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 press; among them ‘A Night in the Catacombs’ (‘St. James's Magazine,’ 1861), ‘The Beggar Saint’ (‘Once a Week,’ 1862), and ‘Mr. H——'s Own Narrative’ (‘All the Year Round,’ 1861); the last tale attracted great attention, and was subsequently republished in a separate form under the title ‘A Wonderful Ghost Story,’ with letters from Charles Dickens to the author on the subject. During the last four years of his life, when ill-health kept him much indoors, he painted a series of types of foreign beauty, and wrote accounts of them in various publications. At an early period Heaphy assumed the additional christian name ‘Frank,’ with the view of thereby distinguishing his works from those of his father, but dropped it before 1850. He died in South Belgravia, 7 Aug. 1873. In 1842 he married Eliza Bradstreet, daughter of Joseph Bradstreet, of the family of Little Wenham, Suffolk, by whom he had many children.

HEARD, ISAAC (1730–1822), Garter king-of-arms, born at Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire, on 10 Dec. (O.S.) 1730, was son of John Heard, gentleman, sometime of Bridgwater, and afterwards of London, by Elizabeth, daughter of Benjamin Mitchell of Branscombe and Salcombe Regis. He was educated at Honiton grammar school. At the age of fifteen he entered the navy as a volunteer, and served as a midshipman on board H.M.S. Lynn, and afterwards in the Blandford till 1751, when he settled at Bilbao in Spain. There he engaged in mercantile pursuits, but his speculations were frustrated by the outbreak of war between that country and England in 1757. He was afterwards employed by a London merchant, and was introduced to Thomas Howard, earl of Effingham, then exercising the office of earl marshal, who, noticing his liking for antiquarian research, appointed him Blue-mantle pursuivant-of-arms 5 Dec. 1759. He became Lancaster herald on 3 July 1761, Norroy king-of-arms on 18 Oct. 1774, gentleman usher of the scarlet rod of the order of the Bath, and Brunswick herald; Clarenceux king-of-arms 16 May 1780, and on the death of [q. v.], by patent dated 1 May 1784, Garter principal king-of-arms, receiving the honour of knighthood in the following month. He died in the College of Arms, London, on 29 April 1822, and was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. He was twice married, but left no issue. A portrait of him was painted in 1817 by Arthur W. Devis.

HEARD, WILLIAM (fl. 1778), poet and dramatist, was the son of a bookseller of Piccadilly, and was educated for the medical profession. Unfortunately he betook himself to play-writing, and brought out two feeble dramas: Still more deplorable is a volume of poems entitled ‘A Sentimental Journey to Bath, Bristol, and their Environs; a descriptive Poem. To which are added Miscellaneous Pieces,’ 4to, London, 1778. Heard died on the coast of Africa at the age of thirty-four. His wife and daughter were both actresses.
 * 1) ‘The Snuff Box; or, A Trip to Bath,’ a comedy in two acts, performed at the Haymarket in 1775.
 * 2) ‘Valentine's Day,’ a musical drama in two acts, performed for only one night at Drury Lane on 22 March 1776 at Mr. Reddish's benefit, and printed anonymously (cf., v. 493).

HEARDER, JONATHAN (1810–1876), electrician, born at Plymouth in 1810, was well known as a popular lecturer throughout the west of England. Though nearly blind, owing to an accident when experimenting in his youth with a fulminating compound, he acquired a thorough knowledge of practical chemistry and electricity, and was for many years intimately associated with Sir [q. v.] in his researches. Hearder devised several improvements in connection with the induction coil and the application of electricity to medical purposes. He also invented and patented a sub-oceanic cable, which proved to be almost identical with that subsequently chosen for transatlantic telegraphy. Another invention was a thermometer for lead soundings at sea which should indicate the depth of water by its pressure. Hearder's attainments, however, were not exclusively scientific, and his success as a lecturer was due not only to his knowledge of facts, but to his skill as an experimenter and his genial manner. He took a special interest in the Plymouth Institution, and had an excellent knowledge of local antiquities and history. He acted for many years as electrician to the South Devon Hospital. Hearder died in Plymouth of a paralytic attack on 16 July 1876.


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 HEARN, WILLIAM EDWARD, LL.D. (1826–1888), legal and economical writer, born, 22 April 1826, at Belturbet, co. Cavan, was son of the vicar of Killague in the same county. He was educated at the royal school at Enniskillen and Trinity College, Dublin, where he was first senior moderator in classics and first junior moderator in logic and ethics. After being professor of Greek in Queen's College, Galway, from 1849 to 1854, he was in the latter year nominated as the first professor of modern history, modern literature, logic, and political economy in the new university of Melbourne. He was called to the Irish bar in 1853, and to the bar of Victoria in 1860. On the reorganisation of the school of law in 1873 he resigned his professorship and became dean of the faculty of law, and from May to October 1886 was chancellor of the university. In 1878 he was elected to represent the central province of Victoria in the legislative council. While in parliament his energies were mainly devoted to codification of the law. In 1879 he introduced the Duties of the People Bill, a code of criminal law; in 1881 the Law of Obligations Bill, a code of duties and rights as between subject and subject; in 1884 the Substantive General Law Consolidation Bill. All these bills were in 1887 referred to a joint select committee of both houses for report, and their adoption was recommended, but owing to Hearn's ill-health they were dropped for the time. Hearn was a member of the church of England, and as a layman took a prominent part in the working of the diocese of Melbourne. In 1886 he was appointed Q.C. He died 23 April 1888.

Hearn wrote: Hearn also made some brilliant contributions to the local press.
 * 1) ‘The Cassell Prize Essay on the Condition of Ireland,’ London, 1851.
 * 2) ‘Plutology, or the Theory of the Efforts to satisfy Human Wants,’ 1864.
 * 3) ‘The Government of England, its Structure and its Development,’ 1867; 2nd edit. 1887; an important and valuable work, which is referred to by Mr. Herbert Spencer as one of those which have helped to graft the theory of evolution on history.
 * 4) ‘The Aryan Household, its Structure and its Development; an Introduction to Comparative Jurisprudence,’ 1879; his most important work, which, in the author's words, was intended ‘to describe the rise and the progress of the principal institutions that are common to the nations of the Aryan stock.’
 * 5) ‘Payment by Results in Primary Education,’ 1872.
 * 6) ‘The Theory of Legal Rights and Duties; an Introduction to Analytical Jurisprudence,’ 1885.

HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792), traveller, born in London in 1745, served as midshipman in the royal navy 1756–63, some of the time under [q. v.] He then entered the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and in 1768–70 made three voyages of exploration for them in the north-west. On 15 July 1771 he began a survey of the Coppermine River, which he reached after a journey of thirteen hundred miles on foot, proceeded as far as the Great Slave Lake, and after the sorest privations made his way back to Prince of Wales's Fort 30 June 1772. He supposed that in this journey he had reached the northern coast of North America, and stood on the shores of the ‘Hyperborean Sea.’ He received the thanks of the Hudson's Bay Company and a handsome gratuity. In 1774 he established Fort Cumberland in the interior; in 1775 he was appointed governor of the company's station known as Prince of Wales's Fort, and was made prisoner at its capture by the French naval commander, La Perouse, in 1782 (see Gent. Mag. 1782, pp. 501, 546). He returned to England in 1787, and died in 1792. He is described as a man of enlightened and benevolent character, as well as of great courage and perseverance, and a close observer. After his death his ‘Account of a Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the North-West, undertaken … for the discovery of Copper Mines, a North-West Passage, &c.,’ was published in London in 1795, and another edition in Dublin in 1796. A German version is given in Sprengel's ‘Nachrichten.’

HEARNE, THOMAS (1678–1735), historical antiquary, the son of George Hearne, parish clerk from 1670 of White Waltham in Berkshire, and Edith, his wife, daughter of Thomas Wise of Shottesbrooke in the same county, was born at Littlefield Green, in the parish of White Waltham, in July 1678. His father gave him what instruction was in his own power, but his poor circumstances compelled him to send the boy to day labour. He had, however, given such proofs of ability and skill in reading and writing, that [q. v.] of Shottesbrooke undertook to provide for his education, and sent him to the school of Bray. His progress here was such

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1807 provisions of the treaty it pleased; and after a condition so absolute, he violated reciprocity in rejecting conditions made by the President because they were "unusual in the political transactions of States:"—

 * "The undersigned is therefore commanded to apprise the American commissioners that, although his Majesty will be at all times ready to listen to any suggestions for arranging, in an amicable and advantageous manner, the respective interests of the two countries, the proposal of the President of the United States for proceeding to negotiate anew upon the basis of a treaty already solemnly concluded and signed, is a proposal wholly inadmissible."

With this denial of the right of others to exercise arbitrary methods, Canning declared the field open for the British government to give full range to its arbitrary will. A week afterward Monroe left London forever. He had taken his audience of leave October 7, and resigned the legation to Pinkney. October 29 he started for Portsmouth to take ship for Virginia. His diplomatic career in Europe was at an end; but these last failures left him in a state of mind easy to imagine, in which his irritation with Jefferson and Madison, the authors of his incessant misfortunes, outran his suspicions of Canning, whose pretence of friendship had been dignified and smooth.

For reasons to be given hereafter, the Ministry decided to disavow Admiral Berkeley's attack on the "Chesapeake;" but in order to provide against the reproach of surrendering British rights, a


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 The remarks which have been made so far have been confined to the fabrics of the churches of Spain. It would be easy to add largely to them by reference to the furniture which still so often adorns them, unaltered even if uncared for; to the monuments of the mighty dead; to the sculpture which frequently adorns the doorways and screens; and to the cloisters, chapter-houses and other dependent buildings, which add so much charm in every way to them. Besides this, there are very numerous castles, often planned on the grandest scale, and some, if not very many, interesting remains of domestic houses and palaces; and most of these, being to some extent flavoured by the neighbourhood of Moorish architects, have more character of their own than has been accorded to the churches. Finally, there are considerable tracts of country in which brick was the only material used; and it is curious that this is almost always more or less Moorish in the character of its detail. The Moors were great brickmakers. Their elaborate reticulated enrichments were easily executed in it, and the example set by them was, of course, more likely to be followed by Spaniards than that of the nearest French brick building district in the region of Toulouse. The brick towers are often very picturesque; several are to be seen at Toledo, others at Saragossa, and, perhaps the most graceful of all, in the old city of Tarazona in Aragon, where the proportions are extremely lofty, the face of the walls everywhere adorned with sunk panels, arcading, or ornamental brickwork, and at the base there is a bold battered slope which gives a great air of strength and stability to the whole. On the whole, it must be concluded that the medieval architecture of Spain from the 12th century is of less interest than that of most other countries, because its development was hardly ever a national one. The architects were imported at one time from France, at another from the Low Countries, and they brought with them all their own local fashions, and carried them into execution in the strictest manner; and it was not till the end of the 14th century, and even then only in Catalonia, that any buildings which could be called really Spanish in their character were erected.

Pre-Conquest.—The history of English architecture before the Norman Conquest is still only imperfectly known. Its parentage is triple: Roman, Celtic and Teutonic. To the first belongs the general building tradition of the Romanized West, and the influence of the mission of Augustine at the end of the 6th century, and of such men as Wilfrid in the 7th. The Celtic element is due to the Scottish (Irish) church, which never gained much hold on the south of England, while the Teutonic influence shows itself in the later developments, which are allied to the early buildings of kindred peoples in Germany. Fragments of existing early churches have been attributed to the time of the Roman occupation, but all are doubtful, with the exception of the remains of what is believed to have been a Christian church excavated at Silchester in 1892. This was a basilica of ordinary form, comprising an apse with western orientation, nave and aisles, transepts of slight projection, and narthex. Augustine’s cathedral church of Canterbury, which he had learned was originally constructed by the labours of Roman believers (Bede), was also a basilica with western apse; its eastern apse and confessio beneath were probably a later addition. Remains of early churches are found on several sites where churches are recorded to have been built during the missionary period. Of these, Reculver (c. 670) and Brixworth (c. 680) have aisled naves and eastern apses. At Brixworth a square bay intervenes between the apse and the nave. St Pancras, Canterbury, of the time of Augustine, Rochester (604), and Lyminge (founded 633), show unaisled naves of relatively wide proportion, with eastern apses of stilted curve. In some of these churches there was a triple arcade in front of the sanctuary, in place of the usual “triumphal arch.” The technique shows Roman influence, and Roman materials are largely used. The existing crypts of Hexham and Ripon were built by Wilfrid, c. 675. The description of Wilfrid’s church at Hexham gives the impression of an elaborate structure (columnis variis et porticibus multis suffultam). Wilfrid also built at Hexham a church of central plan, with projections (porticus) on the four sides, a type of which no example has survived in England. Escomb (Durham) and parts of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, which are attributed to the same period, have plans of an entirely different type—a relatively long and narrow nave, with small square-ended chancel—a plan, usually attributed to Celtic influence, which is most extensively represented in churches recognized as Saxon.

The evolution of the characteristic features of pre-Conquest architecture was slow, and was doubtless greatly hindered by the invasions of the Northmen from the end of the 8th century onward, but germs of the fully developed style are to be found in the earliest buildings. The western tower, usually of tall and slender proportion, was developed from the western porch found at St Pancras, Canterbury, and Monkwearmouth; sometimes, as in the latter church, actually raised over the older porch. The lateral chapels of St Pancras, which existed also in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury, were developed into a transept, culminating in the cruciform plan with central tower. The characteristic “long-and-short” work, which consists of tall upright stones alternating with stones bedded flat bonding into the rubble work of the wall, has its prototype in the western arch of the porch of Monkwearmouth, and in the jambs of the chancel arch at Escomb. Sometimes the flat stones are cut back on the face, so that the plaster which covered the rubble extended up to the line of the upright stones, thus giving the quoin the appearance of a narrow pilaster. The repetition of these pilasters on the face of the walling constitutes rib-work, and these ribs are frequently connected by semicircular or so-called “triangular” arches, forming a land of rude arcading (Earls Barton, Barton-on-Humber.) Windows in the earliest Saxon work are generally wide in proportion, and splayed on the inside only; in the later work they commonly have splays both on the inside and outside. Doorways have square jambs, without splay or rebate; sometimes the jambs of doorways and windows are inclined, as in early buildings in Ireland. Imposts to doorways, tower arches or chancel arches are often square projecting blocks, sometimes chamfered on the lower edge. The mid-wall shaft is a characteristic feature in the belfry openings of Saxon towers; it supports an impost or through-stone, of the full thickness of the wall, which receives the semicircular arches over the openings. The method is analogous to that commonly found in northern Italy and the Rhineland. Sometimes the mid-wall shaft is a baluster, turned in a lathe. In some of the later belfry openings, a capital intervenes between the mid-wall shaft and the impost. The dating of buildings of this style is at present a matter of considerable difficulty, but certain points, such as the development of the cruciform plan, are useful for comparison. A fully developed cross church was built at Romsey in 969, having also a single axial western tower, and this seems to have been the normal type of a large church in the later years of the style. Cruciform plans, not yet fully developed, are found at Deerhurst, Breamore and St Mary in the castle at Dover, and fully developed at Norton (Durham) and Stow (Lincolnshire). The most advanced detail which occurs in pre-Conquest buildings is the recessing of arches in orders. But for the Conquest, English architecture might have developed somewhat on the lines of contemporary work in Germany. It must be remembered, however, that, although the Norman Conquest marks the beginning of a new epoch in English architecture, the Norman manner had already been introduced into England under Edward the Confessor, as is proved by the considerable remains of that king’s work at Westminster Abbey.

The succeeding periods of English architecture have been divided into so-called “styles” or “periods,” though it should be recognized that all such hard and fast divisions are purely artificial, and that, apart from the objection that they exaggerate the importance of mere details, they tend to obscure the fact that the history of Gothic architecture is a history of continuous development. The following classifications, those of Thomas Rickman and Edmund Sharpe, are in most general use for the present by such students as are not content with a nomenclature based on simple chronology:—

Norman Conquest to c. 1150.—At the time of the Conquest of England, the Norman school was already one of the most advanced Romanesque schools of western Europe. Its marked individuality and logical character are clearly expressed in the abbey churches of Jumièges and St Étienne and Sainte-Trinité at Caen, and it quickly supplanted the less advanced Romanesque

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H that, by the advice of Dodwell, who then lived at Shottesbrooke, Cherry took him into his own house, and treated him as a son. From Cherry and Dodwell Hearne acquired his nonjuring principles. In 1695 Hearne was sent by Cherry to Oxford, where he was entered of Edmund Hall, under White Kennett, vice-principal of the hall and rector of Shottesbrooke. He began residence there at Easter 1696, and took the degrees of B.A. in 1699, and M.A. in 1703. While he was still an undergraduate his studious habits and literary tastes became known in the university, and he was employed by Mill (then at work on the Appendix to his Greek Testament), Grabe, and others in various ways. Soon after taking his degree he was given the opportunity of going to Maryland as a missionary (Letters from the Bodleian, i. 117); but this he refused, after making it the subject of special prayer for guidance (ib.) and taking the advice of his friends. Much of his time was now spent in the Bodleian Library, and there his tastes and powers of mind attracted the notice of the librarian, John Hudson [q. v.], through whose influence he was made assistant-keeper or janitor. Here he spent many years, working at the catalogue of books, and completing that of the coins, and thus obtaining the knowledge and interest which he preserved through life for this branch of antiquities, and amassing the minute knowledge he ultimately possessed of books of all kinds, and especially of all relating to the history of England. He was afterwards offered chaplaincies at Corpus Christi and All Souls' colleges; but as the librarian decided that these were not tenable with a post in the library, he declined them, and in 1712 became second keeper of the Bodleian Library. The following year he was offered the librarianship of the Royal Society, but he would not leave Oxford. In 1715 he was elected archi-typographus and esquire bedell in civil law, two offices which had been always combined, but which, by a high-handed proceeding of the vice-chancellor (Dr. Gardiner) and others, acting, according to Hearne, against the statute, were now to be separated. Hearne declared that he would not hold the one without the other. He was at the same time resolved to remain in the library, but the librarian wished to get rid of him, and induced the visitors to decide, as soon as Hearne assumed the office of bedell, that the offices of under-librarian and of bedell were inconsistent. Hearne at once resigned the bedellship, though, according to his own account, his resignation was not formally complete, when W. Mussendine was elected bedell in his place. Hearne continued to execute the office of librarian as long as he could obtain access to the library; but on 23 Jan. 1716, the last day fixed by the new act for taking the oaths to the Hanoverian dynasty, he was actually prevented from entering the library, and was soon after formally deprived of his office on the ground of ‘neglect of duty.’

He remained from that time to the end of his life living quietly in Edmund Hall, carrying on his literary and historical works. In later life he might have had several honourable posts in the university—the Camden professorship of history in 1720 and again in 1727, that of keeper of the archives in 1726, and the head-librarianship of the Bodleian Library in 1719 and in 1729; but all these, according to his own account, he refused rather than take the oaths to what he regarded as a usurping dynasty, preferring, in his own words, ‘a good conscience before all manner of preferment and worldly honour.’ On Wanley's death he was offered in vain the post of librarian to the Earl of Oxford. He died on 10 June 1735, in consequence of a fever following a severe cold, and was buried in the east side of the churchyard of St. Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford on the 14th, with the words ‘who studied and preserved antiquities’ inscribed after his name on the tomb, by his own wish, an inscription that has been more than once renewed. His library was sold by T. Osborne on 16 Feb. 1736 and following days (see printed catalogue).

As a young man he chiefly devoted himself to classical literature, and published editions of Pliny's ‘Letters and Panegyrick,’ Eutropius, Justin, and Livy, and made large collections for an edition of Cicero, which were utilised in the Oxford edition of 1783 (10 vols. 4to). But as he grew older his attention was chiefly confined to English history and antiquities, and after publishing the ‘Itinerary’ and ‘Collectanea’ of John Leland he began his well-known series of editions of the English chroniclers; they were all published by subscription, very few copies of each being printed. Their importance to historical students can scarcely be exaggerated, many of them being the only editions that existed till the recent publication of the Rolls Series of historical works, and some being still the only editions in print. Hearne accomplished all this with little help from others, with only the income he derived from his subscribers, and with the chief authorities of the university looking askance at him. It is satisfactory to know that he lived to see what he had published for 2l. 2s. sold for 12l. 12s., and that at his death over 1,000l. was found in his possession. He does not


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H show any grasp of history, and for the most part he contented himself with seeing his manuscripts carefully through the press; but his accuracy is generally to be depended on, though his explanations of words are not always satisfactory. His prefaces do not give the information which would be expected of the contents of the volumes or even of the history and condition of the manuscripts from which he printed. His appendices contain all kinds of extraneous matter, having in most cases no connection with the author they follow. He was certainly wanting in power to distinguish the relative value of what fell in his way; it seemed to him enough that a document was old to induce him to publish it. Just before his death he had issued proposals for an edition of the chronicle known by the name of John Bevere (really a copy of the ‘Flores Historiarum’) [see ], from the Harl. MS. 641, and a few subscribers' names had been received.

But what he issued to the world was only a part of Hearne's literary work. He was in constant correspondence with very many of the antiquaries and literary men of his day, and their replies fill the greater part of ‘Rawl. Lett.’ vols. i–xxxvii., preserved in the Bodleian Library. Beginning from 1705 to within a few days of his death, he also kept an elaborate diary, giving lengthy extracts from the books he read or which came under his notice, remarks on his friends and enemies, upon public matters, university gossip and history, and indeed anything that interested him at the moment. This is contained in 145 volumes, left by him, with his other manuscripts and his collection of medals, to his friend W. Bedford, who sold them to Dr. Rawlinson, by whom they were bequeathed to the Bodleian Library. Some extracts from them were printed in 1817 by Dr. Bliss, but not published till 1857, in two octavo vols.; a second edition was issued with considerable additions in three vols. in London, 1869. But the whole diary, or at least all that is valuable in it, is being published under the auspices of the Oxford Historical Society, edited by Mr. C. E. Doble and others; eight vols., containing the ‘Collections’ from 1705 to 1725, have appeared (1885–1907). The diary gives Hearne's sentiments on things and persons in a very outspoken way; he has no tenderness for the Hanoverians or his personal opponents, and only commends the honest men, i.e. nonjurors and adherents of the exiled royal family. Thus he speaks of Bishop Trelawny (, i. 315) as ‘an illiterate, mean, silly, trifling, and impertinent fellow;’ ‘Dr. Kennett and some others of the trimming, diabolical principles’ (ii. 336); Mr. Trapp (poetry professor), ‘a most silly, rash, hott-headed fellow’ (iii. 56); Whalley, ‘a vain, proud, empty fellow’ (iii. 121); Charlett, ‘of a strange, unaccountable vanity’ (iii. 132); while Lancaster, provost of Queen's, he calls ‘old smooth boots,’ ‘the northern bear’ (iii. 28, 119, 121, 290, 349), ‘the worst vice-chancellor that ever was in Oxon.,’ who ‘raised to himself a pillar of infamy’ (iii. 60). Nor does he spare the wives of those he looked upon as enemies. Tanner's wife (ii. 9) is ‘remarkable for drinking of brandy;’ Kennett's wife ‘wears the breeches, and manages him as his haughty, insolent temper deserves’ (ib.) No doubt Hearne felt deeply the injustice with which he had been treated, and he was evidently at one time continually in fear of proceedings being taken against him. Thus he is afraid to write to his father openly, and conceals his name even in his diary (iii. 284, 361, 486). Had his diaries been examined, he would scarcely have been left undisturbed. And it must be allowed that he sometimes went out of his way to attack those in power, as may be seen in his remarks relating to the heads of colleges in his preface to Camden's ‘Elizabeth,’ i. xlvi (see them in Letters from the Bodleian, ii. 45).

The following is a list of his works, chiefly taken from his own manuscript copy, as given in Huddesford's ‘Life,’ i. 37–116, not including indexes to other works which he made, or separate letters on antiquities contained in his various volumes: 1. ‘Reliquiæ Bodleianæ,’ 1703. 2. ‘Plinii Epistolæ et Panegyricus,’ 1703. 3. ‘Eutropius, Messala Corvinus, Julius Obsequens,’ 1703. 4. ‘Ductor Historicus,’ 1704 (reprinted 1705, 1714, 1724). 5. ‘Justin,’ 1705. 6. ‘Livy,’ 1708. 7. Spelman's ‘Life of Alfred,’ 1709. 8. Leland's ‘Itinerary,’ 1710–12 (reprinted 1744–5, and again 1768–1770). 9. Dodwell's ‘De parma equestri Woodwardiana dissertatio,’ 1713. Some expressions in this offended the heads of houses in Oxford, and it was suppressed. See Hearne's ‘Catalogus Operum,’ p. 52. To this is added Thomas Neale's ‘Dialogue on the Buildings of the University of Oxford, with Views of the Colleges and the Schools.’ 10. Leland's ‘Collectanea,’ 1715 (reprinted 1774). 11. ‘Acta Apostolorum Græco-Latine, e codice Laudiano,’ 1715. 12. ‘Joannis Rossi Historia regum Angliæ,’ 1716. 13. ‘Titi Livii Foro-Juliensis Historia Henrici Quinti,’ 1716. 14. ‘Aluredi Beverlacensis Annales,’ 1716. 15. ‘W. Roperi Vita D. Thomæ Mori,’ 1716. 16. Camden's ‘Annales rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha,’ 1717. 17. ‘W. Neubrigensis Historia,’ 1719. 18. ‘Thomæ Sprotti Chronica,’ 1719. This


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H annotations.’ His name appeared on the title-pages of two volumes of ‘Annotations illustrative of the Plays of Shakespeare, by Johnson, Steevens, Malone, Heath’ (1819), but very few of his critical observations are incorporated. Heath was ‘always a martyr to bad health, and led the life of a valetudinarian.’ He died at Exeter on 13 Sept. 1766, and was buried at St. Leonard's, Exeter, on 21 Sept. A copy of his full-length portrait by Robert Edge Pine, also by Pine, still hangs in the Guildhall. A mezzotint engraving of it was executed by J. Dixon, and has been introduced in ‘Heathiana’ (p. 8), and on p. 566 of Dibdin's ‘Bibliomania.’ His wife, born 5 July 1718, survived until 19 Nov. 1808. Their family was seven sons and six daughters, of whom five sons and three daughters lived to middle age. His son Benjamin was head-master of Harrow 1771–1785, and a younger son, George, became head-master of Eton in 1796. A family group of Mrs. Heath and seven of her children was painted by R. E. Pine, and an autotype print, from a reduced facsimile in water-colours by G. P. Harding, faces p. 12 of ‘Heathiana.’ Mrs. Heath was naturalised by a special act of parliament about 1760.

His great-grandson, Baron Robert Amadeus Heath, preserved the following manuscripts by him: 1. ‘Spicilegium Virgilianum, seu notæ ad Virgilii editiones Burmannianam et Martynianam.’ 2. ‘Euripides recensitus castigatus et illustratus ad supplementum editionum Kingianæ et Barnesianæ.’ 3. ‘Lectionum antiquarum pars prima, sive Lectiones Catullianæ ad editionem Cantabrigiensem.’ 4. ‘Lectiones Tibullianæ.’ 5. Supplement to new edition [by Seward] of Beaumont and Fletcher's works. John Forster, in a letter printed in ‘Heathiana’ (p. 11), says that Dyce had seen the last manuscript, and had adopted some, but not enough, of its suggested readings. In 1882 it was presented by Baron Heath to the British Museum and is now Addit. MS. 31910. In addition to these works Heath left behind him most of the materials for a new edition of Hesiod. He was a collector of rare books from the age of thirteen, and in his lifetime distributed his library between two of his sons, but still left a large collection. There was printed in 1810 a ‘Catalogue of Books containing all the rare, useful, and valuable Publications to the present time to be Sold in April and May by Mr. Jeffery, No. 11 Pall Mall,’ and the catalogue was reissued later in the year with the prices and names of the purchasers. Heath was the principal collector of this library, but it was augmented by his son, the Rev. Benjamin Heath.

 HEATH, CHARLES (1761–1831), topographer, was a native of Hurcott, near Kidderminster, Worcestershire, where his father owned extensive paper mills. About 1791 he set up as a printer at Monmouth, and prepared a number of topographical works on the neighbourhood. These he printed at his own press, and all ran through many editions. Heath was twice mayor of Monmouth. After his death (7 Jan. 1831) his fellow-townsmen erected a monument above his grave in St. Mary's churchyard, Monmouth, and the inscription stated that his books ‘first brought into the notice of tourists’ the many picturesque points of interest in the neighbourhood. His works included historical and descriptive accounts of the town of Monmouth (1804), of the Kymin Pavilion and Beaulieu Grove (1807, 1809), of Tintern Abbey (1793, 1806), of the town and castle of Chepstow (1793, 1805, and 1808), and of Raglan Castle (1797; 11th edition, 1829). He also wrote ‘An Excursion down the Wye from Ross to Monmouth.’

HEATH, CHARLES (1785–1848), engraver, born in 1785, was illegitimate son of James Heath [q. v.], the engraver. He received instruction in engraving from his father, and an etched head done by him at the age of six is in the print room at the British Museum. He proved an apt pupil, helping to carry to perfection the style of small plates for book illustration initiated by his father. He was early in life a fellow of the Society of British Artists, and contributed for some years to their exhibitions, but subsequently left the society. His small plates for the numerous popular editions of English classics are executed with great taste and delicacy, and in some of his portraits, such as that of ‘Lady Peel’ after Sir Thomas Lawrence, he attained great excellence. In his larger plates he was less uniformly successful; among these were ‘Puck’ and ‘The Infant Hercules’ after Reynolds, ‘Sunday Morning’ after M. W. Sharp, ‘The Girl at the Well’ after R. Wes-


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534 Subliminal, see Subconscious. Sufis, 402, 420. Suggestion, 112, 234. Suicide, 147. Supernaturalism its two kinds, 520; criticism of universalistic, 521. Supernatural world, 518. Surrender, salvation by, 110, 208, 211. Survival-theory of religion, 490, 498, 500. , 306, 349., 421. , 385, 390. Sympathetic magic, 496. Sympathy, see Charity. Systems, philosophic, 433.

Taine, 9. , 246. Tenderness, see Charity. , 383, 384., 20, 346, 360, 408, 411, 412, 414. Theologia Germanica, 43. Theologians, systematic, 446. 'Theopathy,' 343. , 275. Threshold, 135. Tiger, 164, 262. Tobacco, 270, 290. , 149, 178, 184., 281. Tragedy of life, 363. Tranquillity, 285. Transcendentalism criticised, 522. Transcendentalists, 516. , 396., 101, 394. Truth of religion, how to be tested, 377; what it is, 509; mystical perception of, 380, 410. 'Twice-born,' type, 166, 363, 488. , 299.

'Unconscious cerebration,' 207. Unification of Self, 183, 349. ',' 272. Union with God, 408, 418, 425, 451, 509 ff. See lectures on Conversion, passim. Unity of universe, 131. Unreality, sense of, 63. Unseen realities, Lecture III, passim. Upanishads, 419. , 289. Utopias, 360.

, 502. Value of spiritual affections, how tested, 18. , 341. Vedantism, 400, 419, 513, 522. Veracity, 7, 291 ff. , 513., 38. , 275.

War, 365-367. Wealth-worship, 365. , 281., 227. Wesleyan self-despair, 108, 211. , 318., 84, 395, 396, 506. , 492, 493. , 96, 99, 117. World, soul of the, 449. Worry, 98, 181.

Yes-function, 261-263, 299, 387. Yoga, 400. , 256.


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Halifax Resolves

The Select Committee taking into Consideration the usurpations and violences attempted and committed by the King and Parliament of Britain against America, and the further Measures to be taken for frustrating the same, and for the better defence of this province reported as follows, to wit,

It appears to your Committee that pursuant to the Plan concerted by the British Ministry for subjugating America, the King and Parliament of Great Britain have usurped a Power over the Persons and Properties of the People unlimited and uncontrouled; and disregarding their humble Petitions for Peace, Liberty and safety, have made divers Legislative Acts, denouncing War Famine and every Species of Calamity against the Continent in General. That British Fleets and Armies have been and still are daily employed in destroying the People and committing the most horrid devastations on the Country. That Governors in different Colonies have declared Protection to Slaves who should imbrue their Hands in the Blood of their Masters. That the Ships belonging to America are declared prizes of War and many of them have been violently seized and confiscated in consequence of which multitudes of the people have been destroyed or from easy Circumstances reduced to the most Lamentable distress.

And whereas the moderation hither to manifested by the United Colonies and their sincere desire to be reconciled to the mother Country on Constitutional Principles, have procured no mitigation of the aforesaid Wrongs and usurpations, and no hopes remain of obtaining redress by those Means alone which have been hitherto tried, Your Committee are of Opinion that the house should enter into the following Resolve to wit,

Resolved that the delegates for this Colony in the Continental Congress be impowered to concur with the delegates of the other Colonies in declaring Independency, and forming foreign Alliances, reserving to this Colony the Sole, and Exclusive right of forming a Constitution and Laws for this Colony, and of appointing delegates from time to time (under the direction of a general Representation thereof) to meet the delegates of the other Colonies for such purposes as shall be hereafter pointed out.

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Rh has brought prophetism near to men in giving them all a state analogous to it in its principal characters. This state is sleep. If you were to tell a man who was himself without experience of such a phenomenon that there are people who at times swoon away so as to resemble dead men, and who [in dreams] yet perceive things that are hidden, he would deny it [and give his reasons]. Nevertheless, his arguments would be refuted by actual experience. Wherefore, just as the understanding is a stage of human life in which an eye opens to discern various intellectual objects uncomprehended by sensation; just so in the prophetic the sight is illumined by a light which uncovers hidden things and objects which the intellect fails to reach. The chief properties of prophetism are perceptible only during the transport, by those who embrace the Sufi life. The prophet is endowed with qualities to which you possess nothing analogous, and which consequently you cannot possibly understand. How should you know their true nature, since one knows only what one can comprehend? But the transport which one attains by the method of the Sufis is like an immediate perception, as if one touched the objects with one's hand."

This incommunicableness of the transport is the keynote of all mysticism. Mystical truth exists for the individual who has the transport, but for no one else. In this, as I have said, it resembles the knowledge given to us in sensations more than that given by conceptual thought. Thought, with its remoteness and abstractness, has often enough in the history of philosophy been contrasted unfavorably with sensation. It is a commonplace of metaphysics that God's knowledge cannot be discursive but must be intuitive, that is, must be constructed more after the pattern of what in ourselves is called immediate feeling, than after that of proposition and judgment. But our immediate feelings have no content


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406 but what the five senses supply; and we have seen and shall see again that mystics may emphatically deny that the senses play any part in the very highest type of knowledge which their transports yield.

In the Christian church there have always been mystics. Although many of them have been viewed with suspicion, some have gained favor in the eyes of the authorities. The experiences of these have been treated as precedents, and a codified system of mystical theology has been based upon them, in which everything legitimate finds its place. The basis of the system is 'orison' or meditation, the methodical elevation of the soul towards God. Through the practice of orison the higher levels of mystical experience may be attained. It is odd that Protestantism, especially evangelical Protestantism, should seemingly have abandoned everything methodical in this line. Apart from what prayer may lead to, Protestant mystical experience appears to have been almost exclusively sporadic. It has been left to our mind-curers to reintroduce methodical meditation into our religious life.

The first thing to be aimed at in orison is the mind's detachment from outer sensations, for these interfere with its concentration upon ideal things. Such manuals as Saint Ignatius's Spiritual Exercises recommend the disciple to expel sensation by a graduated series of efforts to imagine holy scenes. The acme of this kind of discipline would be a semi-hallucinatory mono-ideism—an imaginary figure of Christ, for example, coming fully to


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Rh persuade one's self that one is dealing, not with imaginary experiences, but with phenomena which, however rare, follow perfectly definite psychological types.

To the medical mind these ecstasies signify nothing but suggested and imitated hypnoid states, on an intellectual basis of superstition, and a corporeal one of degeneration and hysteria. Undoubtedly these pathological conditions have existed in many and possibly in all the cases, but that fact tells us nothing about the value for knowledge of the consciousness which they induce. To pass a spiritual judgment upon these states, we must not content ourselves with superficial medical talk, but inquire into their fruits for life.

Their fruits appear to have been various. Stupefaction, for one thing, seems not to have been altogether absent as a result. You may remember the helplessness in the kitchen and schoolroom of poor Margaret Mary Alacoque. Many other ecstatics would have perished but for the care taken of them by admiring followers. The 'other-worldliness' encouraged by the mystical consciousness makes this over-abstraction from practical life peculiarly liable to befall mystics in whom the character is naturally passive and the intellect feeble; but in natively strong minds and characters we find quite opposite results. The great Spanish mystics, who carried the habit of ecstasy as far as it has often been carried, appear for the most part to have shown indomitable spirit and energy, and all the more so for the trances in which they indulged.

Saint Ignatius was a mystic, but his mysticism made him assuredly one of the most powerfully practical human engines that ever lived. Saint John of the Cross, writing of the intuitions and 'touches' by which God reaches the substance of the soul, tells us that—


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414

Saint Teresa is as emphatic, and much more detailed. You may perhaps remember a passage I quoted from her in my first lecture. There are many similar pages in her autobiography. Where in literature is a more evidently veracious account of the formation of a new centre of spiritual energy, than is given in her description of the effects of certain ecstasies which in departing leave the soul upon a higher level of emotional excitement?

"Often, infirm and wrought upon with dreadful pains before the ecstasy, the soul emerges from it full of health and admirably disposed for action … as if God had willed that the body itself, already obedient to the soul's desires, should share in the soul's happiness. … The soul after such a favor is animated with a degree of courage so great that if at that moment its body should be torn to pieces for the cause of God, it would feel nothing but the liveliest comfort. Then it is that promises and heroic resolutions spring up in profusion in us, soaring desires, horror of the world, and the clear perception of our proper nothingness. … What empire is comparable to that of a soul who, from this sublime summit to which God has raised her, sees all the things of earth beneath her feet, and is captivated by no one of them? How ashamed she is of her former attachments! How amazed at her blindness! What lively pity she feels for those whom she recognizes still shrouded in the darkness! … She groans at having ever been


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[Ch. 55.] owner's risk. conditions, and the difference in the company's liability under the two sets of conditions in respect of the merchandise in question is not insignificant, the company shall, on request in writing by a trader, quote a corresponding rate under the other conditions, and, if within twenty-eight days from such request the company fails to quote such a rate to ' the satisfaction of the trader, the trader may apply to the rates tribunal, and the tribunal shall settle such corresponding rate and determine the date as from which it is to come into operation.

(3) The difference between an ordinary rate and an owner's risk rate shall be such as in the opinion of the rates tribunal is fairly equivalent to the amount by which the risk of the company in the case of the merchandise in question differs under the two sets of conditions.

(4) A railway company shall be under no obligation to carry livestock at owner's risk rates in cases in which livestock is not at the date of. the passing of this Act carried at reduced rates under owner's risk conditions.

Through rates and fares.

47.—(1) Where on or after the appointed day in pursuance of section twenty five of the, a railway company or person requires traffic to be forwarded at through rates or fares the company or person shall give written notice of the proposed through rate or fare to each company owning any part of the through route (hereinafter called " the forwarding company ") stating both its amount and the route by which the traffic is proposed to be forwarded, and, where a company gives such notice, it shall also state the apportionment of the through rate or fare.

Each forwarding company shall, within ten days or such longer period as the rates tribunal prescribe after the receipt' of such notice, by written notice inform the company or person requiring the through rate or fare whether it agrees to the rate or fare and the route, and, if it objects to either, the grounds of the objection.

(2) The rate or fare shall come into operation at the expiration of the said. ten days or other prescribed period:

Provided that, if before that expiration any such objection as aforesaid has been sent, or if, in the case of a rate, the rate is less than five per cent. or more than forty per cent: below the combined standard charges of all the forwarding companies, the matter shall be referred to the rates tribunal for their decision. 40


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Rh to points of honor, at the illusion that made her ever see as honor what the world calls by that name. Now she sees in this name nothing more than an immense lie of which the world remains a victim. She discovers, in the new light from above, that in genuine honor there is nothing spurious, that to be faithful to this honor is to give our respect to what deserves to be respected really, and to consider as nothing, or as less than nothing, whatsoever perishes and is not agreeable to God. … She laughs when she sees grave persons, persons of orison, caring for points of honor for which she now feels profoundest contempt. It is suitable to the dignity of their rank to act thus, they pretend, and it makes them more useful to others. But she knows that in despising the dignity of their rank for the pure love of God they would do more good in a single day than they would effect in ten years by preserving it. … She laughs at herself that there should ever have been a time in her life when she made any case of money, when she ever desired it. … Oh! if human beings might only agree together to regard it as so much useless mud, what harmony would then reign in the world! With what friendship we would all treat each other if our interest in honor and in money could but disappear from earth! For my own part, I feel as if it would be a remedy for all our ills."

Mystical conditions may, therefore, render the soul more energetic in the lines which their inspiration favors. But this could be reckoned an advantage only in case the inspiration were a true one. If the inspiration were erroneous, the energy would be all the more mistaken and misbegotten. So we stand once more before that problem of truth which confronted us at the end of the lectures on saintliness. You will remember that we turned to mysticism precisely to get some light on truth. Do mystical states establish the truth of those theological affections in which the saintly life has its root?

In spite of their repudiation of articulate


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 "'I have forgiven thee,' said I; 'ask God to forgive thee. The Lord bless thee.' I gave him my hand, and we went each to his work."

'Love your enemies!' Mark you, not simply those who happen not to be your friends, but your enemies, your positive and active enemies. Either this is a mere Oriental hyperbole, a bit of verbal extravagance, meaning only that we should, as far as we can, abate our animosities, or else it is sincere and literal. Outside of certain cases of intimate individual relation, it seldom has been taken literally. Yet it makes one ask the question: Can there in general be a level of emotion so unifying, so obliterative of differences between man and man, that even enmity may come to be an irrelevant circumstance and fail to inhibit the friendlier interests aroused? If positive well-wishing could attain so supreme a degree of excitement, those who were swayed by it might well seem superhuman beings. Their life would be morally discrete from the life of other men, and there is no saying, in the absence of positive experience of an authentic kind,—for there are few active examples in our scriptures, and the Buddhistic examples are legendary, —what the effects might be: they might conceivably transform the world.

Psychologically and in principle, the precept 'Love your enemies' is not self-contradictory. It is merely the extreme limit of a kind of magnanimity with which, in the shape of pitying tolerance of our oppressors, we are fairly familiar. Yet if radically followed, it would involve such a breach with our instinctive springs of action as a whole, and with the present world's arrangements,


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 manner of the conquered English. As soon as the conqueror had made himself master in his new kingdom, cathedral and abbey churches were rebuilt on a scale hitherto unknown either in Normandy or England. As the effect of the Norman Conquest was to incorporate the church in England more closely with western Christendom, so its effect on architecture was to bring it into line with the best continental achievement of its time. The immense energy of the Norman bishops and abbots gave such a stimulus to architecture that by the close of the 11th century, England, rather than Normandy, had become the real foyer of the Norman school.

The plans of the larger churches show greater development in the length of choir, transept and nave than was usual in Normandy. Many follow the type of choir plan generally represented in the contemporary churches of Normandy which have survived—a central apse, flanked by an apse terminating each aisle, but the two bays usual in the Norman churches frequently became four in England. The Confessor’s church of Westminster seems to have had an ambulatory with radiating chapels, a plan which, although rare in the surviving churches of Normandy, was adopted in several of the more important English churches (St Augustine’s, Canterbury; Winchester; Worcester; Gloucester; Bury St Edmunds; Norwich; Tewkesbury). Some of these have great vaulted crypts extending under the choir and its aisles. The transept, generally of considerable length, has one or more apsidal chapels on the east side of each arm, or an eastern aisle, or even (as at Winchester and Ely) both eastern and western aisles. The lantern-tower over the crossing was a characteristic feature in England, as in Normandy. Frequently the nave was of great length, extending to twelve bays at Winchester, thirteen at Ely, and fourteen at Norwich. Some churches, as Ely, Bury St Edmunds, and later Peterborough (Plate VIII., fig. 81), show a western transept, with corresponding development of the west front. Two western towers are most usual, but Ely (Plate II., fig. 67), and originally Winchester, had the single western tower, a survival from pre-Conquest times, which is found also in numberless parish churches. In their general design, the Norman churches show great skill in composition, and in the logical expression of structure, and sure grasp of the problems to be solved. The subordination of arches (arches built in rings, or orders, recessed one within the other) was carried further than in other Romanesque schools, and with this went the subordination of the pier, planned with a shaft to receive each order of the semicircular arch. Sometimes the shafted piers of the great arcades alternate with cylindrical (or later with octagonal) pillars; sometimes, as at Gloucester and Tewkesbury, all the pillars are cylindrical. The triforium usually has a single wide semicircular arched opening, enclosing two or more minor semicircular arches springing from detached shafts. Usually the aisle wall is carried up to form a complete triforium storey, unvaulted, and lighted by windows in the outer wall. The clerestory has a single window in each bay, with a wall passage between the window and an internal arcade, usually of three semicircular arches on shafts, the central arch being wider than the side arches. Most frequently naves and transepts were unvaulted, and finished with wood ceilings, while the aisles were covered with groined vaults of rubble, on transverse arches. The general design of the greater churches indicates, however, that the Norman builders were aiming at a completely vaulted structure. The half-barrel vault over the triforium of Gloucester, and the transverse arches over the triforium of Chichester, seem to be constructed to afford the necessary abutment to vaults over the choir, such indeed as still exist over some choirs in Normandy built before the end of the 11th century. The problem was only successfully solved by the introduction of the diagonal rib, which completed the structural membering of the vault. Durham, begun in 1093 (fig. 42), is the earliest example in England of this important innovation, and it precedes by some quarter of a century the earliest ribbed vaults of the Île-de-France. The abutting arches under the roof of its triforium are actually rudimentary flying-buttresses, and we have here all the essential elements of Gothic architecture, except the pointed arch, which is only systematically used in English vaulted construction from about the middle of the 12th century. The decorative forms of the earlier buildings of the Norman school are severely simple. Arches, which at first were usually unmoulded, soon received effective mouldings of rolls and hollows, continuing a tradition of the latest pre-Conquest architecture. Two types of capitals are found in the earlier buildings after the Conquest; the volute capital, descended from the Corinthian, which was the normal type in Normandy; and the cubic or cushion capital, formed by the penetration of a segment of a sphere, or segments of cones, with a cube, a type which, appearing earlier in England than in Normandy, was doubtless derived from pre-Conquest models, and in the 12th century developed into the scalloped capital. The decoration of wall-surfaces by arcades, frequently of intersecting semicircular arches, is characteristic of the Norman school. Windows are splayed in the interior, and in the more important buildings are enriched with shafts and moulded arches. Ornamentation is frequently concentrated on the doorways, which are often of many orders, with a shaft under each order. Based chiefly on geometric forms, such as the chevron or zigzag, star, fret and cable, the decoration becomes richer and more refined as the 12th century advances, though in sculpture the Norman was less advanced than some other Romanesque schools.

The foregoing generalization applies more particularly to the greater churches, but numberless parish churches present similar characteristics. Chancels are sometimes apsidal, but by far the most prevalent type of plan is the aisleless oblong nave and square-ended chancel, with or without a western tower. Other types of aisleless plans are the cruciform church with central tower, or simply nave and chancel with central tower. Even where subsequent alterations and rebuildings have destroyed almost everything, the influence of these plans on the later work is the key to a right understanding of the history of the greater number of English medieval churches.

12th Century (second half ).—The second half of the 12th century is the period of transition par excellence—of transition from Romanesque to Gothic. The school of the Île-de-France, which up to c. 1120 was one of the most backward of the Romanesque schools, had made enormous progress when the ambulatory of Suger’s church of Saint-Denis was built (1140–1144), and thenceforth it continued to lead the way. There is no doubt that, from the middle of the 12th century, English architecture was continuously influenced by the Île-de-France, for the most part through Normandy, but it must be considered to be a development on parallel lines, with strongly marked characteristics of its own, and not merely as an importation of forms already developed elsewhere. At the same time, the influence of the Cistercian revival was considerable, not so much in the introduction of foreign forms as in the direction of simplicity and severity, which acted as a valuable check to the prevalent tendency to exaggerate the importance of surface decoration.

The substitution of the square east-end for the apse in the plans of the greater churches, already effected at Romsey, was furthered by the simple plans of the Cistercian churches. The altar spaces provided by the radiating chapels of the French chevet were in England obtained by returning the aisles across the square east-end of the choir, or by an eastern transept. The latter occurs first here in

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 that a critical point would practically be passed, and we should be born into another kingdom of being. Religious emotion makes us feel that other kingdom to be close at hand, within our reach.

The inhibition of instinctive repugnance is proved not only by the showing of love to enemies, but by the showing of it to any one who is personally loathsome. In the annals of saintliness we find a curious mixture of motives impelling in this direction. Asceticism plays its part; and along with charity pure and simple, we find humility or the desire to disclaim distinction and to grovel on the common level before God. Certainly all three principles were at work when Francis of Assisi and Ignatius Loyola exchanged their garments with those of filthy beggars. All three are at work when religious persons consecrate their lives to the care of leprosy or other peculiarly unpleasant diseases. The nursing of the sick is a function to which the religious seem strongly drawn, even apart from the fact that church traditions set that way. But in the annals of this sort of charity we find fantastic excesses of devotion recorded which are only explicable by the frenzy of self-immolation simultaneously aroused. Francis of Assisi kisses his lepers; Margaret Mary Alacoque, Francis Xavier, St. John of God, and others are said to have cleansed the sores and ulcers of their patients with their respective tongues; and the lives of such saints as Elizabeth of Hungary and Madame de Chantal are full of a sort of reveling in hospital purulence, disagreeable to read of, and which makes us admire and shudder at the same time.

So much for the human love aroused by the faith-state. Let me next speak of the Equanimity, Resignation, Fortitude, and Patience which it brings.


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416, mystical states in general assert a pretty distinct theoretic drift. It is possible to give the outcome of the majority of them in terms that point in definite philosophical directions. One of these directions is optimism, and the other is monism. We pass into mystical states from out of ordinary consciousness as from a less into a more, as from a smallness into a vastness, and at the same time as from an unrest to a rest. We feel them as reconciling, unifying states. They appeal to the yes-function more than to the no-function in us. In them the unlimited absorbs the limits and peacefully closes the account. Their very denial of every adjective you may propose as applicable to the ultimate truth,—He, the Self, the Atman, is to be described by 'No! no!' only, say the Upanishads, —though it seems on the surface to be a no-function, is a denial made on behalf of a deeper yes. Whoso calls the Absolute anything in particular, or says that it is this, seems implicitly to shut it off from being that—it is as if he lessened it. So we deny the 'this,' negating the negation which it seems to us to imply, in the interests of the higher affirmative attitude by which we are possessed. The fountain-head of Christian mysticism is Dionysius the Areopagite. He describes the absolute truth by negatives exclusively.

"The cause of all things is neither soul nor intellect; nor has it imagination, opinion, or reason, or intelligence; nor is it reason or intelligence; nor is it spoken or thought. It is neither number, nor order, nor magnitude, nor littleness, nor equality, nor inequality, nor similarity, nor dissimilarity. It neither stands, nor moves, nor rests. … It is neither essence, nor eternity, nor time. Even intellectual contact does not belong to it. It is neither science nor truth. It is not even royalty or wisdom; not one; not unity; not divinity


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Rh or goodness; nor even spirit as we know it," etc., ad libitum.

But these qualifications are denied by Dionysius, not because the truth falls short of them, but because it so infinitely excels them. It is above them. It is super-lucent, super-splendent, super-essential, super-sublime, super everything that can be named. Like Hegel in his logic, mystics journey towards the positive pole of truth only by the 'Methode der Absoluten Negativität.'

Thus come the paradoxical expressions that so abound in mystical writings. As when Eckhart tells of the still desert of the Godhead, "where never was seen difference, neither Father, Son, nor Holy Ghost, where there is no one at home, yet where the spark of the soul is more at peace than in itself." As when Boehme writes of the Primal Love, that "it may fitly be compared to Nothing, for it is deeper than any Thing, and is as nothing with respect to all things, forasmuch as it is not comprehensible by any of them. And because it is nothing respectively, it is therefore free from all things, and is that only good, which a man cannot express or utter what it is, there being nothing to which it may be compared, to express it by." Or as when Angelus Silesius sings:—

To this dialectical use, by the intellect, of negation as


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[Ch. 55.] (5) Every existing officer or servant whose office or situation is so abolished or who so relinquishes his office or service or whose services are dispensed with on the ground that they, are not required or for any reason not being on account of any misconduct or incapacity, or whose salary, wages, or remuneration are reduced on the ground that his duties have been diminished, or who otherwise suffers any direct pecuniary loss by reason of the amalgamation or absorption (including any loss of prospective superannuation or other retiring or death allowances and allowances payable to his widow or orphan children, whether obtaining legally or by customary practice of the constituent or subsidiary company), shall be entitled to be paid compensation for such pecuniary loss, to be determined and paid by the amalgamated company, subject to, appeal to such standing-arbitrator or board of arbitration as aforesaid, in accordance with the provisions contained in section one hundred and twenty of the relating to compensation to existing officers, and those, provisions shall apply accordingly as. if they were herein re-enacted with the necessary modifications. For the purpose of this schedule, any solicitor who was continuously retained by a company as their chief legal adviser for the period of five years before the passing of this Act shall be deemed to be an existing officer of the company : Provided that, in the case of any officer or servant who was appointed to his office as ,a specially qualified person at an age exceeding that at which public service usually begins or of any officer or servant who suffers any loss of prospective superannuation or other retiring or death allowances as aforesaid, such addition may be made to the amount of compensation authorised under the said provisions as may seem just,. having regard to the particular circumstances of such case:

Provided further that the expression in subsection (1) of section one hundred and twenty of the Local Government Act, 1888, " the Acts and Rules relating to Her Majesty's Civil Service " shall mean the Acts and Rules relating to His Majesty's Civil Service which were in operation at the date of the passing of the Local Government Act, 1888.

(6) The fee payable to an arbitrator or member of a board of arbitration under this Schedule shall be such as the Lord Chancellor may fix, and that fee shall be paid by the amalgamated company concerned.

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[Ch. 55.]

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Author:Roger Quarles Mills

Works

 * “What shall we do with silver?,” The North American Review, Volume 150, Issue 402, May 1890.

title: Author:Roger Quarles Mills


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hayward, Abraham


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Haywood, Eliza


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hazeldine, William


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Head, Edmund Walker


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Head, Francis Bond


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Head, Guy


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Heaphy, Thomas (1775-1835)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Heard, Isaac


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hearne, Samuel


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 grasses, or both, each variety of soil, from swamp to desert, having its characteristic forms.

MILLIGAN, WILLIAM (1821–1892), Scottish theologian, was born on the 15th of March 1821, the eldest son of the Rev. George Milligan and his wife Janet Fraser. He was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and, from the age of fourteen, at the university of St Andrews, where he graduated in 1839. In 1843 at the disruption he took the side of those who remained in the Establishment, and in 1844 became minister of Cameron in Fifeshire. In 1845, his health having given way, he went to Germany, and studied at the university of Halle. After his return to Scotland and his resumption of his clerical duties he began to write articles on Biblical and critical subjects for various reviews. This led to his appointment in 1860 to the professorship of Biblical criticism in the university of Aberdeen. In 1870 he was appointed one of the committee for the revision of the translation of the New Testament. His fervent piety, and his wide interest in educational and social questions, extended his influence far beyond the circle of theologians. His contributions to periodical literature for many years were numerous and valuable; but his reputation chiefly rests on his works on the Resurrection (1890) and Ascension of our Lord (1892), his Baird lectures (1886) on the Revelation of St John, and his Discussions (1893) on that book. All these volumes are distinguished by great learning and acuteness, as well as by breadth and originality of view. He died on the 11th of December 1892.

MILLINER, originally a dealer in goods from the city of Milan in Italy, whence the name. Such goods were chiefly steel work, including. cutlery, needles, also arms and armour and textile fabrics, ribbons, gloves and “Milan bonnets.” The “milliners” of London, though never formed into a Livery Company seem to have been associated with the “Cappers and Hurers,” which later were amalgamated with the “s” (q.v.). Minsheu’s derivation of the word from mille, thousand (“as having a thousand small wares to sell”), though a typical instance of guessing etymologies, shows the miscellaneous character of their trade in the 16th and 17th centuries. The modern use of the word is confined chiefly to one who makes and sells bonnets and hats for women; but articles of “millinery” include ribbons, laces, &c., usually retailed by haberdashers.

MILLIPEDE, the popular name of the best known members of a group of the Arthropoda, scientifically known as Diplopoda, and formerly united with the Chilopoda (see ), the Pauropoda and the Symphyla as an order of the class Myriapoda. This classification, however, has of late years been abandoned on account of the recognition of closer affinity between the Chilopoda (centipedes) and the Hexapoda (insects) than between the Chilopoda and Diplopoda. By modern writers the above mentioned groups of “tracheate” Arthropoda are either regarded as independent classes of this phylum Arthropoda, or associated in two superclasses, the Opisthogonea or Opisthogoneata for the Chilopoda and Hexapoda; and the Prosogonea or Prosogoneata for the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. The structural character upon which these superclasses are based is the position of the generative apertures which open anteriorly in the Prosogonea and posteriorly in the Opisthogonea. Although the Pauropoda and Symphyla are not, strictly speaking, Diplopoda, these three groups of prosogoneate arthropods are here for convenience considered together.

CLASS DIPLOPODA.

Structure.—The anterior extremity is provided with a distinct head which by its general form and the nature of its appendages is as sharply marked off from the body as is the case in the Hexapoda. It always bears at least three pairs of appendages, the eyes when present and, in the Oniscomorpha a peculiar sense organ. The inferior edge of the head plate overhangs the mouth and is termed the labrum. The exoskeleton of a typical somite consists of the following elements: a dorsal plate, a ventral plate, and a pleural plate on each side. To the external margin of the ventral plate or sternum is articulated a pair of legs and between the leg and the pleural plate is situated the spiracle of the tracheal system. But the segmentation of the Diplopoda presents two marked peculiarities. The first is the fact that, with the exception of a few of the anterior leg-bearing segments and perhaps one or two of those at the posterior end of the body, a single dorsal plate or tergum with its pleural plates overlies two sternal plates, two pairs of legs and two pairs of spiracles. Hence the segments appear to be double and to be furnished with twice as many legs as is normal in the Arthropoda—a peculiarity which has suggested the term “Diplopod” or “double-footed,” for this group. It is generally believed that each tergal plate results from the coalescence of the terga of two originally distinct adjoining segments; but the same effect would be produced by the enlargement of one of a pair of terga and the complete excalation of the other. It is in favour of the latter view that there is only a single pair, and not two pairs, of stink-glands on each so-called double tergal plate. Unfortunately the history of the development of the segments does not clear up the difficulty since the terga of the double segments are single from the first, and no evidence either of fusion or excalation is supplied. The second of the two peculiarities above-mentioned is the great development of the tergal sclerite as compared with the sternal. Only very rarely (i.e. in Platydesmus) is there a broad sternal area. In the majority of cases the lateral edges of the tergum are bent downwards and inwards towards the mid ventral line; the sternum at the same time is so much reduced that the basal segments of the legs of opposite sides are almost in contact. The pleural plate on each side usually disappears either by suppression or by fusion with the tergum. The sterna with their attached legs often remain free. But quite commonly the coalescence of the skeletal elements is carried to such an extreme that each segment is a solid ring with two pairs of movable appendages. The last segment is differently constructed from the others. It is always limbless, and usually consists of a complete tergal ring, a single sternal plate, and a pair of movable anal valves which are normally closed, but are capable of being opened for the passage of faeces. These anal valves are possibly the homologues of the plural scutes of a normal segment. The appendages are modified

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 as a single pair of antennae, two or three pairs of jaws and a variable number of walking-legs, of which one or more pairs may be transformed into gonopods. The antennae are short and very similar to the legs. They are preoral in position, and usually consist of seven segments, the seventh or distal segment being small, as a rule, and furnished with a sense organ which is probably olfactory or tactile in function. The mandibles or jaws of the first pair are the most anterior of the postoral appendages. They are large, powerful, and usually consist of three or two segments, a basal or cardo, which is sometimes absent, a second or stipes, and a third or mala, the latter being supplied with a strong tooth and pectinate lamellae. In all Diplopods, with the exception of the Pselaphognatha, there are only two pairs of jaws, those of the second pair forming a large plate, the gnathochilarium, which acts as a lower lip. It consists of several distinct sclerites, two external on each side, the proximal known as the cardo, the distal as the stipes, the latter being tipped with one or two lobes (malae) and far exceeding the cardo in size. Between the external plates there is a median proximal plate (mentum) generally of large size and often itself subdivided, and a pair of distal plates (linguae). Behind the base of the gnathochilarium there is a single large transverse plate, the hypostoma. In the Pselaphognatha, the jaws representing the gnathochilarium are differently constructed and an additional pair, the maxillulae, has been recently detected between the gnathochilarium and the mandibles. Behind the gnathochilarium, which from embryological data appears to result from the modification of a single pair of appendages, a legless somite has been detected in some embryos. Possibly the plate referred to above as the hypostoma is its sternal element. The heart is a median dorsal vessel composed of a series of chambers each giving off a pair of arteries and furnished with a pair of orifices or ostia. According to Newport, the anterior chamber lying in the second segment is prolonged into an aortic trunk from which arise three pairs of lateral arteries dipping down on each side of the alimentary canal and uniting beneath it in a common ventral vessel. The heart is enveloped in a delicate pericardial membrane and is supported by lateral alary muscles. The alimentary canal is a simple tube extending usually straight through the body from mouth to anus. Only in the Oniscomorpha is it looped, thus suggesting the origin of this short-bodied group of millipedes from longer, more vermiform ancestors. A pair of so-called salivary glands opens into the fore-gut near its anterior extremity and one or two pairs of malpighian tubes communicate with the hind-gut at its junction with the broad mesenteric portion of the canal. Respiration is effected by means of tracheal tubes which communicate with the exterior by means of spiracles situated just above the bases of the walking limbs. Each spiracle leads into a longer or a shorter pouch whence the tracheae, which are of two kinds, arise. In the majority of the orders the tracheae are tufted, that is to say, they form two bundles of short simple tubules springing from the innermost corners of each pouch. In the Oniscomorpha, however, each pouch gives rise to a number of long tubes which extend through the body and somewhat resemble those of the Chilopoda except that they neither branch nor are extensive. As in the Chilopoda and Hexapoda the tracheae are strengthened and kept expanded by a slender spiral filament.

The ventral nerve cord consists of two strands so closely approximated as to be practically fused, with a small ganglionic enlargement for each pair of legs. Hence in the double segments there are two such ganglia, which in addition to the crural nerve give off on each side a large branching nerve to other organs in the segment. In the Opisthospermophora (Julus, Spirostreptus) and the Oniscomorpha (Glomeris, Sphaerotherium) the ganglia are spaced at equal distances on the cord, but in the Merochaeta (Polydesmus) they are grouped in pairs to correspond to the spacing of the legs. The apodous penultimate and anal segments are innervated from the last ganglion of the cord, as are also the gonopods of the males of the Oniscomorpha. The first (suboesophageal) ganglion of the cord supplies the mandibles and gnathochilarium and is connected by the oesophageal commissures with the bilobed cerebral nerve whence arises the nerves for the eyes, when present, and the antennae. Eyes are sometimes absent, as in all the genera of Merochaeta and in many genera of other groups, as in Siphonophora, one of the Colobognatha, and several of the Juloidea (Typhloblaniulus). In other cases they are represented by one or two ocelli on each side (Stemmiuloidea); or by a vertical series of ocelli as in the Glomeroidea and Polyzonium amongst the Colobognatha. But in the majority of the orders they are represented by triangular or subspherical aggregations of ocelli recalling in a certain degree those of the Lithobiomorpha amongst the Chilopoda. They are simple in structure and consist externally of a cuticular corneal thickening or lens and internally of a retinular layer of enlarged epidermic cells, the

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 internal or proximal ends of which are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. The ovary is unpaired and extends almost the entire length of the body beneath the alimentary canal. The oviducts are sometimes separate tubes (Lysiopetalum), sometimes confluent and divided just before terminating in the two orifices behind the base of the legs of the second pair (Julus). The testes and seminal ducts occupy the same position and extent as the ovary and oviducts. The ducts are sometimes coiled, sometimes divided, sometimes united. The two testes are sometimes united by transverse branches across the middle line, and are sometimes branched posteriorly. They bear short caecal diverticula in which the semen is developed. There, are no accessory glands associated with the generative organs; but in some forms, e.g. Polyxenus, there is a pair of receptacula seminis extending backwards alongside the ovary and opening into the oviduct. The secondary sexual characters of the males are of great taxonomic importance. The seminal ducts, like the oviducts, open behind the legs of the second pair. Associated with them in the Limacomorpha (Glomeridesmus), there is a pair of very long retractile penes. In the Spirostreptoidea and Juloidea the penes are much shorter and have coalesced. Sometimes they are undeveloped (Spiroboloidea). In other cases, the Merochaeta, Oniscomorpha, &c., the ducts traverse the coxae of the legs of the second pair. But in all these groups, with the exception of the Oniscomorpha, semen is transferred from the genital orifices, with or without the aid of the penes, either into the first or second pairs of appendages of the seventh segment which are modified in various ways, and are termed phallopods. When the posterior legs are so modified the anterior are as a rule even more profoundly altered to form a protective sheath, or coleopod, for the phallopod; and as a further precaution the entire apparatus is usually withdrawn within the seventh segment. In the Oniscomorpha the semen is transferred into a pair of receptacles developed upon the coxae of the legs of the last pair, which are chelate. The male appendages that are modified in the above described ways are comprehensively spoken of as gonopods. Other secondary sexual characters, like the stridulating organs of the males of some Oniscomorpha, the suctorial pads on the legs of Spirostreptoidea, the development of angular processes upon the mandible or first tergal plate, or of fine ridges in the gnathochilarium—all of which are concerned in enabling the male to maintain a secure hold upon the female—are of great taxonomic use in distinguishing the genera and species.

The most important glands in the Diplopoda are the repugnatorial or stink-glands, which, except in the Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha and Ascospermophora, open by pores upon the sides of more or fewer of the segments. They secrete a fluid with an unpleasant odour, breaking up in one case into cyanide of potassium, and are practically the only means of protection, apart from the hard exoskeleton, which Diplopods possess. In some millipedes silk glands also exist and open upon papillae upon the posterior border of the last tergal plate. They are found in the Ascospermophora, Stemmiuloidea and Proterospermophora, and are used for spinning nests for the eggs and protective cases for the young during exuviation.

Classification.—The existing members of the class Diplopoda may be classified as follows:—

Subclass

Diplopods with the soft integument strengthened by weakly chitinized sclerites and furnished above and on the head with transverse rows of short, stout, somewhat squamiform bristles; laterally, on each side of the principal segments, with a thick tuft of long bristles and with a large, silky, white tuft projecting backwards from the posterior extremity. Mandibles one-jointed. Behind them a pair of small, one-jointed maxillulae, attached to a median membranous “lingua.” Behind the “lingua” and maxillulae, a large, double, transverse plate with a long, external sclerite bearing distally in Polyxenus an inner short-lobate process and an outer long spiny palpiform branch. The latter, however, is absent in Lophoproctus. These sclerites probably represent the gnathochilarium of the Chilognatha, but the homology between the skeletal elements of the jaws in question is not clearly understood. It has been suggested that they represent two pairs of jaws, but embryological proof of this does not exist. Order Penicillata (＝Ancyrotricha). Head large, usually with lateral eyes. Antennae eight-jointed, attached near the middle of the front of the head. On the dorsal side of the body there are eleven segments, simple and compound. The first four of these bear one pair of legs each, the succeeding four two pairs of legs, the ninth segment one pair, making a total of thirteen pairs of legs. The tenth and eleventh or anal segment are legless. There is a narrow sternal area separating the bases of the legs of the two sides. There are no repugnatorial glands. In the male none of the legs are modified as gonopods, but the coxa of each of the legs of the second pair is furnished with a conical penis, which during copulation, it may be supposed, is inserted into the genital orifice of the female, which occupies a corresponding position in that sex. The young when first hatched has only three pairs of legs and five segments. The millipedes of this order are all of small size, measuring at most only a few millimetres in length. The best-known genera are Polyxenus and Lophoproctus, both of which occur in Europe. Other forms have been discovered in the West Indies, North and South America, and Ceylon; and it is probable that the group has an almost cosmopolitan range. They live under stones or the loosened bark of trees. The carboniferous fossil, Palaeocampa, is usually referred to this subclass.

Subclass

Diplopods with firmly chitinized exoskeleton, sometimes thickly, sometimes sparsely covered with short, simple hairs, but never decorated with tufts or rows of peculiarly modified bristles.

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 Mandibles, two- or three-jointed; maxillulae absent, the jaws of the second pair being represented by the gnathochilarium described above.

Order Oniscomorpha.

Body short and broad, hemispherical in transverse section; convex above, flat below, and capable of being spherically coiled. The exoskeleton of a typical compound segment consists of a vaulted tergum, a pair of free pleural sclerites, two pairs of small tracheal sclerites and two pairs of legs, the latter attached to the ventral membrane, which has no sternal plates. The tergal plates are twelve or thirteen in number, whereof the first is very small, the second enormously expanded laterally, and the last, also enlarged and probably representing at least three segments, extends laterally and posteriorly like a hood over the posterior end of the body without forming a chitinous ring round the anal valves and sternum. In the male the legs of the penultimate pair are sometimes modified as claspers; those of the last pair are always enlarged and prehensile, and bear on their coalesced basal segments a pair of sperm-carrying processes analogous to the phallopods of other groups. Apart from these organs the male has no penis, the seminal ducts perforating the coxae of the legs of the second pair. This order contains two well-marked suborders, the Glomeroidea and the Zephronioidea. The Glomeroidea, comprising the families Glomeridae, Gervaisiidae, Onomeridae, have the antennae approximated on the head, the eyes uniserial and twelve (rarely eleven) tergal plates. To this group belong the common pill-millipedes of Europe and North Africa. In North America the Onomeridae alone are found. The Zephronioidea, with the single family Zephroniidae, have the antennae at the sides of the head, the eyes composed of a spherical cluster of ocelli, and always thirteen tergal plates. This group is common in the tropical and southern continents of the Old World, having representative genera in South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand. They are much larger forms than the Glomeroidea, large specimens reaching two or three inches in length. In addition to the characters mentioned above the Oniscomorpha differ from all other Diplopods in having long tubular tracheae and the alimentary canal bent upon itself. Order Limacamorpha

Resembling the Oniscomorpha in the shape and structure of a typical segment, except that the tracheal plates are unrepresented; in the facts that the last tergal plate does not form a complete ring round the anal area, and that the last pair of legs in the male are modified; but differing from them in that the body consists of nineteen or twenty segments, is elongate, and tapers anteriorly and posteriorly, the second and last tergal plates being small; in the presence in the male of a pair of long hairy protrusible penes between the legs of the second and third pairs, and in the structure of the gonopods, which, instead of being chelate, terminate in a slender, tapering tarsal segment. This order contains two families: Zephroniodesmidae (Zephroniodesmus) and Glomeridesmidae (Glomerisdesmus), the former from tropical Asia, the latter from tropical America. The largest of these millipedes reach a length of only about 7 mm. Nothing special is known of their habits.

Order Colobognatha.

Body elongate, capable of being spirally coiled, consisting of a large and indefinite number of segments, each being furnished with a distinct often large sternal area, and with the pleural sclerite or membrane distinct from the tergum. The last tergal plate forms a complete ring round the anal valves. Legs with coxal pouches; those of the seventh segment transformed into gonopods of a very simple type in the male, which is also furnished with a double penis completely or partially confluent with the coxae of the legs of the second pair. Head always small, frequently triangular or piriform, in the latter case the gnathites reduced in size and complexity. Repugnatorial pores present and lateral. The genera of this order are divisible into three families: the Platydesmidae (Platydesmus, Pseudodesmus), Polyzonidae (Polyzonium, Siphonotus), Siphonophoridae (Siphonophora). Of these the Platydesmidae have departed least and the Siphonophoridae most from the typical Diplopod in the structure of the mouth parts. The group is for the most part tropical, one genus only, Polyzonium, extending as far north as Central Europe. Order Ascospermophora.

Body elongate, consisting of from twenty-six to thirty-two segments, but not varying within specific limits; the pleurae coalesced with the terga, the sterna free. More or fewer of the anterior ten pairs of legs may be modified in the males, but no true phallopods are differentiated, the function of seminal receptacles being performed (according to C. Verhoeff) by the exsertile coxal pouches of the two pairs of legs of the eighth segment. The seminal ducts in the male perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair. There are no repugnatorial pores, and the terga are furnished with three pairs of symmetrically placed hairs or bristles. On the posterior border of the last tergal plate there is a pair of spinning papillae. The millipedes of this order, also called Coelochoeta, are referable to several families: Chordeumidae (Chordeuma), Craspedosomidae (Craspedosoma), Heterochordeumidae (Heterochordeuma), &c. The Heterochordeumidae belong to the Oriental region, extending from India to New Zealand. The others are particularly abundant in genera and species in North and Central America and Europe; but are unknown in Africa, south of the Sahara.

Order Proterospermophora.

Differing from the Ascospermophora in that the number of segments is large and variable; they are furnished with repugnatorial pores, and not with the three pairs of setae. In the males the anterior appendages of the seventh segment are modified as phallopods, and the seminal ducts perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair.

This order, containing the family Lysiopetalidae (Lysiopetalum), is widely distributed in Europe and North America. Large examples of some of the species, e.g. L. xanthinum, reach a length of 4 or 5 ins.

Order Merochaeta.

Resembling the Proterospermophora in having only the anterior appendages of the seventh segment converted into phallopods and the seminal ducts perforating the coxae of the second legs in the males; but differing essentially in that the sterna are

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