterwards as Sliocht Enrí aimhreidh, most of whose lands at the plantation of Ulster became the property of the Earl of Abercorn. Domhnall was taken by the English in 1399, and sent a prisoner to England, but was ransomed in 1401, and in 1403 became chief of Cinel Eoghain. He was slain at Keenaght, Co. Derry, by Domhnall and Aibhne O'Cahan in 1432. Brian made an expedition into Donegal in 1401. He was met by the Cinel Conaill under Toirdhealbhach, son of Niall garbh O'Donnell, and hard pressed while driving off his spoil of cattle. At last he was surrounded, and after killing Enrí O'Gairmleaghaidh with one stroke of his sword, was himself killed by Toirdhealbhach O'Donnell.

O'NEILL, HENRY (d. 1489), chief of Cinel Eoghain, called in Irish Enrí Mac Eoghain Ua Neill, was son of Owen or Eoghan


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 Earl of Buchan to 'staunch their gathering for the court of Forfar' (Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, p. 61), and on 28 Aug. to summon them for their gathering (ib.) The gathering seems to have resulted in bloodshed, for in September Oliphant was summoned to answer for the slaughter of Thorn of Preston (ib.) Oliphant was one of a commission named on 30 Aug. 1484 to negotiate a marriage between James, duke of Rothesay, heir-apparent of the Scottish throne, and Lady Anne de la Pole, daughter of John, duke of Sheffield, and niece of Richard. Ill of England (Cal. Documents relating to Scotland, 1367-1509, entry 1601), and also to treat for a peace and alliance with England (ib. eatry 1502). Of the treaty, concluded at Nottingham on 12 Sept. (ib.), he was one of the conservators (ib. entry 1506). He sat in the first parliament of James IV on 6 Oct. 1488. when he was chosen a lord of the articles for the barons. He was also sworn a privy councillor, and in 1490 constituted a justiciary within his own bounds and those of Strathbaird. He sided with the king daring the rebellion of 1489, and, while the king was crushing the rising in the west, sent information to him of the movements of the rebel nobles in the north (Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, p. 122). On 26 Feb. 1490-1 he had a safe-conduct to England for six months (Cal. Documents relating to Scotland, 1357-1609, entry 1660); and on 14 June he received a safe-conduct and protection for a year from Henry VII as ambassador to Charles, king of France, and the king and queen of Castile, Aragon, and Sicily (ib. entry 1674). In 1491 he was bailie of Methven (Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, v. 287), and in 1493 and subsequent years he was keeper of Edinburgh Castle (ib. pp. 388, 466, 505). He was one of the lords chosen by the king to the session of 14 Oct. 1495. He died about 1500. By his wife, Lady Isabel Hay, youngest daughter of William, first earl of Errol, he had three sons: John, second lord Oliphant (d. 1516); William of Berriedale, Caithness (acquired through marriage with Christian, heiress of Alexander Sutherland of Duffus); and George.

 OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, third (d. 1566), was the son of Colin, master of Oliphant (killed at the battle of Flodden in 1513), by Lady Elizabeth Keith, second daughter of William, third earl Marischal. He succeeded his grandfather John, second lord, in 1516, and was one of the Scottish nobles taken prisoner at the rout of Solway Moss on 25 Nov. 1542 (Diurnal of Occurrents, p. 25), his capturer being Dacre's servant (Hamilton Papers, ed. Bain, i. 325). He reached Newark on 15 Dec., he and other prisoners being then so 'crazed' by the hardships of their march that their subsequent journey to London was a little delayed (ib. p. 335). The annual value of his lands was then estimated at two thousand merks Scots, or five hundred merks sterling, and the value of his goods at four thousand merks Scots (State Papers, Henry VIII, v. 233). He remained in England in the custody of Sir Thomas Lee, knt., but on 1 July 1543 was allowed to be ransomed for eight hundred merks sterling, on condition that, along with other captive Scottish nobles, he should acknowledge Henry VIII as lord-superior, should co-operate in procuring him the government of Scotland, and should exert his influence to get the infant Queen Mary delivered to Henry, to be brought up in England. On obtaining his liberty he, however, made no attempt to fulfil these pledges, and he declined to enter himself a prisoner in England in August for making of his bond and promise for the payment of the ransom. When Lord Huntly began a reformation of religion in his territories, Lord Oliphant, in February 1560, at a meeting at Aberdeen, promised to do as Huntly advised (Cal. State Papers, For. Ser. 1569-1660, entry 710); but it is doubtful if he ever joined against the queen-dowager (ib. 1560-1, entry 172). He died on 26 March 1566. By Margaret, eldest daughter of James Sandilands of Cruvie, he had three sons and four daughters. The sons were: Laurence, fourth lord Oliphant [q. v.]; Peter, ancestor of the Oliphants of Langton; and William. The daughters were: Catherine, married first to Sir Alexander Oliphant of Kellie, and secondly to George Dundas of Dundas; Margaret, married first to William Murray of Abercaimy, and secondly to James Clephane of Carslogie; Jean, to William Moncriefie of Moncriefie; and Lilias, to Robert Lundie of Balgonie.

 OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, fourth  (1529–1593), eldest son of Laurence, third lord Oliphant, by Margaret Sandilands, was born in 1529. In 1543 he was sent to England as a hostage for his father. After the Darnley marriage he, while master


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 Colin, master of Oliphant, slain at Flodden. The estate of Gask came into the possession of the family in 1625. The family possessed strong royalist sympathies. At the rebellion of 1715 the laird of Gask sent his two sons to support the insurgents, Laurence receiving a commission in Lord Rollo's regiment dated 2 Oct. 1715. He was present at the battle of Sherriflmuir, and in January 1716 he acted as one of the garrison's adjutants during the short time that the Pretender remained at Scone. After the suppression of the rebellion he remained for some time in hiding, but subsequently he was permitted to return home unmolested. He succeeded his father as laird of Gask in 1732. On the arrival of the Chevalier in 1745, he joined him at Blair Athole. So indignant was he with his tenants for refusing to take up arms that he laid an inhibition on their cornfields (, History of the Rebellion, ed. 1869, pp. 63-4); but the prince on arriving at Gask laughingly removed the inhibition. Laurence, eldest son of the laird of Gask, born 25 May 1724, acted as aide-de-camp of the prince at the battle of Prestonpans, and after the battle was sent by the prince to prevent the fugitive dragoons from taking refuge in Edinburgh. On his way thither he slew ten of them, and took a pair of colours. When the prince set out for England, he sent the laird of Gask back to Perth, to undertake, with Lord Strathallan, the civil and military government of the north, the duties discharged by Gask being chiefly those of treasurer. Both father and son were present at Falkirk and Culloden; and after the battle of Falkirk, when the prince's troop, on account of the slight resistance and rapid flight of the enemy, dreaded some ambuscade, young Gask and the eldest son of Lord Strathallan went down together from the hill towards the town of Falkirk, in the guise of peasants, to obtain information (, History of the Rebellion, p. 175). When the prince, after Culloden, declined further to continue the contest, the laird of Gask and his son fled eastward into Aberdeenshire, and, after remaining in hiding for about six months in the neigubourhood of the Dee, obtained, with other Jacobites, a passage in a vessel which landed them in Sweden on 10 Oct. 1746. Thence they passed south to France. The estates of Gask were seized by the crown and sold, but in 1753 they were purchased by some friends and presented to Oliphant. On the death of Chanes, seventh lord Oliphant, on 19 April 1748, Gask laid claim to the title, which, however, was assumed by Charles Oliphant of Langton, who died on 3 June 1751, and in his will acknowledged the laird of Gask to be heir to the title. The peerage was also confirmed to him by the Pretender in 1760. He was permitted to return home in 1763, but the attainder was not reversed. He died early in 1767. Oliphant married Amelia Anne Sophia, second daughter of William, second lord Nairne. His heir, Laurence, paternal grandfather of, lady Nairne [q. v.], the poetess, died on 1 Jan. 1792.

 OLIPHANT, LAURENCE (1829–1888), author of 'Piccadilly,' only child of (Sir) Anthony Oliphant (1793–1859), by his wife Maria, daughter of Colonel Campbell of the 72nd highlanders, was born at Capetown in 1829. [q. v.], the musician, was his uncle. His father, who was third son of Ebenezer Oliphant of Condie and Newton, Perthshire, by Mary, daughter of Sir William Stirling of Ardoch, had been called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1821, and Practised for a time in London as an equity draughtsman, but just before his son's birth he was appointed attorney-general at the Cape. Laurence's father and mother were both fervent evangelicals. The mother returned to Europe on account of her health, and took her son with her. He was sent to the school of a Mr. Parr at Durnford Manor, Salisbury. He spent part of his holidays with his mother at Condie, an ancestral home of the Oliphant family. His father was in 1839 made chief justice of Ceylon, and was knighted. Lady Oliphant rejoined him in Ceylon in 1841. Laurence was sent out in the winter of the same year, in charge of a private tutor, who continued to teach him in Ceylon; but his education was much interrupted. His father returned on two years' leave about 1846, and spent the time in a continental tour. Laurence was allowed to accompany his parents instead of going to Cambridge, as had been intended. The family spent the winter of 1846-7 at Paris, travelled through Germany and the Tyrol during 1847, and at the end of the year crossed the Alps to Italy. Here young Oliphant was present at some of the popular disturbances in the beginning of 1848. He went with his parents to Greece, and then accompanied them to Ceylon, where he acted as his father's private secretary, and was called to the colonial bar. At the age of twenty-two, he says, he had been engaged in twenty-three murder cases. In December 1851 he was invited by Jung Bahadur, who had touched at Ceylon on a return voyage from England, to join a hunting excursion in Nepaul. After reaching Khatmandu he


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Public Library and Popular Education

PUBLIC LIBRARY AND POPULAR EDUCATION. The Growth of the Democratic Idea in Public Libraries. — Historically, the library has always been an adjunct to education. The temple libraries of the Egyptians and Assyrians, the public libraries of the Romans, the monastery and cathedral libraries and the libraries of the mediæval universities kept the educational purposes of the library consciously in the foreground.

Cassiodorus and Saint Benedict in the 6th century emphasized the spiritual benefit to be received from copying and studying the Holy Scriptures. Alcuin (ca. 735-804) was a librarian and a user of libraries as well as a great teacher. The early universities at Trèves, Constantinople, Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova, to say nothing of later universities, were noted for their libraries no less than their teaching faculties.

Cathedral, monastery and other libraries for the clergy, founded in the early centuries of the Christian era, have persisted to our own time. In September 1537 an “injunction” provided that Bibles should be put at public expense into every parish church in England for the free use of the parishioners. In 1651 Humphrey Chetham bequeathed several collections of books to different parishes to serve as parish libraries. Other similar benefactions led Dr. Thomas Bray, the founder of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, to secure the passage by Parliament of “An act for the better preservation of parochial libraries in that part of Great Britain called England.” The idea was not confined to England. Johannes Megapolensis, the first pastor al Albany, had a library of 25 volumes furnished by Patroon Van Rensselaer for pastoral use. The Rev. Thomas Bray in 1697 proposed the purchase of “Lending libraries in all the deaneries of England and parochial libraries for Maryland, Virginia and other of the foreign plantations.” A number of these parochial libraries were sent to Annapolis, Albany, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Williamsburg and elsewhere. The provincial library at Annapolis, which was sent there in 1697, numbered nearly 1,100 volumes, and was “probably the first free circulating library in the United States.”

Bray at first intended the parochial libraries to be for the use of the clergy. He soon changed their purpose to “lending libraries” open to all, the local collections to be supplemented by the larger provincial libraries. He says: “I hope, though the design seems more immediately directed to the service of the clergy, yet gentlemen, physicians and lawyers will perceive they are not neglected in it. . . . And indeed those persons of quality whose eldest sons being commonly brought up to no employment have a great deal of time lying upon their hands, seem to me to be as nearly concerned as any to favor it. For many of these young gentlemen, when removed from the universities. . . residing all their lifetime in countries where they can meet with no books to employ themselves in reading and whereby they may be able to improve the talent they have there gained; they do therefore too commonly become not so conspicuous for their excellent knowledge and morals as will ever be expected from men of rank and station in their

country.” Bray here emphasizes the value of the library as a continuation school for the laity as well as its vocational value to the clergy. Nevertheless, broad as his ideas were, they were essentially aristocratic as well became a period almost devoid of any appreciation of the need of universal education and in which literary culture was a class distinction, not a recognized public need. This is doubtless the chief reason why Bray's libraries failed, for the most part, to accomplish what he expected of them, and why most of them became not only inactive but actually extinct.

A more significant movement in the educational purpose of the library was the foundation by Benjamin Franklin in 1731 of the library of the Junto. Both club and library were deliberately planned for the self-improvement of the members. The library, which afterward developed into the Library Company of Philadelphia, was the first of the subscription libraries which under the name of Mechanics', Athenæum or Society libraries, Young Men's Institutes, etc., soon spread throughout the United States and England. Though this was a proprietary library, it was a collection for tradesmen and mechanics as well as for the gentry. Within a few weeks after the first books arrived the directors agreed that the librarian “may permit any civil gentleman to peruse the books of the Library in the Library room.” Franklin's democratic purpose is shown by the reference, in his ‘Autobiography’ (Chap. V) to this library: “This was the mother of all North American subscription libraries, now so numerous. These libraries have improved the general conversation of the Americans, made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other countries, and perhaps have contributed in some degree to the stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defense of their privileges.” Libraries of this type were really more nearly free than their names imply. They were open to practically everyone, their fees were usually small and entirely free use of their reading-rooms was a fairly general practice. Together with the small local “lyceum” libraries which became very common in the fifth to the seventh decade of the 19th century, they did much to promote the reading of American literature and to shape American popular opinion.

Two notable library conferences (in 1853 in New York and 1876 in Philadelphia) greatly stimulated the development of the American public library. Many libraries supported by public tax for public use were already in existence. New York State in 1835 had established a system of “district libraries” in each school district of the State for the free use of the people of the district. Similar legislation was passed in many other States but in few cases was the use of the library at all commensurate with the hopes of the founders. The chief reason was that the library existed, in most cases, as an unadministered collection of books, growing or diminishing by chance and with little or no reference to the tastes or needs of its patrons. The idea that the education of the people through reading should be fostered by State revenues and not left by chance to proprietary or endowed institutions was of slow evolution. Many libraries had long been “public” in the sense of allowing all to use them who wished to do so

but there had been little attempt to adapt the character of the library to the need of its community. Thus the Free Library of Hamburg, founded in 1539, issued in 1869 but 4,000 volumes, though its collection numbered nearly 200,000 volumes, chiefly because it was never a really popular library. This is typical of nearly all of the so-called public libraries in Europe and America up to the last quarter of the 19th century.

The new type of public library was described in 1876 by Dr. William F. Poole as follows: “The public library which we are to consider is established by state laws, is supported by local taxation and voluntary gifts, is managed as a public trust, and every citizen of the city or town which maintains it has an equal share in its privileges of reference and circulation. It is not a library simply for scholars and professional men. . . but for the whole community — the mechanic, the laboring man, the serving-girl, the youth and all who desire to read, whatever their rank, intelligence or condition in life. It is the adjunct and supplement of the common-school system. Both are established and maintained on the same principles — that general education is essential to the highest welfare of any people: and considered simply as a question of political economy, it is better and cheaper in the long run to educate a community than to support prisons and reformatories.”

Massachusetts in 1847 had authorized Boston to tax itself for a free public library; New Hampshire in 1849 passed a general law enabling towns to establish and maintain libraries by public taxation. William Ewart secured in 1850 the passage of a bill permitting “the establishment of public libraries and museums in all municipal towns, in England.” Massachusetts in 1851 passed a general law permitting towns throughout the State to establish and maintain public libraries by public tax. The whole underlying purpose of such libraries is democratic. Everyone has equal opportunity to use the books he needs for culture, recreation or for aid in his daily vocation. As the public school has more generally recognized the duty of fitting the individual student to take an individual part in society instead of merely putting him through a uniform course of general training, the educational value of the library has been more generally recognized. The school library has been developed to meet the need of those still in school. The public library meets the needs both of those still in school and those who have left school. By far the greater part of the people of any country leave school with only a slight amount of formal training. Compulsory education seldom extends beyond the 14th or at most the 16th year. Private libraries, especially in the United States, are not generally increasing in number or value. Individual education on civic problems in whose determination every voter has a part can in most cases be obtained in any adequate degree only through an active, well-selected public library. President Hibben of Princeton University says: “At this time [1916], when the whole world seems rushing on to an unknown future, you [librarians] are holding fast the great articles of the past. You are guarding the sources of knowledge. The library is to-day the only

democratic institution that man possesses.” Andrew Carnegie gives as the greatest recent accomplishment of the public library: “The spread of the truth that the public library, free to all the people, gives nothing for nothing; that the reader must himself climb the ladder and in climbing gain knowledge how to live his life well.”

Democracy in any country cannot safely content itself with developing a high average of intelligence, essential as this is. Exceptional citizens must be enabled to develop their exceptional abilities, for the service of the whole community. Every public library must aim to collect some material which, though directly used by only a minority of its public, through them serves the whole community. Not only do the larger libraries aid the research student by their own collections, but virtually the whole country can be served through inter-library loans of material valuable only to the exceptional few.

Substantial agreement on the fundamental moral and social ideas whose sum forms the national ideal is essential for the welfare of any self-determining nation. This is the whole purpose of popular education at public expense. One more step is necessary. Present-day society is so rapidly developing new ideals and modifying old ones that constant self-instruction in prevalent current opinion is necessary for good citizenship and, consequently, for national stability. No school course can give this to the adult. The public library, whose duty is to contain books and periodicals on all phases of controverted subjects, is the only institution which can even measurably give this instruction at times and in forms suited to individual needs.

The recent war has shown clearly the importance of morale in military affairs and every well-considered scheme for the social readjustments which are following the war has included the development of peace-time morale. The library cultivates civic morale through its recreational reading as well as through its professedly educational books. Even the business library has this for one of its aims. The good library of this type usually includes recreational books as a welfare project.

Official Connection of Library and Public Education. — Many legal decisions in the United States, England, Canada, Scandinavia and elsewhere have officially recognized the library as an educational institution. It is on this basis that the library chiefly bases its claims to tax exemption and to direct tax support. In virtually every civilized country the control of libraries is vested in the official department which directs public education.

In the United States the connection between the public library and popular education is usually made by the State Library Commission or by making the library activities of the State a duty of the State Education Department (as in New York and Utah).

Since popular education in the United States most nearly follows a democratic ideal, it is natural that the connection of public education and public library is closer than in any other country. Canada (especially in the province of Ontario) and most European countries include both school and library under their ministries of education. In Norway and Denmark there

is a general tendency to consider both school and library essential in popular education. England is beginning to show a similar disposition — an example followed in varying degrees by many of her colonies. In Italy, the connection, though theoretically recognized, is not practically realized to any great extent. France and Germany, with their rigid courses of elementary and secondary training, discourage rather than encourage individual research for those below the university and make little attempt to establish or use public libraries for direct educational purposes. Several provinces of India (notably Baroda and the Punjab) have established library systems for the purpose of popular education.

Specific Educational Activities of the Public Library.— The main lines of direct educational activity in vogue in American libraries are noted below. They are characteristic of the work of nearly all of the better public libraries of the country, though the emphasis on different activities will vary in different places. These are also in the main the same as those of other countries in which the public library is recognized as a part of the public educational system.

(a) Work with Schools. — The school library, definitely planned as an auxiliary to the school course, is rapidly assuming a place of its own. Its limited purpose will always more or less limit its independent development. The public library can and usually does supplement the school library in various ways. Instruction in the use of books and libraries is often given in the public library. Books which the school library cannot afford or which it needs only occasionally are purchased by the public library and books and space are reserved in reading-rooms for the use of individual pupils as well as entire classes. Reference lists are compiled for the use of teachers and pupils and the attention of teachers is called to recent material of use in school work. School collections of pamphlets, clippings, maps, pictures and lantern slides are supplemented by loans from the local public library collection. Material is made accessible at the public library at hours when the school library cannot conveniently be kept open. Much of the technical routine of cataloguing, classification, book purchase, etc., is frequently done through the public library. In some cases, especially in small places, school and public library unite to employ a competent librarian who serves both. In others, branches of the public library, for general public use, are maintained in public school buildings. This interrelation of the two types of libraries tends to make habitual the use of the library after the pupil has left school. In a rather large number of cases, the public library selects the school librarian and administers the school library subject to the general consent of the school authorities.

(b) Work with Children. — The children's room of the public library also supplements the work of the school. The story-hour and the collection of children's literature enable the child to read voluntarily along the lines of his individual tastes. A wider range of subjects and a greater freedom of treatment than the school can give are usually open to the children's librarian. This is especially important in

connection with elementary schools and the tendency of teacher, school librarian and children's librarian to work together in this direction is increasing.

(c) Work with Clubs and Societies. — This work may be either with children or adults. In the former case it is usually conducted by the children's department of the public library either independently or in connection with some distinct organization such as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, etc. Carefully selected collections of books suited to the age and taste of the club members are provided, and in many cases meeting-rooms are provided by the library. Boys' and girls' reading, debating or social clubs are also often organized and conducted by the library. The voluntary character of these clubs and the usual insistence on self-government not only act favorably on the older boys and girls who have left school but react very favorably on those still in school.

The adult clubs whose activities are related to the library vary in character from trade unions and other industrial societies (to whom industrial as well as recreational books are supplied) to classes of aliens learning English and to social clubs with literary or sociological purposes. Suitable books and other printed material are furnished and the library often serves as a clearing-house for the club activities. As a public institution, impartial in its aim to furnish any legitimate information on any question affecting public welfare, the library is pre-eminently suited to be an agent in the demonstration of practicable democracy. Its educational service is especially direct in supplementing the conscious attempt at self-culture which is the usual feature of these clubs.

(d) Lectures and Exhibitions. — Closely allied in purpose with the work of the public library with clubs are the lectures and exhibitions held under its auspices in the auditoriums which are a part of most modern public library buildings. These are often conducted by outside organizations to which the library gives a meeting-place or exhibit-room. In such cases the library usually attempts to develop and conserve the educational results by preparing lists of books, periodicals or prints relating to the subject of the lecture or exhibit or by making prominently accessible the selected resources of the library on the subject. In other cases the library prepares the exhibit or plans and conducts the lecture-course and supplements it by its printed material. Exhibits of local industries, arts and crafts and current and local history have shown rather definite educational results. At present the public library is often the only substitute for the public museum. When the work of the public library and the public museum become more closely related, greater results may be expected.

(e) Civic Education. — The library's contribution to civic education has already been noticed. By supplementing the school course, by providing standard and current material on civic matters, by aiding clubs devoted to the study of social questions and by lecture and exhibit the library is an educational force. It furnishes the impartial publicity which promotes discussion of public affairs and which leads to more intelligent decisions concerning them.

The European War revealed the

of the library as an agent in educational propaganda. The promoters of the liberty loan campaigns, the allied war service campaigns, the land army and similar movements found it an admirable agent for the effective, economical distribution of their printed material as well as for the display of their posters and other advertising material. It furnished material for speakers and writers for the various campaigns. Its effectiveness in this direction has led it to be used by other agencies for public service. Its use as a clearing-house for public information of all kinds seems destined to increase. Its public usefulness in this direction must obviously depend on the judgment shown by the librarian in deciding what organizations and movements are granted this library privilege and by the extent to which they are permitted or encouraged to use it.

In the broader field of international relations the public library can play a very important part through its selection of material dealing with the life, thought and natural resources of foreign countries and by using them to supplement the agencies for civic education already mentioned. It is already proving of great service to schools with inadequate library facilities on whom the present program of Americanization has been imposed with little opportunity for preparation to carry it out.

In the special field of Americanizing the alien the library has been of very direct service. It has supplemented the efforts of the school and other social organizations. It has often anticipated their methods. To many foreigners the library has been the only public institution standing for equal opportunity for voluntary effort. Its auditorium has often been the only respectable meeting place open without taint of specific social or religious propaganda to the alien social group. It has kept alive the human relations of the alien by giving him books and periodicals in his own language, dealing with the United States as well as with his native land. It has organized classes for the study of English and of American institutions and has freely furnished its books to other instructional agencies. Its service is to individuals, not to nationalities or to classes in the mass. Through the cultivation of individual thinking, — the motive principle of democratic education, — it discourages mob thinking and mob action and maintains the traditional American attitude toward civic rights and duties.

(f) Æsthetic Education. — The growing consciousness of the American public to the importance of the cultural in American life is directly aided by the public library. The importance of the library in cultivating literary taste is generally recognized. Much of the support of its work is based on its success in getting the public to use the best books, from a literary and ethical standpoint, which the individual members of that public can read with profit. Its undoubted influence in the formation of public taste in this direction sometimes obscures its equally direct service in æsthetic education.

Nearly every large public library and many small ones maintain collections of prints and act as distributing centres for lantern slides, motion pictures and other illustrative material either from their own collection or lent by larger or more special libraries or departments of education. (See ).

Under present housing conditions the public library is often the only practicable public place for the collection of prints and the larger and more costly illustrated books and monographs on art. Some libraries and education departments lend framed pictures for school and home use. The library art collection promotes local arts and crafts as well as art appreciation in general.

Nearly all public libraries include some books on the history and criticism of music. Collections of musical scores and single compositions, instrumental and vocal, are common. A few libraries maintain collections of music rolls for mechanical piano-players. The high cost and perishable character of talking machine records has so far prevented the establishment of many such collections for public use, but some libraries, notably in California, have formed such collections. Many school libraries have collections of these records selected for their direct educational value. The success of many recent “community sings” has been partly dependent on the music collection of the local library.

In the matter of permanent art exhibits the library is properly subordinate to the public museum. In the absence of the latter and to supplement it, the library exhibits as noted above can have distinct educational value.

Bibliography.— Much material on this subject is scattered through educational and library periodicals. Specific references may be found m Cannons, H. G. T., “Bibliography of Library Economy” (London 1910); “Library Work Cumulated” (Minneapolis 1912); Hortzschansky, A., “Bibliographie des bibliotheks- und buchwesens” (Leipzig, annual); and in the monthly summaries of library literature of the Library Journal. The annual volumes of the National Education Association also include many articles on the subject. The reports of the United States Commissioner of Education include valuable summaries and special articles.

Among the more specific books and pamphlets are the following; Adams, H. B., “Public Libraries and Popular Education” (Albany 1900); Alexander, C. B., “The Library in the Economy of the State” (New York 1916); Ayres, L. P., and McKinnie, Adele, “Public Library and the Public Schools” (Cleveland 1916); Bostwick, A. E., “Relationship of the Library and the Public School” (New York 1914); Dana, J. C, “Libraries” (New York 1916); Emery, J. W., “The Library, the School and the Child” (Toronto 1917); Hardy, E. A., “The Public Library, Its Place in Our Educational System” (Toronto 1912); Powell, Sophia H. H., “The Children's Library a Dynamic Force in Education” (New York 1917).


text:
Hoyle's Games Modernized/Billiards

BILLIARDS.

The best introduction to an account of Billiards will be a brief explanation of the implements of the game and the terms used in connection with it.

The bed of a full-sized table (see Fig. 1) is 12 ft. long, and 6 ft. 1½ inches wide. The pockets are 3⅝ inches across. The billiard spot, S, is 12¾ inches from the centre of the top cushion, opposite to the baulk. The pyramid spot, P, is placed at the intersection of two lines drawn from the two middle pockets to the opposite top pockets. The centre spot, M, is exactly between the middle pockets. The "baulk" is the space behind a line drawn across the table, 29 inches from the face of the bottom cushion, and parallel to it. The "half-circle," or "D," is 23 inches in diameter, its centre, K, coinciding with the centre of the baulk-line.

The game is played with three balls of equal size and weight, one red, one white, and one spot-white. The diameter of a ball must be not less than $2 1/16$ inches, nor more than $2 3/32$ inches. The diameter of a match ball, under National Rules, is $2 5/64$ inches.

The choice of balls and order of play is, unless mutually agreed upon, determined by "stringing" (i.e., playing from baulk up the table, so as to strike the top cushion). The striker whose ball stops nearest the lower cushion may take which ball he likes, and play, or direct his opponent to play, as he may deem expedient. In stringing, under National Rules, the players must both play at the same time.

The red ball is, at the opening of every game, placed on the billiard spot, and must be replaced after being pocketed or forced off the table. If the billiard spot be occupied, the red ball must be placed on the pyramid spot, or, if that also be occupied, on the centre spot.

When any player plays from baulk, he must place his ball within the half-circle, or on the line that contains it.

Whoever breaks the balls (i.e., leads off) must play out of baulk, though it is not necessary that he shall strike the red ball, and he may give a miss in or out of baulk. But, if in baulk, he must first strike a cushion out of baulk. No player who is in hand is allowed to strike any ball in baulk, or on the baulk-line, unless his ball has first struck a cushion out of baulk. Should, however, a ball be out of baulk, the player in hand may strike any part of that ball without his own ball necessarily going out of baulk.

The player continues to play until he ceases to score, when his opponent follows on.

The various strokes are as under:

1.—A winning hazard is made by the player causing his own ball to hit an object ball and forcing the latter into a pocket.

2.—A losing hazard is made by the player causing his own ball to hit an object ball and forcing his own ball into a pocket.

3.—A cannon is made by causing the player's ball to strike the two object balls. By Billiard Association rules, when two object balls are struck simultaneously, the stroke shall be scored as if the white had been struck first. Under National Rules, such a stroke counts as if the red were struck first.

4.—A coup is made by forcing the player's own ball into a pocket without first striking another ball.

A miss counts one, a coup three, to the opposite player.

The scores are counted as follows:—

A.—A two stroke is made by pocketing an opponent's ball—i.e., a winning hazard; or by pocketing the striker's ball off his opponent's—i.e., a losing hazard; or by making a cannon.

B.—A three stroke is made by pocketing the red ball—i.e., a red winning hazard; or by pocketing the striker's ball off the red—i.e., a red losing hazard.

C.—A four stroke may be made by pocketing the white and spot-white balls; or by making a cannon and pocketing an opponent's ball; or by making a cannon and pocketing the striker's ball, the opponent's ball having been first hit.

D.—A five stroke may be made by scoring a cannon and pocketing the red ball; or by a cannon and pocketing the striker's ball, after having struck the red ball first or both balls simultaneously; or by pocketing the red ball and the opponent's ball without cannoning, or by making a losing hazard off the white and pocketing the red ball.

E.—A six stroke is made by the red ball being struck first, and the striker's and the red ball pocketed; or by a cannon off an opponent's ball on to the red and pocketing the two white balls.

F.—A seven stroke is made by striking an opponent's ball first, pocketing it, making a cannon, and pocketing the red also; or by making a cannon and pocketing the red and an opponent's ball; or by playing at an opponent's ball first and pocketing all the balls without making a cannon; or by playing at the red first, cannoning, and pocketing your own and the opponent's ball.

G.—An eight stroke is made by striking the red ball first, pocketing it, making a cannon, and pocketing the striker's ball; or by hitting the red first and pocketing all the balls without making a cannon.

H.—A nine stroke is made by striking an opponent's ball first, making a cannon, and pocketing all the balls.

I.—A ten stroke is made by striking the red ball first, making a cannon, and pocketing all the balls.

Reverting to the terms used in the game, the "cue" is the stick with which the player strikes the ball. It varies in length from 4 ft. 6 inches to 5 ft. The thick end or butt has a diameter of about 1½ inches. The small end or tip varies from ½ to ¼ inch in diameter. The average is about ⅜ of an inch.

The tip is formed of two pieces of leather glued together. When the tip gets greasy or too smooth, it should be rubbed with a piece of chalk.

—The real "rest," that is, the support on which the cue is raised in order to strike the ball, is the left hand. This, however, is more generally termed the "bridge"; what is known as the "rest," or "jigger," is a cross of wood fixed at right angles to a handle about the same length as the cue, in order to enable a player to strike a ball when it is too far away to allow him to use his hand as a bridge. Special rests, and cues of extra length, are made to meet exceptional positions of the balls.

—A ball is said to be in hand when it is off the table, and the player has to play from the half-circle or D.

—Whoever plays, being in hand, when the red ball is on the spot and the other ball also is in hand, is said to break the balls.

—A ball is said to be in baulk when it is between the baulk-line and the bottom cushion.

—The series of scores terminating with the stroke in which the player fails to score is called a break.

—This is putting a rotatory motion on a ball, causing it to spin on a horizontal axis backwards. Screw is put on by striking the ball below the centre.

—This is putting a rotatory motion on a ball, causing it to spin on a horizontal axis forwards instead of backwards. The stroke is made by striking the ball high up above the centre.

—This is a rotatory motion put on a ball, making it spin on a perpendicular axis.

In each of the foregoing cases the ball is made to take, after striking another ball, or a cushion, a direction different from that which it would take did no such rotatory motion exist.

In order that the learner may the better understand the meaning of screw, screw-back, following stroke, and side, we will illustrate them by means of a diagram.

In Fig. 1 we will suppose the red ball to be placed on the middle spot in the table, M. The player places his own ball in the centre spot in the baulk-line, K, and aims his ball, first of all, so as to strike the object ball with the ordinary —that is, the centre of his ball advances towards the extreme edge of the object ball.

In Fig. 2, O is the object ball; S, the striker's ball. In order to play the half-ball stroke, it is necessary that the player should aim at the point E, the extreme edge of the horizontal diameter of the object ball. Of course, as the diagram shows, he will not strike the ball in the point at which he aims (this is never done save in the case of the ball being struck exactly in the centre), but as S$1$, in the point C. When the object ball is thus struck, the striker's ball, supposing there is no screw on the ball, will take the direction indicated in Fig. 2 as S$2$. This angle is called the natural angle; about this natural angle we shall have to say more by-and-by. Suppose the stroke played thus. After playing, the ball will follow the line M P (Fig. 1). Now suppose some strong screw had been put on the ball by hitting it low down. The ball, owing to the hit, and to its after-contact with the ball at M, would follow the line M P; but, owing to the rotatory motion making the ball revolve or spin backwards, it has a tendency to run back again towards K, the point from which it started. Under the influence of these two forces, the ball takes the medium course shown by the dotted line M P$1$. In other words, the striker, although he hits the object ball a half-ball stroke, screws into the middle pocket.

Now suppose, instead of hitting the ball below the centre, he hits it high up above the centre, so as to make the ball rotate forwards. After the balls have come in contact, the rotatory motion forwards has a tendency to make the striker's ball run onwards towards the top cushion and away from K, the point from which it started; but the contact with the object ball would—did no rotatory motion exist—cause it to follow the direction of the line M P. Under the influence of these two forces the ball takes a medium course, and follows the line M P$2$.

If the player hit the ball at M full, that is, played at it quite straight and hit the ball at M in its nearest point, then, if he put on screw, his own ball would, after striking the ball at M, stop and run back towards K, fast or not according to the amount of rotatory motion he succeeded in putting on his own ball when he struck it.

If the player hit the ball at M full, and hit his own ball high up and above the centre—the following stroke—his ball, after striking the ball at M, would follow on, and, if he hit it exactly, would go on in the direction of the spots, P and S.

In putting on side, the ball is caused to rotate on a perpendicular axis. For instance (vide Fig. 1), suppose the player places his ball on the centre spot in baulk, K, and hits the cushion in the point T without putting on any side, then the ball would rebound in the direction of T R, just as the angles of incidence and reflection are equal. Suppose, however, the player strikes his ball on the right-hand side, causing it to rotate on a perpendicular axis. When the ball touches the cushion at T, this rotation, owing to the friction between the ball and the cushion, causes the ball to take the direction shown in the diagram by the line T R$1$. If, on the other hand, the player hits his ball on the left-hand side, the ball will rebound in the contrary direction shown by line T R$2$. This latter stroke is what every player has to make when he wishes to give a miss in baulk.

When a great deal of side is put on a ball, this side has but little effect till the ball touches a cushion.

—When a player plays for one thing, misses it, and gets another, the stroke is called a fluke. Thus, if a man plays for a cannon, misses the cannon and his ball runs into a pocket off the other ball instead, it is a fluke. If, however, he plays for the cannon and makes it, and then his ball runs into a pocket, it is not regarded as a fluke, although he gets what he did not play for.

A is a losing hazard into one of the middle pockets off a ball near to one of the lower-side cushions. A long jenny is a losing hazard off a ball similarly placed into one of the top pockets.

—A stroke by which a player pockets the red ball from the billiard spot, at the same time bringing his own ball into position to pocket the red again, when the latter is replaced on the billiard spot.

—A game in which, by prior agreement, any number of spot strokes may be consecutively scored.

—By the Billiard Association Rules, "if the red ball be pocketed from the billiard spot twice in consecutive strokes by the same player, and not in conjunction with any other score, it shall be placed on the centre spot; if a ball prevent this, then on the pyramid spot, and if both centre and pyramid spots be covered, then on the billiard spot. When the red ball is again pocketed it shall be placed on the billiard spot."

Furthermore, "if when the billiard spot is occupied, a player pocket the red ball from the pyramid spot twice in consecutive strokes, and not in conjunction with any other score, it shall be placed on the centre spot. Should the player, with his next stroke, pocket it again, it shall be placed on the pyramid spot."

—When a player gets his own ball into an easy position for playing the spot stroke, he is said to get "on the spot."

—When the balls come in contact a second time they are said to kiss.

—A series of cannons made when all three balls are very close together is called a nursery of cannons.

—When any one plays simply to leave the balls in such a position that his opponent cannot score by his next stroke, he is said to play for safety.

—Another name for screw.

—When any one plays to put a ball in and leave his own ball exactly on the spot where the object ball was, or only a very little way beyond it, the stroke is called a stab.

—A ball whose centre is exactly on the baulk-line.

—A stroke which infringes any rule of the game.

—The ball upon which the striker's own ball impinges.

—When the two object balls touch in the jaws of a pocket, and each touches a different cushion at the same time.

—When the striker's own ball is forced off the surface of the table on to, or over, one or both of the object balls. By the Billiard Association Rules, this stroke, "if properly made, is fair, and the referee is the proper person to decide the matter."

One of the most important points for the beginner, as well as for the more experienced player, is the selection of a thoroughly good and reliable cue. Strangely enough, this matter generally receives very little attention, the neophyte being content to take the first that comes to hand. What is even worse, he will change about from day to day,—or from hour to hour,—using cues of different shapes, weight, and balance; and is then surprised that he does not make the progress that he expected.

Reverting to the subject of the half-ball stroke, it is of the greatest importance that all beginners should understand how much depends upon their being able to hit the object ball in the way shown in Fig. 2. Their whole future success as billiard-players will depend upon the accuracy with which they learn to hit the object ball in this particular manner.

First of all, the beginner must learn to hit his own ball freely. We would recommend him to take his first practice-lesson by learning simply how to hit a ball hard—i.e., have only one ball to play with. After he has gained a certain amount of what is called freedom of cue, he must next learn to aim at the object ball, so that he always hits it in what we have described as the half-stroke. To ascertain whether he has acquired sufficient "freedom of cue," let him see how many times he can send his own ball up and down the table.

In learning to simply strike your own ball, it is important to learn to strike it hard without putting on side. Place your ball in baulk, say nearly in the centre of the half-circle; now play straight up at the top cushion hard. If you hit your ball fairly in the centre, the ball will come back straight; if you don't you will put on side, and you can tell how much by the angle at which the ball will rebound from the top cushion. Commence learning, therefore, by hitting your own ball hard enough to send it four to five times up and down the table without side. This is not so easy as many persons would think.

Having learnt to hit his own ball fairly in the centre, the beginner must next learn to hit the object ball a half-ball stroke; and for this purpose it is a very good exercise, at the commencement, to place the red ball on the spot, S (vide Fig. 3), and the striker's ball in position A, that is, just in front of the middle pocket, an inch or two along an imaginary line drawn from the centre of the middle pocket to the edge of the object ball placed on the spot.

The losing hazard off the red into the right-hand top pocket ought now to be a certainty, it being a simple half-ball stroke. After making the hazard, the red ball should, after striking the top cushion, rebound in a line right down the centre of the table (as shown by the dotted line W W).

By watching the direction of the red ball after striking, the beginner will be able to see if he has struck the ball correctly. If he hits it too fine, the red ball will come down the table on the left of the centre line, W W. Should he strike the red ball too full, the red will come down the table on the right-hand side of the line W W.

When the beginner has practised this stroke till he can make a certainty of it, he may then begin to learn how to play what may be called "forcing hazards." For this purpose he can gradually place his own ball lower and lower down the table, as shown in Fig. 3. Suppose, for instance, he places his own ball at B. There is still an easy losing hazard off the red into the top corner pocket, the only difference being that the stroke must be played harder. When the ball was placed at A, the losing hazard could be made by simply what is called dropping on to the ball. In fact, the stroke could be played so slowly, that the red ball, after striking the top cushion, would not rebound more than a foot down the table. As, however, the striker's ball is placed lower and lower down the table in the positions shown by the letters B and C, so the stroke must be played harder and harder.

Another perfect half-ball stroke that can be played either slowly or fast, is shown by the two lines, in Fig. 3, drawn from the spot S to the two top pockets. Suppose a ball to be placed in the centre of either top pocket, or a few inches along the line drawn from the pocket to the spot. Then it is a simple half-ball stroke to go in off the red into the other top pocket.

Place the white ball an inch or two away from the top pocket along the line drawn, and place the red ball on the spot. Then drop on to the ball quietly. The hazard is easy, and, supposing you play from, say, the left-hand top pocket, you will not only make the losing hazard, but you will leave the red ball in a position for another easy hazard into the middle pocket. Your own ball, the white, for the next stroke will be in baulk; the red ball will, if you play the stroke correctly, travel along the dotted line shown in the diagram, and stop somewhere about R, thus leaving an easy hazard next time into the right-hand middle pocket.

Having thus practised the half-ball stroke with slow strength and fast strength, the next point to be considered is losing hazards into the top pockets from baulk. These losing hazards may be called the very backbone of the game.

The chief difficulty experienced by a beginner will be to know where to spot his ball in baulk. This will only come with practice. The eye will gradually accustom itself to the angle. A good player can tell at a glance whether or not a stroke is easy. We would recommend any one learning the game to make one or two spots on the table as follows. First place a card or thin piece of wood upright against the top cushion, and then measure down the table 3 ft. 9½ in. Make a mark on the cloth (a little cross is best), and then place the red ball on this spot. Next let him place the white ball at K (Fig. 4), the centre spot in baulk. The red ball is placed on the spot A, which, as we have said, is just 3 ft. 9½ in. from the face of the top cushion. Now there is an easy losing hazard, if the stroke be played with the ordinary half-ball stroke, into either top pocket off the red ball.

This stroke is capital practice for the beginner, as it gets his eye used to the angle which we have called the "natural" angle.

The advantage of playing the natural angle is that, supposing you fail to hit the ball exactly as you intended, a very slight error in aiming does not alter materially the direction of your own ball after it has come in contact with the object ball.

Suppose, now, the beginner has succeeded in going into first one top pocket and then the other several times, let him take the red ball off the spot marked A in Fig. 4, and place it on M, the centre spot in the table. Now let him place his own ball in baulk on the proper spot to go into, say, the left-hand top pocket off M. The proper spot is B in the diagram, but then, where is B? B ought to be seven and a half inches from K, the centre spot in baulk. Similarly, if the player wished to go into the right-hand top pocket off the red ball at M, he would have to spot his own ball on a spot seven-and-a-half inches to the right of K.

As a rule, beginners all make the same mistake. They will, as a rule, spot their ball too near to K, and, of course, the further they are out in their reckoning, the more they have to learn. It would be as well, however, to let a beginner play the stroke. Suppose, for instance, that instead of spotting his ball at B, seven and a half inches to the left of K, he spots his ball only five inches to the left of K. Let him play his stroke, and instead of going into the left-hand top pocket, his ball will strike the left-hand upper cushion several inches below the pocket. Now let him measure the correct seven and a half inches, and, although he will think he is going to miss the stroke, to his own surprise he will make it. It is very good practice to go in off a ball placed on the middle spot M, first into one top pocket, and then into another, being careful always to watch the direction taken by the red ball after the stroke, with an eye to playing the right strength to leave an easy losing hazard next time.

We next come to—

We will suppose that the beginner has now fairly learned how to play losing hazards in the top pockets, and also how to spot his ball for the natural angle. In playing losing hazards into the middle pockets, it is quite as important that this angle, and this only, should be used. In Fig. 5 we give two illustrations of simple hazards into the middle pockets. The hazards themselves are, comparatively speaking, easy; but the chief point to be borne in mind is position—that is, having made the hazard, how can we leave the red ball so that there shall be another easy hazard next time? The endeavour should be to keep the red ball in the centre of the table as much as possible. As a rule, the game is to play to bring down the red ball over the middle pocket again. Now, in Fig. 5, suppose the player at H tries to go into the right-hand middle pocket off a ball at D, the proper play would be to strike the red ball so that it goes up the table, and, following the dotted lines, returns to D$1$. If the player hits the red a trifle too fine the red ball would travel to the left of this dotted line, and a losing hazard would be left off the red into one of the top pockets. If, however, in playing the stroke, the player hits his ball a trifle too full, the red ball would then probably travel along the dotted line terminating in D$2$, and there would be no score left next time.

A similar stroke is shown in the left-hand middle pocket. The striker spots his ball at B, and goes into the middle pocket off a ball at A. The endeavour should be to send the red ball up the table in the direction shown by the dotted line A C.

If the red is sent up the table to the left of this line, unless very accurate strength is played, there will be probably no score left next time. If, however, the player is careful not to hit the ball at A too full, the ball will travel rather to the right of the line A C, and then, being in the middle of the table, if the strength is insufficient to bring the ball over the middle pocket, there will still be a losing hazard left into one of the top pockets. This is the chief point to be considered in making losing hazards in the middle pockets, and naturally introduces that all-important subject for consideration in learning to play Billiards, viz.—

There are thousands of men who have played Billiards all their lives, but are still very poor players, because in learning to play they never studied position. They play simply for the stroke, and never give a thought to what will happen in the next stroke. If you watch a first-class player make a break, you will probably see him make a long series of very easy strokes, any one of which you yourself could have made with the greatest ease. The one difference, in fact, between your play and his would have been this—that you would make the easy stroke, and fail to leave another easy stroke next time, whereas he would not fail; hence his break—a series of easy strokes; hence your break—one easy stroke, and a breakdown.

Space will not allow us to give a long series of diagrams, explaining the various ways of playing for position, but we will indicate a few general principles. First—

In playing for any losing hazard, it should be remembered that the position of one ball after the stroke is fixed: the striker's own ball will be "in hand." Hence, he has only to consider the position of the object ball, which we will suppose to be the red. Now, the object of the player is to leave an easy stroke next time. As a rule, the red ball must be hit in a certain spot to ensure the hazard, the only exception being when the red ball is close to the pocket, and the player's ball close to the red. In this latter case it is often the best plan to just touch or graze the red ball so as hardly to move it, and—supposing, of course, it is not one of the bottom pockets—to leave the red ball over the pocket where it is. If, however, you are some way off the red ball, you will have to hit it in one place in order to make certain of the hazard. Consequently, position will simply depend upon strength. It is as well to remember that if a ball is left anywhere near the middle of the table, there is always an easy hazard left next time.

No player can leave a ball on a certain spot exactly. The greatest expert cannot do more than leave it "there or thereabouts." In fact, very often, in playing a losing hazard, all we have to do is not so much to play where to leave the red, but where not to leave the red.

Sometimes it may be the best play to try and leave the red ball close to the white ball, so that the next stroke will be an easy cannon. As a rule, however, the best play is to leave the red ball over a pocket, so that you can go in off it again next time. All the best "all-round" breaks are made by a series of losing hazards with occasional cannons. It is in playing cannons that the chief difficulty arises in getting position, but before we discuss cannons, a few words about—

It is evident that after playing a winning hazard the position of the object ball is known—viz., as a rule, on the spot. Should the player put in the white, his only excuse must be to make a baulk; otherwise it is bad play. His opponent, next time he plays, can spot his ball anywhere he likes in the semicircle, and if the other balls are out of baulk, he is almost certain to score. Consequently, the only winning hazards worth discussing are red winning hazards. In making a winning hazard, the player, as a rule, should try and get near the spot himself, so as to play for the spot, or else play to leave his own ball where there would be an easy losing hazard off the red on the spot next time. In Fig. 6 we give two illustrations. Suppose, first of all, the red ball is over the right-hand middle pocket at H. The proper professional play would be to put the ball in the pocket, and then run up the table towards L, and try and get into position for the spot, but the ordinary amateur, who, when he gets into position for the spot, can only make one hazard and then breaks down, had better not play for the spot at all. In the position given in the diagram, it would be better play to put the red ball in the pocket, and try and leave your own ball at H$1$; then there is a certain losing hazard next time off the red into the left-hand top pocket.

Again, suppose the balls are left in the position W (the white ball), and X (the red ball), many beginners would play for the six stroke, but it would be very bad play, as the red ball would be on the spot, and the striker in hand. The proper play is to put the red ball in the pocket and leave your own ball in the jaws of the pocket, thus leaving a certain losing hazard—in off the red into the opposite top pocket—next time; a stroke, too, in which it is always easy to leave the red ball over the middle pocket in the stroke following.

However, as we have said, the chief difficulty in getting good position is when playing—

Here the player has to consider the position of all three balls at the end of the stroke. There are two ways of getting position in playing a cannon. We can leave the red over a pocket, or play to bring the balls together. It is obvious that when all the balls are close together, it is almost a certainty that there is an easy score left.

Suppose, in Fig. 6, the red ball is on the spot S, the white ball at B, and the player in hand. There is, of course, an easy cannon left, but how ought he to play it so as to leave an easy score next time?

The game here is to leave the balls together at the end of the stroke. The striker spots his ball at A in baulk, so as to strike B the ordinary half-ball stroke. The stroke should be played slowly, so that the white ball rebounds off the left-hand upper side cushion at C, and travels towards D. The player's own ball hits the red gently, and all three balls are left close together, near the top of the table, one of the best positions possible.

In playing to leave the red ball over a pocket, a good deal depends upon whether you play a cannon off the red on to the white, or off the white on to the red. For instance, in Fig. 7, suppose the striker in hand, and the two other balls stationed at A and R. If A is the red ball, the stroke is played one way, and if A is the white ball it is played another way. If A is the red you should play to make the cannon with just sufficient strength to double the red across the table, and leave it in position A$1$, over the middle pocket. If R was the red ball, you ought to play with just sufficient strength, and also sufficiently accurately, to hit the red ball full and leave it in position R$1$, over the left-hand top pocket.

Another important point in playing cannons is to play what is called "outside" the balls when they are close together. Suppose, in Fig. 7, the balls are in the position shown in C, D, and E. C is the player's ball. If he hits D and makes the cannon hitting E full, he separates the balls, but if he plays so as to just touch D and E, hitting them on the extreme edge, he keeps them together.

We will, in conclusion, give a brief explanation of the spot stroke in the "all-in game." This is in fact, as we have already seen, a series of spot hazards. We must, however, warn the beginner that though nothing looks more simple, nothing really is more difficult. The simplest position for the spot stroke is when the striker's ball is in a direct line with the red ball and the pocket (Fig. 8). Of course, the proper play is to screw back and bring your own ball into the same place. Were this a "certainty," the striker would go on scoring for ever. Sooner or later, however, he will find his ball will not come back quite straight. It will come back slightly nearer the top cushion, or rather more away from it. In the first of these cases (position 2, Fig. 9), the best plan is to follow through the red ball. This can be done simply by a following stroke. A is the striker's ball; B the position of the striker's ball after the stroke. When the balls are nearly, but not quite straight, this is done by means of a stab shot.

In position 3 (Fig. 10) the striker's ball is at A. The play now is to drop on to the red ball with sufficient strength to put it in, and get position at B off the top cushion. Sometimes a little side is necessary.

In position 4 (Fig. 11) the striker's ball A is nearly, but not quite, in a line with the red ball and the opposite pocket. When this is the case, the only way to get position is to run through the red and get position off the two cushions. You must play to hit your ball very high and with a great deal of freedom of cue. It is a stroke in which a beginner would probably fail.

It is as well to know within what limits the spot stroke can be played. Suppose we draw a line, X Y (Fig. 12), through the spot S, parallel with the top cushion. If the striker's ball is within this line or nearer to the top cushion, it is no use putting in the red gently, as position would be lost. The only plan to recover position is to play all round the table. Suppose the striker's ball is within the line at A, he now plays to put the red ball in the right-hand top pocket and recover position by going right round the table till his ball stops at B. This is a very difficult stroke, but is often played for and obtained by a first-class player.

THE BILLIARDS CONTROL CLUB RULES.

These Rules (issued in February, 1909) are specially applicable to professional matches, and,—like the Rimington-Wilson Code, on which they are based,—have particularly in view the reduction of safety misses to a minimum and the imposition of one definite penalty for each and every kind of foul stroke or illegitimate miss. In issuing the Code, the Secretary lays stress on the following provisions:—

A player may not make two misses in successive innings, unless he or the opponent scores after the first miss, or a double baulk intervenes. (Rule 9.)

When striker's ball remains touching another ball, red ball shall be spotted, and non-striker's ball, if on the table, shall be placed on the centre spot; striker shall play from the D; if non-striker's ball is in hand, red shall be spotted, and striker shall break the balls. (Rule 10.)

Consecutive ball-to-ball cannons are limited to 25; on the completion of this number the break shall only be continued by the intervention of a hazard or indirect cannon. (Rule 13.)

If, after contact with another ball, striker's or any other ball is forced off the table, the non-striker shall add two points to his score. (Rule 18.)

For a foul stroke the striker cannot score, and his opponent plays from hand. His ball shall be placed on the centre spot, the red ball shall be spotted, and his opponent shall play from the D.

For refusing to continue the game when called upon by the referee or marker to do so, or for conduct which, in the opinion of the referee or marker, is wilfully or persistently unfair, a player shall lose the game. (Rule 18.)

PYRAMIDS.

This game is played by two persons with sixteen balls,—one white, and fifteen red. The latter are arranged in the form of a solid triangle, with its apex on the Pyramid spot (P in Fig. 1), and its base towards the top cushion and lying parallel thereto.

At the commencement of the game, one player leads off from the half-circle, and plays at any one of the red balls. Should he pocket one or more balls, he scores one for each red ball pocketed. He continues playing till he fails to score.

If a player gives a miss, or pockets the white ball, a point is taken off his score and he must replace one of the red balls he has previously pocketed; on the Pyramid spot, if unoccupied, or, if that be occupied, as near to it as possible in a line directly behind it. If he has not previously pocketed a ball, he owes one, and must pay it by replacing the first ball that he pockets later on.

After a miss, the opponent follows on from where the white ball stopped; but after a pocketing of the white ball, the opponent follows on from the half-circle. In playing at a red ball, baulk is no obstacle.

If a striker pockets the white ball, and at the same time pockets one or more of the red balls, he gains nothing by the stroke, but one is deducted from his score; the red balls pocketed must be spotted on the table, as well as one of the striker's red balls previously pocketed. The opponent follows on from the half-circle.

When the red balls have all been pocketed but one, the player making the last score continues playing with the white ball, and his opponent uses the other. If a striker now make a miss, or pocket the ball he is playing with, the opponent adds one to his score, and the game is over.

SHELL OUT.

This is a name given to Pyramids when played by more than two persons.

When a striker pockets a red ball he receives from each of the other players a stake previously agreed on. No ball is ever replaced on the table after a miss, or after pocketing the white. Should any player miss or pocket the white, he pays for each of the other players as well as for himself whenever the next red ball is pocketed. When only one red ball is left in play, each player continues playing with the white. Pocketing the red is now paid double all round; and if a striker miss, or pocket the white, he pays double all round.

The order of play is drawn for at the beginning of each game.

 * By J. P. Mannock, assisted by S. A. Mussabini. Grant Richards, 2 vols., 15s.

 * By C. Dawson. To be had from the author, "Thorns," Hook Road, Surbiton, Surrey. 12s. 6d.

 * By J. Buchanan. Geo. Bell and Sons.

 * By J. Roberts. C. Arthur Pearson, Limited.

 * (Oval Series). By Charles Roberts. Routledge. 1s.

 * By Joseph Bennett. Edited by Cavendish. De la Rue and Co. 10s. 6d.

 * (Badminton Library). By Major W. Broadfoot, R.E., and others. Longmans. 10s. 6d.

 * (Oval Series). By J. Buchanan. Routledge. 1s.

title: Hoyle's Games Modernized/Billiards