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MacDowell scription. . . defended; in answer to "The Catholic Christian" ... in a Letter to the Rev. J——n C——n,' &c, Glasgow, 1770, mo. 2. 'A Second Letter to the Rev. J——n C——n,' &c, Belfast, 1771, 12mo. 3. 'Observations on Theophilus Philander,' &c., Belfast, 1772, 12mo. 4. 'A Vindication of the Westminster Confession. . . from. . . two late Writers,' &c., Belfast, 1774, 12mo. 5. 'Letters of Importance ... to the. . . Synod of Ulster, &c. With an Appendix ... By Pistophilus Philecclesia,' &c, Belfast, 1775, 12mo. 6. 'The Doctrine of Salvation by Grace,' &c, Belfast, 1777, 8vo (two sermons on Eph. ii. 8, 9). 7. 'A Letter to the Ministers of the Synod of Ulster, by Amicus,' &c. [Dublin], 1807, 8vo. 8. 'The Nature of the Presbyterian Form of Church Government,' &c, Dublin, 1808, 12mo. Also separate sermons, 1783 and 1799, and parts of the ordination service for John Baird, 1812.

 MACDOWELL, PATRICK (1799–1870), sculptor, was born in Belfast on 12 Aug. 1799. His father, a tradesman, died in his infancy, and left him and his mother with very limited means. From 1807 to 1811 he boarded at a school in Belfast, kept by an engraver named Gordon, who encouraged his attempts at drawing, and from 1811 to 1813 he was under the tuition of a clergyman in Hampshire. In 1813 he was apprenticed to a coachbuilder in London, but after four years and a half his master became a bankrupt, and his indentures were cancelled. He then went to lodge in the house of Pierre Francois Chenu, a French sculptor and modeller, and while there he endeavoured to sketch from plaster casts, and to acquire a knowledge of modelling. On leaving Chenu's he applied himself assiduously to drawing and modelling, and at length attempted a small figure of 'Venus holding a Mirror,' after Donatello, in which he succeeded so well that it was purchased by Chenu. He next sent a model in competition for a monument to Major Cartwright; but although his design was selected, it was not carried out by himself, owing to the insufficiency of the amount subscribed. He, however, allowed it to be executed by another sculptor, who was ruined by the commission. In 1822 he sent a bust to the Royal Academy, and was also an exhibitor from 1826 to 1829. In 1830 he was admitted into the Academy Schools, but continued to model and work on busts. The first group of poetic sculpture which he attempted was from Moore's 'Loves of the Angels;' it was purchased by Mr. George Davison of Belfast. This was followed by a group from Ovid of 'Cephalus and Procris,' executed in marble for E. S. Cooper, M.P. for Sligo, and afterwards by a life-size group of 'Bacchus and a Satyr.' In 1837 he exhibited the model of a 'Girl Reading,' which attracted the favourable notice of Sir Francis Chantrey, and was executed in marble for Mr. T. W. Beaumont, M.P. for Northumberland, and also for Lord Francis Egerton, afterwards, earl of Ellesmere.

MacDowell was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1841, and soon afterwards went to Italy for eight months at the expense of Mr. Beaumont, for whom he executed, also in marble, a 'Girl going to the Bath,' exhibited in 1841; a 'Girl at Prayer,' in 1842; 'Love Triumphant,' his first large group, and 'Cupid,' in 1845; and 'Early Sorrow,' in 1850. He became a Royal Academician in 1846, and presented as his diploma work a 'Nymph,' In 1846, also, he executed a statue of Viscount Exmouth for Greenwich Hospital, and in 1850 he exhibited the model for the bronze statue of William, earl of Warren, for the houses of parliament. He executed also marble statues of William Pitt and of the Earl of Chatham for St. Stephen's Hall. . His subsequent works included 'Cupid and Psyche,' a basso-relievo, in 1849; 'Virginius and his Daughter,' 1850; 'The Slumbering Student,' 1861; 'Love in Idleness,' the model, in 1852; 'The First Thorn in Life,' a commission from Mr. Thomas Baring; 'The Earl of Belfast,' a model for a bronze statue for the city of Belfast, 1856; 'Viscount Fitzgibbon,' a model for a bronze statue for the city of Limerick, and 'The Day Dream,' 1858; 'Eve,' 1865; 'The Children of John Pender,' 1866; and 'The Young Mother,' 1867; after which he exhibited nothing but busts. His last and ffreatest work, completed shortly before his death, was the fine group typical of 'Europe' for the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park. It represents 'Europa' seated on a bull, and surrounded by standing figures emblematical of England, France, Italy, and Germany. It was engraved by W. Roffe for the 'Art Journal' of 1871, and by W. Holl for 'The National Memorial to H.R.H. the Prince Consort,' London, 1873.

MacDowell died in London on 9 Dec. 1870, having just before retired into the


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12 the party injuring of the power to do future michief ; which is effected by either putting him to death, or condemning him to perpetual confinement, lavery, or exile. The ame one end, of preventing future crimes, is endeavoured to be anwered by each of thee three pecies of punihment. The public gains equal ecurity, whether the offender himelf be amended by wholome correction, or whether he be diabled from doing any farther harm : and if the penalty fails of both thee effects, as it may do, till the terror of his example remains as a warning to other citizens. The method however of inflicting punihment ought always to be proportioned to the particular purpoe it is meant to erve, and by no means to exceed it : therefore the pains of death, and perpetual diability by exile, lavery, or imprionment, ought never to be inflicted, but when the offender appears incorrigible : which may be collected either from a repetition of minuter offences ; or from the perpetration of ome one crime of deep malignity, which of itelf demontrates a dipoition without hope or probability of amendment : and in uch caes it would be cruelty to the public, to defer the punihment of uch a criminal, till he had an opportunity of repeating perhaps the wort of villanies. to the meaure of human punihments. From what has been obierved in the former articles we may collect, that the quantity of punihment can never be abolutely determined by any tanding invariable rule ; but it mut be left to the arbitration of the legilature to inflict uch penalties as are warranted by the laws of nature and ociety, and uch as appear to be the bet calculated to anwer the end of precaution againt future offences.

it will be evident, that what ome have o highly extolled for its equity, the lex talionis or law of retaliation, can never be in all caes an adequate or permanent rule of punihment. In ome caes indeed it eems to be dictated by natural reaon ; as in the cae of conpiracies to do an injury, or fale Rh

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Macdowell honorary rank of Royal Academicians. His works are graceful and elegant in design, and masterly in execution.

 MACDOWELL, WILLIAM (1590–1666), diplomatist, born in October 1690 at Makerstoun, Roxburghshire, was son of Thomas Macdowell by Johanna, daughter of Sir Andrew Ker of Greenhead. From 1597 to 1603 he attended Musselburgh school, and in 1605 proceeded to St. Andrews, where he had a distinguished career. In 1609, before he had taken his degree, he was made philosophical master at St. Leonard's College, an office which he held until 1614, when he accepted the professorship of philosophy at Groningen University. He graduated LL.D. at Groningen in 1625, and in 1627 became president of the council of war in Groningen and Friesland. In 1629, 1635, and 1636 he was sent ambassador to England, on the last occasion to adjust fishery disputes. Charles I, struck by the ability of his arguments, would have made him a Scottish privy councillor had not the civil war broke out On 4 June 1650 Macdowell became Charles II's resident agent at the Hague. When, in March 1651, the English parliament sent Oliver St. John and Walter Strickland to the Hague to negotiate a union with the States, Macdowell distinguished himself by his reply to their propositions and memorials at the great assembly of the States-General, and the English envoys had to depart amid jeers from the populace in July. His success seems to have completely turned his head. He repudiated the advice of the English king's most trusted counsellors, and refused to take any instructions except from Charles himself. Nicholas, in writing to Hyde in March 1652, describes Macdowell as 'a most unskilful and indeed ridiculous person, and more a subject to these states than to the king, and strangely avaricious' (Nicholas Papers, Camd. Soc, i. 268). At Whitsuntide 1653 Cromwell persuaded the States to banish him, but he lingered for a while in Holland, in the hope of regaining the favour of Charles and the court (Cat. of Clarendon State Papers, ii. 148, 158, 277). At the Restoration he petitioned for payment of his salary as resident, and vainly urged the king to appoint him judge in Scotland (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1660, p. 298, 1660–1, p. 460). He returned to Holland, and by warrant, dated 10 April 1665, was authorised to 'transact certain affairs of importance there and correspond with the secretaries of state' (ib. 1664–5, p. 300). During the war with the Dutch, Macdowell was kept a close prisoner, and even threatened with torture for traitorously corresponding with England (ib. 1666–7, pp. 143, 192, 198). He died in 1666 (ib. 1665–6, p. 532). He married first, in 1617, Bernardina van Frittema, and secondly, Elizabeth Alberda (d. 1652), daughter of Regnerus Alberda van Zandt, and widow of Sicco van Botnia.

Macdowell's 'Answer' to the English envoys was printed at the Hague in 1651, both in English and Dutch. The English version was reprinted in the 'Harleian Miscellany,' ed. 1810, v. 251. Replies to it were published at London, also in 1651, under the title of 'Anglia Liberata.' Macdowell was likewise author of 'Collegium juridico-politicum,' 4to, Groningen, 1628.

In contemporary records Macdowell's name appears in various forms, such as 'Macdougall' and 'Macdonnell.' During the Commonwealth period he is nearly always styled 'Sir,' but there is no evidence of his having been knighted. His portrait has been twice engraved.

 MACDUFF, or  (fl. 1056?), a half or wholly mythical personage, was, according to John of Fordun, the main instrument in advancing Malcolm Canmore [q. v.] to the throne held by the usurper, Macbeth [q. v.] The story is that, on his way through Fife, Macbeth saw a yoke of oxen belonging to Macduff fail in their task, and on being informed to whom they belonged expressed the opinion that Macduff himself should be put in the yoke. Fearful of the fate that might be in store for him, Macduff set sail for England, and Macbeth, on seeing his small vessel out at sea, captured and destroyed his castles, although the statement that he also murdered his wife and children is a later embellishment. Macduff ultimately persuaded Malcolm to return to Scotland to nght the usurper, and it was his forces chiefly that enabled Malcolm to defeat Macbeth at Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, on 15 Aug. 1057. According to Wyntoun the person, 'never borne but of a mattyris wame was schorne,' who slew Macbeth was not Macduff, but one of his knights. In reward of his great services Malcolm, according to


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Ch. 1. accuations of the innocent : to which we may add that law of the Jews and Egyptians, mentioned by Joephus and Diodorus Siculus, that whoever without ufficient caue was found with any mortal poion in his cutody, hould himelf be obliged to take it. But, in general, the difference of perons, place, time, provocation, or other circumtances, may enhance or mitigate the offence ; and in uch caes retaliation can never be a proper meaure of jutice. If a nobleman trikes a peaant, all mankind will ee, that if a court of jutice awards a return of the blow, it is more than a jut compenation. On the other hand, retaliation may ometimes be too eay a entence ; as, if a man maliciouly hould put out the remaining eye of him who had lot one before, it is too light a punihment for the maimer to loe only one of his : and therefore the law of the Locrians, which demanded an eye for an eye, was in this intance judiciouly altered ; by decreeing, in imitation of Solon's laws, that he who truck out the eye of a one-eyed man, hould loe both his own in return. Beides, there are very many crimes, that will in no hape admit of thee penalties, without manifet aburdity and wickednes. Theft cannot be punihed by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by forgery, adultery by adultery, and the like. And we may add, that thoe intances, wherein retaliation appears to be ued, even by the divine authority, do not really proceed upon the rule of exact retribution, by doing to the criminal the ame hurt he has done to his neighbour, and no more ; but this correpondence between the crime and punihment is barely a conequence from ome other principle. Death is ordered to be punihed with death ; not becaue one is equivalent to the other, for that would be expiation, and not punihment. Nor is death always an equivalent for death : the execution of a needy decrepid aain is a poor atisfaction for the murder of a nobleman in the bloom of his youth, and full enjoyment of his friends, his honours, and his fortune. But the reaon upon which this entence is grounded eems to be, that this is the highet penalty that man can inflict, Rh


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SPORTING EVENT—A RECORD

She won the sweep!


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14 and tends mot to the ecurity of the world ; by removing one murderer from the earth, and etting a dreadful example to deter others : o that even this grand intance proceeds upon other principles than thoe of retaliation. And truly, if any meaure of punihment is to be taken from the damage utained by the ufferer, the punihment ought rather to exceed than equal the injury : ince it eems contrary to reaon and equity, that the guilty (if convicted) hould uffer no more than the innocent has done before him ; epecially as the uffering of the innocent is pat and irrevocable, that of the guilty is future, contingent, and liable to be ecaped or evaded. With regard indeed to crimes that are incomplete, which conit merely in the intention, and are not yet carried into act, as conpiracies and the like ; the innocent has a chance to frutrate or avoid the villany, as the conpirator has alo a chance to ecape his punihment : and this may be one reaon why the lex talionis is more proper to be inflicted, if at all, for crimes that conit in intention, than for uch as are carried into act. It eems indeed cononant to natural reaon, and has therefore been adopted as a maxim by everal theoretical writers, that the punihment, due to the crime of which one falely accues another, hould be inflicted on the perjured informer. Accordingly, when it was once attempted to introduce into England the law of retaliation, it was intended as a punihment for uch only as preferred malicious accuations againt others ; it being enacted by tatute 37 Edw. III. c. 18. that uch as preferred any uggetions to the king's great council hould put in ureties of taliation ; that is, to incur the ame pain that the other hould have had, in cae the uggetion were found untrue. But, after one year's experience, this punihment of taliation was rejected, and imprionment adopted in it's tead

though from what has been aid it appears, that there cannot be any regular or determinate method of rating the Rh


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Mace Wyntoun, bestowed on Macduff three privileges: that he or his successors should have the right of placing the king on his throne on coronation day; that they should lead the van in the battle wherever the royal banner was displayed; that if they or any of their kindred committed slaughter of a sudden or unpremeditated kind they should have a peculiar sanctuary or asylum to which they might flee, and should obtain full remission on payment of a certain ransom. The sanctuary of the Macduffs was, according 'to tradition, the ancient cross called the Cross Macduff, which stood to the north of Newburgh, in the pass leading to Strathearn. Only the pedestal of the cross now remains, the cross itself having been destroyed by the reformers in 1559. A portion of the inscription on the pedestal, now all but erased, has been preserved, but its import has greatly puzzled antiquarians.

Skene credits John of Fordun with the entire invention of the story of Macduff.

 MACE, DANIEL (d. 1753), textual critic, was probably a native of Cirencester, Gloucestershire, and was one of a family of thirteen children. He became presbyterian minister at Beckington, Somerset. Thence he removed to take charge of the presbyterian congregation at Newbury, Berkshire, at a stipend of 50l., preaching his first sermon there on 5 March 1727; he succeeded Joseph Standen, who had conformed to the established church. In 1729 his edition of the New Testament appeared anonymously. Whiston, who was at Newbury in 1748, 'in the week after Whitsun-week,' says he 'heard the worthy Mr. Mace preach twice on Sunday, in the same meeting-house where my old learned friend Mr. James Peirce [q. v.] had preached. 9 Mace died about Christmas 1753, and was buried in his meeting-house, near the pulpit. He left a widow, a son and a daughter.

He published: 1. 'The New Testament in Greek and English, containing the Original Text corrected from the Authority of the most authentic Manuscripts,' &c, 1729, 8vo, 2 vols, (anon.) The dedication to Peter King, first lord King [q. v.], at that time lord chancellor, refers to King's 'History of the Apostles' Creed,' published (1702) while he was a presbyterian. Mace's Greek type is remarkably beautiful, and is apparently peculiar to this edition, he discards soft breathings and accents, except the circumflex. For the materials of his text he relies upon Mill, whom he constantly quotes. His judgement in the construction of his revised text is exceedingly sound. Reuss, followed by Gregory and Abbot, regards his edition as a genuine precursor of the modern critical texts of the New Testament, and remarks upon the very large number of cases in which his readings are confirmed by the results of later research. Critical and historical notes are given as footnotes, or appended to the different books. Mace's edition was roughly handled by advocates of the received text, especially by Leonard Twells [q. v.] Scrivener treats it with very unwise contempt. The importance of the work was at once perceived abroad, and the readings of the 'anonymus Anglus' are carefully treated in the later volumes of J. C. Wolff's 'Curæ Philologicæ et Criticæ in N.T.,' &c, Hamburg, 1725-35, 4to, 4 vols. English critics were probably repelled by the peculiarities of his English version. His typography is eccentric: he begins each paragraph with a capital, but the separate sentences with a small letter (a similar arrangement was occasionally adopted by Charles Bulkdey [q. v.]) He is fond of odd words, e.g. 'grumes,' Luke xxii. 44; 'raparee,' 1 Cor. v. 10; 'brigues,' 1 Thess. v. 13; and the whole tone of his version is anti-ecclesiastical. Yet it exhibits genuine scholarship. A subject index shows Arianism very decidedly. The work has been erroneously ascribed to William Mace, appointed (30 Aug. 1744) Gresham lecturer on civil law, who died early in 1767. 2. 'XIX Sermons,' &c, 1751, 8vo, (on prayer, providence, &c.; Walter Wilson's manuscript, which gives a wrong date to the volume, says it was 'published' by Caleb Fleming, D.D. [q. v.], who may have seen it through the press; the long list of subscribers contains the names of David Hartley [q. v.] the philosopher and John Taylor, D.D., the hebraist).  MACE, THOMAS (1619?–1709?), musician, was born in 1613, according to an engraved portrait by Faithorne prefixed to his 'Mustek's Monument,' 1676, and inscribed 'ætat. suæ 63.' But this portrait was pro-


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Ch. 1. quantity of punihments for crimes, by any one uniform rule ; but they mut be referred to the will and dicretion of the legilative power : yet there are ome general principles, drawn from the nature and circumtances of the crime, that may be of ome aitance in allotting it an adequate punihment.

As, firt, with regard to the object of it : for the greater and more exalted the object of an injury is, the more care hould be taken to prevent that injury, and of coure under this aggravation the punihment mould be more evere. Therefore treaon in conpiring the king's death is by the Englih law punihed with greater rigour than even actually killing any private ubject. And yet, generally, a deign to trangres is not o flagrant an enormity, as the actual completion of that deign. For evil, the nearer we approach it, is the more diagreeable and hocking ; o that it requires more obtinacy in wickednes to perpetrate an unlawful action, than barely to entertain the thought of it : and it is an encouragement to repentance and remore, even till the lat tage of any crime, that it never is too late to retract ; and that if a man tops even here, it is better for him than if he proceeds : for which reaons an attempt to rob, to ravih, or to kill, is far les penal than the actual robbery, rape, or murder. But in the cae of a treaonable conpiracy, the object whereof is the king's majety, the bare intention will deerve the highet degree of everity : not becaue the intention is equivalent to the act itelf ; but becaue the greatet rigour is no more than adequate to a treaonable purpoe of the heart, and there is no greater left to inflict upon the actual execution itelf.

To kill a man upon udden and violent reentment is les penal, than upon cool deliberate malice. The age, education, and character of the offender ; the repetition (or otherwie) of the offence ; the time, Rh


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.—Lady Plongère (to Sir Charles Hamidoot). Oh! Sir Charles, please put me a tenner each way on the favourite.

Sir Charles. But will you repay me the money laid out?

Lady P. (sweetly). Of course I will, if I win.


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Mace bably drawn some time before the publication of the book. Bromley, in his 'Catalogue of Portraits,' states that Mace died in 1709, at the age of ninety; the date of his birth, according to this computation, would be 1619.

Mace lived at Cambridge, and was one of the clerks of Trinity College. About 1636 he married a Yorkshire lady, and he was in York in 1644, when the city was besieged by the parliamentary party.

Mace was an accomplished lutenist, but suffered from deafness, and the softer tones of the lute were inaudible to him. In order to lessen the effects of his infirmity he devised, in 1672, a lute of fifty strings, which he named the 'dyphone, or double lute' (cf. Musick's Monument). He had, moreover, at one time broken both his arms, and never recovered their full use ; he was therefore compelled to adopt an original method of producing a 'shake' upon the lute (ib.) He also invented a 'table-organ,'

In 1675 Mace published a pamphlet 'for a Publick Good,' under the title of 'Profit, Conveniency, and Pleasure to the whole Nation. Being a short Rational Discourse, lately presented to his Majesty concerning the High-ways of England : their Badness, the Causes thereof, the Reasons of those Causes.' To this work was appended an announcement that Mace was about to publish a work on music, on which he had been engaged since Christmas 1671. It was licensed for the press on 5 May 1675, and while it was in the printer's hands Mace stayed at Mr. Nathaniel Thompson's, his printer's, in New Street, London. It was duly published by subscription, at twelve shillings a copy, in 1676, as 'Mustek's Monument ; or a Remembrancer of the best Practical Musick, both divine and civil, that has ever been known to be in the World.' An adequate analytical description of the book, which is quaintly written, is given in Hawkins's 'History of Music.' Burnet calls it matchless, and Southey devotes four chapters of his 'Doctor' to a discussion of its merits. The work is divided into three parts, of which the first treats of the condition of parochial psalmody and cathedral music, and the means of improving them ; the second, of the lute and lute-playing ; and the third, of the viol and of music in general.

In 1676 Mace was living with his wife in 'St. Buttolph's Parish, near Queens Colledge, Cambridge.' In 1690, according to Fétis, Mace came to London, set up an establishment for the sale of music and musical instruments, and gave lessons upon the theorbo, lute, and viol, and instruction in composition. His deafness appears to have told against his success, and he was consequently in straitened circumstances.

He had a family, one of whom, his youngest son, John, learned in 1672 to play upon the lute almost solely by reading the manuscript of his father's 'Musick's Monument.' The musician John Immvns [q. v.] is also recorded to have taught himself the use of the same instrument at the age of forty, by the unaided instruction of Mace's book. In 1676 Mace's brother, Henry, was ' sub-chantor ' of York Cathedral, and he had a cousin, Thomas Mace, residing at Norwich.

 MACEACHEN, EVAN (1769–1849), Gaelic scholar, born at Arisaig, Invernessshire, in 1769, was educated in a school at Ruthven, near Keith. He was sent in 1788 to the Scots College at Valladolid, where he was ordained priest in 1798. On his return to the mission he was stationed at Arisaig. In 1801 he was removed to Badenoch, and thence was sent, about 1806, in the capacity of professor, to the seminary of Lismore. In 1814 he was appointed to the mission of Aigas in Strathglass, from which he was transferred in 1818 to Braemar. In consequence of failing health he retired in 1888 to Ballogie, and in 1847 he removed to Tombae, Banffshire, where he died 9 Sept. 1849.

He translated into Gaelic: 1. 'The Abridgment of Christian Doctrine,' printed while he was at Aigas. 2. 'The Spiritual Combat,' 1835. 3. 'The Following of Christ,' 1836. 4. 'The Declaration of the British Catholic Bishops,' published by the Catholic Institute. His more important Gaelic translations, still in manuscript, are: (5) the 'New Testament,' and (6) Bishop Challoner's 'Meditations.' He also published (7) a work on arithmetic, in English, and (8) a Gaelic dictionary, 1842.

 MACEGAN, MACEGGAN, MACEOGAN, or MACKEGAN, OWEN or EUGENIUS (d. 1603), bishop-designate of Ross, co. Cork, and apostolic vicar, a native of Ireland, was possibly educated at one of the Irish Roman catholic seminaries in Spain, and obtained the degrees of master of arts and bachelor of divinity from a Spanish university. In 1600 he was in Ireland actively encouraging rebellion. Carew (MSS. 1589-1600, p. 314) says that Florence MacCarthy


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176 Oriental touch in the impersonation ought not to go beyond such slight signs and tokens as the crescent scimiter,—of which Booth says, "It is harmless,"—if we are to keep to Shakespeare's art as something better than a costumer's. Othello does not exhibit one extravagance that requires to be excused by the reflection that it is natural to an alien race, though not to the English. But within the limits of the character conceived as merely ideal, there is a fine opportunity for difference among actors, and they have availed themselves of it. To indicate it by a word, Othello's passion seems to have been the cardinal thought of Kean, irresistible, compulsive as "the Pontick Sea," impressive by its main force and elemental sweep; Fechter, whose conception of nobleness of nature was a poor one, sank all the heroic in the melodrama to which the situations lent themselves; and Booth, giving far more distinctness to Othello's suffering, so that his revenge becomes hardly more than an incident in the course of his own soul's torture, reveals the scene of the tragedy at once as in Othello's breast, where the spirit of evil is feeding on a mighty but guileless heart. It is not Desdemona's death that


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Rh is the climax,—that is mere pity; but the tragic element finds its conclusion in Othello's last speech and stroke. The intensity of Kean or the ideality of Booth, working upon the tragic temperament in each, must produce Othello with a difference: one tempts to excess in ferocity, the other in pathos; but either is consistent with the text. After all, it is with great actors as with poets,—their creations partake of their own nature, in all heroic and ideal parts; but if, as is thought, sympathy is the best revealer of the inner meaning of works of the imagination, certainly the disciplined and habitual enacting of great rôles by actors of genius ought to be a source of light and knowledge regarding them, notwithstanding the allowance that is to be made for the "personal error" of individuality.

It is a striking quality in the immortality of The Merchant of Venice that it has survived a change in the public mind in its attitude toward the Jewish people. To the Elizabethans, and Shakespeare among them, the Jew was hateful. It may well be questioned to what extent Shakespeare himself, with all the tolerance that his understanding


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16 the place, the company wherein it was committed ; all thee, and a thouand other incidents, may aggravate or extenuate the crime.

And, in the iland of Man, this rule was formerly carried o far, that to take away an hore or an ox was there no felony, but a trepas ; becaue of the difficulty in that little territory to conceal them or carry them off: but to teal a pig or a fowl, which is eaily done, was a capital midemenor, and the offender was punihed with death.

as a concluion to the whole, we may oberve that punihments of unreaonable everity, epecially when indicriminately inflicted, have les effect in preventing crimes, and amending the manners of a people, than uch as are more merciful in general, yet properly intermixed with due distinctions Rh


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178 of the springs of human nature gave him, felt the pity in the dramatic situation of Shy lock that a modern audience must feel. Booth's conception of Shakespeare's creation is too direct and natural not to justify itself to the student,—"'an inhuman wretch, incapable of pity, void and empty from any dram of mercy.' It has been said that he was an affectionate father and a faithful friend. When, where, and how does he manifest the least claim to such commendation? Tell me that, and unyoke! 'T was the money value of Leah's ring that he grieved over, not its association with her, else he would have shown some affection for her daughter, which he did not or she would not have called her home 'a hell,' robbed and left him. Shakespeare makes her do these un-Hebrew things to intensify the baseness of Shylock's nature. If we side with him in his self-defense, 't is because we have charity, which he had not; if we pity him under the burden of his merited punishment, 't is because we are human, which he is not, except in shape, and even that, I think, should indicate the crookedness of his nature." Booth goes on to justify this traditional conception by an easy argument


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MacEgan Reagh [q. v.] then 'wrote another letter to Donnaught McCartie and his brother (being rebels) persuading to rebellion, in which letter there joined with him Owen McKegen [McEggan in the margin] usurping the name of bishop of Rosse.' In the same year Tyrone and Florence MacCarthy jointly sent MacEgan to Rome 'for an excommunication to all that did not rebel, which excommunication was divulged after' (ib. p. 315). Subsequently MacEgan gained access to the Spanish court, and secured considerable influence with Philip III. It was largely owing to his suggestion that Philip resolved to send men and money to Kinsale in 1601 to support the rebellion which Tyrone had fomented in the south of Ireland. Pope Clement VIII approved the plan, and to increase its efficiency summoned MacEgan to Rome, appointed him apostolic vicar, created him D.D., and conferred on him livings in Munster estimated at 3,000l. a year (, Histories Catholics Ibernicæ Compendium, ed. Kelly, 1743 ;, Pacata Hibernia). The vicariate secured for him unlimited ecclesiastical authority, and placed in his hands all the patronage in Munster (, Ireland under the Tudors, iii. 429). MacEgan arrived at Kilmakilloge in Kenmare Bay in June 1602, in a ship bringing troops and 12,000l. from Spain. The insurgents were beginning to despair. Lord-deputy Mountjoy [see and eighth ] had nearly crushed Tyrone's rebellion, and Kinsale was closely invested. 'Nevertheless, by reason of the arrival of Owen MacEgan with treasure and large promises from Spain, the Irish were for a while more sturdy after the siege of Dunboy than they were before' (, i. 451). 'Many relapsed into rebellion, and particularly Donough and Finin, sons of Sir Owen Maccarty Reagh, received 300l. of the apostolical vicar, MacEgan, and upon 10 July joined the rebels' (ib.) About the same time Cormac MacCarthy was arrested on the charge of conspiring with MacEgan to assist the Spaniards, and Sir Cormac Macdermott, chief of Muskerry, was found to have received eight hundred ducats from him. MacEgan exercised his powers with unremitting energy. He confirmed children in crowds. All who had served the queen, even if they were Irish and Roman catholics, he is said to have had confessed and absolved, and then immediately executed in his sight. But MacEgan's career was soon ended. He personally engaged in an encounter with some English soldiers under Captain (afterwards Sir William) Taaffe [q. v.] at Cladach on 5 Jan. 1602-3, and was slain there. Sir George Carew [see ], writing to the privy council on 22 Jan. 1602-1603, says that MacEgan, perceiving the advantage that the English had obtained, 'with a drawn sword in one hand, and his portius and beads in the other, with one hundred men led by himself, came up to the sword, where he was slain, whose death so amazed the rest brake and fled.' According to O'Sullevan, he was killed 'dum vestibus ecclesiasticis indutus, arma spiritualia manibus gerit altera breviarium, altera rosariam,' All Carberry was thereupon reduced to submission; 'a principall means of this suddaine and universalle reduction was the death of that traitorly priest, Owen MacEggan, which doubtlesse was more beneficialle to the state than to have gotten the head of the most capitall rebell in Munster' (, p. 367). He was buried in the convent of Timoleague, diocese of Ross, and a small cross was placed above his tomb.

He must not be confused with Boethius MacEgan (d. 1650), a Franciscan Minorite, who was appointed bishop of Ross on 11 March 1647, taken prisoner by a troop of Ludlow's soldiery in May 1650, and executed at Bandon Bridge (, Episcopal Succession, ii. 112).

 MACERONI, FRANCIS (1788–1846), aide-de-camp to Murat and mechanical inventor, was born in Manchester in 1788. His father, Peter Augustus Maceroni, with two brothers, had served in a French regiment in America during the war of independence, and after a roving life settled down at Manchester as an Italian agent for British goods. He married an English woman, a Roman catholic, the daughter of Benjamin Wildsmith of Sheffield, and afterwards removed to London. Maceroni states that when the French first overran Italy his father had 30,000l. worth of English goods in that country on his books. He was sent by his mother to a Roman catholic school in Hampshire, a sort of ‘Dotheboys Hall,’ whence he was removed to an academy at Carshalton, Surrey, kept by some Dominican fathers from Douay. Afterwards he was at the college at Old Hall Green, near Puckeridge, Hertfordshire (of which the Rev. Dr. Poynter, subsequently Roman catholic


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Maceroni bishop, was president of London), and there he acquired a smattering of the sciences. In 1803 he was sent by his father to Rome, where one of his uncles was the papal postmaster-general. He was then fifteen. He appears to have idled away the next ten years at Naples and Rome, in company with other young Englishmen. Mixing in the best society, he claimed to have introduced archery and cricket into Italy, and started a swimming-bath for ladies, where he acted as instructor. He dabbled a little in scientific experiments, and in 1813 applied himself to the study of anatomy and medicine.

Maceroni's pleasing address and English birth recommended him to Murat, king of Naples, who on 1 Jan. 1814 made him one of his aides-de-camp, with the rank of colonel of cavalry, and in July of the same year sent him to England with an autograph letter to the prince regent. Murat, who was negotiating with the English government, sent him again on a mission to England in February 1815. He was in London when the news arrived of Napoleon's escape from Elba; on 26 Feb. Murat's forces were defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino on 2–3 May 1815, and on 16 May Murat fled from Italy to Corsica. Meanwhile ‘Count’ Maceroni, as he styled himself, had proceeded to Paris to further his master's interests. He claimed to have been made at this time a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in the name of the emperor. When the allied armies were advancing on Paris after Waterloo, he was employed as an agent of the ‘commission of government’ to endeavour to obtain an armistice, so as to delay the re-entry of the Bourbons; in this he was unsuccessful. In his memoirs he gives minute details of his interviews with the Duke of Wellington, whose published papers contain no mention of the subject. Maceroni was afterwards sent as the representative of the allied powers to offer Murat an asylum in the Austrian dominions. His letter to Murat conveying the offer is headed Genoa, but dated 28 Sept. 1815, when he appears to have been at Ajaccio, and Murat's answer from the latter place under the same date accepted the proffered terms, ‘after he should have regained his family.’ The letters are given in the ‘Castlereagh Correspondence,’ xi. 49, 50. Murat was then on the eve of setting out on his last fatal expedition, in which he refused to allow Maceroni to accompany him. Maceroni states that a number of Corsican patriots at this time asked him to place himself at their head, shake off the French yoke, and offer the island to Great Britain. He returned to France, and was subsequently thrown into a French prison for alleged illegal interference on Murat's behalf. He was released, without compensation, and in January 1816 returned to England, which was his home for the rest of his life.

In 1817 he published his ‘Interesting Facts relating to the Fall and Death of Joachim Murat, King of Naples,’ London, 8vo, which went through several editions. He also wrote a pamphlet in French and English containing Santini's representations of Napoleon's ill-usage at St. Helena. He was associated with Sir Gregor MacGregor [q. v.], afterwards cacique of Poyais, in his attack and capture of Porto Bello in 1819, but soon fell out with MacGregor, whom he described as a coward and a mountebank. Maceroni afterwards received the rank of brigadier-general in the service of the new republic of Colombia, and appears to have incurred many risks and liabilities in procuring supplies of men and arms in London and Paris. In 1821 he married. He then went to Spain with General Pepè, and meddled in Spanish and Neapolitan politics, always on the popular, and, as events turned out, the losing side. On his return to England he was in communication with the Spanish ambassador in respect of a project of ship communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. He promoted a company, styled ‘The Atlantic and Pacific Junction and South American Mining and Trading Company,’ with a capital of a million sterling in 100l. shares. The names of Henry Kater [q. v.] and Sir William Congreve [q. v.] appeared among the directors. The company collapsed in the commercial panic of 1825. About this time Maceroni brought out ‘the best paddle-wheel in the world,’ some improved rockets, a design for an armoured ship, and other military and naval inventions which were never patented. He also wrote ‘Hints to Paviours,’ London, 1827, 8vo, in which he advocated asphalte paving. In 1829 he went to Constantinople on receipt of 1,000l. to assist the Turks against the Russians, and returned two years later ‘poorer than he went.’ At the time of the first Reform Bill he published an ill-advised physical force pamphlet, entitled ‘Defensive Instructions for the People, containing new and improved Combination of Arms, called Foot Lancers,’ London, 1832, 8vo. The combination was a fowling-piece and a ten-foot lance for street fighting. Maceroni says that he had great difficulty in finding a printer for the pamphlet, which he published without any return when he and his children were in the sorest poverty.

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M'Ewen roads, the most important of his inventions. An engineering treatise of the day (, Elementary Locomotion) speaks of it as 'a fine specimen of indomitable perseverance.' In this undertaking Maceroni was associated with a Mr. Squire, the owner of a factory on Paddington Green, by whom the invention was patented and worked out. Accounts of the successful performances of the steam-coach in the neighbourhood of London and Brussels appeared in the ' Morning Chronicle,' 7 and 16 Oct. 1833, 'Scotsman,' 9 March 1834, 'Times,' 10 Oct. 1834, 'Globe,' October 1834, 'True Sun,' December 1834, and elsewhere. But the railways ruined the project, the partners fell out, an execution was put in the works, and Maceroni was for some time a prisoner for debt. At the time of writing his memoirs in 1838 he and his children were in most distressed circumstances. He died in London on 25 July 1846. With much personal vanity, which his memoirs constantly betray, Maceroni appears to have been an amiable and accomplished man, of fertile inventive genius. His scientific views were practical as well as original. One of Maceroni's uncles, resident in England, changed the spelling of the family name to 'Macirone,' but Maceroni resumed the original orthography.

 M'EWEN, WILLIAM (1735–1762), Scotch secessionist, born at Perth in 1785, studied divinity under Ebenezer Erskine of Stirling and James Fisher of Glasgow. In 1753 he was licensed to preach by the associate presbytery of Dunfermline, and in 1754 he was ordained minister of the associate congregation in Dundee. He died suddenly at Leith on 13 Jan. 1762, having been married two days before to the eldest daughter of John Wardlaw, merchant of Dalkeith. He was buried in Dalkeith churchyard.

M'Ewen was an attractive preacher and writer. He was author of: 1. 'Grace and Truth; or the Glory and Fulness of the Redeemer displayed in an Attempt to explain. . . the Types, Figures, and Allegories of the Old Testament,' 12mo, Edinburgh, 1763 (numerous editions). 2. 'A select Set of Essays, doctrinal and practical, upon Subjects in Divinity,' 2 vols. 12mo, Edinburgh, 1767; 7th edit., 'enlarged, with fourteen new Essays on the Perfection of God,' 1799.

 MACFAIT, EBENEZER, M.D. (d. 1786), miscellaneous writer, was eminent in his day as a Greek scholar and mathematician. He practised medicine at Edinburgh, but died at Alva, the seat of his friend John Johnston, on 25 Nov. 1786 (Scots Mag. xlviii. 6221 He was author of: 1. 'Remarks on the Life and Writings of Plato, with Answers to the principal Objections against him; and a General View of his Dialogues,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1760 [anon.] 2. 'A new System of General Geography,' pt. 1 (all published), 8vo, Edinburgh, 1780. Macfait also contributed two papers on meteorological subjects to vol. i. of 'Essays Physical and Literary' (1754).

 MACFARLAN, JAMES (1832–1862), poet, of Glasgow, son of a weaver turned pedlar, was born at Glasgow, 9 April 1832. He received some school training at Kilmarnock and Glasgow, but was mainly self-taught. Stirred by a stray volume of Byron when twelve years old, he presently joined subscription libraries in various provincial towns visited in the wanderings of the family. At twenty, Macfarlan, then a professional pedlar, knew the standard English poets, and had himself written verse extensively. In 1853 he walked to and from London, securing the publication of a volume of lyrics, which gave him reputation, but little profit. For a short time subsequently he held a post in the Glasgow Athenæum, but relapsed into peddling, ne printed in Glasgow a second book with an ambitious dedication, but received scanty encouragement either from his patron or from the public. Struggling on against consumption, poverty, and neglect, getting and quickly losing some petty employment, he was at length engaged as police-court reporter to the Glasgow 'Bulletin.' Too erratic for this post, he successfully contributed short stones for a time to the weekly issue of the paper. Then he married, and his wife helped the income by dressmaking. Dickens, whom Macfarlan found 'a prince of editors,' printed several of his poems in 'Household Words;' and Thackeray, hearing Samuel Lover recite his 'Lords of Labour' in 1859, warmly exclaimed that he did not think 'Burns himself could have taken the wind out of this man's sails.' Meanwhile, Macfarlan's health rapidly failed, owing partly to his convivial habits. His fatal illness seized him when hawking his prose pamphlet, 'An Attic Study,' and he died in Glasgow, 6 Nov. 1862. He was buried in Cheapside cemetery, Anderston, Glasgow, and a tombstone was erected by his admirers in 1885.


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 Macfarlan does not write in the Scottish dialect, but in fluent and resonant English. He shows originality and elevation of thought. His works are: 'Poems: Pictures of the Past,' 1854; 'City Songs, and other Poetical Pieces,' 1855; and 'Lyrics of Life,' 1856. Subsequently he published two tracts, 'The Wanderers of the West,' a poem, and a series of acute and suggestive prose reflections, entitled 'An Attic Study; brief Notes on Nature, Men, and Books,' 'The Poetical Works of James Macfarlan, with a Memoir,' appeared in 1882.

 MACFARLAN, JOHN (d. 1846), Scottish advocate, elder brother of [q. v.], was eldest son of John Warden (1740-1788), minister of the second charge, Canongate, Edinburgh, who took the additional name of Macfarlan after marrying Anne, daughter of Hugh Macfarlan of Kirkton or Ballencleroche. John, who succeeded to the family property, was brought up to the law, and obtained a good practice as an advocate. He was one of Sir Walter Scott's friends, and studied German with him about 1788. He was intimate with Dugald Stewart and Sir Henry Moncrieff, was interested in philosophy, and a good lawyer. He is mentioned in Cockburn's 'Memorials' as 'an apostle, and worthy of the best apostolic age.' He published two pamphlets, 'Who are the Friends of Religion and the Church?' 1838; and 'The Presbyterian Empire, its Origin, Decline, and Fall,' 1842. He died 18 Dec. 1846, leaving a son,

(1800-1871), who was born in 1800, licensed by the presbytery of Glasgow in 1831, and became minister of Muiravonside, near Linlithgow, on the presentation of William IV, in 1834. He was a Hebrew scholar, and published in 1845 an English version of the 'Prophecies of Ezekiel.' He married, 31 Oct. 1837, Matilda Marianne Christie, daughter of Captain Christie of the 78th regiment, and granddaughter of William Morehead of Herbertshire. By her he left, among other children, a son,

(1846-1889), who was born 6 Jan. 1845, educated at the Edinburgh Academy (1858-61) and university (1861-4}, and licensed as a minister. From 1869 till 1871 he assisted at Dundee, and was appointed minister of Ruthwell by the Earl of Mansfield in 1871. He was an archaeologist, and by his exertions in 1887 the runic cross of Ruthwell, on which he wrote a monograph, 1885, was removed to the church. He died at Foulden, Berwickshire, 7 Oct. 1889, and was buried at Ruthwell. A memorial hall has been since built in commemoration of his work in the parish. He married a daughter of Professor Allan Menzies of Edinburgh University, and left several children.

 MACFARLAN, PATRICK (1780–1849), Scottish divine, younger brother of [q. v.], was educated at the Edinburgh High School, was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh on 28 Dec. 1803, and was presented to the charge of Kippen in 1806 by David Erskine of Cardross. In 1810 he was transferred, on the presentation of George III, to Polmont, Stirlingshire; in 1824 he became minister of St. Johns, Glasgow, in succession to Chalmers; in 1825 minister of St. Enoch's, Glasgow; and in 1832 he was transferred, on the presentation of Sir Michael Shaw Stewart, to the west parish of Greenock, the richest living in the church of Scotland. He was examined on 20 and 25 March 1834 before the committee of the House of Commons on church patronage, and was moderator of the general assembly the same year. At the disruption he adhered to the protest, joined the secession, and was declared no longer a minister of the kirk on 24 May 1843. He was moderator of the free general assembly in 1845. He died on 13 Nov. 1849. Macfarlan married, on 8 Jan. 1808, Catherine, daughter of Robert Clason, minister of Logie; she died in 1815, and left a son John, a free church minister at Greenock, and two daughters.

His chief works were: In 1826-7 he engaged in a controversy with [q. v.], occasioned by a speech of the latter at a meeting of the Glasgow Auxiliary Bible Society. He edited Warden's 'Essay on the Lord's Supper,' Leith,
 * 1) 'Thoughts on Popular Election, Patronage, and Calls,' Edinburgh, 1833, 8vo.
 * 2) 'Letter to the Friends of the Established Church,' Edinburgh, 1842, 8vo.
 * 3) 'The Past and Present State of Evangelical Religion in Switzerland,' Edinburgh, 1845, 8vo; the first of a series of lectures on foreign churches.
 * 4) 'A Vindication of the Church of Scotland,' London, 1850, 8vo; an answer to the Duke of Argyll's 'Essay on the Ecclesiastical History of Scotland.'


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Rh movements, and by the brilliant and ever-changing colours of their bodies. The coryphene is a remarkable fish in shape. Its head is large and blunt, its body tapers away to the tail, which is terminated by a swallow-tail-shaped fin. Its back fin is remarkable, extending all along its back, from the top of the head to within a short distance of the end of the tail. It is a large fish, those we had with us being between five feet and six feet long, and sometimes they attain even larger dimensions. Any want of elegance in its shape is compensated by the wonderful beauty of its colours, which at one time are like burnished gold or silver, at others of every colour of the rainbow. Its strength and activity are very great, its sight of the keenest, and its voracity is amazing. When we came near the spot where the flying-fish were supposed to be, we opened out into extended order in search of our game. Presently one of the party intimated that there was a fine covey in front of us. We no longer moved straight forward, but under the guidance of one of the sportsmen, we turned off to one side so as not to disturb the unsuspecting fish. Making a detour, we arranged ourselves in a line, at the distance of about one hundred yards beyond the covey. The young man who had charge of the coryphenes remained behind, keeping—his hounds I was going to say—his fish quite quiet and motionless, until he saw that we were in our places. He then allowed the coryphenes to dart forward among the flying-fish. The latter soon spied their enemy, and, rushing to the surface of the water, spread their wings, and fluttered through the air straight in front of them. Their powers of flight are limited; for, after flying about one hundred yards,

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Public Law 113-1

 * Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,

{{SECTION|SEC. 1.|SECTION 1}}. TEMPORARY INCREASE IN BORROWING AUTHORITY FOR NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM.

 * (a) Section 1309(a) of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 (42 U.S.C. 4016(a)) is amended by striking “$20,725,000,000” and inserting “$30,425,000,000”.

 * (b) The amount provided by this section is designated by the Congress as an emergency requirement pursuant to section 403(a) of S. Con. Res. 13 (111th Congress), the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2010, and as an emergency pursuant to section 4(g) of the Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010 (2 U.S.C. 933(g)).

Approved January 6, 2013.

Legislative History

 * Jan. 4, considered and passed House by roll call vote.
 * Jan. 4, considered and passed Senate by voice vote.
 * Jan. 4, considered and passed Senate by voice vote.

title: Public Law 113-1


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180 they are compelled by the drying of their wings to drop into the water. We had so well calculated our distance, that the shoal fell right among us, and as they fell, a considerable number were captured by us in the hand-nets, and immediately killed by squeezing the head. The most skilful captured in this way six or eight, and even the least adroit managed to bag two or three. The whole business reminded me of driving partridges or grouse at home, and altogether it was most exciting sport. A shoal once started could not be easily induced to rise again; but as shoals were numerous, we managed in the course of the day to get a very heavy bag, which, on arrival at home, we distributed among our friends, to whom these fish were very acceptable, as they are considered a great delicacy.

Another favourite amusement of the Colymbians is shooting wild-fowl. This they do in the following way. They have a straight tube, about two feet long, and a case full of small arrows, about four inches long. Inserting an arrow into the tube, they cautiously approach any birds that may be sitting on the overhanging branch of a tree, or a projecting point of the reef. When sufficiently near their game, they quietly extrude one end of the tube—the other being between their lips—and when they have got the aim, they blow the arrow sharply through the tube, and in this way the more skilful seldom fail to hit a bird at ten or fifteen yards' distance. I was told that the idea of this method of shooting birds was suggested by that curious fish, the beaked chætodon, whose mouth is prolonged into the form of a tube, which the creature brings cunningly above the water, and levels at any insect that may happen to be basking in the sun on

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Rh an overhanging twig or bank, and, by a well-directed shot, tumbles the unsuspecting insect into the water. A drop of water is what the fish uses as its bullet.

With their little arrows and shooting tubes, the Colymbians kill a great many birds, some of which are tolerably good food. I found the sport rather tame after a few trials, for it somehow went against my native instincts to slaughter sitting game.

I much preferred the shark and turtle hunts in the deep external sea, and would sometimes join the pearl-fishers in their distant expeditions. The pearl-oysters are not found in very deep water, and we had to seek them at a good distance from the islands, in places where the depth of water was not above ten or fifteen fathoms. As we had to traverse a considerable breadth of ocean before reaching these shoal grounds, in order to avoid the attack of sharks, we carried short sticks, with sharp steel points, and if by chance one of these monsters attempted to interfere with us, a few pricks from our weapon soon sent him about his business.

The pearl-oysters are found in extensive beds, and as they are of considerable size, we could not carry off very many. So they are generally opened on the spot, and the pearls, if any, extracted. Immense shoals of fishes surrounded us whilst we were engaged in the work of opening the shells, and the bodies of the oysters were gobbled up as fast as they were extracted. In this way we could gather a considerable number of pearls; and the finest shells were carried off to be used in the manufacture of the Colymbian bank-notes.

The pearl-fishers are sometimes anticipated in their visits to the oyster-beds by shoals of enormous skates,

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Macfarlan 1808, and Thomas Brown's 'Sermons,' Glasgow, 1849.

 MACFARLAN, WALTER (d. 1767), antiquary, second son of John Macfarlan of Arrochar and Helen, daughter of Robert, second viscount Arbuthnot, succeeded his father in 1705. From his early years Macfarlan devoted himself to antiquarian research connected with the history of Scotland. Ecclesiastical records specially attracted him, and he employed a clerk named Tait to make copies of most of the cartularies accessible to him; the copies are notable for their accuracy and neatness. Macfarlan appears to have held strict views on etiquette. 'The late laird of Macfarlan, an eminent genealogist,' wrote Dr. Johnson in his 'Hebridean Tour,' p. 134, 'considered himself as disrespectfully treated if the common addition [i.e. Mr.] was applied to him. "Mr. Macarlan," said he, "may with equal propriety be said to many; but I, and I only, am Macfarlan." ' He died at his house in Canongate, Edinburgh, on 6 June 1767. His library was sold, and the Faculty of Advocates purchased in 1785 his manuscripts, of which there have been printed the cartularies of Aberdeen, Arbroath, Balmerino, Dryburgh, Dunfermline, Kelso, Lindores, Melrose, Moray, St. Andrews, and Scone. These were extensively used by Douglas in his 'Peerage of Scotland,' Macfarlan married in 1760 Lady Elizabeth Erskine, daughter of Alexander, sixth earl of Kelly, and left a son Walter. There is a portrait of Macfarlan in the library of the Society of Scots Antiquaries, which was engraved in 1846. Another by J. T. Seaton, in the National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh, was engraved in mezzotint by Alexander Hay.

 MACFARLANE,. (fl. 1716–1719), murderess, was daughter of Colonel Charles Straiton, a zealous Jacobite. When about nineteen she married John Macfarlane, writer to the signet and law agent of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat. At the time Macfarlane was in middle life, many years his wife's senior. Soon after the marriage Mrs. Macfarlane made the acquaintance of Captain John Cayley, a commissioner of customs, and son of Cornelius Cayley of the city of York. On 29 Sept. 1716 he called on her in her house at Edinburgh, when, for reasons known only to herself or him, she fired two shots at him with a pistol, one of which pierced his heart. Her husband asserted that she fired to save herself from outrage (letter in Swintons of that Ilk, p. 89), and she affirmed that this explanation was 'only too true' (ib. p. 91). Her husband also affirmed that she wished to send for a magistrate and tell the whole story, and that he advised her against it. Not appearing to stand her trial in the ensuing February, she was outlawed. She obtained refuge in the mansion-house of the Swinton family in a concealed apartment opening from the parlour by a sliding panel. A child of Lady Swinton, while her mother was at church, discovered Mrs. Macfarlane one day in the parlour, and this incident suggested to Scott is description of the concealment and discovery of the Countess of Derby in 'Peveril of the Peak,' Scott says 'it is certain she returned and lived and died in Edinburgh' (note to Peveril of the Peak). If, however, she returned, her life in Edinburgh was comparatively short, for her husband married again on 6 Oct. 1719 (Appendix to Major Fraser's Manuscript).

 MACFARLANE, CHARLES (d. 1858), miscellaneous writer, a native of Scotland, was son of Robert Macfarlane, by his wife, daughter of John Howard and widow of Major Harris, who was killed at the massacre of Patna in 1763. From January 1816 to May 1827 he lived in Italy and travelled through every part of the Peninsula, acquiring complete familiarity with its language and literature. In 1827 he went to Turkey and resided for sixteen months in Constantinople and the Turkish provinces. He returned to England on 2 Feb. 1829, settling in London, and supported himself by literary work. He was for many years a valuable member of Charles Knight's staff.

Accompanied by his eldest son, a youth of sixteen, Macfarlane returned to Turkey in 1847, and on his way home, in the summer of 1848, visited Messina, and made a tour through the kingdom of Naples, the Abruzzi, the marches of Ancona, and Rome. About July 1857 he was nominated a poor brother of the Charterhouse, where he died on 9 Dec. 1858. James Robinson Planché, his collaborator in several of Knight's publications, found him 'a most amusing companion and a warm friend.'


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Macfarlane Macfarlane's best work was the ‘Civil and Military History of England,’ which he contributed to Knight's ‘Pictorial History,’ edited by George Lillie Craik, 8 vols. 8vo, 1838–44. The struggles between the houses of York and Lancaster are described with especial spirit and knowledge. An abridgment, with a continuation to date, was published, under the title of ‘The Cabinet History of England,’ 26 vols. 12mo, London, 1845–7. Another edition, with the title changed to ‘The Comprehensive History of England,’ appeared under the editorship of the Rev. Thomas Thomson, 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1856–61, and again in 1876–8; and a third, with a continuation to 1884, by Thomas Archer, was issued as ‘The Popular History of England,’ 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1886. For Knight Macfarlane also compiled anonymously two pleasant little volumes called ‘The Book of Table Talk,’ 1836 (another edition 1847), for which Planché wrote a brief history of stage costume.

Macfarlane's historical novels are readable, but his biographies of Gresham (1847), Marlborough (1852), Wellington (1853, 1877, 1886), and Napoleon I (1852, 1879, 1880, 1886), his histories and books of travel, go far to justify the ‘Athenæum's’ reference to him as a ‘voluminous, not a luminous writer.’ Macfarlane's writings, other than those already noticed, include: 1. ‘Constantinople in 1828,’ 4to, London, 1829 (two editions; translated into French, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1829). 2. ‘The Armenians, a Tale of Constantinople,’ 3 vols. 12mo, London, 1830. 3. ‘Barba Yorghi (or Uncle George), the Greek Pilot,’ in vol. i. of ‘The Sisters' Budget,’ 8vo, London, 1831. 4. ‘The Romance of History; Italy,’ 3 vols. 12mo, London, 1832 (and 1872). 5. ‘The Seven Apocalyptic Churches. The Etchings by T. Knox,’ 4to, London, 1832. 6. ‘The Lives and Exploits of Banditti and Robbers in all parts of the World,’ 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1833 (and 1837, in the ‘Family Library’). 7. ‘The French Revolution,’ 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1844–5, in Knight's ‘Library for the Times.’ 8. ‘Our Indian Empire,’ 8vo, London, 1844, in the same series. 9. ‘The Camp of Refuge’ (anon.), 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1844 (also 1880–1887); a tale of the conquest of the Isle of Ely. 10. ‘A Legend of Reading Abbey’ (anon.), 12mo, London, 1845, in ‘Knight's Weekly,’ No. 62. 11. ‘The Dutch in the Medway’ (anon.), 12mo, London, 1845, in the same series, No. 43. These three tales were published collectively, under the title of ‘Old England Novelettes,’ 4 vols. 18mo, 1846–7. 12. ‘The Romance of Travel; the East,’ 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1846–7, in ‘Knight's Weekly,’ Nos. 81, 111. 13. ‘Popular Customs, Sports, and Recollections of the South of Italy,’ 12mo, London, 1846, in ‘Knight's Monthly Volume,’ originally contributed to the ‘Penny Magazine’ between 1834 and 1845. 14. ‘A Glance at Revolutionized Italy,’ 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1849. 15. ‘Sicily, her Constitutions, and Viscount Palmerston's Sicilian Blue-Book,’ 8vo, London, 1849, an appendix to the above. 16. ‘Turkey and its Destiny,’ 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1850. 17. ‘The Neapolitan Government and Mr. Gladstone,’ 8vo, London, 1851. 18. ‘A History of British India,’ 8vo, London, 1852 (1857, 1858, and 1881). 19. ‘Japan, an account Geographical and Historical … With Illustrations from Designs by A. Allom,’ 8vo, London, 1852. 20. ‘The Catacombs of Rome, with Illustrations,’ 12mo, London, 1852 (1854 and 1855). 21. ‘The Great Battles of the British Army,’ 8vo, London, 1853 (2nd edit. 1854). 22. ‘Kismet, or the Doom of Turkey,’ 8vo, London, 1853. 23. ‘The Camp of 1853, with Hints on Military Matters for Civilians,’ 12mo, London, 1853. 24. ‘Patriots of China,’ 8vo, London, 1853. 25. ‘The Chinese Revolution, with details of the Habits, Manners, and Customs of China and the Chinese,’ 16mo, London, 1853. He also translated Desbarolles's ‘Two French Artists in Spain,’ 8vo, 1851.

 MACFARLANE, DUNCAN (1771–1857), principal of Glasgow University, son of Duncan Macfarlane, minister of Drymen, Stirlingshire, was born at Auchingray, 27 Sept. 1771. He was educated for the church at the university of Glasgow, licensed 1791, and ordained to the charge of Drymen, in succession to his father, in 1792. In 1806 he was created a D.D. of his university. He contested unsuccessfully the chair of divinity and the ministry of the Tron Church, where Dr. Thomas Chalmers was elected, after a keen contest, in 1814. He was made one of his majesty's chaplains in 1815, served as moderator of the general assembly in 1819, and presented an address to George IV on his accession in 1820. While still at Drymen he was appointed dean of the Chapel Royal, but resigned both offices on being made principal of Glasgow University and minister of the High Church, Glasgow, in 1824. Opposition was raised to his holding the two offices conjointly, but the general assembly, by 165 to 80 votes, decided that he was acting legally. The colonial mission scheme was originated by him, and he continued its convener over twenty years. In the patron-


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Swammerdam, Johannes

SWAMMERDAM, Johannes, a Dutch entomologist, born in Amsterdam in 1637, died about 1680. He studied medicine with his father and at the university of Leyden. He gave considerable attention to the natural history of insects, and made many dissections and microscopical examinations and a large collection of specimens. He obtained leave at Amsterdam to dissect the bodies of those who died in the hospital, and invented the mode for the preparation of hollow organs now usually employed in anatomy. He published a “General History of Insects” (1669), “The Natural History of Bees” (1673), a “History of the Ephemeras” (1675), and other works. His entomological collection was divided at his death and sold in small portions. Boerhaave edited his works and wrote his life. An English translation of his entomological works by T. Floyd was published in 1758.


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Macfarlane age controversy he defended the established church of Scotland against the seceders, and as a moderator of the general assembly for the second time conducted the church business in the disruption year, 1843. He died at Glasgow, 25 Nov. 1857.

 MACFARLANE, JOHN, LL.D. (1807–1874), Scottish divine, born in Dunfermline on 7 Feb. 1807, was third son of James Macfarlane, for forty years colleague, and afterwards successor at Queen Anne Street Church, Dunfermline, of James Husband, D.D. (d. 1821), whose daughter Grace was his wife. She died in giving birth to her ninth child when John was eight years of age. Of his brothers, James became the leading solicitor in Dunfermline, William Husband a well-known lithographer in Edinburgh, George and Wardlaw merchants in Glasgow, and Andrew, minister of Trinity U. P. Church, Greenock. John was educated at the grammar school of Dunfermline, and in his thirteenth year entered the university of Edinburgh. In 1823 he attended a session at Glasgow University, and entered the Divinity Hall of the United Secession church in 1825. He was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in 1830, and was ordained in Kincardine-on-Forth in the following year. He soon became known as a popular preacher and a facile and voluminous writer. In 1832 a steeple was added to his church, and a bell introduced. An interdict to prevent the bell from being rung was served upon him at the instance of the parish minister, but it was found that the use of church bells was not an exclusive privilege of the established church. In September 1840 he was inducted into the charge of Nicolson Street U. P. Church, Glasgow. Shortly afterwards his congregation removed to a new church, called Erskine Church, in memory of two of the founders of the secession denomination. In 1842 Macfarlane received the degree of LL.D. from Glasgow University. In company with Dr. H. M, Macgill of Glasgow and others, Macfarlane promoted the cause of presbyterian church extension in England. Funds placed at the disposal of the synod for the purpose by John Henderson, esq., of Park, Glasgow, enabled Macfarlane and his associates to open presbyterian churches at Highbury and at Clapham, London, and in August 1861 Macfarlane himself was called to the latter. He was elected moderator of the united presbyterian synod in 1866 and of the English provincial synod in 1870. Under his ministry Clapham Church increased from thirty-six members to about eight hundred, and raised over 12,000l. for building purposes. Macfarlane died after a long illness in 1874.

In 1837 Macfarlane married Janet Jamieson, second daughter of the Rev. Dr. Kidston of Glasgow.

Macfarlane published, apart from sermons, lectures, and pamphlets: 1. 'The Night Lamp,' a narrative 'of the means by which spiritual darkness was dispelled from the deathbed of Agnes Maxwell Macfarlane' (written in 1832, but not published till 1851). 2. 'The Mountains of the Bible, their Scenes and their Lessons,' 1840. 3. 'Altar Light,' 1859. 4. 'Altar Zeal,' 1859. 5. 'Altar Gold,' 1859. 6. 'The Life and Times of Dr. Lawson,' the result of much labour and research, 1861. 7. 'Pulpit Echoes,' 1868. In 1837, in conjunction with Dr. McKerrow, he edited 'The Life and Correspondence of the Rev. H. Belfrage, D.D., Falkirk,' In 1838 he contributed to the 'Christian Treasury' 'Moral Views of London.' He was also the author of memoirs of Dr. Archer, Dr. Kidston, Dr. Smith, Dr. McKelvie, Dr. Baird, the Rev. John Campbell, and others, and edited a 'Condensed Commentary,' from Henry and Scott.

 MACFARLANE, PATRICK (1768–1832), Gaelic scholar, born in 1758, was for some time schoolmaster at Appin, Argyllshire, but latterly resident in Glasgow, where he died towards the end of 1832. His work in Gaelic literature consisted mostly of translations published by the Society in Scotland for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge. Among the authors whose works he translated into Gaelic are Baxter, Dr. Blair, Bunyan, Doddridge, and Guthrie. He corrected the proofs of the Gaelic New Testament of 1813 and of McLeod and Dewar's Dictionary. He also compiled a manual for family devotion (1829), published a small collection of Gaelic poems (1813), and a vocabulary of Gaelic and English (1815).

 MACFARLANE, ROBERT (1734–1804), miscellaneous writer, a native of Scotland, was born in 1734, and received his education at the university of Edinburgh, where he proceeded M.A. He settled in London, and for some years kept a school with great success at Walthamstow, Essex. At one time he was editor of the 'Morning


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Macfarlane Chronicle' and 'London Packet.' His retentive memory enabled him to faithfully report some of the finest speeches in parliament during Lord North's administration, especially those delivered in the debates on the American war. On the evening of 8 Aug. 1804, during the Brentford election, he was killed by being accidentally thrown under a carriage at Hammersmith (, Hammersmith, pp. 297-8).

Marfarlane was engaged by Thomas Evans, the publisher, of Paternoster Row, to write a 'History of the Reign of George III,' the first volume of which was issued in 1770. In consequence, however, of some misunderstanding, Evans employed another writer to continue the work, the second volume of which appeared in 1782, and the third in 1794. On being reconciled to Evans, Macfarlane wrote in 1796 a fourth volume, which was severely handled by the critics. Macfarlane defended himself in an 'Appendix, or the Criticks Criticized,' 8vo, London, 1797.

He was an enthusiastic admirer of the poems of Ossian, and translated them into Latin verse, publishing in 1769 the first book of 'Temora' as a specimen. At the time of his death he had in the press an elaborate edition of the poet, which was afterwards issued under the auspices of the Highland Society of London, with the title 'The Poems of Ossian in Gaelic, with a literal Translation into Latin, with a Dissertation on their authenticity by Sir J. Sinclair, and a Translation from the Italian of the Abbe Cesarette's Dissertation on the Controversy respecting Ossian, with Notes by J. McArthur,' 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1807.

In 1797 Macfarlane published 'An Address to the People of the British Empire on Public Affairs,' and in 1799 a translation of George Buchanan's 'Dialogue concerning the Rights of the Crown of Scotland,' with two dissertations prefixed, one on the pretended identity of the Getes and Scythians, and the Goths and Scots, and the other vindicating the character of Buchanan as an historian.

 MACFARLANE, ROBERT, (1802–1880), senator of the College of Justice, born in 1802, was son of Parlane Macfarlane of Lugs, Dumbartonshire. He was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and admitted a writer to the signet in 1827. He afterwards passed some time in Jamaica, but, determining to proceed to the bar, became advocate at Edinburgh in 1838. He was very successful with juries in civil cases, though not an orator, and in 1853 was made sheriff of Renfrewshire. He was made an ordinary lord of session, with the title of Lord Ormidale, on 13 Jan. 1862, and transferred to the second division in 1874. As a judge he was kind to young barristers, and very painstaking. He had a dislike for showy pleading, and did a great deal after Lord Colonsay's death to reform the procedure of the court of session. His speech upon the condition of the court before the Juridical Society in 1867 caused some controversy, but the act of 1868 abolishing many of the technicalities of pleading was largely due to his advocacy. Ormidale died at Hartrigge, Jedburgh, on 3 Nov. 1880. His wife, a Miss Greigh of Eccles, Berwickshire, whom he married in 1845, predeceased him. Ormidale published : 1. 'The Practice of the Court of Session in Jury Causes,' Edinburgh, 1837, 8vo. 2. 'Reports of Jury Trials in the Courts of Session from 12 March 1838 to 27 Dec. 1839,' Edinburgh, 1841, 8vo. 3. Parts i. to viii. of 'Practical Notes on the Structure of Issues in Jury Cases in the Court of Session,' Edinburgh, 1844-5, 8vo.

 MACFARREN, GEORGE (1788–1843), dramatist and theatrical manager, born in London 5 Sept. 1788, was son ofGeorge Macfarren. He was educated chiefly at Archbishop Tenison's school in Castle Street, Leicester Square, and while there he wrote a tragedy which was privately played by his school-fellows, with the support of Edmund Kean, then a boy of their own age. Macfarren was also something of a musician, and according to his son, Sir G. Macfarren, 'he could sustain either of the parts in a violin quartet,' and 'had he not met with a fashionable teacher of dancing, named Bishop, who offered to make him a gentleman instead of a fiddler, he would have adopted music as his profession' (Musical World, lv. 24, 1877). He was the first teacher of Oury the violinist (, The Violin, 1878 ed., p. 217), and while still under twenty years of age he opened a dancing academy of his own. In 1816 he visited Paris, where he had lessons in dancing from the best teachers. His natural bent was, however, towards the stage, and on 28 Sept. 1818 his first publicly performed dramatic work, 'Ah ! what a Pity, or the Dark Knight and the Fair Lady,' was given at the English Opera House (for the benefit of John Pritt Harley) [q. v.]; from this date almost every year witnessed the production of some piece or other from his pen.


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 In February 1831 he took over the management of the theatre in Tottenham Street, which he called the Queen's Theatre, in honour of Queen Adelaide, and here he remained until July of the following year, producing, among numerous other works, a dramatic version of Handel's 'Acis and Galatea,' for which Cipriani Potter wrote additional accompaniments (cf., Life of G. A. Macfarren, p. 36, 1892). Macfarren seems to have laid special stress upon accuracy of detail and naturalness in staging the plays which he produced. Robert Elliston, successively lessee of Drury Lane, the Olympic, and Surrey theatres, stated that 'no such perfect pictures as he saw at the Queen's Theatre had ever been put on the stage.' Stanfield painted a drop-scene, which he presented to Macfarren as a token of friendship; Winston was acting-manager, and Leitch was ultimately appointed scene-painter. However, the venture did not meet with pecuniary success, and Macfarren left the Queen's on being appointed stage-manager of the Surrey. He afterwards went to the Strand. He was a good amateur draughtsman and painter, a faculty which stood him in good stead in designing theatrical scenes.

In 1834 he visited Milan, where his daughter was studying singing, and there wrote the libretto of an opera, 'Caractacus.' During some years of his life Macfarren was totally blind, but a year before his death he underwent an operation for cataract and recovered his sight. While blind he devoted himself largely to literature, and he first suggested the formation of the Handel Society. In 1841 he became editor and proprietor of the 'Musical World.' He died suddenly on 24 April 1843 in Castle Street, Leicester Square.

Macfarren married, in August 1808, Elizabeth (b. 20 Jan. 1792), daughter of John Jackson, a bookbinder, of Glasgow, who had settled in London. Their eldest son, Sir George Alexander Macfarren, is noticed separately.

The following are the titles of his chief dramatic works, Nos. 1 to 7 being produced at the Royal Coburg Theatre: Nos. 8 to 12 produced at Drury Lane. Nos. 13 to 16 produced at the Royal Surrey. In addition to these pieces Macfarren wrote very many short poems, which were set to music by E. J. Loder, G. A. and W. C. Macfarren, Henry Smart ('Estelle') and others. There is a small oil portrait of Macfarren by H. Lejeune, R.A., and another by Davison, life size, kit-cat, which is in the possession of Mr. Walter Macfarren.
 * 1) 'Winning a Husband,' comedietta, in two acts, written for Mrs. Barrymore, produced in 1819.
 * 2) 'Guy Fawkes,' drama, in three acts, 1822.
 * 3) 'Tom and Jerry in France,' comedietta, in two acts, 1823.
 * 4) 'Edward the Black Prince,' historical drama, in three acts, 1823.
 * 5) 'George III,' historical drama, in three acts, 1824.
 * 6) 'The Horatii and Curiatii,' historical drama, in three acts, written for the appearance of Booth (1825) at the Coburg.
 * 7) 'Sir Peter Pry.'
 * 8) 'Malvina,' drama, with music by T. S. Cooke, in three acts, 1826.
 * 9) 'Oberon,' romantic drama, in three acts, 1826.
 * 10) 'Gil Bias,' drama, in three acts, 1827.
 * 11) 'Emblematical Tribute on the Marriage of the Queen,' 1840.
 * 12) 'Don Quixote' (posthumous), opera, in two acts, 1846.
 * 1) 'Auld Robin Gray,' domestic drama, in three acts, 1828.
 * 2) 'The Talisman,' drama, in three acts, 1828.
 * 3) 'My Old Woman,' farce, 1829.
 * 4) 'March of Intellect,' farce, written for the infant prodigy Burke, who acted, danced, sang, and played the violin, 1829.
 * 1) 'The Danish Wife,' drama, in three acts, produced at the Queen's Theatre, 1831.
 * 2) 'Harlequin Reformer,' Christmas pantomime, at the Surrey, 1831.
 * 3) 'Innocent Sins,' comedietta, in two acts, at the Strand, 1838.
 * 4) 'The Devil's Opera,' two acts [see ].
 * 5) 'The Matrimonial Ladder,' comic opera, in two acts, music by Ambroise Thomas, 1839, produced at the Lyceum.
 * 6) 'Latin, Love, and War,' farce, produced at the Haymarket, 1839.

MACFARREN, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1818–1887), musical composer, born at 24 Villiers Street, Strand, London, on Shrove Tuesday, 2 March 1813, was son of  [q. v.] In August 1820 he was sent to Dr. Nicholas s school at Ealing, an establishment in which his father had for many years taught dancing, and at which Cardinal Newman and Professor Huxley were educated. As a youth Macfarren was very delicate, and in 1823 he was removed from the school in order to have his eyesight (which was defective even in these early days) attended to by Mr. Alexander, the oculist. Shortly afterwards he went to a school at Lancing, where he remained eighteen months. His first musical instruction he received from his father, and in March 1827 he was placed under [q. v.], with whom he continued his studies until 1829, when he entered the Royal Academy of Music. Many years afterwards he wrote a memoir of his old master in the 'Imperial Dictionary of Biography,' At the Royal Academy his masters were Thomas Haydon, William Henry


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Rh against the notion of "the heroic Hebrew," the type of the vengeance of a persecuted race, whose wrongs justify its acts. He refers to the "dangerous 'bit of business'" when Shylock whets his knife. "Would the heroic Hebrew have stooped to such a paltry action? No, never, in the very white-heat of his pursuit of vengeance! But vengeance is foreign to Shylock's thought; 't is revenge he seeks, and he gets just what all who seek it get,—'sooner or later,' as the saying is."

This characterization is not too vigorous, nor does it go too far. We may find it not only in Shylock as Shakespeare drew him, but reflected also from Antonio. It is in Antonio personally that the attitude of the mediæval Christian toward the Jew is found. The unexplained melancholy of Antonio, his fidelity in high-minded friendship, and the dignity of his bearing under the cruelty to which he is exposed have obscured to us the other side of his character as the Rialto merchant. We see more of Bassanio's Antonio than of Shylock's: the man who had interfered with the usurer in every way and personally maltreated him, and was as like to do the same again; the proud,


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180, and insulting magnifico whom Shylock hated for himself. Antonio is every whit as heartless to the Jew in the hour of his triumph as Shylock was to him when the balance leaned the other way. His cruelty is lacking only in the physical element; it is not bloody, but it goes to the bone and marrow of Shylock's nature none the less. There is no sign that Shakespeare saw any wrong in all this. It was thus that the Christians looked upon the Jews, and they thought such treatment right. Shakespeare differed from others—from Marlowe, for example, in his delineation of the Jew at Malta—in one point only: he was able to take Shylock's point of view, to understand his motives, to assign the reasons with which revenge justified its own motions; in a word, to represent Shylock's humanity. The speeches he puts into the Jew's mouth are intense and eloquent expressions of the reasoning of that "lodged hate" in his bosom; they are true to fact and to nature; on our ears they come with overwhelming force, and it is impossible to our thoughts that Shakespeare could have written them without sympathy for the wrongs that they set forth with such fiery heat. But when from


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Rh this it is argued that Shakespeare, in writing this play, made a deliberate plea for toleration, and carried it as far as the necessities of his plot and the temper of his times permitted, then it is needful to remind ourselves of what Booth calls "the baseness of Shylock's nature." Shakespeare did represent him as base, with avarice, cunning, and revenge for the constituent elements of his character; he did not hesitate to let the exhibition of these low qualities approach the farcical, as he would never have done had he thought of the Jew as in any sense heroic. Shylock had suffered insult and wrong, but there was nothing in him individually to excite commiseration. From beginning to end he shows no noble quality. Modern sympathy with him, apart from the pity that tragedy necessarily stirs, is social sympathy, not personal; it is because he is an outcast and belongs to an outcast race, because every man's hand is against him and against all his people, that the audience of this century perceives an injustice inherent in his position itself, antecedent to, and independent of, any of his acts; and this injustice is ignored in the play. The feeling which Shylock, as a person, excites, and


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182 should excite, is nearer that which Lady Martin describes as her experience: "I have always felt in the acting that my desire to find extenuations for Shylock's race and for himself leaves me, and my heart grows almost as stony as his own. I see his fiendish nature fully revealed. I have seen the knife sharpened to cut quickly through the flesh, the scales brought forward to weigh it; have watched the cruel, eager eyes, all strained and yearning to see the gushing blood welling from the side 'nearest the heart,' and gloating over the fancied agonies and death-pangs of his bitter foe. This man-monster, this pitiless, savage nature, is beyond the pale of humanity; it must be made powerless to hurt. I have felt that with him the wrongs of his race are really as nothing compared with his own remorseless hate. He is no longer the wronged and suffering man; and I longed to pour down on his head the 'justice' he has clamored for, and will exact without pity." Upon this matter Spedding admits of no reply. "The best contribution," he says, "which I can offer to this discussion is the expression of an old man's difficulty in accepting these new discoveries of profound moral and political


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Rh underlying Shakespeare's choice and treatment of his subjects. I believe he was a man of business,—that his principal business was to produce plays which would draw.... But if, instead of looking about for a story to 'please' the Globe audience, he had been in search of a subject under cover of which he might steal into their minds 'a more tolerant feeling toward the Hebrew race,' I cannot think he would have selected for his hero a rich Jewish merchant plotting the murder of a Christian rival by means of a fraudulent contract, which made death the penalty of non-payment at the day, and insisting on the exaction of it. In a modern Christian audience it seems to be possible for a skillful actor to work on the feelings of an audience so far as to make a man engaged in such a business an object of respectful sympathy. But can anybody believe that in times when this would have been much more difficult, Shakespeare would have chosen such a case as a favorable one to suggest toleration to a public prejudiced against Jews?"

The omnipresent devil's advocate has several times come to Shylock's defense with a legal plea. Those who could find something


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Caterpillar and Alice looked at each other for some time in silence: at last the Caterpillar took the hookah out of its mouth, and addressed her in a languid, sleepy voice.


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184 to urge in extenuation of Judas Iscariot had an easy task in showing that the Jew of Venice was more sinned against than sinning. The decisions of the young doctor who came armed with the recommendation of the learned Bellario have been overruled in every court of appeal. The bond itself is declared invalid, inasmuch as it contained an immoral proviso in the article that sought Antonio's death; the attempt to defeat it, its validity having once been granted, by denying the right to draw blood and requiring the exact amount of a pound of flesh to be cut out, is characterized as a wretched quibble, and set aside on the ground that a right once allowed carries with it the minor rights to make it effectual; the denial of the original debt for the reason that it had been tendered and refused in open court is declared a gross error, such tender having no other result than to destroy any claim for interest subsequently. But not to mention all the grave reasons alleged to break down the reputation of the Court of Venice and show the illegality of its judgments, it is clear that on legal grounds the case was very badly managed, and in the event the Jew met with no better fortune than was the lot


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60 "Who are you?" said the Caterpillar.

This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation. Alice replied, rather shyly, "I—I hardly know, sir, just at present—at least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I think I must have been changed several times since then."

"What do you mean by that?" said the Caterpillar sternly. "Explain yourself!"

"I can't explain myself, I'm afraid, sir," said Alice, "because I'm not myself, you see."

"I don't see," said the Caterpillar.

"I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly," Alice replied very politely, "for I can't understand it myself to begin with; and being so many different sizes in a day is very confusing."

"It isn't," said the Caterpillar.

"Well, perhaps you haven't found it so yet," said Alice; "but when you have to turn into a chrysalis—you will some day, you know—and then after that into a butterfly, I should think you'll feel it a little queer, won't you?"


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Rh of his race before an unscrupulous and hostile tribunal everywhere. Nevertheless, the disputants upon the other side, who allege the substantial justice of the decisions rendered, do well to remove the discussion out of the plane of legality. There is much that is weighty in their argument. Shylock must be regarded as standing, after the nature of Judaism, for the law as a thing of the letter; this is the justice which he demands, not real, but literal; and if, by a still more strict interpretation of the letter of the bond than he had thought of, his claim was defeated, the audience will acknowledge the relevancy of the new point that is made, and will enjoy the spectacle of the Biter Bit, in which there is always an element of comic justice. As to the quibble involved, that belongs to the nature of literal interpretation always. Thus the matter is not without defense even on this level. But what really pleases the audience is not the method, but the fact, of the Jew's defeat; and in the fact, however brought about, lies the ethical element, the victory of real over illusory justice, of equity over legality, of the right over the pretense of right. Shakespeare was not expressly philosophical; but


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Rh "Not a bit," said the Caterpillar.

"Well, perhaps your feelings may be different," said Alice; "all I know is, it would feel very queer to me."

"You!" said the Caterpillar contemptuously. "Who are you?"

Which brought them back again to the beginning of the conversation. Alice felt a little irritated at the Caterpillar's making such very short remarks, and she drew herself up and said, very gravely, "I think you ought to tell me who you are, first."

"Why?" said the Caterpillar.

Here was another puzzling question; and, as Alice could not think of any good reason, and as the Caterpillar seemed to be in a very unpleasant state of mind, she turned away.

"Come back!" the Caterpillar called after her. "I've something important to say!"

This sounded promising, certainly: Alice turned and came back again.

"Keep your temper," said the Caterpillar.


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Page:Studies in Letters and Life (Woodberry, 1890).djvu/196

186 there is little straining of the facts of the case in the view that in the discomfiture of that "law" which the Jew invoked, in the signal defeat inflicted on the letter of the bond, there is a suggestion of the conflict between Judaism and Christianity, the literal and the spiritual, the law and that justice with its elements of mercy into which the law develops, which is one of the great phases of historical civilization. Whether Shakespeare put it there is immaterial; but that a modern audience finds it there, and that it was at least dimly present to an Elizabethan audience, is hardly to be questioned. The idea is a simple and ancient one; and in it is to be found whatever ethical meaning the play may have.

But it ought to be always remembered that the primary endowment of Shakespeare was the artistic temperament: he was a poet first, and everything else afterwards. To say this is the same thing with saying—though it must be stated briefly—that the ethical principle in him was a necessity of the imagination, not of the understanding; was vision rather than inference; was a part and not the whole. One can no more imagine life truly without ethics than he can


text:
Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Swammerdam, John

SWAMMERDAM, (1637-1680), may be ranked almost with Leeuwenhoek as one of the most eminent Dutch naturalists of the 17th century. Born at Amsterdam in 1637, the son of an apothecary and naturalist, he was destined for the church; but he insisted on passing over to the profession of medicine, meanwhile passionately devoting himself to the study of insects. Having necessarily to interest himself in human anatomy, he devoted much attention to the preservation and better demonstration of the various structures, and he devised the method of studying the circulatory system by means of injections, so doing the greatest service to practical anatomy. The fame of his collection soon became European; thus the grand-duke of Tuscany offered him 12,000 florins for his collection, on condition of his coming to Florence to continue it. His General History of Insects and other kindred works lie at the foundation of modern entomology, and include many important discoveries. Thus he cleared up the subject of the metamorphosis of insects, and in this and other ways laid the beginnings of their natural classification, while his researches on the anatomy of mayflies and bees were also of fundamental importance. His devotion to science led to his neglect of practice; his father greatly resented this, and stopped all supplies; and thus Swammerdam experienced a period of considerable privation, which had the most unfortunate consequences to his health, both bodily and mental. In 1675 he published his History of the Ephemera, and in the same year his father died, leaving him an adequate fortune, but the mischief was irreparable. He became a hypochondriac and mystic, joined the followers of Antoinette Bourignon, and died at Amsterdam in 1680.


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Page:Studies in Letters and Life (Woodberry, 1890).djvu/197

Rh imagine mass without cohesion; a creative genius, consequently, a man of imagination all compact, does not necessarily start from ethics in moulding his works, but it is more likely that the moral principle which his works must contain as a part of their reality will be secondary and derivative. Shakespeare is ethical because he imagined life truly; he did not imagine life truly because he had thought out, in Lord Bacon's manner, the general principles of morals.


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Page:Lewis Carroll - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.djvu/82

62 "Is that all?" said Alice, swallowing down her anger as well as she could.

"No," said the Caterpillar.

Alice thought she might as well wait, as she had nothing else to do, and perhaps after all it might tell her something worth hearing. For some minutes it puffed away without speaking, but at last it unfolded its arms, took the hookah out of its mouth again, and said, "So you think you're changed, do you?"

"I'm afraid I am, sir," said Alice; "I can't remember things as I used—and I don't keep the same size for ten minutes together!"

"Can't remember what things?" said the Caterpillar.

"Well, I've tried to say How doth the little busy bee, but it all came different!" Alice replied in a very melancholy voice.

"Repeat 'You are old, Father William,'" said the Caterpillar.

Alice folded her hands, and began:—


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Page:Lewis Carroll - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.djvu/83

Rh

"You are old, Father William," the young man said,

"And your hair has become very white;

And yet you incessantly stand on your head—

Do you think, at your age, it is right?"

"In my youth," Father William replied to his son,

"I feared it might injure the brain;

But now that I'm perfectly sure I have none,

Why, I do it again and again."


text: Studies in letters and life/Some Actors' Criticisms of Othello, Iago, and Shylock