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Page:Harold Dennis Taylor - A System of Applied Optics.djvu/9

 {|
 * colspan=3 |
 * colspan=3 |

WITH INDEX TO THE MOST IMPORTANT FORMULÆ
 * | PAGE
 * colspan=2 | Introduction
 * | 1
 * colspan=3 | SECTION I
 * colspan=2 | Introduction
 * | 1
 * colspan=3 | SECTION I
 * colspan=3 | SECTION I
 * colspan=3 | SECTION I

 * colspan=3 | FORMULA
 * | I.
 * | Reflector. Conjugate Focal Distances
 * | 6
 * | II.
 * | Single Surface Refraction. Conjugate Focal Distances
 * | 7
 * | III.
 * | Refraction by Thin Lens. Conjugate Focal Distances
 * | 10
 * | IV.
 * | Position of First Principal Point of a Thick Lens
 * | 14
 * | V.
 * | Position of Second Principal Point of a Thick Lens
 * | 17
 * | Va.
 * | Back Focal Length of a Thick Lens
 * | 17
 * | VI.
 * | Equivalent Focal Length of a Thick Lens
 * | 10
 * | VII.
 * | 17
 * | VIII.
 * | Percentage Variation in Power of a Lens due to Thickness
 * | 18
 * colspan=3 | SECTION II
 * | The Theorem of Elements
 * | 20
 * colspan=3 | SECTION III
 * | VII.
 * | 17
 * | VIII.
 * | Percentage Variation in Power of a Lens due to Thickness
 * | 18
 * colspan=3 | SECTION II
 * | The Theorem of Elements
 * | 20
 * colspan=3 | SECTION III
 * | The Theorem of Elements
 * | 20
 * colspan=3 | SECTION III
 * | 20
 * colspan=3 | SECTION III
 * colspan=3 | SECTION III

 * | IXa.
 * | Position of First Principal Point of a Thick Lens or Pair of Elements, equivalent to Formula IV
 * | 26
 * | IXb.
 * | Position of Second Principal Point of a Thick Lens or Pair of Elements, equivalent to Formula V
 * | 26
 * }
 * | 26
 * }


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Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/98

Accademia del Cimento

Amontons

Amontons' pyrometer

Antinori's find

Authorities, List of

Bacon, Chancellor

Baro-thermoscopes

Barnsdorff's scale

Bergen's scale

Boerhaave, Hermann

Brisson's scale

Boyle, Robert

Caus, Salomon de

Cartesian divers

Castelli

Celsius, Andreas

Centigrade thermometer

Christin of Lyons

Crest, Micheli du

Dalencé

De la Hire's thermometer

De l'Isle, Jos. Nicolas

De Luc and Lambert

Differential thermometer

Drebbel, Cornelius

Epitome, chronological

Fabri, Honoré

Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel

Fahrenheit's publications

Ferdinand II

Florentine thermometers

Fludd, Robert

Fowler's thermometers

Galileo, inventor of the thermometer

Geoffroy, Etienne François

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/211

Rh two weeks ago, when I took up the long-suspended work. No place could have been more favourable for a beginning. We began in no chance place, but in one that furnished the clearest indications. The work was continued in true archæological succession. The results of my Avork I place on the accompanying plan. The first digging occurred at the point A. The men worked both north and south, the object being to determine the extent of the counter- scarp. Northward it was followed to the point A'. There the work got very deep, and if continued would have passed through the garden in front of a new house, which may be seen to be built against the scarp. The owner of the house told me that for the foundation of the north-east corner he had to dig 25 or 30 feet. This suggested that it had been built out into the ditch. I took him to the point B and told him that there I should find the rock at a depth of a few feet. We sunk a shaft, finding the rock at 9 feet, with a scarped face descending. This would give the depth of the ditch at this point at 15 or 20 feet, if we can trust to the figures of the owner of the house.

The men who worked southwards followed the counterscarp for a few feet only, when it turned a sharp angle to the south-east, and was lost. At K we unearthed a room, built in the rock, with rough walls covered with plaster, and with a Mosaic pavement of a somewhat complicated pattern, with tesseræ in red, blue, yellow, and white. This will be photographed later. It is evidently late work. Could the counterscarp have been cut down to have made place for this house ? Just before this point the counterscarp is only 4 or 5 feet high, with a shallow channel running north along its base for 15 feet or more, when the rock drops another 5 feet. Thus from the Mosaic pavement we traced the counter- scarp north-east for 110 feet to the point A', from that point to K is about 75 feet, where we found it again, making a distance of 185 feet The counterscarp is not exactly parallel to the scarp, the ditch being at different points 40, 49, 54, and 65 feet wide.

At C we found the rock at a slight depth. Here was a curious cutting in the solid rock 5 feet deep, 13 feet long, 8 feet wide at one end, and 5^ at the other. The north end had a platform about 3 feet high, occupying half of the room ; it had been arched once, and contained a fireplace, which had a low rounded roof of its own. Channels for water led into the lower part. Against the south rock-wall of the chamber there was what I must describe as the silhouette of a stairway, as the steps projected only an inch or two from the rock, which was cut away to form the three steps. These, of course, will be drawn when a proper plan of the whole place is made. It looks as if they had been intended as rests for a wooden stairway. Many Roman tiles were exhumed. Near by was one bearing the stamp of the tenth legion. The place was probably a bath connected with the room with the pavement.

We dug trenches along the line D — D', finding a wall of medium sized 2


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Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/66

 of snow and salt, and the 100 degrees was the temperature of melted tallow about to solidify.

It is, of course, inexpedient to attempt to chronicle in this volume every printed note on the thermometer, many of which did not bring their authors much fame, and did little to advance the instrument to perfection. But brief reference may be made to a "Dissertation" by Gabriel Philippe de la Hire, (Mémoires Acad. Science, Paris, 1706, p. 432), (son of Philippe just named) in which he mentions an instrument invented by Nugent in 1706, resembling that of Huyghens, and to a short article on the "Construction of Thermometers," by Elias Cammerarius in 1712 (Ephem. Acad. Nat. Curiosa, C. i and 2, p. 370), before we consider the eminent services to thermometry rendered by Fahrenheit.

In the year 1714, Christian Freiherr von Wolf, Chancellor of the University of Halle, and professor of mathematics and philosophy in the same, received a visit from Fahrenheit, a maker of philosophical apparatus in Amsterdam, who presented him with two thermometers made by himself, which agreed so perfectly in registering temperatures that the


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/218

178 presented the appearance of irregular low mounds, with no walls appearing, rising at their highest point not 20 feet above the surrounding plain. The place was supplied with water by an aqueduct crossing the Wady el Nuwei'meh, described in the "Memoirs." The heaps of ruins may be subdivided into three parts, with low depressions between them. The First Heap (beginning at the south) has a depression in the centre, and evidently represents an open square, with buildings about it. It is strewn with

ribbed pottery of a Roman type, bits of iridescent glass, small cubes of tessellated pavement, fragments of marble wall-lining, beautifully veined, about one inch thick, a capital of a column and a capital of a pilaster. The former had a diameter of 25 inches, and was 19 inches high. I also found one pottery ledge-handle, a pre-Israelitish type which came down to later Jewish times. We also noticed a hewn stone, some 35 inches in circumference, in the shape of a bulb broken off at the top and bottom.


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/219

Rh An Arab who was hanging about declared that he had seen the stone before it was broken, and that it had tapered to an end. The form suggests the top of the so-called Tomb of Absalom in the Kedron Valley, referred to the Maccabæean period.

The Second Heap would require much excavating to show the lines of building which are lost under the débris. The Arabs described an apse, which the workmen had broken up, towards the south; probably the one described by Warren. Near by we picked up fragments of plaster, with frescoes in various colours. The Arabs described frescoed walls, still in situ, a few yards to the north, which had been re-buried. They also gave tantalising accounts of inscriptions which had been broken up, but I could father no idea whether they were Greek or Latin. In this heap there were also a lot of Roman tiles, some detached, others built with mortar. The usual size was 9 inches square, and 2 to 3 inches thick, though some were larger. The beautiful stucco work seen in the illustration came from this heap. The Arabs described a drain or aqueduct (which would have been under the building), large enough for a man to crawl through.

The Third Heap was considerably lower. It was from this that the greatest number of stone had been taken. Lines of walling had been followed, and in the trenches the indications of the places where the stone had lain were so perfect that exact measurements could be taken. In these I was assisted by my artist friend, Mr. George Hunter. It was fortunate that we were there just at the time when the excavations had ceased and before the trenches had been filled up by earth washed down by the storms, which will for ever obliterate the lines of building. As it is I have been able to reconstruct the building in its main features (see Plan). The south-east corner at A may have been situated a few feet further south, but not many, as proved by the slope and débris. The wall from A to F was fully traced and measured at 200 feet. Its breadth was found at various points to be 4 feet 6 inches. Walls at right angles to the main wall were found at B, C, D, and E, their width being 3 feet 6 inches. The north wall was represented by a ridge, as it had not been excavated, except for a few feet at G; but these few feet of wall were found to be in an exact line with the corners F and H, and at exact right angles with the wall A—F. From H the next wall was traced for 108 feet 6 inches to 1, with a width of 4 feet 6 inches; it then took a turn to the west for 15 feet (outside measurement), and turned again to the south with a wall running west at M. The wall I—J, with the wall J—N, did not seem to be as thick as the wall H—I. The corner at N was not found, but a ridge ran from N to A, indicating the line of wall. Signs of walls were found from I to K, from I to T, from L to K, and from M to P. A wall was also found at U.

On the basis of these walls, taken with the heaps of debris, I have made the accompanying plan. The walls actually traced are shaded. The main features of the building are unmistakable. That a wall ran from T to U is apparent from a distinct ridge. The open court, H, S, U, T,


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/220

180 is inferred from the fact that here we have a low, flat place, surrounded by ridges, with walls distinctly traced to east and west. V, W, Y, X, is a heap of débris, higher than the court but not as high as the ridge T—U; hence I infer large rooms to the south of the court. That small chambers extended along the wall A—F and around the quadrangle is proved by

the walls at B, C, D, E, and O; while their depth east and west (13 feet 6 inches) is inferred from the position of the wall O relative to the wall H—I. The separation of this building from the ruins to the south is proved by a depression containing little débris.

Signs of a wall were found ^beyond the three mounds to the east,


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/221

Rh suggesting that tHe group of buildings, of which the one planned was the northern one, were surrounded by an outside wall.

I send photographs of the ornamentation found by Mr. Hunter. nos. 1 and 7 are two sides of one block, 3 or 4 inches thick; 5 and 10 of another, and 4 and 9 of a third, these, with No. 3, are of stucco. Professor T. Hayter Lewis, who has seen the photographs, writes: "They must, I suppose, have been worked by hand on stone slabs; but the stucco must be singularly strong to have stood exposure to the weather of Palestine for hundreds of years. The fragments are evidently part of a screen, as is shown by their being ornamented on both sides. The stucco foliage is very gracefully designed and carved in the sharp Byzantine Greek style. The interlaced work on Nos. 4 and 10 appears to be a different and more western type Unfortunately no mouldings occur on any of the fragments photographed, nor is the external form of the apse described, nor the kind of masonry, all very important points in forming an opinion as to their date; and all that I can say is that I see no reason to suppose that the fragments are Jewish, and that I know of no such work in Herodian times so utterly debased as the capital No. 8. They were carved by Byzantine Greek workmen, and I don't think that this would have been before A.D. 600."

Major Conder writes me: "I have no doubt at all that the fragments of which you kindly send me photos, are either Early Crusaders' work or Late Byzantine work. They could not be Herodian or Jewish. I have seen much of both styles in dated buildings. The Basket work is Byzantine, but was used by the Crusaders in their earlier work (about 1130 A.D.) My impression at Jericho was that, excepting some of the aqueducts, nearly all the remains belonged to the time when there were so many famous monasteries round Jericho—twelfth, thirteenth centuries A.D."

The tile. No. 6, is interesting, as it contained a bit of circular glass fastened to the tile by plaster.

Whatever the date of Khurbet el Mefjir, the ruins excavated in the Russian property north-west of the hotel are of the same period. The mound is quite extensive, but at present excavated properly only at the east end. You enter by a door at the east into a court paved with tesseræ, with a small cistern 3 feet square at its north-east corner, 21 inches deep, surrounded by a wall 20 inches high, and fed by a drain pipe. Beyond this court there is a higher pavement, probably once approached from the first by steps. These, then, probably belonged to the same period, but in the section at the side of the cutting there appears a pavement of a later period. The latest construction were evidently of mud-brick and rubble. Cuttings made further west reveal stone walls, columns, &c.

It is interesting to note that the pavements are several feet below the surface of the surrounding gardens, showing how the plain has been raised by the decay of vegetation.

I also visited and made a plan of the low small mounds in the vicinity of Birket el Jiljulieh, which Conder suggests may be traces of the


text:
Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/222

182 permanent Israelite camp of Gilgal. In the ruins at the east and west of the tamarisk (Shejeret el Ithleh) lines of stone work may be distinctly traced, similar to the stone work in the Birket, to those at Deir Abu Ghannam (described in this paper), and to the ruins west of Birket Mûsa,

roughly hewn small stones, with no cement visible. The Birket is 165 feet S.S.E. of the tree, and is 100 feet east and west, by 84 north and south, outside measurement. Its walls are 32 inches thick. As I have said, it seems to me to be of the same date as the ruins, which are evidently Roman, or later. In his report (Quarterly Statement, April, 1874) Conder


text:
Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/99

 Guericke's thermometers

Helmont, J. B. van

Hermann, Jakob

Hooke, Robert

Hubin, Sieur

Huyghens, Christian ,

Hygroscopes of Sanctorius

Kircher, Athanasius

Leurechon's thermometer

Medicina statica

Mercurial thermometers

Mersenne, Marin

Meteorology in Italy

Newton, Sir Isaac

Newton's pyrometer

Porta, Giambattista della

Réaumur, Seigneur de

Renaldini, Carlo

Römer, Olof

Rey, John

Saggi ... Acad. del Cimento

Sagredo's letters to Galileo

Sanctorius

Sarpi, Paolo

Scales of Fahrenheit ,

Schott, Gaspar

Scientists of Holland

Soumille's thermometers

Strömer, Marten

Table of scales

Telioux

Temperature in Iceland

Thermo-barometer of Fahrenheit

Thermometer, first occurrence

Thermoscope, first occurrence

Wolf, Christian von, ,


text:
Page:The cutters' practical guide to the cutting of ladies' garments.djvu/48

40 placed about 1 inch apart; and in the former it is fastened together with holes and buttons and a fly. A pocket is usually inserted in the opening, the outline of which we have illustrated by the dot and dash lines. A broad hem, say 3 inches, is left round the bottom, and in cutting, an inlay is usually left down the side-seam. In cutting it from the cloth special care must be used not to cut it inside out, an error many beginners make. If the pattern is laid down as it is placed on the Plate, the face of the cloth should be uppermost.

The quantity of material required will be 3 yards of 56 inches wide material; but if it should not run quite so wide, a wheel piece can easily be put on the topside at 56.

Complicated as this garment looks at first sight, a closer examination will show it to be really of a very simple nature, and such as any tailor of ordinary experience might make easily, the principal feature being to locate the knee accurately, and avoid all surplus materia], whether at seat or lap. The length is generally made to just cover or show the golosh of the boot of the stirrup foot. Various methods are adopted to hold the Habit and Train together, hooks and eyes, or tabs and buttons being the two most frequently employed. We have placed buttons on the diagram, one at the side just below 7½ on line 2, and one just above 17 on line 5½, which seam would come as nearly as possible down the centre of back, the centre of front being fixed midway between 5½ and 10½, and should be marked by a little white cotton on the waistband to assist the wearer in adjusting it properly.

These are the principal points to be observed in making this Train. We have previously dealt with trying them on, and many other hints of a general nature, and which our readers will doubtless remember; should any point in the diagram not be quite clear, it is drawn to the one-twelfth scale, and may be found accordingly. We may also add that patterns of this style of train can be had from the Tailor and Cutter Office, special reference being made when ordering to the New Safety Train.

It is generally acknowledged that the majority of cutters produce their Riding Trains from block patterns, and we are not going to dispute the efficacy of so doing, as we believe it is one of the best methods of producing the general run of Trains. But there are times in the experience of most cutters whose business lies to any extent in the ladies' trade, that orders have come for very out-of-the-way sizes. Most probably this conies in the shape of the little girl who is just beginning her career as an equestrienne, and as her form is altogether different to that of the normal figure, for the cutter to use his ordinary block pattern would be found not only inappropriate, but almost certain to lead to failure. It is for such cases that a system based on what we believe to be sound principles is of especial use, and the one we now lay before our readers for the first time will, we feel sure, be equal to all such cases. Systems such as this one are only arrived at after much study and extended experiment; indeed, this which we now lay before our readers, occupying but a page of this work, has taken years of study in its development; and though we do not claim perfection for it, we have every confidence that it will produce a good-fitting Train, and be especially useful in those out of the way sizes above referred to, as well as forming a foundation for others to elaborate and perfect.

Required are side, waist, seat, round sent and knee, with right leg raised as in the act of riding (this latter may be omitted, but is decidedly preferable); they would probably stand 40 side, 24 waist, 40 seat, 64 seat and knee. The applicaaion of these measures is as follows: draw line ABC; A to C is the side length; A to B one-fourth side, and square across to D L P; B to D is one-fourth seat, and D I corresponds with the fork quantity of trousers, viz., one-third B D; I J is the same as D I; J to L is one-fourth side, which will be found about equal to one-third of the leg length; L P is half knee circumference; thus the total distance from B to P is made up; this may also be obtained by measuring off B to P half seat and knee circumference plus 1 inch, and point L found by measuring back from P half knee circumference. Come up from L to M from 1 to 1½ inches, and draw line J M *; make M a pivot, and sweep from R to P. We now turn to the upper part; square line D E at right angles to D B, and mark from E to G one-fourth waist plus 1½; hollow from E to F about 1½ inches, or an amount equal to one-sixth of the disproportion of waist in the reverse way as followed for corpulent trousers, taking the ideal as waist G inches less than seat; take out 1 inch in a V at H, and terminate it about 4 inches down; this is often used to form the opening. Square line F K at right angles to F J, and make F K one fourth waist plus ½ inch, and continue the run of waist across as shown, and connect K R as shown; take out two fishes of about H inches each as shown, so that they will come just over the knee. Continue below P by coming down from L to O 1½ inches, and squaring at right angles to P; shape the side by springing it out about 1 inch at C, and slightly round it as illustrated, and the topside is complete.


text:
Page:A Hebrew and English Lexicon (Brown-Driver-Briggs).djvu/896

 uh? una Ez43 12 ; T> iTO Ex 15" of Zion (or Shiloh). g. of holy land'Zp 3 4, 'pn noiK Zc 2 16 , yn? ny Is 64'; future portion of priests 'p Ez45 u 4- 11 t. Ez; D'BHp Bhp Ez 45 s 48' 2 ; of Levites (Tip Ez 48". 3. things consecrated at sacred places : a. furniture of tabern. +D , Bhp(n) {Tip E X3<5 io.29 NU4 4 "; a ltar of burnt-offering Ex 2o 37 40 10 Dn9 54 ; 'pn pitt 2 CI135*. b. sacri- fices of animals Nu 18' 7 Ez 36** 2 Ch 29 s3 ; sacrificial food Lv 2 1 22b Nu5 i '+ ; tCEHp^l) trip Lv 2 s.io 6 io.i8.!K 7 i.« I0 «.w I4 i3 Kui8" (all P), Ez 1 ' 13 2Ch 3 i 14 Ezr 2 63 = Ne 7 K ; tithe was BHp Lv 2 7 30 + ,ako first loaves of new harvest Lv 23 s0 ; fruit of trees of 4th year Lv 19 24. c. any consecrated thing : || vows Dt 1 2 M Pr 20 25 -f, house Lv 27", field Lv 27 2123 ; treasures conse- crated to treasury of tabern. or temple Jos 6" (E) 1 K 7 M + ; consecrated things in gen. Ex 2%™ (P), Ez20 40 22 s +; these may be tBHp D, Bnp(n) Ez44 13 , so 0- Lv 2 7 28. d. anointing oil of priest Ex 30 s25 + 5 t. (P), yfr 89 21 ; incense Ex 30 3537, tfvh? 'p v 36 ; shew-bread 1S21 6 , 'p(n) trip Lv2 4 9 cf. 2I 22 * (P); foretold of common articles, '»& 'p Zc 14 20 ' 21. On D'BHpn 'p v also Di E,26,S3 Lv21,22 We Compl6<>1 ' Dr Dn9M 4. persons sacred by connex. with sacred places : a. priests Lv 2 1 6 2 Ch 2 3 s 3 1 18 Ezr 8™, garments of priesthood Ex28 24 +7 t.Ex,Lvi6 4 ' 32 Ez42 14 , specif, of h. priest 'p rurD Lv i6 4 ,'pn 1JJ Ex 29 s 39 30 Lv 8 9 ; inscription on head piece niHv EHp Ex 28 s6 39 s0. b. of Israel, '"h trtp Je 2 3, niW IBHp^ f 114 2 , Knp(n)DyIs62 12 Dni2 7 , ^B^p D5? Is63 ls ; trip(n) jnt Is6 13 Ezr 9 s ; Bhp ^K Ex 22 30 (R), and so spoil for their use Is 2Z n holy adornment 'p rVVin 1 Ch 16 29 2 Ch 20 21 + 29 s 96 s ; I? nnn ^ 1 io 3 ' (but rd. T$ see 2 e ; "Hn 1) ; covt. between God and his people 'p JVO Dn 1 1 2830 - 30. 5. times consecrated to worship: n3B> Ex 16 23 31 1416 35 s (P) Ne 9 14 ; of T8& also 'p DV Is 58' 3 ; disting. fr. me> Ne 10 s5 ; i>3V Lv25 12 (P); assembly called at stated times for worship 'p (>)xnpo Ex i2 1616 4- 17 t. LV23 Nu 28 (all P). t6. of things and per- sons ceremonially cleansed, and so separated as sacred; things 1 S21 6 ; flesh Jen 15 Mai 2"; priests cleanse thus, 1 Ch 23 1328 ; brb tTlp(n) pa Ez 22 M 42 20 44 s3 ; bnn pa 'pn P3 Lv io 10 ; ^ 'pn Is 35 s way of the clean ; 'p D3T 1Kb ty i 34 2 ; -niN? ijpap ^ 9 f.—Note : vip rnrie Dt ' is lit. from myriads of sacredness, sacred myriads; but || suggests n.pr.loc, © avv nvpui- aiv KaJijf, < BHP, "a^BD from Meribah Kadesh Di Buhl Steuern.; or ((•? om.) to M. Kadesh ^y e Frol. 364; 3rd ed. 369; Hilt. SM. y _ gj-jp an( J J) r I». tttfilp adj. sacred, holy; — abs. 'p Ex io ! + ; ^P, Ex2 9 31 + ; cstr. K^P Is i 4 + ; trip Is 49 r + 2 t.; sf. "Bnp Hb i 12 ; Wlp Is io 17 49 7 D3B>hp Is 43 13 ; pi. D^np Ho I2 l + 2 t., D'EHp Lvii 44 +i6t.; sf. VBhp Dt33 s V' 34 10 > •V" 1 ? Jb I5 1S ; — 1. of God, as separate, apart, and so sacred, holy : a. exalted on theophanic throne Is 6 3 - 3 - 3, ^ 2 2 4 ; heavenly throne Is 57 15 ; in victory 5 16 1 S 2 2 ^ 99 3 (||N"jiJ), v 59 ; KTfa) 'P iOB* 1 1 1 9 . b. separate from human infirmity, impurity, and sin : Jos 24 19 (E), 1 S 6 20 Hb i 12 ; ■ON BTlp »3 Lvii 4445 19 2 20 26 2 1 8 (H); E>np ^pp2 Hon 9 ; 5w**3 'p Ez 39 7 . c. tfftp 7SOtr = divine name (originating fr. trisagion, Is6 3 ) Is i 4 5 1924 io 20 12 6 17 7 29 19 30 111215 31'; Is 2 4I*"" 43 3 " 45" 47 4 48 17 49 7 54 s 55 5 60 914 elsewhere only 2 K i9 22 =Is 37 s3 , Je 50 29 51 s ^ 7 1 22 78 41 89 19 ; apjp 'p Is 29 13 , iennp io 17 7, B3t?np : 4 3 l; B^ 25 Hb 3 3 Jb 6" pi. intens. D't^np Ho 12 1 Pr 9 10 30 3 . 2. a. of place, sacred, holy, chambers of priests Ez 42 13 , camp of Isr. Dt 23 15 , + Dno of heaven Is 57 1S (but of '» Du Ry, and [rdg. 'p3 as holy, 2 essent.] Klo Che Marti); in foil. (oft. defect.) pointing dub., rd. prob. trip 2 : 'p D(l)p» of the court of tabernacle, Ex 29 31 Lv 6 919M f io 13 16 24 24 s (P), of Jerusalem Ec 8 10 ; V.SfP 'P p'^jj <^46 5 ; IxS'n 'p 65 s . b. persons: priests Lv2i 7 - 8 Nui6 i,7 (P), Aaron ^ 106", Levites 2 Ch 35 3, prophet 2 K 4 9 , Nazirite Nu 6 s - 8 (P), Isr. 'p i» Ex 19 6 (E), 'p DJ? Dt f 14 221 26 19 28 9 ; >~l*15Jn~P3 Nu 16 3 (P); remnant in Jerus. Is 4 3 ; D"Bhp sacred Lvn 4445 19 2 20 726 21 6 Nu 15 40 ; CKHp sacred ones, saints Dt 33' (song), + 16 3 34 10 Dn 8 24 . c. angels, f 8 9 68 Jb 5 1 I5 1S Zc 14 5 Dn 8 1313 . d. ffBhp D'O Nu 5 17 holy water, e. time ("6) 'p Q'l'n Ne 8 910 "; ttt,Hp vb. denom. be set apart, conse- crated ^Gerber"" 8 ");— Qal Pf. 3ms. 'p Ex 29 21 ; sf. TW~® Is 65 s ; 3 mpl. ^ Nui7 2 ; /mp/. 3 ms. BHp? 1 S 2 1 6 ; B'lp? Ex 29 s7 +, etc.; — 1. be set apart, consecrated, hallowed, of shew-bread 1 S21 6 (dub. passage, but cf. esp. KS S„n.l.436; 2n ded.455[- algoDr Sm.293-j )WnopropB ;- : ,p^. Aaron and his sons by blood Ex 29 21 (P); other persons Is 65 s (Di ; but Pi. Gei HS 8 ""- 1 - 431 ^" 1 - 451 Che Du Buhl). 2. be hallowed, by con- tact with sacred things, and so tabooed from
 * tyinp Is 58 13, of Sabbath.— (Cf.BAram. t?^P).


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/149

Rh Canon Curtis read a highly interesting paper at the British Institute on Thursday last, containing, as the lecturer modestly put it, "Some conjectures respecting the —so-called—Sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, now in the Imperial Museum."

Canon Curtis prefaced his lecture by a statement of his impression concerning the other sarcophagus known as "The Mourning Women." Speaking of the figures on one side only of the sarcophagus, he suggested that they might represent not so many different persons, but one and the same person under different phases of emotion. The lecturer presented this expression of opinion tentatively, and then passed on to his subject as follows:—

So moralised the Roman satirist Juvenal. Where is that sarcophagus at the present day—that sarcophagus in which he was laid after he had been carried off by fever in Babylon? Some say that it is at our very doors—proud to believe that the tomb of Alexander the Great is now preserved in the city of the Great Constantine. Others doubt, having learnt, it may be, that the sarcophagus was conveyed from Egypt to the British Museum in London Guide to the Exhibition Galleries of the British Museum. But it is now agreed by Egyptologists that the sarcophagus, supposed before to be Alexander's, is in reality the tomb of a Pharaoh, Nectanebo I, King of Egypt, 378-360 B.C.

No one has yet proved that the sarcophagus discoveddiscovered [sic] at Sidon, and now on view in the Stamboul Museum, was Alexander's; on the contrary, writers, both Greek and Roman, are at one in attesting that his remains were taken to Egypt. Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Suetonius, Pausanias have written to this effect. According to Pausanias, Alexander was buried at Memphis; his coffin was removed thence to Alexandria, for it was in that city that the remains of the hero were visited by Cæsars. At Alexandria, Augustus, whose visit Suetonius relates, gazed on the body and laid on it reverently a chaplet, and showered flowers over it. Vain Caligula ordered Alexander's breastplate to be taken out of the coffin there and sent to him that he might deck himself with it for the Circensian games at Rome.


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122 The last Imperial pilgrim was his namesake Alexander—called Severus. The poet Lucan hints that in course of time these precious relics would be altogether lost, and were lost before his time. He wrote, in the 1st century of the Christian Era—

These are the poet's words in English dress—

No wonder, then, that, when his remains were so dispersed, St. John Chrysostom should ask : Where is the tomb of Alexander? The coffin, which, according to Strabo, was made of glass, quickly disappeared; it had replaced the coffin of gold in which Ptolemy I had caused the body to be placed, and which had been stolen.

Now, although proof is altogether wanting to identify the sarcophagus in question with that of Alexander the Great, we can hardly doubt that its history had some relation to its supposed occupant. Let us examine two pieces of sculpture in high relief on the sarcophagus—those on its two parallel sides. You may remark, on the left hand edge of the carved slab that confronts you as you pass up the room, the head of a Greek horseman wearing a cap of lion's skin—the skin of a lion's head. As Alexander the Great is so represented on his coins, this has been recognised as his portrait. But it must be observed that the position of this cavalier is secondary, whereas another, also a Greek, is represented in the centre of the group, raising his sword as if ready to cut off the uplifted arm of a Persian who has dropped his weapon and is asking "quarter."

Who is this Greek? May it not be Clitus, who saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus? And who is that disarmed Persian? We may suppose him to be that Spithridates who had assaulted Alexander. The sculptor, we may remark, only suggests the infliction of the wound without representing the mutilation of the limb or the blood gushing out of the wound. This treatment is in accordance with the ride of Greek art to keep out of sight all that is repulsive; that appeal to the imagination is more impressive which is addressed by the artist through suggestion, rather than by direct expression.

Why should the figure of Clitus occupy the central, the most prominent, the chief place? In his honour, possibly, both this position was assigned and moreover this monument raised. This might be the tribute offered by Alexander to the cherished memory of him who had saved his life, but whose life he had himself taken away. Inconsolable was Alexander for having, in a frenzy of intoxication, slain his friend, his comrade, his companion-in-arms, his deliverer. By day and by night those


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Rh last appealing words of faithful Clitus echoed on within his conscious spirit, "This hand of mine saved thee, O Alexander." His bitter remorse would have driven him to suicide, but those about him now saved him from himself. For three whole days he remained fasting, mourning, and accusing himself as the murderer of his friends. At last, through the sculptor's art, those inner chidings of his conscience would sting him less acutely, and the anguish of his soul be somewhat relieved, when his love and gratitude should find utterance, not in fleeting words and momentary cries of self-reproach, but in a monument at once fair and lasting. May we not conjecture that this masterpiece of Greek art was conceived and completed in memory and in honour of him whom he lamented with so deep a compunction? a monument whereon is figured in the centre of that group the arm uplifted once to stay the hand of the enemy, and to save the life of the Chief.

I have ventured to infer on these grounds that the scene represented in this composition is that of the Battle of Granicus. The position and attitude of Alexander remind us of a like portraiture of him in the well known mosaic brought from Pompeii and preserved now in the Museum at Naples, which probably represents the Battle of Issus fought between Alexander and Darius. The mode of treatment was apparently typical. I have myself recognised it on a monument of the Volumni—an Etruscan family—preserved in the sepulchral vaults near Perugia, a city of Tuscany, Etruria of old. The respective attitudes of two engaged in a hand-to-hand fight—a Greek and a Mede—are the same as in the composition before us. The Etruscans, we may believe, received their model from their neighbours, Greek colonists in Italy, settled in the Southern Province, which was known accordingly as "Magna Græcia."

It is not known either when or by whom the sarcophagus, called Alexander's, was prepared. After the death of their Chief, the disputes among his surviving Generals delayed the official funeral for two years, and it is not probable that any one during that period of confusion t.>ok thought for the monument.

The sarcophagus was, as I am inclined to think, made ready during the lifetime of Alexander—not long before his death—and as he permitted no one but Lysippus to execute his likeness in sculpture and only Apelles to paint it, then, if it can be proved that Alexander's portrait is upon it, none other than Lysippus was the artist who designed it. Some inequality, however, has been remarked in the execution of the design, as if some part of the work had been entrusted to an apprentice. This wonderful masterpiece is, to a certain degree, imperfect; the requisite harmony of the whole composition is somewhat wanting. We see before us, as we may suppose, the production either of Lysippus or of a pupil or pupils of his School; or it may be a copy in marble of a work of the Master in bronze. But, whoever executed or designed the battle-scene, these characteristics of the art of Lysippus are to be noticed, such as Pliny describes : elegance, precision in details and portraiture, as well as


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124 energy of action, and that somewhat dramatic movement which Propertius attributes to Lysippus when he admires his "animosa signa," "figures full of life." Lysippus rather neglected the ideal and preferred to copy nature; most of his works are in bronze —chiefly statues—rarely groups. But of his groups we seem to have examples here, and these two specimens appear to be like the two famous groups which Pliny describes as works of Lysippus.

According to that writer, Lysippus executed one group of 25 horsemen, comrades of Alexander, who fell at the Battle of Granicus, and gave their likenesses in it; and another group, representing a lion hunt, in which work Leochares was associated with him. One may well ask, as to the representation on the other side of the sarcophagus, what relation it has with Clitus. In the workmanship displayed this piece is like that which we have been studying—excellent; but, in other respects, it is different; the one side shows a battle; the other a chase; the first, a bloody encounter between Greeks and Persians; the second, their peaceful co-operation. We see men fighting here with men; there with lions, enemies of all men. On the two separate sides we mark the beginning and the end; on the one the first steps taken in the long desired enterprise of the West; on the other, the realisation of the schemes inherited by Alexander from his father, Philip of Macedon, who dreamed of the supremacy of the West over the East, of the propagation of Hellenism, of the civilisation of Asiatics by the spread of Greek influence, of the bettering of conquered peoples, the progress of the subjugated. "Into whatever country he marched," writes Carr of Alexander, "he encouraged useful industry, alleviated public burdens, and bridled the animosity of domestic faction." All such beneficent projects had been conceived by Philip, and were carried out by his son. We may see now from these sculptures what was due to Clitus. If Alexander had not been saved by Clitus at that first battle, what would Alexander have accomplished in Asia and in the world '^ Justly, then, in honour of Clitus would such a monument as this sarcophagus be made and embellished by the foremost artist of Alexander's day; but then the arts were already on the decline. Traces of this decline are seen in these carvings; they were coloured. But the painting of statuary was not in use at the period when art reached its perfection; colour was not laid on except in the earliest period and the latest; for example, an unsightly statue of Venus, taken out of the ruins of the first Parthenon at Athens, is adorned with shoes of a brilliant red colour, and in a late age the Romans had the custom of painting with divers colours the white marbles of Greek art. Were the sarcophagi, discovered a few years ago at Sidon, accessible to the Romans?

If we suppose that the body of Alexander the Great was never laid in


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Rh this sarcophagus, is there any lack of monuments of that memorable man? Surely not. Cities in Asia and in Africa called after his name— Alexandria, Alexandretta, Samarcand, Astrakan, Candahar, which is Iskander—bear witness, while whole tribes of the East and South add their testimony.

A French traveller describes a tribe settled in the regions of Persia, who boast of their descent from the Hellenes (Yunani) that were left there by Alexander the Great (Iskander Roumi), and he quotes Marco Polo's account of such a people, remnants of the Macedonians, as dwelling on the borders of Chinese Tartary; and English travellers on reaching Kafiristan (so-called by their neighbours, who are fanatical Afghans) have been surprised to find there a nation of "nearly a million of warriors, descendants of Greek colonists left by Alexander the Great at Candahar (Iskenderhar) and at Cabul." These people have a bias towards Europeans," wrote Major Gordon in a letter to the "Times" of February 5, 1880, "and call for their help against Afghan enemies who surround them and harass them." They call themselves Kami. Even the name of their city, Cabul or Kabul, shows their Greek origin, for it was formerly Κάμων πόλις—Camboul, city of the Cami. Remains of Greek art and workmanship are found among them, and even to this day "they hold on to an ancient Greek Pagan Religion," and worship Baggheush (Bacchus).

It may be supposed that by this time English missionaries from India proper have succeeded in reaching them so as to show them the light of the Gospel. Is it not to be wished that Greeks would join in the work of imparting true civilisation and saving knowledge to these benighted heathens who may be called their kindred?

In Africa, too, a Greek explorer recognised as descendants of ancient Greeks the tribe of Somali.

Are there not, then, in the world traces of Alexander's success, monuments of his genius and power, and of his triumphs, not only as a conqueror of nations, but as a benefactor of mankind. It is true that his victories were not complete in other ways, for, while he grieved that there had been only one world for him to master, he did not gain that greater, harder victory—the conquest of himself.

His memory is stained with innocent blood, his character befouled with dark crimes, but that character was made up of contrary qualities, and displayed some very noble features. So have I seen in a hut on the site of his native town, Pella, in Macedonia, a delicate fragment of Greek sculpture on a marble block imbedded in a wall of mud and straw.

We may assert that memorials of Alexander the Great survive in distant regions of the earth; such are the fruits of his policy in pushing forward the frontiers of the civilised world; in spreading the language,


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The Moths of the British Isles/Chapter 4

The nine British species next to be considered belong to the old family Cymatophoridæ, but as the name Cymatophora, as indicated by Hübner in the "Tentamen" (1816), is now generically used by authors for some species of Geometridæ; and as Hübner's Verzeichniss generic names will have to be used for the species previously included in Cymatophora, Tr., the term Thyatiridæ has here been adopted for this family—the Polyplocidæ of Meyrick and others.

This pretty species (Plate 36, Figs. 1, 2) is well distributed over the greater part of England and not at all uncommon in the more sylvan districts of the southern counties. It occurs in Wales but has only once been recorded from Scotland. In Ireland it is found in almost every well-wooded locality, but is not generally common. The moth hides among the foliage of the bramble and also creeps under the withered leaves on the ground. It comes freely to sugar, and is often the earliest to attend the banquet, but is rather skittish at first and should be given time to settle down.

The fore wings are pale olive grey with two whitish streaks across them, the first oblique approaching the second towards the inner margin; the space between the streaks is clouded with brownish buff and there is a whitish cloud on the costal area, and some strongly waved cross lines before the second streak.

The caterpillar, which is rusty brown, with a blackish central line on the back, a black edged yellowish spot on ring four, a smaller one on ring five, and sometimes a tiny one on ring seven, feeds in August and September, sometimes later, on bramble, and is said to eat hawthorn and hazel. It hides during the day and comes up to feed at night. The chrysalis, which is enclosed in an earthen cocoon below the surface of the ground, or sometimes among moss, is purplish black with the ring divisions reddish; the anal spike is furnished with hooks. As a rule the moth does not emerge until June or July following the year of pupation, but it has been found on the wing in September and October.

Distributed over Central Europe, extending into Southern France, and Northern Italy, Southern Sweden and Livonia, and eastward to the Himalayas, Corea, and Japan.

The olive brown fore wings of this moth are adorned with five pink-tinged whitish spots, and clouded with brown; the pink tinge varies in amount and in brightness, and sometimes gives place to pale ochreous. The moth is figured on Plate 36, and the early stages on Plate 37.

The fluted greenish-white eggs are laid upon the edges of bramble-leaves.

The caterpillar is pale reddish brown shaded with darker and freckled with whitish (in the young stage the second and third rings are whitish above); a slender dark brown line along the middle of the back, and a broader one along the sides, the latter not distinct on the first three rings; the two rings nearest the head each have a divided ridge, the second being the larger; there are also similar ridges on the fifth to ninth rings, and the back of ring eleven is slightly raised; a series of pale triangular marks on the back. It feeds on bramble in July, and may be found from that month until September.

In confinement it will thrive on raspberry or the cultivated kinds of blackberry. From some thirty eggs I had in June this year (1907) the caterpillars hatched on the 27th; several of these fed up rapidly and one or two had spun up for pupation, among the leaves, in July (about 24th), whilst others remained quite small, and a few were in the last skin but one. Early in August the larger caterpillars just referred to pupated, and the smaller ones began to feed up, and by the end of the month they had attained to full growth, although they did not spin cocoons until the second week in September.

From July chrysalids moths will often emerge in August or September of the same year, but none have appeared from those under observation. The chrysalis is pale brown mottled with dark purplish or reddish brown, wing cases reddish. The species frequents woods or wooded localities, and is generally distributed throughout England and Wales, but commoner in some parts than others. Rather local in Scotland but not uncommon in Perthshire. Sometimes very abundant in Ireland, occurring in similar localities to the preceding species. It is found over the greater part of Northern and Central Europe, and as far east as Amurland and Japan.

This moth (Plate 36, Figs. 5, 6) may be distinguished by two whitish marks on the fore wings which have some resemblance to the numerals 80, hence the common name. These are really the white outlines of the reniform and orbicular stigmata, each of which has the central part filled in with black; sometimes the lower portion of the 8 is obscure, but in a general way the character is not difficult to make out.

The caterpillar is yellowish tinged with greyish on the back; a greyish plate on the back of the ring nearest the black marked orange head; three black spots on each side of the first ring, two such spots on ring two, and one on each side of rings three to eleven; the back of the last ring has a greyish plate. It feeds in July and August, earlier or later in accordance with season, on poplar. During the day it hides between united leaves, or in a curled up withered leaf, upon the tree. The shining black chrysalis with somewhat reddish ring divisions is enclosed in a rather loosely constructed cocoon spun up between leaves, or among moss etc., at the base of poplar trees. The moth emerges in May or June. It is partial to sugar, and is said to prefer its sweets served up on poplar trunks. Probably it is most often and regularly obtained in the Eastern Counties, but it is locally not uncommon in Worcestershire and Herefordshire; also found in Gloucestershire, Somerset, Hertfordshire, Middlesex, Surrey, and, I believe, Sussex. The range abroad is similar to that of T. batis.

May be recognized in the typical form by the four-lined bands, "lutestrings," on the greyish, sometimes pink-tinged fore wings; the reniform and orbicular marks are often present although the first is generally obscure, and they never assume the similarity to figures noted in the last species (Plate 36, Figs. 7, 8). In Scotland the moths have a paler ground colour generally, var. scotica, Tutt; one from Ireland with ground colour pearly white and broad black "lutestrings" has been named var. gaelica, Kane. Hybrids from a cross pairing of this species with the last have been obtained by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher. These specimens have the "lutestrings" of or, and the "figure of 80" characteristic of octogessima. Caterpillar yellowish green with a dark line along the middle of the back, and two black spots on the front edge of the ring next the yellowish brown head. It feeds on poplar, and hides between united leaves in the daytime; may be found from July to September or even later. Chrysalis, reddish brown, the surface minutely pitted, and spike pointed, and thickened at the base; in a brownish cocoon spun up between leaves. The moth emerges in June or July, and it comes freely to sugar, but like other members of this family is not always easy to box. It seems to occur in most places where poplar trees are well established; widely distributed over England, and found throughout Scotland even to the Shetland Isles. In Ireland it seems to be local and rare. Distribution abroad much as in the last species.

Figs. 1, 2, on Plate 39, represent the typical southern form of this species. The fore wings are pale greyish with a whitish edged, broad, dark central band; two black dots on the outer edge of the band distinguish this species from the next. In Scotland and in Northern England the general colour is blackish or purplish grey (Fig. 3), and sometimes specimens more or less suffused with the darker colour are found in the southern half of England. Quite the darkest, almost black, form seems to occur in Cannock Chase, Staffordshire, and in Delamere Forest, Cheshire. The caterpillar is greenish; central area of the back green, margined on each side by an olive green, or brighter green, stripe; some black dots along the sides; head reddish brown marked with black. Feeds on birch, and may be found from August to October. It spins the leaves together for a shelter during the daytime, and comes out to feed at night, when it may be obtained by beating the boughs. Other food plants mentioned are alder, oak, and hazel. The pupa is of a dull reddish colour, in a slight cocoon between leaves.

Widely distributed throughout England and common in most woodlands, especially in the south and east; it ranges through Scotland to the Shetlands. In Ireland, where the moth has the ground colour silvery grey (var. argentea, Tutt), it has been obtained in many localities, from Donegal and Tyrone to Kerry and Cork.

In colour and general pattern this species (Plate 39, Fig. 4) is very similar to the last in its typical form. The points of distinction are, the slightly larger size, whiter ground colour, and the absence of the two black dots from the edge of the band. In August and September the caterpillar feeds, at night, on birch, and by day conceals itself between leaves. It is reddish or violet grey above, and pale ochreous-white beneath; the lines down the centre of the back and along the sides are darker; on the first ring there is a greenish-tinged yellow plate, and from this to the eleventh ring there are two series of black dots along the back. Head yellow-brown, blackened above; a black circle on each cheek. Chrysalis reddish-brown, in a cocoon among leaves either on the tree or on the ground. The moth emerges in June, and is distinctly local. Sometimes it may be disturbed from its resting place among the foliage; it becomes active on the wing at dusk for a short time; sugar does not seem to possess any great attraction for it, anyway it does not attend the feast prepared for Noctuæ so frequently as other members of this family. It is known to occur, chiefly in woods, in Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Hampshire in the south; Essex and Suffolk in the east; also in Worcestershire (Wyre Forest), and Herefordshire; in the Barnsley and Sheffield districts of Yorkshire; and it has been reported from Cumberland. In Ireland it is rare and only recorded from Killarney, Kerry, and Sligo. Abroad it occurs in Central Europe, the range extending to Southern Scandinavia, and to South-east Russia.

The fore wings are whitish or greyish, and sometimes tinged with brown; crossed by two brownish bands. Variation is chiefly in the tint of the bands and also in their width and definition. In var. nubilata, which occurs in Yorkshire, the general colour of the fore wings is darker than normal, and there is a basal patch and three cross-bands of reddish or purplish brown (Plate 39, Figs. 5, 6).

Caterpillar, yellowish above and greyish beneath; a dusky line along the middle of the back, and one, dotted with black, low down on the sides; head dark brown, almost blackish. It feeds in May and June on oak, but only at night; it constructs a leafy chamber in which it sits tight during the day, and is not easily evicted unless its apartment is forcibly opened. The reddish chrysalis is enclosed in a flimsy cocoon between, or among, leaves. Although September is the month during which the moth usually emerges, it is sometimes seen earlier. It is so partial to sugar, that it may often be seen at an old patch before the new feast has been set out for the evening entertainment. The species is fairly well distributed throughout England and Wales, and most common in the south of the former country. It extends into Southern Scotland, but apparently does not occur in Ireland. Abroad it is found in Central Europe, Belgium, North Germany, North Italy, and North-east Asia Minor.

In the South of England this species is greenish grey, sometimes speckled or dusted with darker grey; the reniform and orbicular marks are generally clear and distinct, but in some examples they are united and form a whitish blotch outlined in blackish; the cross lines are usually well defined, but in the dark grey dusted form are very obscure. Specimens from Scotland are generally larger, there is less green, if any, in the ground colour, and the markings are often more pronounced and brighter. This form is the var. scotica, Tutt, and may be more or less identical with the var. finmarchia, Schöyen, from Norway and Lapland (Fig. 7, Plate 39, shows the English form, and Fig. 8 the Scotch form).

The caterpillar is greenish, light olive green, or dark olive green above, and yellowish beneath; a line along the middle of the back is paler, and on each side there is a row of black spots and finely black-edged white dots; a line above the brownish outlined spiracles is yellowish: the head is yellow brown with blackish jaws and black mark on each cheek. It feeds in June and July on birch, preferring the foliage of bushes. During the daytime it resides in a leaf neatly folded in half; when quite young, the caterpillar then being blackish, a small leaf or just the turned-over edge of a large one answers its purpose. The chrysalis is reddish, enclosed in a flimsy cocoon among leaves, moss, or roots of grass, etc., sometimes just under the surface of the soil. The early stages are figured on Plate 38, Figs. 2-2c. The moth emerges in March or April of the year following pupation, as a rule, but it may remain in the chrysalis for two winters. It is often obtained in birch woods, or wherever there is a good growth of birch, by jarring the twigs and branches of birch upon which it rests during the day, or it may be found by searching the low bushes and underwood. Soon after dusk it is on the wing, and will then visit sugar and sallow bloom.

Generally distributed throughout Great Britain. In Ireland it appears to be very rare. Its range abroad, in the typical form, extends over Northern and Central Europe to North Italy and to South-east Russia.

This moth (Plate 39, Figs. 9, 10) is also on the wing early in the year, but although it is sometimes found on tree trunks in April or perhaps as late as the first week in May, it seems to be rarely obtained otherwise in the perfect state. It does not "come to sugar" often, if at all, and so far as is known, does not visit any of the usual natural attractions.

The ground colour of the fore wings varies from whitish to green, but in some specimens the general hue is olive or blackish green, and the markings then appear to be wavy whitish lines crossing the wings, one near the base, and the other before the outer margin.

The caterpillar (Plate 38, Fig. 1) is yellow above and rather greenish beneath; a greenish grey double stripe along the back is interrupted at the ring divisions; there are also white dots with black or blackish edges on the back and the sides; a yellow line along the spiracle area is shaded above and below with greenish grey; the head, which is notched on the crown, is yellowish, with a black mark on each cheek. It feeds, at night, on oak, from May to July; hiding by day on the underside of a leaf, a portion of which is folded over and secured with silk, to form a suitable retreat. These caterpillars respond more readily to the persuasive beating-stick than others of the group.

The species affects woodland localities in most of the southern counties of England, and it is also found in South Wales. Its range extends into the Eastern Counties and through the Midlands northward to Cumberland. It does not seem to have been noted from Scotland or Ireland. Abroad it is distributed over Central Europe and northward to Denmark and Livonia, and southward to South France and Andalusia.


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172 masonry, with no particular characteristics. At E there is a cistern, 14 feet deep, which we have not yet completely cleared out. Many skulls and bones had been thrown in. Two of the skulls bore marks of hard blows; what was the battle that took place here, and who were the antagonists 1

I was anxious to trace the scarp of the tower, the north side of which was visible under the wall of the cemetery. It was not long before we found the west scarp at the foot of the great heap of rubbish referred to above. That I should find remains of the tower itself I did not hope, though it might have been inferred from the mass of debris. However, we had not worked far along the trench H—H' before we found a large drafted stone set back a few inches from the top of the scarp, which is chamfered. Another and another appeared joined together by strong mortar. A second course soon appeared, and when we reached the corner (a distance of 39 feet from the cemetery wall) three courses were in place. The masonry was missing at the north end, the entire length of the lower course still in place to the south corner is 27 feet.

We are now opening up a trench along the line H'—I. The rock is visible at I, 11 feet above H'; the distance from H' to I is 32 feet, being the length of this side of the tower. We have not as yet reached the sloping rock all along the trench, but the masonry thus far uncovered appears to be of the same character as that below. It is, however, extensively but irregularly plastered over, and the plaster is Everywhere curiously indented with marks made by a small wedge-shaped tool whether for ornamentation or for securing the plaster I cannot say. Squeezes will be sent. I have seen nothing like it.

The drafted stones vary in size; the three largest seen measure—(1) 4 feet 11 inches long by 1 foot 4 inches high, the top draft is 2 inches wide, and the right side draft 3 inches; (2) 3 feet 6 inches long by 2 feet 3 inches high, to]) draft 3 inches, side draft 2 inches; (3) 2 feet 11 inches long by 2 feet 3 inches high. This latter has a rough centre projecting 9 inches from the draft. The projections of centres of the stone vary, some being almost flush with the draft. Thus far the depth of the stones has not been seen. The courses are regular in level, the lesser height of (1) is due to its being in the lowest course where the scarp is not level. The drafts bear no sign of the comb-pick, but of what Petrie calls the "pock-marking" dressing, which was used in Phœnician times. How much later it came down I am not prepared to say. Our stones here are similar to the masonry at the south-west angle of the city wall. Mr. Hanauer pointed out to me that the lowest stone of the corner projects considerably beyond the corner, as if old masonry in situ, which did not follow the exact lines of the new wall, had been taken advantage of. A shaft would determine the question.

On Conder's plan, parallel to the north side of the tower on which the school is built, is marked a "Modern wall of old masonry." These stones were found during the excavations, and are supposed to have fallen from above. Conder thinks them to be of Roman date. I have compared


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Rh them with the stones of our new tower and find a considerable difference. As a rule the drafts upon them were produced by a fine comb-pick, used diagonally in the style associated with Crusading work. I measured several, finding the length to be 2 feet. Some seem to have the "pock-marking," but their general appearance is different to ours, the centres being in most cases flat, and there is no example of a huge irregular boss.

The heap of rubbish above our tower I hope may yield us other results. We may find where the 36 steps, explored by Warren, lead to, and whether they terminate at a gate. The owners of the land say that in digging in the rubbish they found things of interest. One of these was a vase of a cluster of pillars of Crusading work, the fellow to which we found fallen to the bottom of our tower. Of course we hope for earlier objects. We are also following the scarp from its junction with the tower from I to I', One stone may be seen in situ, the drafts worked with the comb-picking. I have this moment visited a curious angular cutting in the scarp, plastered, but not a cistern, which may develop into anything, as it seems to have a platform in front of it. We must find the depth of the face of the scarp at corner H'. From this corner we will be able to secure a good photograph when the cuttings are complete.

Beyond the point I', the scarp follows the steep contour 2489 in a north-easterly direction and disappears beyond the new house referred to above. Beyond this point this contour is no longer a lofty cliff. The distance between it and contour 2479 is 100 feet. Unless the ground has greatly changed, the wall would not have occupied an advantageous position. Why should the gently-sloping ground to the south as far as contour 2469 or 2449, even, have been shut out of the city? From point I, why does the scarp take a north-easterly direction, when, according to Josephus, we expect it to take an easterly direction to its bending above Siloam? Was there an inner wall, and was there also an outer wall? Or was the ground between contours 2489 and 2509 occupied by a great inner fortress, with its ditch as followed by us 1 These questions have greatly interested me. General Forestier Walker and his staff, who visited me, agreed that from a military point of view a wall would be expected on the lower and steeper contours. Accordingly I sank a pit at J to a depth of some 20 feet, and we are now tunnelling inwards to see whether there are signs of an outer wall along the contour 2469, which passes through the branching to right and left of the road from Bab Neby Daûd, where Sir Charles Wilson suggests we may expect a gate.

The pottery we have recovered from this pit and tunnel I recognise as late Jewish, similar to what we found at Tell el-Hesy, belonging to the fifth and sixth centuries, B.C. Thus far we have reached no wall, but we expect to find something. We also sunk shafts at F and G. At F we found the wall of a house; at G a fine doorway, and we are now exploring the walls of the house to which it belongs. They were probably within the city wall of their time, as of course were the remains explored [at


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174 B, C, D, and E. It will be thus seen that we have not sunk a single shaft which has not had some bearing, direct or indirect, on the question of the walls. A clue will probably appear before long. At any rate, we can attempt to follow the counterscarp beyond the point K, although, from the nature of the ground, houses, &c., this will be difficult.

With the exception of the Jewish pottery turned up in shaft J, the objects found seem to be Roman. A couple of dozen coins have turned up which I have not had time yet to clean and identify. Roman glass and potsherds abound. One whole lamp was found; also fragments of iron and bronze, the latter including an adjustment for hanging up a lamp, probably. We have exhumed great quantities of stone, to the delight of the owners of the land, who also rejoice in the new cistern we are clearing out, the Sheikhs of Neby Daûd, who were naturally somewhat suspicious at first, but have grown friendly. At sunset a dozen of their people are usually hanging about the works.

Our workmen, at present, number only 15, but they are most competent and energetic. Two of them worked with Sir Charles Warren, as boys, here and at the Jericho Tells. Our carpenter, who makes the mining frames, also worked for him. The ever-faithful Yusif presides over the labourers with his usual efficiency. Our tents are pitched within a few yards of the work. This certainly has its advantages, but it is like living in one's office—one never gets away from the work. As a rule I am here the whole of the day. Sometimes after dinner I get a stroll to the town, unless I am tired enough to go at once to bed. Ibrahim Effendi's tents are on the terrace below. The position is a glorious one, with the ground sloping down steeply to the Valley of Hinnom. I can look out from my tent and see the Mount of Olives and the ever-changing Mountains of Moab. The weather is very changeable. We have had in the fortnight quiet days of burning heat, boisterous days of fierce winds, days of simply charming weather, and one day of real cold. The nights are always delightful, except when the winds pull the tents about. My duties are varied, including laying out and constantly superintending the work, writing my reports, attending to our simple commissariat, with the daily accounts, and keeping things generally smooth, which is a strain on one's patience and diplomacy. When I hear the railway whistle, the military band, and the many bells, I confess to rebellious longings for the genuine camp-life of my beloved Philistia. There is something illogical in camping just outside a city.

Mr. Schick takes a friendly interest in the work, and his two visits have been of much profit to me. He advises me to search for signs of an outer wall. He kindly promises assistance when I come to my detailed plans. The work attracts numerous visitors. While very pleasant, this is, of course, a tax on one's time, especially when they appear towards the end of the day when one is supposed to have earned a little rest. We were honoured the first Saturday by a visit from three Consuls, the English, Russian, and Austrian. The work begins soon after five and ends at half-past six; the men stop for half an hour for


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Rh  at eight, and for about an hour at noon. The eight hours' movement has not yet been inaugurated in Jerusalem!

In conclusion, I must repeat that this is not intended to be a final and detailed report of the work begun during the last fortnight. Several interesting particulars I have left till the work is more developed. Thus far we have every reason for encouragement. The Government is most friendly. We are especially fortunate in having Ibrahim Pasha for Governor. He is a man of great intelligence and unquestioned integrity, and during his administration the country has been free from disturbances. The cool nights will, I hope, make it possible for us to bear the heat of the day, so that we may expect to work through the summer months, instead of being forced to lay by as we were obliged to do in our work on the plains. I hope (though I know this is not my province) that the work will be generously supported both in England and in America.

The excavations should set at rest a few at least of the controverted points of Jerusalem topography. And who knows but that we may make some unexpected discovery? When I think of the immense amount of débris turned over by Warren, when I visit the extensive excavations made by the Augustinians, and by the Dominicans, and remember how few interesting antiques and inscriptions the turned-over soil of Jerusalem has yielded, then I confess to a feeling of discouragement But then I think of the chance discoveries; I remember how the Siloam Tunnel, after having been measured by Robinson, Warren, and other great explorers, revealed its treasure to a run-away school boy; I realise that we hope to turn over the soil of the past ages in various places for a period of two years, that hid away somewhere in this soil there must be treasures and inscriptions, and I dare to indulge the hope that at the moment when we find ourselves the most discouraged a kindly fate may lead us to the object of our desires.

2em

June 6th, 1894.

my stay in Jerusalem, awaiting the arrival of our new Permit, I ran down twice to Jericho, and was able to make some interesting observations. Our camp is pitched within a few yards of the work, and it is pleasant (though a trifle distracting) to write this report in my tent and look out occasionally at the diggers. At Tell el Hesy it was different; after the first few days our work was not in sight of the tents, and during the last season the camp was pitched three miles away from the Tell.


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176 The Fund has done considerable work, first and last, at Jericho. First came Warren, who made cuttings in the various mounds, and then Conder with the survey party. My object in examining the mounds was to see whether any new light might be thrown on their age by the classification of pottery made by Petrie and myself at Tell el Hesy. The so-called Amorite pottery, found by us in the lowest layers of that mound, had never been seen by myself anywhere else, and I felt that its value for determination of age depended on whether it was a local type of the Philistine plains only or whether these distinct types extended over the country. Accordingly, I was greatly pleased on stopping for a half hour at the southern Tell of the pair called Tellûl Abu el 'Aleik, not far from the entrance of the pass, to recover in the lower levels of Warren's cuts, three distinct marks of this Amorite or pre-Israelitish pottery, namely, a "ledge-handle," the "palliened burnishing," and a peculiar moulding, the material of the ware also being similar. At Tell es Sultan, which is universally acknowledged to occupy the site of the pre-Israelitish Jericho, I also recovered similar types. Near the base of the mound, above the spring, a hollow has recently been scooped out for some reason or other, and there I found traces of a mud-brick wall in situ. With a small trowel I traced it a short distance in the same way we used to trace similar walls at Tell el Hesy. I confess this wall sent a thrill through me. If Tell es Sultan is a mass of debris caused by the ruin of several mud-brick towns over the first Jericho, then there is good reason to suppose that this wall, uncovered near the base of the mound, at its edge, is the very wall which fell before the eyes of the Captain Joshua.

Tell es Sultan is a long mound, over 1,200 feet in length from north to south, about 50 feet high, with four superimposed mounds (one of them a ridge) at the edges, the north-west or highest being some 90 feet above the fountain, which is at the east, but not more than 60 or 70 feet above the ground at the west, as the mound occurs where the land slopes down to the plain. In the cutting made by Warren at the north-west elevation, I recognised another mud-brick wall, very well preserved. Of course, since these cuttings were made much earth must have been washed down in them, but in any case I think they were hardly deep enough to have penetrated through the slope of fallen rubbish to the undisturbed stratification. From my work at Tell el Hesy I am pretty confident that a Tell will not yield its secrets unless a large portion is systematically cut away. The secret of Petrie's wonderful success during his short six weeks at Tell el Hesy (apart, of course, from his unquestioned skill in dealing with the indications furnished by mounds in general) lay in the fact that this outer slope of fallen debris had been washed away by the gradual undermining of the stream, leaving the stratification of the east face practically exposed. I am inclined to believe that extensive excavations on the platform (50 feet high) on which the four other mounds stand, would amply justify the cost which would be necessary. These superimposed mounds doubtless represent later fortifications. I believe that the main material of the Tell is mud-brick, although several signs of


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Rh stone buildings occur. On the surface we found a few specimens of Roman pottery, but very few in comparison with sites that are undoubtedly Roman.

I visited the other Tells excavated by Warren, with the exception of one, but made little out of them. However, Tell Abu Ghannam (which is not a true mound but only a rough heap of ruins), shows how much a brief inspection of the surface of the ground may tell of what is beneath. First we have a general swelling several feet above the plain, which indicates débris. Next, we observe a ridge running around near the edges of the swelling, forming a perfect quadrangle 78 paces square. Along many parts of the ridge may be traced one course of a stone wall 2 or 3 feet thick. In the north-west corner is a higher heap of débris, occupying a space about 50 paces by 35. In the south-west corner there is a much smaller heap with a similar one in the centre. The rest of the quadrangle is flat. The inference is clear. We have here a small establishment (perhaps a Khan) consisting of an open court, with a building at its north-east angle, a gate or tower at the south-west, and perhaps a covered well in the centre. Twenty minutes on the spot were sufficient to determine these general features, while from the path a few yards away, nothing was observable but a low swelling. Two or three days of excavation would doubtless throw light on its date. From the name it may be a small convent rather than a Khan. The ruins at Tell-el-Mutlub are similar.

Two miles almost directly north of the ruined tower of Er Riha is the heap of ruins marked on the map Khurbet el Mefjir. I was first told that its name was Khurbet el Nuwei'meh, evidently so-called from the Wady immediately to the south of it. Later I heard the name Khurbet el Mefjir applied to it. Warren called it Khurbet es Sumrah (or the Dark Ruin). This name is attached in the map to two ruins respectively about two and three miles to the north-east of Khurbet el Mefjir; also to one to the south. Curiously enough, one man whom I questioned about the place called it Khurbet es Sumrah. Hence I was given not only the two names recovered respectively by Warren and by Conder, but a new name as well. This shows the difficulty attaching to an attempt to recover the name of a ruin in an unsettled country.

At this place Warren did some excavating, and found an apse pointing south, which Conder suggests may have been the transept of a great church, a chamber with frescoes and other remains which have since disappeared. When I was at Jericho with Canon Tristram in February I saw a good-sized building belonging to the Sultan's palace in course of construction at Riha, and was told that all the stone had been brought from Khurbet el Mefjir. I have told before how the Canon and myself visited the place for a couple of hours and how we suggested it might represent Herod's long-lost palace. In March I re-visited the place, and will now give the results of my second inspection.

The ruins occupy a space 450 paces long, from north to south, and about 200 paces wide. Until they were recently searched for stone they


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Rh says: "There must be a dozen of the mounds within a square mile, 8 or 10 feet diameter, and not more than 3 or 4 feet high. I hope again to visit the spot and to open one of the mounds, making a sketch and special plan of the site at the same time." I cannot find any such plan published. From my plan it will be seen that there seems to be no arrangement in the mounds, of which I find two dozen of various sizes and heights. Nos. 3, 7, 9, and 10 were the highest; 10 being about 6 feet high, and over 50 feet in diameter. Nos. 2 and 16 were regular ruins, strewn with pottery, the latter showing regular walls, like the ruin near the tree. The rest were mere swellings of earth. I greatly longed to open one but thought it not wise.

For the legends respecting the place I refer the reader to the number of the Quarterly Statement referred to above, which contains notes on the subject by Conder, Drake, and Warren.

From what I have written here it will be evident that a systematic exploration of the Plain of Jericho would be attended with results as varied as they would be valuable. Light would be thrown on its preIsraelitish history, on the times of Christ, on the early Christian period, and upon that of the Crusaders. Most interesting to me, of course, would be excavations which would take us into the very heart of Tell es Sultan.

2em

Jerusalem, May 30th, 1894.

In the Quarterly Statement, 1893, p. 260, the Rev. Th. E. Bowling asks for reliable information as to the origin of the "Jerusalem Cross." "Four theories of the early history of this cross are current in Jerusalem. Can any date, prior to that of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem, be assigned to it? "

This question is repeated in the Quarterly Statement, 1894, p. 3, to which Major C. E. Conder, E. E., remarks on p. 81 (1894): "The Jerusalem Cross which, with four crosslets, the Latin Kings of Jerusalem adopted as arms {or on argent), is heraldically a 'cross potent,' sometimes explained as croix potence (gallows cross), from the gallows-like ends. I was struck in Moab by finding, at Hesban, a stone, apparently a lintel of the Byzantine age, with two designs, one of a St. Andrew's Cross, and another of a cross in a frame, with four crosslets, which might be an older


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184 form of the cross potent, the frame being afterwards broken at the corners."

These words and facts answer the questions of the Rev. Th. E. Dowling in some degree, but not fully, and so the field may be considered still open to bring in more details and facts on this matter, and I would humbly beg to be allowed to bring forward some of the results 1 obtained when studying the matter.

First, I wish to mention the four "Theories" which the Rev. T. E. Dowling states to be "current" in Jerusalem. As far as I know them, they are the following:—

1. The central and larger cross represents the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, whilst the four smaller ones (in the four corners) denote the four tributary principalities of Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Kerak.

2. The five crosses represent the five principal nations who took part in the first Crusade: France, England, Germany, Italy, and Spain.

3. The five crosses are the sign and seal of the Franciscan Order, the traditional custodians of the holy places, and denote the five wounds of Christ and of St. Francis.

4. Though the Jerusalem Cross was used as their seal and arms by the Latin Jerusalem Kings, and is also found on Crusading and Cypriote coins, yet the emblem is more ancient than the Crusading time, and the Crusaders only adopted it, finding it in the country or neighbourhood and answering to their ideas and purposes.

That the form of the Jerusalem Cross, with four crosslets or some other marks or figures in the four corners, is much anterior to the Crusading time, is proved by the history of the cross in general, which begins in very ancient times. For instance, in Egyptian mythology the gods are constantly represented as holding the cross by a ring which served as a handle,, as the symbol of immortality and expressing eternity, which is a wonderful coincidence with the Christian Cross and its meaning. Later, in the Christian era, this idea mingled with pagan ideas is frequent in figures; especially the anchorets painted on the walls of their cells or caves such Christian emblems as are now found in catacombs; for instance, the following:—

At Beni Hassan—

The doves sitting on the crossbeam are symbolising the atoning sacrifice of Christ with the operation of the Holy Spirit, needful to give it effect upon the hearts of men.

On the first figure two other crosses are on the ground with the doves


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Rh above, making up the five (as the Jerusalem Cross has and the wounds of Christ were). The middle figure has a threefold leaf (pointing to the Trinity) on the left side, and on the right alpha and omega in one letter, making so also the five. The last figure is simply a cross, the upright beam of which is shaped to a Greek R. It has the alpha on one side and the omega on the other.

At Philæ are—

It would be easy to explain the first, but I do not wish to speculate, and pass rather to the second. Here we have in the four corners round shaped points or knobs, indicating already the later Jerusalem Cross with its four crosslets. And so it is with the next, which at the four ends has half circles, and is in appearance not very different from the Jerusalem Cross with the gallows-shaped ends and the four crosslets.

Going over to Europe we find a similar development of the cross in the time before the Crusades.

In the catacombs at Rome and elsewhere were found lamps with the following figures:

Crosses of St. Andrew with a Greek R in the middle and on the sides, alpha and omega in the corners, in the one figure, and in the other two rings.

The Emperor Charlemagne (A.D. 768-814) put to his name and signature this sign:


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186 and Charles the Bareheaded (A.D. 841-874) this:

In Southern Germany was found a coin struck in the time of Charlemagne, one side showing this:

again also the elements of the Jerusalem Cross.

I collected many others, found on sarcophagi, &c., but I do not know always their time, so I will pass them over. From all these figures and many more, one sees clearly, that in Christian times, when the Cross had become the symbol of man's Redemption and Christendom in general, there was an endeavour to add ornaments to the plain cross. Artists used it for their purposes, potentates and rulers adopted it for their arms, standards, and seals, and much more so the Church; and thus we have a long and almost endless series of variously shaped crosses, from among which the following may be mentioned:

This is called a Greek Cross, all arms being of equal length.

Latin Cross, one arm (the lower one) much longer than the others.

The St. Andrew's Cross, like the Roman numeral 10.

Is tailed Thieves' or Malefactors' Cross.

The Egyptian, or St. Antonius Cross. Four such crosses put together to one centre made the so-called Crutch Cross, thus:

(This is the Jerusalem Cross without the crosslets).


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Rh We find further the form:

a repeated cross, as each arm of the chief cross forms also a cross, hence one may count five crosses, as in the Jerusalem Cross. Another form is thus:

in which one centre cross and four angle arms are five;

and yet another, the double cross, thus: in which to a Latin or Greek cross is added a St. Andrew's Cross. The cross for an archbishop had two crossbeams, thus: and that for the Pope three, thus:

In all these figures I have shown the beams of equal thickness, and most of them with plain ends. But many crosses were distinguished or ornamented with figures of some kind, and the ends decorated. Of the latter I mention lilies. clover, or, arrow,  anchor,  balls or apples,  swallow-tail, &c.


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188 In regard of arms, if they were not plain and of equal thickness, in most cases they became broader towards the outer end, as there was more room there (the further from the centre the more), and just this, I think, gave the idea of filling up the corners with something. Examples of such one can best collect by going to the Armenian Convent in Jerusalem, where there are a great many variously shaped crosses engraved in the walls of the building, where apparently such stones were used the second, and perhaps even the third time, and as they had a cross on them they were in the new building put with their faces outwards. This I think accounts for the great number one can find on examining the walls. As I did so one day a priest of a higher rank called me into his room and showed me a book, and in it the drawings (plan, view, &c.) of a rock-cut church, or rather chapel, in the Convent "Anee," near Kars, in the Caucasus, built in the ninth century, in which is engraved more than once the Jerusalem Cross. Hence, therefore, the Armenians appear to be the designers and first users of the Jerusalem Cross, and as the Crusaders were on friendly terms with them and found their cross so convenient for their own purposes and so nicely expressing their ideas, they adopted it from them. I may mention that William of Tyre says in his history of the Crusaders, cap. 21, 28—" At this died the noble Armenian King, of whom I have in my tale hitherto repeatedly spoken," by which we see that the Crusaders were on good terms with them. In W. Besant and E. Palmer's "Jerusalem," London, 1888, p. 289, it is said: When "Jocelyn" had died, "there was no one left of the old Crusading chiefs, and their spirit was dead. Most of them had married Armenians." Even the name Jocelyn seems to be Armenian, as well as Lusignan (the last reigning king), which means in the Armenian

language, "moon." The Armenian priest told me that the cross with the four crosslets was originally theirs, and that the Crusaders simply adopted it. From the many crosses with four crosslets which I observed


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Rh on the walls of the convent I copied only two, which copies I enclose here. The priest showed me also an ancient cross, which they have kept carefully in their church for several hundred years as a relic of great value, which was bestowed upon them by a king. It is a plain cross cut out of one piece of wood, about 5 inches long and 3 inches wide, and has this shape:

On the long arm is a deepening or excavation of inch wide and 1 inch long, now empty, but he said a fraction of the real cross of Christ was once there.

In heraldry, numismatics, &c., the cross was used in many and various ways, and of innumerable forms, but all this is rather after the Crusading time, so I have not to speak of it, but wish only to remark that on the sign or emblem of the Order of Stanislaus, 2nd class, with which the Emperor of Russia honoured me, there are in the four corners of the cross, instead of crosslets, four small Russian double eagles, imitating in some degree the Jerusalem Cross; further, that in Germany at the time when not every one could read and write, one who could not write might make his signature to any document with three crosses, thus: and attested by the scribe that the very man has with his own hand put these crosses in his presence. Such a document was legal, as good as if he would have put his name.

little amulet mentioned by Herr Schick as being perhaps of the same character as the five golden mice spoken of in 1 Samuel vi, 4-11, is not sufficiently characteristic to determine with certainty the particular animal from which it has been copied. In a general way it appears to represent one of the rat tribe; indeed it would do very well for the


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190 common rat {Mus demimanus). But in the days of Samuel that animal presumably had not reached Palestine from its original home in Central Asia, whence it has travelled all over the world. If, therefore, the amulet is to be regarded as copied from an animal of ancient date, we must look for its original among the indigenous rats of Palestine. One of these, the sand rat (Psammonys obesus), appears very likely to have served as the model. It is about the right size and proportion, and has the peculiarly short ears noticeable in the amulet. This rat is very common all over Palestine, and has probably lived there from a very remote period.


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Rh If the lands of a community are smaller in proportion to the number of the faddan of those who wish to cultivate shaddadeen they are equally divided among all—that is, supposing 10 faddan are sufficient to plough the lands of a village and there are 20 shaddadeen who own a faddan each, the lands are divided into 20 portions, so that each shaddad receives an equal portion. Again, if the land is sufficient for say only 20 faddan, and there are 15 shaddadeen, five who own one faddan each, and 10 who own two faddan each, then the land is divided into 20 portions of one faddan each. Every shaddad receives a portion, and the remaining five portions are divided equally among the 10 shaddadeen who own the extra faddan. Thus the owner of one faddan receives a portion or portions of land sufficient for the one faddan, while the owner of the two faddan receives sufficient for one and a half faddan.

No stranger is allowed to cultivate or use any of the lands of a village, but with the consent of the whole community or of its elected representatives. The land is then let to him for the one year or season only; and the rent paid by him is used towards the expenses (taxes, &c.) of the whole community.

No member of a village or shaddad is allowed to let the land allotted to him for cultivation to a stranger; but he may enter into partnership with one who will supply him with the necessary oxen and seed for the cultivating of the land, such a partnership, however, must be entered into before the allotment or division of the land.

Such stranger is, in either of the cases above stated, then regarded as a member of the community for the time being, and is subject to all the taxes, dues and outlays of the village community.

The portion of land allotted to the shaddad belongs to him for that year, but his rights are with respect to the crop itself only; when that has been gathered in, his individual rights, so far as the land is concerned, cease.

The land is divided or apportioned to the shaddadeen of a village by lot, which is done in the following way:—

Supposing there are 20 faddan of land (faddan of land as explained above), this land is first of all divided into four divisions. One is called the southern division, the next the eastern, the third the northern, and the fourth the western division. Each of these divisions is then again divided into 20 equal portions or plots, and this time by measurement; a line or rope is sometimes used, and not infrequently a long reed or ox-goad, which measures generally about nine feet.

Every field in the lands of a village has a name, given to it either accidentally or for a special reason. Thus, a field with a peculiar rock in it is called "the field of the rock," another with a mound "the field of the mound," another near a road "the field of the road," another where a fight has taken place "the field of the fight," and so on. The different portions or plots into which these fields are divided according to the


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194 number of faddan are called maress or  mareth, plural  mawaress or  mawareth.

The names of the fields of each of the four divisions of land (the southern, the eastern, &c.), are then written, usually on small pebbles, which are then put into a bag. There will then be four bags, one for each separate division, and each bag will contain twenty pebbles, each one bearing the name of a portion of a field. The shaddadeen then form themselves into a semicircle, in the centre of which the Imam or Khateeb of the village is seated. Two little boys always under five years of age, so that they are unprejudiced or unbiassed, stand near him on either side.

One of the bags is then taken up and one of the little boys puts his hand into it and draws out a pebble (called a Jarral,, by some Ja'ral), bearing the name of one of the portions of the field. The Imam then asks the other boy, "To whom should this portion of land be allotted?" and the boy calls out the name or points to one of the villagers, and the land is allotted to him accordingly.

There is no appeal against this allotment, and each shaddad is obliged to be content with the portion or rather four portions of land which have been allotted to him, the same process having taken place with every bag.

Each of the shaddadeen who stands round waiting for his lot exclaims as the boy puts his hand into the bag to draw one of the lots, "Allah yakoom bi Jarrali,", "God keep or uphold or stand by or take care of = maintain my Jarral." See Psalm xvi, 5 and 6, "Thou maintainest my lot. The lines are fallen unto me in pleasant places; yea, I have a goodly heritage," and which I believe should more correctly be rendered from the Hebrew text, "Thou boldest or standest by the pebble of my lot" ( Jarrali). "The dividing lines have been stretched out for me in pleasant places" (the word translated pleasant is the same both in Hebrew and Arabic and means delectable—the perfection of delight or pleasantness), i.e., in the best portions of the fields. "Yea, a goodly inheritance by lot or allotment is on me" (that is, given to me).

This way of dividing the land takes place every year, and thus no member of the community receives the same portion of land every year. It may fall to him by lot again, and it may not, the chances are against its being so.

The owner of a yoke of oxen, therefore, receives four pieces or portions of land in four different parts of the land of the community. These portions which have been measured out as explained above by a line or rope, reed, or ox-goad are each called a marress, or


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Rh, from, as is supposed, , a rope. Some believe, and I rather incline to this view, that the word maress originates from meerath,, an inheritance. The plural of maress—a line, or rope, is marasaat; that of maress or mareth—a portion of land, is mawareth, the same plural is used by Felaheen for inheritance,, mawareth, inheritances. The maress is under the sole control of the villager to whom it has been allotted, from the day he begins to plough to the day that he has removed the harvested crop from it. His individual right over that piece of land then ceases.

The Turkish laws which have been introduced within the last few years in Palestine with reference to land tenure, and which are being rigorously enforced, are changing all these ancient laws and customs, much against the will and the wish of the people.

The lands are divided by an Imperial Commissioner into various portions and given to individual villagers. They receive title-deeds for individual ownerships, and each one is at liberty to sell his portion to whoever he pleases, either to a member of the village or to a stranger. The villager then sells his Hak el Muzarâ'a right of cultivation in the land; not as mulk, but as ameeriyeh, and subject to taxes as such; the object of the government being to break down the old custom of musha'á.

When the government will have attained this object, which it is doing fast, in spite of the resistance of many of the village communities, the old customs above referred to will die out and be forgotten.

The small plots of land which lie among rocks or in stony places, and which cannot be ploughed in the ordinary way by a ô'od and a pair of oxen, are generally given to the poorer villagers who possess neither one nor the other, and who dig such a piece of land with a faass, a pickaxe, an iron instrument with a pick at one end and a spade or hoe at the other (see Quarterly Statement, July, 1893, p. 200; see also Isaiah vii, 25).

The waste lands of a village,, kharāb, used for pasture, are all masha'â—held in common—so is the thrashing floor.

Ploughed and sown lands are called, ammar, built, i.e., cultivated.

Fallow and uncultivated lands are called, kharāb, ruined, i.e., waste.

A furrow is called, tilm. The dividing furrow between one maress and another is called, takhem. Such a takhem is generally a furrow double in width to the ordinary one, and marks the division of one man's crop from his neighbour's; but as this mark or boundary furrow frequently disappears after heavy rains, stones are placed at the time it