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 {| border=1 cellpadding=5
 * rowspan="2"|
 * colspan="2"| Alternative Encyclopaedia
 * colspan="2"| Wikipedia
 * | Mean
 * | SD
 * | Mean
 * | SD
 * colspan="5"| Humanities
 * | Accuracy ||| 3.85 ||| 0.57 ||| 4.30 ||| 0.66
 * | References ||| 1.38 ||| 0.75 ||| 4.13 ||| 0.75
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.96 ||| 0.63 ||| 3.43 ||| 0.35
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 2.09 ||| 0.50 ||| 2.57 ||| 0.34
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.62 ||| 0.48 ||| 0.63 ||| 0.48
 * colspan="5"| Social Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 3.50 ||| 0.83 ||| 3.80 ||| 0.75
 * | References ||| 1.55 ||| 1.25 ||| 3.24 ||| 1.12
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.86 ||| 0.81 ||| 2.91 ||| 0.84
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 2.01 ||| 0.57 ||| 2.18 ||| 0.59
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.58 ||| 0.34 ||| 0.47 ||| 0.39
 * colspan="5"| Mathematics, Physics and Life Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 4.28 ||| 0.48 ||| 4.24 ||| 0.99
 * | References ||| 1.97 ||| 1.26 ||| 3.19 ||| 1.72
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.58 ||| 0.89 ||| 3.42 ||| 0.78
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 2.07 ||| 0.57 ||| 2.31 ||| 0.62
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.28 ||| 0.35 ||| 0.39 ||| 0.27
 * colspan="5"| Medical Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 2.77 ||| 0.70 ||| 3.71 ||| 1.00
 * | References ||| 1.14 ||| 0.30 ||| 2.77 ||| 1.45
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.10 ||| 0.89 ||| 2.99 ||| 0.97
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 1.45 ||| 0.33 ||| 2.00 ||| 0.72
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.11 ||| 0.21 ||| 0.25 ||| 0.30
 * }
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.58 ||| 0.34 ||| 0.47 ||| 0.39
 * colspan="5"| Mathematics, Physics and Life Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 4.28 ||| 0.48 ||| 4.24 ||| 0.99
 * | References ||| 1.97 ||| 1.26 ||| 3.19 ||| 1.72
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.58 ||| 0.89 ||| 3.42 ||| 0.78
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 2.07 ||| 0.57 ||| 2.31 ||| 0.62
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.28 ||| 0.35 ||| 0.39 ||| 0.27
 * colspan="5"| Medical Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 2.77 ||| 0.70 ||| 3.71 ||| 1.00
 * | References ||| 1.14 ||| 0.30 ||| 2.77 ||| 1.45
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.10 ||| 0.89 ||| 2.99 ||| 0.97
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 1.45 ||| 0.33 ||| 2.00 ||| 0.72
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.11 ||| 0.21 ||| 0.25 ||| 0.30
 * }
 * colspan="5"| Medical Sciences
 * | Accuracy ||| 2.77 ||| 0.70 ||| 3.71 ||| 1.00
 * | References ||| 1.14 ||| 0.30 ||| 2.77 ||| 1.45
 * | Style/ Readability ||| 3.10 ||| 0.89 ||| 2.99 ||| 0.97
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 1.45 ||| 0.33 ||| 2.00 ||| 0.72
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.11 ||| 0.21 ||| 0.25 ||| 0.30
 * }
 * | Overall Judgment ||| 1.45 ||| 0.33 ||| 2.00 ||| 0.72
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.11 ||| 0.21 ||| 0.25 ||| 0.30
 * }
 * | Overall Quality Score ||| 0.11 ||| 0.21 ||| 0.25 ||| 0.30
 * }

The sample characteristics of the entire sample categorised according to whether the articles were reviewed by student or academic experts are presented in Table 5.5.

5.1.1 Overall Comparison across the Sample between Wikipedia Entries and Articles from the Alternative Encyclopaedias

The findings of the comparisons of reviewers' ratings of articles from Wikipedia and from the alternative encyclopaedias are presented in Table 5.6. Wikipedia articles were found to have scored significantly higher on the dimensions of accuracy, references, style/ readability and overall judgment (see Table 5.1). 31

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Page:Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris (1904 reprint).djvu/53

Rh or heads of flowers, in ome of thee before they be blowne, are hoary white, or hairie, whereas in others, there is no hoarinee at all, but the buddes are mooth and purplih: in other things this differeth not from the former. Of this ort alo there is one that hath but few pots on the flowers, whoe colour is omewhat paler than the other.

Although this Orange Lilly hath not his flowers hanging downe, and turning vp again, as the former kinds et forth in this Chapter; yet becaue the green leaues tand at euerall ioynts as they do, I mut needs inert it here, not knowing where more fitly to place it. It hath a mall caly roote, with many mall long fibres thereat, from whence rieth vp a reaonable great talke, almot as high as any of the former, bearing at three or foure ditances many long and narrow greene leaues, but not o many or o broad as the former, with diuers ribbes in them: from among the vppermot rundle of leaues breake forth foure or fiue flowers together, euery one tanding on a long lender foote talke, being almot as large as a red Lilly, but a little bending downewards, and of a faire yellow colour, potted on the inide with diuers blackih purple pots or trakes, hauing a middle pointell, and ixe chiues, with pendents on them.

All thee Lillies haue been found in the diuers Countries of Germany, as Autria, Hungaria, Pannonia, Stiria, &c. and are all made Denions in our London Gardens, where they flourih as in their owne naturall places. The lat was brought into France from Canada by the French Colonie, and from thence vnto vs.

They flower about the later end of Iune for the mot part, yet the firt pringeth out of the ground a moneth at the leat before the other, which are mot vually in flower before it, like vnto the Serotine Tulipas, all of them being early vp, and neuer the neere.

The firt is vually called Martagon Imperiale, the Imperiall Martagon, and is Lilium Montanum maius, the greatet Mountaine Lilly ; for o it deerueth the name, becaue of the number of flowers vpon a head or talke. Some haue called it Lilium Saraenicum, and ome Hemerocallis, but neither of them doth o fitly agree vnto it. The econd is Lilium Montanum maius flore albo, and of ome Martagon Imperiale flore albo, but mot vually Martagon flore albo, the white Martagon. The econd ort of this econd kinde, is called Martagon flore albo maculato, the potted white Martagon. And the third, Martagon flore carneo, the bluh Martagon. The third kinde is called Lilium Montanum, the Mountaine Lilly, and ome adde the title minus, the leer, to know it more ditinctly from the other. Some alo Lilium Siluetre, as Cluius, and ome others, and of Matthiolus Martagon. Of diuers women here in England, from the Dutch name, Lilly of Nazareth. The lat hath his title Americanum & Canadene, and in Englih accordingly. Rh

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34

S in the former Chapter we decribed vnto you uch Lillies, whoe flowers being pendulous, turne their leaues backe againe, and haue their greene leaues, et by paces about the talke: o in this wee will et downe thoe orts, which carry their greene leaues more paredly, and all along the talke, their flowers hanging downe, and turning vp againe as the former, and begin with that which is of greatet beauty, or at leat of mot rarity.

1. This rare Martagon hath a caly root cloely compact, with broader and thinner cales than others, in time growing very great, and of a more deepe yellow colour then the former, from whence doth pring vp a round greene talke in ome plants, and flat in others, two or three foote high, bearing a number of mall, long, and narrow greene leaues, very like vnto the leaues of Pinkes, but greener, et very thicke together, and without order about the talke, vp almot vnto the toppe, and leer by degrees vpwards, where tand many flowers, according to the age of the plant, and thriuing in the place where it groweth; in thoe that are young, but a few, and more paredly, and in others that are old many more, and thicker et: for I haue reckoned threecore flowers and more, growing thicke together on one plant with mee, and an hundred flowers on another: thee flowers are of a pale or yellowih red colour, and not o deep red as the red Martagon of Contantinople, hereafter et down, nor fully o large: yet of the ame fahion, that is, euery flower hanging downe, and turning vp his leaues againe. It is not o plentifull in bearing of eede as the other Lillies, but when it doth, it differeth not but in being lee.

There is another, whoe greene leaues are not o thicke et on the talke, but ele differeth not but in flowring a fortnight later.

There is another alo of this kind, o like vnto the former in root, talk, flower, & maner of growing, that the difference is hardly dicerned; but coniteth chiefly in thee two points: Firt, that the leaues of this are a little broader and horter then the former; and econdly, that it beareth his flowers a fortnight earlier than the firt. In the colour or forme of the flower, there can no difference bee dicerned, nor (as I aid) in any other thing. All thee Lillies doe pring very late out of the ground, euen as the yellow Martagons doe, but are ooner in flower then any others.

A fourth kinde hereof hath of late been knowne to vs, whoe leaues are broader and horter than the lat, and the flowers of a paler red, tending to yellow, of ome called a golden red colour: but flowreth not o early as they.

1. The red Martagon of Contantinople is become o common euery where, and o well knowne to all louers of thee delights, that I hall eeme vnto them to loe time, to betow many lines vpon it; yet becaue it is o faire a flower, and was at the firt o highly eteemed, it deerueth his place and commendations, howoeuer encreaing the plenty hath not made it dainty. It rieth out of the ground early in the pring, before many other Lillies, from a great thicke yellow caly root, bearing a round brownih talke, beet with many faire greene leaues confuedly thereon, but not o broad as the common white Lilly, vpon the toppe whereof tand one, two, or three, or more flowers, vpon long footetalkes, which hang downe their heads, and turne vp their leaues againe, of an excellent red crimon colour, and ometimes paler, hauing a long pointell in the middle, compaed with ixe whitih chiues, tipt with looe yellow pendents, of a reaonable good ent, but omewhat faint. It likewie beareth eede in heads, like vnto the other, but greater. Rh


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CONSTRUCTION] arising at intermediate places, and as these will not usually lie exactly on the direct line, deviations from straightness will be rendered necessary. In the second place, except in the unlikely event of all the places on-the selected route lying at the same elevation, a line that is perfectly level is a physical impossibility; and from engineering considerations, even one with uniform gradients will be impracticable on the score of cost, unless the surface of the country is extraordinarily even. In these circumstances the constructor has two broad alternatives between which to choose. On the one hand he may make the line follow the natural inequalities of the ground as nearly as may be, avoiding the elevations and depressions by curves; or on the other he may aim at making it as nearly straight and level as possible by taking it through the elevations in cuttings or tunnels and across the depressions on embankments or bridges. He will incline to the first of these alternatives when cheapness of first cost is a desideratum, but, except in unusually favourable circumstances, the resulting line, being full of sharp curves and severe gradients, will be unsuited for fast running and will be unable to accommodate heavy traffic economically. If, however, cost within reasonable limits is a secondary consideration and the intention is to build a line adapted for express trains and for the carriage of the largest volume of traffic with speed and economy, he will lean towards the second. In practice every line is a compromise between these two extremes, arrived at by carefully balancing a large number of varying factors. Other things being equal, that route is best which will serve the district most conveniently and secure the highest revenue; and the most favourable combination of curves and gradients is that by which the annual cost of conveying the traffic which the line will be called on to carry, added to the annual interest on the capital expended in construction; will be made a minimum.

Cuttings and Embankments.—A cutting, or cut, is simply a trench dug in a hill or piece of rising ground, wide enough at the bottom to accommodate one or more pairs of rails, and deep enough to enable the line to continue its course on the level or on a moderate gradient. The slopes of the sides vary according to the nature of the ground, the amount of moisture present, &c. In solid rock they may be vertical; in gravel, sand or common earth they must, to prevent slipping, rise 1 ft. for 1 to 1½ or 2 ft. of base, or even more in treacherous clay. In soft material the excavation may be performed by mechanical excavators or “steam navvies,” while in hard it may be necessary to resort to blasting. Except in hard rock, the top width of a cutting, and therefore the amount of material to be excavated, increases rapidly with the depth; hence if a cutting exceeds a certain depth, which varies with the particular circumstances, it may be more economical, instead of forming the sides at the slope at which the material of which they are composed will stand, to make them nearly vertical and support the soil with a retaining wall, or to bore a tunnel. An embankment-bank, or fill, is the reverse of a cutting, being an artificial mound of earth on which the railway is taken across depressions in the surface of the ground. An endeavour is made so to plan the works of a railway that the quantity of earth excavated in cuttings shall be equal to the quantity required for the embankments; but this is not always practicable, and it is sometimes advantageous to obtain the earth from some source close to the embankment rather than incur the expense of hauling it from a distant cutting. As embankments have to support the weight of heavy trains, they must be uniformly firm and well drained, and before the line is fully opened for traffic they must be allowed time to consolidate, a process which is helped by running construction or mineral trains over them.

An interesting case of embankment and cutting in combination was involved in crossing Chat Moss on the Liverpool & Manchester railway. The moss was 4½ m. across, and it varied in depth from 10 to 30 ft. Its general character was such that cattle could not stand on it, and a piece of iron would sink in it. The subsoil was composed principally of clay and sand, and the railway had to be carried over the moss on the level, requiring cutting, and embanking for upwards of 4 m. In forming 277,000 cub. yds. of embankment 670,000 yds. of raw peat were consumed, the difference being occasioned by the squeezing out of the water. Large quantities of embanking were sunk in the moss, and, when the engineer, George Stephenson, after a month’s vigorous operations, had made up his estimates, the apparent work done was sometimes less than at the beginning of the month. The railway ultimately was made to float on the bog. Where embankment was required drains about 5 yds. apart were cut, and when the moss between them was dry it was used to form the embankment. Where the way was formed on the level, drains were cut on each side of the intended line, and were intersected here and there by cross drains, by which the upper part of the moss was rendered dry and firm. On this surface hurdles were placed, 4 ft. broad and 9 long, covered with heath, upon which the ballast was laid.

Bridges.—For conveying small streams through embankments, channels or culverts are constructed in brickwork or masonry. Larger rivers, canals, roads, other railways and sometimes deep narrow valleys are crossed by (q.v.) of timber, brick, stone, wrought iron or steel, and many of these structures rank among the largest engineering works in the world. Sometimes also a viaduct consisting of a series of arches is preferred to an embankment when the line has to be taken over a piece of flat alluvial plain, or when it is desired to economize space and to carry the line at a sufficient height to clear the streets, as in the case of various railways entering London and other large towns. In connexion with a railway many bridges have also to be constructed to carry public roads and other railways over the line, and for the use of owners or tenants whose land it has cut through (“accommodation bridges”). In the early days of railways, roads were often taken across the line on the level, but such “level” or “grade” crossings are now usually avoided in the case of new lines in populous countries, except when the traffic on both the road and the railway is very light. In many instances old level crossings have been replaced by over-bridges with long sloping approaches; in this way considerable expenditure has been involved, justified, however, by the removal of a danger to the public and of interruptions to the traffic on both the roads and the railways. In cases where the route of a line runs across a river or other piece of water so wide that the construction of a bridge is either impossible or would be more costly than is warranted by the volume of traffic, the expedient is sometimes adopted of carrying the wagons and carriages across bodily with their loads on train ferries, so as to avoid the inconvenience and delay of transshipment. Such train ferries are common in America, especially on the Great Lakes, and exist at several places in Europe, as in the Baltic between Denmark and Sweden and Denmark and Germany, and across the Straits of Messina.

Gradients.—The gradient or grade of a line is the rate at which it rises or falls, above or below the horizontal, and is expressed by stating either the horizontal distance in which the change of level amounts to 1 ft., or the amount of change that would occur in some selected distance, such as 100 ft., 1000 ft. or r m. In America a gradient of 1 in 100 is often known as a 1% grade, one of 2 in 100 as a 2% grade, and so on; thus a 0·25% grade corresponds to what in England would be known as a gradient of 1 in 400. The ruling gradient of a section of railway is the steepest incline in that section, and is so called because it governs or rules the maximum load that can be placed behind an engine working over that portion of line. Sometimes, however, a sharp incline occurring on an otherwise easy line is not reckoned as the ruling gradient, trains heavier than could be drawn up it by a single engine being helped by an assistant or “bank” engine; sometimes also “momentum” or “velocity” grades, steeper than the ruling gradient, are permitted for short distances in cases where a train can approach at full speed and thus surmount them by the aid of its momentum. An incline of 1 in 400 is reckoned easy, of 1 in 200 moderate and of 1 in 100 heavy. The ruling gradient of the Liverpool & Manchester railway was fixed at 1 in 900, excepting the inclines at Liverpool and at Rainhill summit, for working which special provision was made; and I. K. Brunel laid out the Great Western for a long distance

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title: Author:Ernest Marie Salmon


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {|style="width: 100%;" cellpadding="2" |width="20%" |1919 |width="80%" |(A Vietnamese sailor, Ton Duc Thang, mutinied with another communist to turn over a French ship to Russia. Thang was imprisoned at Poulo Condore and today is Ho's Vice President in North Vietnam.) Ho prepared a 8-point program of colonial grievances to present to the Versailles Peace Conference, but his offerings were rejected.
 * -valign="top"
 * -valign="top"
 * 1920
 * Attended Baku Conference (First Conference of the Peoples of the Far East) on first visit to USSR. On return to France, Ho attended 18th National Congress of the Socialist Party as an Indochinese Delegate in December. There he opted for the Third International over the Second, because of the former's position against colonialism, and thus became a founding member of the French Communist Party (PCF).
 * -valign="top"
 * 1921
 * Organized "Union Intercoloniale" — started as a "front" to attract members to the Party from colonial territories — which published periodical ; edited (Soul of Vietnam) which was smuggled to Indochina.
 * -valign="top"
 * 1922
 * Attended first Comintern-sponsored conclave (Conference of the Workers of the Far East) devoted to communist organization of the Far East in Moscow.
 * -valign="top"
 * 1923
 * Left France in June to attend several congresses of Kresintern (Peasants International) in Moscow as a PCF delegate in October. Lived in USSR for 18 months as colonial representative on Kresintern permanent directing committee.
 * -valign="top"
 * 1924
 * In Moscow Ho attended Eastern Workers' University and served on Kresintern.
 * -valign="top"
 * 1925
 * Assigned to Soviet consulate at Canton under Michael Borodin as "Chinese translator" — a cover for organizing Indochina Communist Party into communist groups. Launched Vietnam Revolutionary Youth League, a training school for Indochinese students and emigres in June. Ho published a brochure which was carried into Vietnam and became the student "nationalist" bible. Also in June, Ho is alleged to have betrayed Phan Boi Chau, a prominent Vietnamese nationalist, progenitor of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDD), to the French security police. Ho's intent said to be desire for martyr to produce a surge of patriotic sentiment for revolution in Annam — which it did.
 * -valign="top"
 * 1926
 * Translated Marxist terminology into Sino-Annamite. Stated that "only a communist party can insure the well-being of Annam." Selected members of Ho's youth organization were enrolled in Whampoa Military Academy, where Chinese nationalists and communists were trained as future leaders for Kuomintang.
 * } Rh

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Page:EB1911 - Volume 22.djvu/853

836 out of London with a ruling gradient of 1 in 1320. Other engineers, however, such as Joseph Locke, cheapened the cost of construction by admitting long slopes of 1 in 80 or 70. One of the steepest gradients in England on an important line is the Lickey incline at Bromsgrove, on the Midland railway between Birmingham and Gloucester, where the slope is 1 in 37 for two miles. The maximum gradient possible depends on climatic conditions, a dry climate being the most favourable. The theoretical limit is about 1 in 16; between 1 in 20 and 1 in 16 a steam locomotive depending on the adhesion between its wheels and the rails can only haul about its own weight. In practice the gradient should not exceed 1 in 22½, and even that is too steep, since theoretical conditions cannot always be realized; a wet rail will reduce the adhesion, and the gradients must be such that some paying load can be hauled in all weathers. When an engineer has to construct a railway up a hill having a still steeper slope, he must secure practicable gradients by laying out the line in ascending spirals, if necessary tunnelling into the hill, as on the St Gothard railway, or in a series of zigzags, or he must resort to a rack or a cable railway.

Rack Railways.—In rack railways a cog-wheel on the engine engages in a toothed rack which forms part of the permanent way. The earliest arrangement of this kind was patented by John Blenkinsop, of the Middleton Colliery, near Leeds, in 1811, an an engine built on his plan by Mathew Murray, also of Leeds, began in 1812 to haul coals from Middleton to Leeds over a line 3½ m. long. Blenkinsop placed the teeth on the outer side of one of the running rails, and his reason for adopting a rack was the belief that an engine with smooth wheels running on smooth rails would not have sufficient adhesion to draw the load required. It was not till more than half a century later that an American, Sylvester Marsh, employed the rack system for the purpose of enabling trains to surmount steep slopes on the Mount Washinton railway, where the maximum gradient was nearly 1 in 2½. In this case the rack had pin teeth carried in a pair of angle bars. The subsequent development of rack railways is especially associated with a Swiss engineer, Nicholas Riggenbach, and his pupil Roman Abt, and the forms of rack introduced by them are those most commonly used. That of the latter is multiple, several rack-plates being placed parallel to each other, and the teeth break joint at ½, ⅓ or ¼ of their pitch, according to the number of rack-plates. In this way smoothness of working is ensured, the cog-wheel being constantly in action with the rack. Abt also developed the plan of combining rack and adhesional working; the engine working by adhesion alone on the gentler slopes but by both adhesion and the rack on the steeper ones. On such lines the beginning of a rack section is provided with a piece of rack mounted on springs, so that the pinions of the engine engage smoothly with the teeth. Racks of this type usually become impracticable for gradients steeper than 1 in 4, partly because of the excessive weight of the engine required and partly because of the tendency of the cog-wheel to mount the rack. The Locher rack, employed on the Mount Pilatus railway, where the steepest gradient is nearly 1 in 2, is double, with vertical teeth on each side, while in the Strub rack, used on the Jungfrau line, the teeth are cut in the head of a rail of the ordinary Vignoles type.

Cable Railways.—For surmounting still steeper slopes, cable railways may be employed. Of these there are two main systems: (1) a continuous cable is carried over two main drums at each end of the line, and the motion is derived either (a) from the weight of the descending load or (b) from a motor acting on one of the main drums; (2) each end of the cable is attached to wagons, one set of which accordingly ascends as the other descends. The weight required to cause the downward motion is obtained either by means of the material which has to be transported to the bottom of the hill or by water ballast, while to aid and regulate the motion generally steam or electric motors are arranged to act on the main drums, round which the cable is passed with a sufficient number of turns to prevent slipping. When water ballast is employed the water is filled into a tank in the bottom of the wagon or car, its quantity, if passengers are carried, being regulated by the number ascending or descending.

Curves.—The curves on railways are either simple, when they consist of a portion of the circumference of a single circle, or compound, when they are made up of portions of the circumference of two or more circles of different radius. Reverse curves are compound curves in which the components are of contrary flexure, like the letter S; strictly the term is only applicable when the two portions follow directly one on the other, but it is sometimes used of cases in which they are separated by a “tangent” or portion of straight line. In Great Britain the curvature is defined by stating the length of the radius, expressed in chains (1 chain = 66 ft.), in America by stating the angle subtended by a chord 100 ft. long; the measurements in both methods are referred to the central line of the track. The radius of a 1-degree curve is 5730 ft., or about 86⅔ chains, of a 15-degree curve 383 ft. or rather less than 6 chains; the former is reckoned easy, the latter very sharp, at least for main lines on the standard gauge. On some of the earlier, English main lines no curves were constructed of a less radius than a mile (80 chains), except at places where the speed was likely to be low, but in later practice the radius is sometimes reduced to 40 or 30 chains, even on high-speed passenger lines.

When a train is running round a curve the centrifugal force which comes into play tends to make its wheel-flanges press against the outer rail, or even to capsize it. If this pressure is not relieved in some way, the train may be derailed either (1) by “climbing” the outer rail, with injury to that rail and, generally, to the corresponding, wheel-flanges; (2) by overturning about the outer rail as a hinge, possibly without injury to rails or wheels; or (3) by forcing the outer rail outwards, occasionally to the extent of shearing the spikes that hold it down at the curve, thus spreading or destroying the track. In any case the details depend upon whether the vehicle concerned is an engine, a wagon or a passenger coach, and upon whether it runs on bogie-trucks or not. If it is an engine, particular attention must be directed to the type, weight, arrangement of wheels and height of centre of gravity above rail level. In considering the forces that produce derailment the total mass of the vehicle or locomotive may be supposed to be concentrated at its centre of gravity. Two lines may be drawn from this point, one to each of the two rails, in a plane normal to the rails, and the ends of these lines, where they meet the rails, may be joined to complete a triangle, which may conveniently be regarded as a rigid frame resting on the rails. As the vehicle sweeps round the curve the centre of gravity tends to be thrown outwards, like a stone from a horizontal sling. The vertical pressure of the frame upon the outer rail is thus increased, while its vertical pressure on the inner rail is diminished. Simultaneously the frame as a whole tends to slide horizontally athwart the rails, from the inner towards the outer rail, urged by the same centri fugal forces. This sliding movement is resisted by placing a check rail on the inner side of the inner rail, to take the lateral thrust of the wheels on that side. It is also resisted in part by the conicity of the wheels, which converts the lateral force partly into a vertical force, thus enabling gravity to exert a restoring influence. When the lateral forces are too great to be controlled “climbing” occurs. Accidents due to, simple climbing are, however, exceedingly rare, and are usually found associated with a faulty track, with “plunging” movements of the locomotive or vehicle, or with a “tight gauge” at curves or points.

From consideration of the rigid triangular frame described above, it is clear that the “overturning” force acts horizontally from the centre of gravity, and that the length of its lever arm is, at any instant, the vertical distance from the centre of gravity to the level of the outer rail. This is true whatever be the tilt of the vehicle at that instant. The restoring force exerted by gravity acts in a vertical line from the centre of gravity; and the length of its lever arm is the horizontal distance between this vertical line and the outer rail. If therefore the, outer rail is laid at a level above that of the inner rail at the curve, overturning will be resisted more than would be the case if both rails were in the same horizontal plane, since the tilting of the vehicle due to this “superelevation” diminishes the overturning moment, and also increases the restoring moment, by shortening in the one case and lengthening in the other the lever arms at which the respective forces act. The amount of super elevation required to prevent derailment at a curve can be calculated under perfect running conditions, given the radius of curvature, the weight of the vehicle, the height of the centre of gravity, the distance between the rails, and the speed; but great experience

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 22.djvu/853


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Study of

EDUCATION, Study of. The study of education is, on the one hand, the study of a profession — the profession of the teacher, of whatever grade; and, on the other, the study of a social force — the force that preserves and improves the civilization of each generation, and transmits it to the next — and of the institutions which society has developed for the organization and administration of this force. It goes without saying that these two aspects of the Study of Education are not independent of each other. Further, it is clear that the study is either a professional or a “liberal” study in accordance with the object with which it is pursued. In this article no pains will be taken to keep these two aspects of the subject distinct. The context will make clear which aspect is under consideration, and also when both aspects are considered together.

The systematic study of education is now carried on in the United States chiefly in normal schools (State, city or private) and in colleges and universities. Less extended but often valuable opportunities for the study of education are afforded by county training schools for teachers, by classes in some high schools and academies, and by some other institutions: as, for example, training schools for kindergartners; some departments of the so-called “Institutes” (like Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, Pratt Institute of Brooklyn); and by “Teachers' Institutes.” Teachers' institutes are carried on in towns or counties, for a few days or weeks, usually during the long summer vacation, and commonly receive support from the State treasury; they have been described as normal schools with very short courses of study. This article deals only with the study of education in normal schools, and in colleges and universities; because the work done by them is typical, and sufficiently comprehensive to cover the special work done in the other institutions mentioned. It may be said, however, that in general, the normal school aims only at the professional study of education; that the college or university department of education aims at both a professional and a “liberal” study of the subject, but of a higher grade than that of the normal school; and that the university “School of Education” aims at a professional study of education only, but, at present, of the grades undertaken by both the normal schools and the university departments of education. University schools of education are of recent origin, but they are already numerous.

Normal Schools. — The systematic study of education in this country has a rather brief history. Although some beginnings had been made in the academies of New York and New England, the study of education really began in the State normal schools for the training of elementary school teachers, of which the first was founded in Lexington, Mass., in 1839. It began there with the study of methods of teaching the common branches of the elementary school curriculum, and the methods of governing or managing a class or a school. That is to say, the study of education began with the study of methods. For a long time the study of methods comprised the whole of the study of education, although it did not cover the whole work of the normal schools. Most of these schools gave, from the very beginning, and many of them still give, more attention to the study of the branches that the prospective teachers are to teach, and to extending the range of their scholarship beyond those branches, than they gave and give to the study of methods. At the same time they naturally emphasized the study of methods from the beginning, and they still do so. This was natural, and, within reasonable limits, desirable. It happened, however, that many normal schools pursued the study of methods with such exaggeration of emphasis and such minuteness of detail that they are chiefly responsible for the development of an erroneous conception — namely, that the study of education is still practically identical with the study of methods; and this conception has done much to discredit the proper study of education and to prevent its appropriate development. How narrow and inadequate this conception is has already been suggested. It is not strange that the normal schools should emphasize the study of methods. Their function is to train teachers; and to teach well and govern wisely is the first duty of the teacher. But a good teacher not merely possesses a good method; he uses that method with discriminating insight into its efficacy, and with careful adaptation to the needs of every pupil. He not only commands the technique of his art, but he understands the principles on which his art is based, and has a clear conception of the ends which his methods are to serve. Moreover, the study of methods was, too often, merely the study of a particular way of doing a particular thing — how to teach reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic and so on; or how to secure conformity to this, that or the other rule of conduct; and this was (and is still) too often done in such a way as to convey the impression to the neophyte that there is no other correct way. The tendency of such instruction is, of course, to mechanize and not to vitalize instruction. In the hands of the less capable the study of education becomes under such circumstances the inculcation of a mere routine; individual initiative and self-criticism are suppressed or discouraged. In the hands of the more capable the result is not so bad; but even in their hands the study of methods is elevated into an importance that enables it to obscure other fundamental aspects of the study of education and of the right training of teachers. Instruction in methods did, however, develop systematic teaching where before there had been loose or haphazard procedure. By and large, the teachers trained in the normal schools proved their superiority over their untrained

predecessors and contemporaries. The normal school study of education, in spite of its narrowness, did bear good fruit. But the results were still unsatisfactory. The means and methods of education were studied, but the tendency to use them blindly and mechanically was too obvious to be overlooked. The study of education, thus far, had not penetrated to the root of the matter.

The conventional scheme of education as expressed in existing programs (“courses”) of study, and equally conventional methods of teaching and discipline, had been accepted without critical analysis of what it was all for, and to what extent the means and methods employed were adapted to the nature of the children to be taught and to the demands of modern life. Accordingly, it began to be clear that the study of education must mean more than the study of methods — the devices of teaching and governing. It was perceived that the mere acquisition of these devices often failed to impart life and purpose to the teacher's work. Gradually it was perceived that what was lacking in the study of education was the assimilation of guiding principles which should forever prevent the teacher from conceiving his work as a mere routine, but should enable him to conceive it throughout as a rationalized endeavor. It was natural that these guiding principles should be sought, first of all, in psychology, which, as the science of mind, should reveal the process of learning; and by implication should therefore give an insight into the process of teaching. “As we learn, so must we teach.” Moreover, the Prussian normal schools, which had served as models for our own, had long incorporated the study of psychology into their programs of study, and this feature of their programs, which, to be sure, had also found its way into our own but had been without special significance, was now seized upon as the chief source of the guiding principles we were seeking. This was about 1885. Before that time psychology or “mental philosophy” had been pursued in our normal schools as an independent study without vital relation to the study of education. Now, however, this relation was perceived, and an extraordinary devotion to psychology as the key to all educational problems was the result. Before long, also, certain phases of psychology or particular psychological theories, notably the Herbartain theory of “apperception” and the derived theories of the “concentration” or “correlation” of studies, were heralded as the very gospel of educational salvation. There is truth in the theory of apperception and of the correlation of studies; but these theories were pursued and applied for a time with such extravagant and misguided enthusiasm, particularly in the Middle West, that they became “fads”; and many sins were committed in their names by large numbers of well-meaning but not well-informed teachers and other students of education. Naturally, also, educational charlatans saw their opportunity in this conspicuous popularity of psychology, and were not slow to grasp a profit from it by the sale of their wares in the form of lectures and books; and much useless or misleading talk and trivial and unscientific psychological literature was abroad in the land.

The most extravagant development of the

study of psychology, by students of education was “child study” which swept the country over from border to border some years ago. Parents, teachers or other students of education were discredited unless they endeavored themselves to make some contribution to the psychology of childhood, and these contributions were actually attempted by teachers of all grades and by other persons of all degrees of intelligence. This excitement was, however, short-lived — it lasted 10 years at most. This was because a large part of the data which had been so enthusiastically collected, together with most of the “scientific” conclusions to which it was alleged they pointed, were held in slight esteem by the real psychologists. Such a result was inevitable. The psychology of childhood can be developed as a science only by persons trained for that purpose, just as physical science can be developed only by trained scientists. It was then seen that the chief advantage to be derived from the study of children by untrained observers was the effect on the observers themselves. Not to extend the boundaries of the science of psychology, but to interest the observers in children, to enable them to get into relation with child-life — that is the real value of child-study for most persons. And wherever this conception of its value prevails the study of children is to-day rendering good service to students of education. The acute stage of extravagant devotion to psychology as a part of the study of education is now happily past; and only good can be expected of the saner pursuit of it, which is fast becoming the rule.

From the foregoing it is already clear that far more was expected of psychology than could be realized. But more needs to be said on this point. Psychology is even yet in its formative stage as a natural science, and 30 years ago was just emerging from its thralldom to metaphysics. It was, however, assumed to be a perfected science — a complete and accurate account of mental phenomena and their interdependence; and hence the extravagant expectations entertained of its value in giving insight into educational problems and a command over teaching processes. These expectations could not be realized; for, as has just been said, psychology is still a formative science and cannot therefore guarantee the complete insight into mental life — especially the mental life of children, which it was believed to yield; and even if it were to-day all that it was then thought to be — a perfected science of mental life, and particularly of mental development — the acquisition of that science would not necessarily ensure technical skill on the part of the teacher. Insight and the practical application of insight are two very different things. Nevertheless, the widespread devotion to the study of psychology in normal schools and by teachers was a great gain to the study of education. It established the fact once for all that methods of teaching and governing have a rational basis in the constitution of human nature, and that it is the duty of the student of education and the teacher to ascertain what this basis is as nearly as he can. The study of education in normal schools had now progressed beyond the study of methods as mere devices to a study of these devices as based on the nature of the minds subjected to them. That is to say,

the study of education had gradually come to include “educational psychology,” and in particular the psychology of childhood and adolescence.

Meanwhile, again following the lead of the Prussian normal schools, light for the path of the student of education was also sought in the records of the past. The history of education was appealed to for guidance in solving contemporary problems of teaching and governing. It was only natural that a narrow conception of the significance of the history of education should have been entertained, because the study of education itself was still quite generally interpreted as the study of methods. Naturally, therefore, educational biography and “educational classics” or monographs setting forth the educational theories of individuals of the past — both usually without reference to their social setting in the general history of their time — constituted nearly all that was studied as the history of education. In spite of this narrow interpretation of the history of education the study of that subject, like the study of psychology, was a great gain to the study of education. The recognition of the kinship of contemporary education with that of the past necessarily broadened and dignified the conception generally entertained of the meaning of education itself and naturally enhanced the value of the study of that subject. For, although the history of education was at first inadequately conceived and taught, it was inevitable that it should ere long be recognized at its true value, namely, as a part of general history; and hence that the student of education should come to realize that in studying the history of education he was studying nothing less than the history of culture — of the training of each generation to assume its share in preserving, improving and transmitting to the oncoming generation the resources of our civilization, and in so doing actively to promote the progressive solution of its problems. This true conception of the history of education is, however, of very recent development. Although some of the normal schools have contributed to its development, many of them still adhere to the older conception, and it has remained for colleges and universities to give form and substance to the new conception and to disseminate it.

Meanwhile, also the study of education was gradually extended to include an examination into the adequacy and effectiveness of contemporary schools and studies as a means of promoting the normal development of each individual as an individual and also as a means of adapting him to the civilization of his time — the twofold aim of all general education; and this questioning, together with the formulation of the more or less satisfactory replies to it, sometimes alone but more commonly closely associated with educational psychology, constitute what is now often called “Science of Education,” “Philosophy of Education,” or more appropriately “Educational Theory” or “General Principles of Education.” In the light of the foregoing description of the historical development of the study of education in normal schools the present scope and aims of that study in those schools may be briefly summarized as follows:

It includes (1) Theory of Education or General Principles of Education, sometimes called “Science of Education” or “Philosophy of Education,” pursued as a means of awakening interest in and developing insight into the general problems of education (often not distinct nor separable from (4) below); (2) Methods; (3) Kindergarten Theory and Practice; (4) Psychology and the Study of Children, pursued as a source of information about the development of mental life and the processes of learning and as a rational basis for methods of teaching and discipline — that is, psychology pursued as a science on which the art of teaching and managing children might be based and the study of children pursued chiefly as a means of developing a comprehending and sympathetic attitude toward children on the part of future teachers; (5) The Study of Teaching by observation and practice in “model schools” or “training schools”; (6) School Organization and Management, chiefly internal organization and class management; (7) The History of Education, usually pursued as a source of suggestions for planning contemporary studies and methods of teaching and management and, to a limited extent also, as a means of developing a broader professional outlook over and better professional insight into educational problems as problems of social evolution; (8) School Hygiene; (9) School Laws as a source of practical information concerning the teachers' legal rights, privileges and duties.

As was pointed out above the work of normal schools is not confined to the study of education; but so far as that study itself is concerned the foregoing enumeration covers the ground, although not all of it is necessarily found in all normal schools. The foregoing description also reveals the aim of the study of education in normal schools. That aim is primarily the technical preparation of the classroom teacher. Finally, it should be said that many normal schools are far inferior to others in the adequacy with which they conceive the study of education and in the thoroughness with which that study is carried on.

Colleges and Universities. — Great as the services are which the normal schools rendered it gradually became clear that they were alone unable to cope with the rapidly growing need of a more comprehensive as well as a more intensive study of education than they could supply. Some time before the end of the 19th century the normal schools had made clear the great distinction between a trained and an untrained teacher, as was pointed out above; and they had, accordingly, made good progress in the gradual transformation (still going on) of the calling of the elementary teacher from a mere routine into a profession. But the increase of the native population and the growth of cities, the enormous and steadily increasing influx of foreign immigrants, the geographical expansion and the much more important and very great commercial and industrial development of the country have been followed by our huge modern schools, our varied and complex programs of studies, our immense city scnool systems; and hence a host of new educational problems have come into the field, — problems with which the mere classroom teacher of

academic training and narrow, even if thorough, technical training, is manifestly unable to cope satisfactorily. We have, fortunately, many efficient grammar school principals and superintendents to-day who have had only a normal school training; but in no case are they efficient because their training was originally limited, but in spite of that fact. Moreover, the general public, particularly the educated and the reading public, now take an interest in educational problems heretofore unknown, and this interest is increasing daily. This interest demands satisfaction and seeks educational leaders among the teaching profession as well as good classroom teachers. At the same time it had long been apparent that many college-bred men of excellent scholarship were poor teachers. The college offered them no opportunity to learn how to teach. The problem was to secure, in addition to adequate scholarship, appropriate insight into education and technical skill in teaching. This the college graduate could not and cannot ordinarily secure in the normal school — first, because the normal school was and is naturally and properly concerned chiefly with the training of teachers for elementary schools and, therefore, has generally neither the teaching force nor the equipment to deal separately with college graduates who usually seek preparation to teach in secondary not elementary schools; and second, because it was not and cannot be profitable in most cases to teach in the same classes college graduates and normal school students. The college-bred students are too far ahead of the normal school students in maturity and scholarship to make a satisfactory combination class. For similar reasons the normal schools are generally unable to provide adequate opportunities for teachers already in service who seek preparation for work as principals or superintendents of schools. Out of these considerations arose the university department of education which has undertaken to provide the college graduate with the opportunities he needs for the study of education — whether as a neophyte he is about to begin his professional career as a classroom teacher, or whether as an experienced teacher be returns to the university for the study of his profession under direction with a view to becoming a principal or a superintendent; or whether as an interested layman be seeks enlightenment as to the meaning of education and the means and methods of organizing and directing it as a branch of State or municipal affairs.

The history of the study of education in the colleges and universities of the country is even more brief than the history of that study in the normal schools, for it does not really begin until 1879, when the University of Michigan founded a chair of “the science and the art of teaching” of co-ordinate rank with other chairs or departments. Education before that time (from about 1850) had been studied in “normal departments” established at a number of colleges and universities (more commonly of the Middle West than elsewhere), in which the study of education did not differ materially from that pursued in the normal schools. Such a normal department, for example, existed at Brown University from 1851 to 1854. It was discontinued “in consequence of the

in Providence of the Rhode Island Normal School,” so says the university catalogue for 1854-55. Another example was the normal department of the University of Iowa, which was, at first (1855), a department of the preparatory school of the university. It had a varied career and was gradually transformed into the present “School of Education” of the university. It exemplifies a not uncommon process of development of these “normal departments” into the university Departments of Education or Schools of Education or “Teachers Colleges” of to-day.

Not infrequently the courses in education instead of being grouped in a department or school of education or teachers college were, and are still, associated with and made a part of the department of psychology or philosophy, usually to the disadvantage of the study of education. This affiliation followed the lead of the German universities and dates from the time — not far back — when “pedagogy” rather than education was the subject studied. It has been found possible, however, in only a few college or university departments of education to solve the problem of technical training for neophytes. Teachers of experience and other persons who resort to the university to study the history and theory of education and the organization and administration of school systems find the instruction of any good professor of education decidedly profitable. But beginners who need to learn how to teach under direction usually fail to get what they most need — the laboratory work of actual teaching and management under the usual conditions that prevail in the classroom. A few college and university departments of education, like the department at Harvard University, have provided such opportunities from almost the very beginning; but, except in some of the larger urban universities, it has generally been found impracticable. But the university department or chair of education has accomplished and is accomplishing a most important task, quite apart from what it may or may not accomplish in the training of young teachers, or in the training of principals or superintendents. It has made education in all its phases a university study. Apathetic and even hostile faculties have slowly yielded the false position that they once held, namely, that among all the fields of human thought and activity education is the only one it is not profitable to study; and this is a great gain. The gradual abandonment of false views concerning the study of education by members of the faculties of our higher institutions has naturally been followed by similar progress on the part of the students. To-day university courses in education are attended by an increasing number of future lawyers, doctors and business men who do not care for the technical courses pursued by future teachers or school officers, but who wish to study the history, theory and, to some extent, the organization of education, just as they study the history and theory of economics — that is, as a part of the proper equipment of a liberally educated man. The university department of education has, therefore, accomplished several important things. It has, at its worst, given college-bred teachers an insight into their future profession which they formerly could not get at all; that

is, it has helped to determine a professional attitude and temper of mind of great importance for immediate efficiency and steady professional growth; and, at its best, it has done and is still doing this, and provides, also, actual laboratory work for the young teacher — classroom teaching under direction amid normal surroundings, over a sufficiently long period of time; and it provides suitable training for principals and superintendents of schools on the basis of good instruction and a comparative study, under direction, of schools and school systems in actual operation; and, finally, it has established the study of education among the branches of a liberal education. At the present time more than half of the colleges and universities of the country make more or less provision for the study of education, and many more are preparing to do so. But the development of this study has naturally been more rapid in the State universities than elsewhere, save in the few cases noted above, that is, in the universities that have developed "Schools of Education" of co-ordinate rank with their other professional schools. The scope and general aims of the college or university study of education, as now carried on, may be summarized as follows: (1) To study education as an important function of society as well as of individuals, and hence of interest to all university students whether they intend to become teachers or not. (2) To offer to university students who look forward to teaching the necessary technical training for their vocation; and to teachers already in service, an opportunity to study their profession under direction. (3) To offer to university students who have already had experience as teachers, and to all teachers of suitable age and attainments, appropriate training for future activity as principals or superintendents of schools. (4) To offer opportunities to advanced students for research in me field of education.

While the courses of study offered for the realization of these aims vary greatly, they may be briefly described as courses in: (1) Educational Theory or General Principles of Education, sometimes called “Philosophy of Education,” or “Science of Education.” The specific aim of these courses is to enable the student to gain a just conception of the scope and meaning of education and to make a critical examination of such generally accepted educational principles as will serve to guide him in his further study of educational questions. (2) Educational Psychology and Child Study. While this subject could be appropriately regarded as a subdivision of the preceding topic, it is usually offered in separate courses, the special aim of which does not differ materially — although the method of treatment does — from similar courses in normal schools. The work done in such courses in colleges and universities is usually more scientific and thorough than in the corresponding normal school courses. (3) General principles of method and special methods of teaching the several school studies, without and with practice teaching, particularly the methods of teaching secondary school rather than elementary school studies. The instruction in the courses in special methods is sometimes given by instructors belonging to the department of education, but often by specialists chosen from

other departments of the college or university. (4) History of education studied as history. The purpose is to trace the historical development of modern schools and universities, with especial reference to their ideals, studies, modes of teaching and organization; together with the effect of economic, political, social and religious ideals on the spirit and direction of education; and the influence upon school methods and curricula of the general progress of the arts and sciences. Such a course should therefore give the student a view of the subject in its relation to the history of civilization, as well as a historical basis for sound criticism of the more important elements of modern schools and school systems. (5) The educational importance of play and recreation. (6) Education in practical arts for boys and for girls. (7) The education of exceptional (anæmic or tubercular, crippled, deaf, blind, truant and delinquent, mentally defective) children. (8) Vocational (industrial, commercial, agricultural) education. (9) The vastly important allied subject of vocational and educational guidance for school and college youth and for young people already at work. (10) Organization and management of schools and school systems. The purpose of courses covering this last subject is to study both the internal organization and management of schools and school systems with special reference to the duties of principals and superintendents within a given school or school system, and also the organization and management of education as a branch of State and municipal affairs, at home and abroad. Accordingly, they deal with the appointment or election, organization, powers and duties of State and city boards of education; the powers, duties and opportunities of superintendents, principals and teachers in cities and towns; the work of elementary and secondary schools, including the construction of programs (“courses”) of study; and, in general, everything pertaining to the organization and efficient administration of our vast, complex and costly provision for public education; and sometimes also a similar study of foreign schools and school systems. Such courses sometimes also cover the organization and management and the work of private and endowed schools. (11) School hygiene; the hygiene of school buildings and the hygiene of the pupils. (12) Seminary courses or research courses. Such courses offer opportunities to the most advanced students for prolonged study of particular educational questions. As the whole field of educational theory and practice abounds in unsolved problems and vast areas in the history of education are as yet untouched, it is easy to see how important such courses are. Not all of these courses are found in every college or university department of education, hut they are all found in some of them; and in the university schools of education, to which reference has been made, all these courses are offered and elaborated with a minuteness of differentiation that should eventually promote a very thorough study of the topics involved.

Progress in the study of education has been greatly facilitated in recent years by the rapid growth of a considerable body of good educa ca tional literature both in books and periodicals

is still common, a large number of good books have been published in recent years and several periodicals have appeared worthy of a place beside the best educational literature that has been produced anywhere.

In addition to the study of education already described, mention should be made of the study of education carried on by educational associations. The National Educational Association is not only a vast forum for the discussion of educational questions, but since 1893 it has stimulated and subsidized educational research through committees appointed to report on selected problems. Several of the reports submitted by these committees have been of great value and more may be expected in the future. The State teachers' associations and other local associations throughout the country also occasionally carry on educational investigations of more than local significance. Mention must also be made of the studies in education now undertaken by associations of laymen and by some of the non-professional magazines.

Recent and very important developments in the study of education may be described as statistical and experimental studies of educational procedure and approximately scientific studies (quantitative measurements) of educational results. The purpose of these studies is to obtain objective standards whereby contemporary educational procedure can be directed and results measured with an accuracy approximating the direction and measurement of results in the natural sciences; and thereby to confirm or refute (as the case may be) educational opinion. Such standards, when attained, constitute unassailable guidance for educational practice, which, for the most part, we now lack. The most promising standards thus far attained are in the field of elementary education — arithmetic (computation with whole numbers), penmanship, spelling and reading. The study of education in the past has been based almost wholly on individual experience, and especially on the opinions of prominent individuals — laymen and teachers. Such individual experience and opinion will always be worth studying, but the conviction that scientific research in education is essential to satisfactory progress, which has been slowly forming during the past decade, is now firmly established in the professional mind; and the statistical and experimental studies and the measurement of educational results above referred to are the result. The literature of this important development in the study of education is growing rapidly. Apart from books, such studies are energetically promoted by several contemporary periodicals and by researches carried on by colleges and university departments and schools of education, working independently, but often in co-operation with progressive supervisory officers and teachers in neighboring school systems. The conviction that such studies are essential to progress in education has also led to the establishment of departments of research in about a dozen of the larger school systems of the United States. Such departments serve the same purpose in school activities that research departments and departments of design serve in industry and commerce. That they do serve such purposes, several of them have already proved.

Many important studies of entire school

called school surveys, have been made by specialists usually not connected with the systems studied on the invitation of State, city and rural school authorities. The reports of these surveys, now numerous, constitute a vast mine of information for all students of education; indeed, the student of education in the United States will find no more important body of educational literature than is embodied in those reports.


text: Author:Paul Henry Hanus

title: Author:Paul Henry Hanus


text:
Author:Patrick W. F. Ryan

Contributions to the Catholic Encyclopedia

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title: Author:Patrick W. F. Ryan


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Supplemental

EDUCATION, Supplemental. See .


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Rh the courtyard open, as well as the door of the house; no one in the kitchen, no one in the sitting-room. Not rinding the keys, he had entered the church by the inner entry. Don Rocco sent him to the sitting-room to get his clothes, as it was there that Lucia usually worked in the evening. The boy returned to say that there were no clothes there. "How? There are no clothes?" Don Rocco ordered him to stand on guard before the entrance of the house and went down to look for them himself, in his shirt. Half-way down the stairs he stopped and sniffed. What an abominable odor of pipe was this? Don Rocco, with darkened brow, went on. He went directly to the sitting-room, looked, searched; there was nothing. He returned to the kitchen, his heart beating. A horrid smell, but no clothes. Yes, under the table there was a little pile of soiled things; a jacket, a pair of drawers, a peasant's hat. Don Rocco gathered up, unfolded, and examined them with portentous frowns. It seemed to him that he had seen these things somewhere before. His brain did not yet understand anything, but his heart began to understand and to beat more strongly than before. He took hold of his chin and his cheeks with his left hand, squeezed them hard, trying to squeeze from them the where, the how, and the when. And lo! his eyes rested on the wall, and he finally perceived something there which was not there the day


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82. There was written in charcoal on the right: "Many salutations." And on the left:

"The wine is good."

"The servant is good."

"The cloak is good."

"Don Rocco is good."

He read, raised his hand to his head, read again—read again, seemed to lose his eyesight, felt a sensation of cold, of torpidity spreading from his breast throughout his body. Some one called out in the courtyard, "Where is that Don Rocco?" With difficulty he went up to his room again, cast himself on his bed, almost without knowing what he was doing, almost without thought or sensation.

Below they were looking and calling for him. Professor Marin was there, and some few other persons who had come to attend the Mass. No one could understand how the door of the church was still closed. The professor went into the house, called Lucia, called Don Rocco, without receiving any answer. He finally reached the room of the priest and stood still on the doorsill, amazed to see him in bed. "Well," said he, "Don Rocco! in bed? And what about Mass?"

"I cannot," answered Don Rocco in a low voice, immovable on his back like a mummy.

"But what is it?" replied the other, approaching the bed with sincere alarm. "What is the matter with you?"


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Philo Byblius, Herennius

PHILO BYBLIUS, fī'lō bib'lǐ-ūs, Herennius, Phœnician grammarian: b. Byblos, Phœnicia; flourished between 64 and 141 A.D. He is the author of a famous historical work, ‘Concerning Cities and Their Renowned Citizens.’ It is in 30 books and has proved the thesaurus of later grammarians. He also executed a translation of the alleged work of ../Sanchuniathon/ (q.v.), of which some fragments have survived and have been published in the third volume of Müller's ‘Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum,’ Vol. III. The alleged complete text of Sanchoniathon, which was discovered in a Portuguese monastery and published by Wagenfeld (1837), proved to be a forgery.


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Rh This troubled face, this affectionate tone, softened poor Don Rocco's heart, petrified by pain and surprise. This time two real tears fell from his palpitating eyelids. His mouth, closed tight, was twisting and trembling, but still resisted. Seeing then that he answered not a word, the professor ran to the stairs and called down that the physician should be sent for.

"No, no," Don Rocco forced himself to say without moving. His voice was filled with sobs. The professor heard him only as he was returning to the bed.

"No?" said he. "But what, then, is the matter? Speak."

Meanwhile three poor women and a beggar, who had come to listen to Mass, entered quite frightened into the room, surrounding the two, and in their turn questioning Don Rocco. He kept silent like a Job, seeking to master himself. Perhaps his annoyance at all these curious faces hanging over his own helped him. "Go away," said he finally to the last comers. "There is no need of the doctor, no need of anything, go away!"

The four faces withdrew somewhat, but continued looking at him fixedly with an expression, perhaps, of increased alarm.

"Go away, I tell you!" continued Don Rocco.

They went out silently and stopped outside to listen and spy.


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84 "Well, then," said the professor, "what are your feelings?"

"Nothing."

"But, then, why are you in bed?"

Don Rocco turned with his face to the wall. The tears were coming back again now. He was unable to speak.

"But in the name of heaven," insisted the professor, "what is it?"

"I am getting over it, I am getting over it," sobbed Don Rocco.

The professor did not know what to do nor what to think. He asked him whether he wanted water, and the old beggar went down at once to get a glassful and gave it to Marin. Don Rocco did not want it in the least, but kept on repeating: "Thanks, thanks, I am getting over it," and drank it obsequiously.

"Well, then?" continued the professor.

"You are right," answered Don Rocco.

"About what?"

"About the woman."

"Lucia? Right! And by the way, where is Lucia? Not here? Run away?"

Don Rocco nodded. Marin looked at him stupefied and repeating, "Run away? Run away?" The other four came back into the room echoing, "Run away? Run away?"

"But listen!" said the professor. "Are you staying in bed for this reason? Are you


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Rh yourself in this way? Come on and get dressed."

Don Rocco looked at him, reddened up to the top of his head, narrowed his tear-wet eyes in a smile, which meant: "Now it will be your turn to laugh."

"I have no clothes," he said.

"What?"

The professor added to this word a gesture which meant, "Did she carry them away?" Don Rocco responded also by a mere nod; and seeing that his friend with difficulty restrained a burst of laughter, he also tried to laugh.

"Poor Don Rocco," said the professor, and added, still with a laugh in his throat, heartfelt words of sympathy, of comfort, and asked for every detail of what had happened. "Oh, if you had only listened to me!" he concluded. "If you had only sent her away!"

"Yes," said Don Rocco, accepting even this with humiliation. "You are right. And now what will the countess say?"

The professor sighed.

"What can I say, my son? She will say nothing. This also has happened, that your successor wrote yesterday that he had definitively gotten rid of his present engagements and was at the disposal of the countess."

Don Rocco was silent, heart-broken. "I must look at the time," said he, after a moment's


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 22.djvu/859

 the wagons is necessary to get them into station order this is effected on the same principle.

Push-and-pull shunting is simple, but it is also slow, and therefore efforts have been made at busy yards where great numbers of trains are dealt with to introduce more expeditious methods. One of these, employed in America, is known as “poling.” Alongside the tracks on which stand the trains that are to be broken up and from which the sidings diverge subsidiary tracks are provided for the use of the shunting engines. These engines have a pole projecting horizontally in front of them, or are attached to a “pole-car” having such a pole. The method of working is for the pole to be swung out behind a number of wagons; one engine is then started and with its pole pushes the wagons in front of it until their speed is sufficient to carry them over the points, where they are diverted into any desired siding. It then runs back to the train to repeat the operation, but while it is doing so a second engine similarly equipped has poled away a batch of wagons on the opposite side. In this way a train is distributed with great rapidity, especially if the points giving access to the different sidings are worked by power so that they can be quickly manipulated.

Another method, which was introduced into America from Europe about 1890, is that of the summit or “hump.” The wagons are pushed by an engine at their rear up one slope of an artificial mound, and as the run down the other slope by gravity are switched into the desired siding. Sometimes a site can be found for the sorting sidings where the natural slope of the ground is sufficiently steep to make the wagons run down of themselves. One of the earliest and best known of such “gravity” yards is that at Edgehill, near Liverpool, on the London & North-Western railway, which was established in 1873. Here, at the highest level, there are a number of “upper reception lines” converging to a single line which leads to a group of “sorting sidings” at a lower level. These in turn converge to a pair of single lines which lead to two groups of marshalling sidings, called “gridirons” from their shape, and these again converge to single lines leading to “lower reception and departure lines” at the bottom of the slope. The wagons from the upper reception lines are sorted into trains on the sorting sidings, and then, in the gridirons, are arranged in the appropriate order and marshalled ready to be sent off from the departure lines.

  The term “power” is used in technical sense to mean the rate at which work is done against a resistance, and is measured in units of energy expended per unit of time. The unit of power commonly used by engineers is the horse-power, and this unit corresponds to a rate of working of 550 foot- of work per second. The problems arising out of the special consideration of the power required to propel a railway train against the resistances opposing its motion, the way the power is applied to trains, the agent by means of which the power is exerted, are conveniently grouped together under the general heading of Locomotive Power. There are certain fundamental relations common to all tractive problems, and these are briefly considered in §§ 1 and 2, after which the article refers particularly to steam locomotives, although §§ 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 have a general application to all modes of traction.

§ 1. Fundamental Relations.—The resistance against which a train is moved along a railway is overcome by means of energy obtained from the combustion of fuel, or in some few cases by energy obtained from a waterfall. If the total resistance against which the train is maintained in motion with an instantaneous velocity of V feet per second is R, the rate at which energy is expended in moving the train is represented by the product RV, and this must be the rate at which energy is supplied to the train after deducting all losses due to transmission from the source of power. Thus if R is equal to when the velocity is 44 ft. per second, equivalent to 30 m. per hour, the rate of working against the resistance is 440,000 foot- per second.

In whatever form energy is produced and distributed to the train it ultimately appears as mechanical energy applied to turn on e or more axles against the resistance to their rotation imposed by the weight on the wheels and the motion of the train.

The rate at which work is done on a particular axle is measured by the product Tω, where T is the torque or turning moment exerted on the axle by the motor or mechanism applied to it for this purpose, and ω is the angular velocity of the axle in radians per second. Hence if all the energy supplied to the train is utilized at one axle there is the fundamental relation

Continuing the above arithmetical illustration, if the wheels to the axle of which the torque is applied are 4 ft. diameter, ω＝44/2＝22 radians per second, and therefore T＝440,000/22＝ ft. If the energy supplied is distributed between several axles the relation becomes

where T₁, T₂, T₃, &c. are the torques on the axles whose respective angular velocities are ω₁, ω₂, ω₃, &c.

The fundamental relation between the applied torque and the tractive force F will be understood from fig. 16, which shows in a diagrammatic form a wheel and axle connected to the framework of a vehicle, in the way adopted for railway trains. The journal of the axle A, is carried in a bearing or axle-box B, which is free to move vertically in the wide vertical slot G, formed in the frame and called generally “the horns,” under the control of the spring. The weight W₁ carried by the part of the frame supported by the wheel (whose diameter is D) is transmitted first to the pins P₁, P₂ which are fixed to the frame, and then to the spring links. L₁, L₂, which are jointed at their respective ends to the spring S, the centre of which rests on the axle-box.

Let a couple be applied to the axle tending to turn it in the direction shown by the arrow. This couple, we may assume, will be equally divided between the two wheels, so that the torque acting on each will be T. Assuming the wheels to roll along the rail without slipping, this couple will be equivalent to the couple formed by the equal opposite and parallel forces, F₁ acting in the direction shown, from the axle-box on to the frame, and F₁＝μθ, acting along the rail. The torque corresponding to this couple is F₁ × D＝μW₁D, and hence follows the fundamental relation, T＝F₁D＝μW₁D, or if W now represents the weight supported by the axle, F will be the tractive force exerted on the frame by the two axle-boxes to propel the vehicle, and the more convenient relation is established,

If T has a greater value than this relation justifies the wheels will slip. F is called the “tractive force” at the rail. The coefficient of friction μ is a variable quantity depending upon the state of the rails, but is usually taken to be. This is the fundamental equation between the forces acting, however the torque may be applied. Multiplying through by we obtain

This is a fundamental energy equation for any form of locomotive in which there is only one driving-axle.

The couple T is necessarily accompanied by an equal and opposite couple acting on the frame, which couple endeavours to turn the frame in the opposite direction to that in which the axle rotates. The practical effect of this opposite couple is slightly to tilt the frame and thus to redistribute slightly the weights on the wheels carrying the vehicle.

If there are several driving-axles in a train, the product T must be estimated for each separately; then the sum of the products will be equal to RV. In equation (4) there is a fixed relation between, V and D given by the expression

Here D is in feet, V in feet per second and ω in radians per second. If the speed is given in miles per hour, S say,

The revolutions of the axle per second, n, are connected with the radians turned through per second by the relation

§ 2. Methods of Applying Locomotive Power.—By locomotive power is to be understood the provision of power to maintain the rates of working on the driving-axles of a train indicated by the relation (4). The most usual way of providing this power is by the combustion of coal in the fire-box of a boiler and the utilization of the steam produced in a steam-engine, both boiler and engine being carried on a frame mounted on wheels in such a way that the crankshaft of the steam-engine becomes the driving-axle of the train. From equation (3) it is clear that the wheels of the driving-axle must be heavily loaded in order that F may have a value sufficiently great to propel the train. The maximum weight which one pair of wheels are usually allowed to carry on a first-class track is from 18 to 20 tons. If a larger

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86 silence, "because at half-past nine they will come here with a horse to take me away. It will be necessary to ask the archpriest or the chaplain to lend me a suit of clothes."

"Let me, let me!" exclaimed the professor, full of zeal. "I will go home and send it to you immediately. You will give it back to me at your leisure, when you are able." A lively gratitude cleared the face and moved the eyelids of Don Rocco.

"Thanks!" said he, fixing his eyes humbly on the end of his nose. "Thank you very much!"

"Body of Bacchus!" he added to himself, as the professor was going down the stairs. "He is a span higher than I am, that just occurs to me!"

But it certainly did not occur to him to call him back.

half-past nine Don Rocco appeared in the doorway of his house to start on his exodus. The overcoat of the professor danced around his heels and swallowed up his hands down to his finger tips. The stove-pipe hat, of enormous size, came down to his ears. The professor followed right behind him, laughing silently. In the courtyard some people attracted by the report of what had happened were laughing. "Oh,


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Rh Don Rocco, see what he looks like!" said the women. And one of them would tell him about some action of Lucia, and another about another, things of all kinds which he had never suspected. "Enough, enough," he answered, disturbed in his conscience at all this malicious gossip. "It is now all over, all over."

He went on, followed by them all, gave a last look at the fig tree near the bell-tower, and passing between the cypresses in front of the church, turned back toward the door, devoutly raised his hat, and bent his knee.

The little wagon was awaiting him on the main road. The driver, seeing him in this costume, laughed no less heartily than the rest.

Then Don Rocco took leave of all, again thanked the professor, sent his respects to the countess, and reduced to silence those who were still heaping abuse on Lucia. When he had taken his seat the beggar approached him and put his right hand upon one of his shoes. "Is this yours?" said he.

"Yes, yes, the shoes are," answered the priest with a certain satisfaction, as the horse started.

The beggar carried to his forehead the hand that had touched the shoe of Don Rocco, and said with solemnity:

"In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. Amen."


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Philo Judæus

PHILO JUDÆUS, joo-dē'ŭs, Jewish philosopher: b. about 20 B.C.; d. not later than 54 A.D. He went to Rome in 42 A.D. was one of a deputation from Alexandria to the Emperor Caligula, to persuade him to release the Jews from the obligation of adoring the imperial statue. He was the oldest of five deputies. This and the fact that he visited Jerusalem and belonged to a wealthy family is nearly all that is known of his life.

Before the time of Philo the Hellenized Jews (see ), particularly those of Alexandria, had begun to blend the ideas of the Greek philosophers with the teaching of their own sacred books; but as they generally held that the Pentateuch itself was the source of inspiration from which the Greeks derived what was true in their philosophy, they endeavored by allegorical interpretations of their own books to find “indications of the profoundest doctrines of philosophy in the simplest stories of the Pentateuch.” It was in this school that Philo was brought up. His philosophy was thus strictly a theosophy. It rested, as its direct foundation, on the Jewish Scriptures as an inspired revelation, and with these it incorporated the speculations of the writer, founded on the systems of Greek philosophy, which best harmonized with the teaching of the Hebrew Scriptures, and especially on the philosophy of Plato.

Philo's idea of God was partly religious, partly philosophical. From his faith as a Jew he derived the principle that God is to be worshipped as a personal being, but in developing his conception of God he is indebted chiefly to philosophical speculations. He held that God is incorporeal and only cognizable by reason. He is the most universal of beings, and higher than knowledge, goodness or beauty, per se. He has, strictly speaking, no attributes, being pure, unqualified being; he is therefore incomprehensible. The attributes ascribed to God in Scripture are to be understood only figuratively. God is present everywhere in the material universe by his operations; nowhere in his essence. God is the only free being. All others are subject to necessity. Philo's notions of matter are not remarkably consistent. He held God to be too perfect to have any association with it, yet he holds Him to be the Creator of the

Between God and the world there is an intermediate being, the Logos. He wavers in his account of the Logos also. The Logos is the most universal of all beings except God. The Logos contains in itself the sum of ideas — powers or spiritual forms which pervade the universe, and which are creative, governing, foreseeing, law-giving, etc. These forms are also regarded as either qualities of the deity or distinct persons. Sophia, wisdom, is sometimes considered as the first of the potencies of the Logos, sometimes as the mother of the Logos. God created the world as already indicated, by the agencies of these potencies, or of the Logos in whom they reside, out of unqualified matter. He gives the Logos the titles of Son of God, Paraclete, and Mediator between God and Man.

Man is a dual being, having a soul that came from God, tied to a body that naturally tends to the things of sense; by the aid of God the soul may be lifted above the body and ultimately regain its original source.

In interpreting Scripture Philo recognizes a double sense, the allegorical, which is the more important, and the literal, which is not to be neglected. The anthropomorphic representations of God in Scripture he regarded as an accommodation to the sensual nature of man. It is a fundamental principle with him that the law, which emanates from the being who is both the creator and the father of the universe, is in harmony with nature, and that he who violates it is punished by natural events. Consult Drummond, ‘Philo Judæus’ (1888); Conybeare, ‘Philo about the Contemplative Life’ (1895); Freudenthal, ‘Die Erkenntnislehre Philons von Alexandria’ (1891), and the ‘Jewish Encyclopedia.’


text:
Author:Columba Edmonds

Works

 * The Early Scottish Church (1906)
 * The Religion of Saint Columba (1910)

title: Author:Columba Edmonds


text:
Author:Karl Domanig

Works

 * "The Position of Schoenberg" in A Round Table of the Representative German Catholic Novelists (1902, with others), includes capsule biography and photograph

title: Author:Karl Domanig


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Briand, Aristide

BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862-), French statesman (see ). Few men in France had gained so much in political knowledge, ability and influence, during the 15 years preceding 1921, as Aristide Briand. The year of the separation of Church and State (1905) marked his entry into the ranks of the coming men in France. His tolerant interpretation of that measure, his desire to bring about a cessation of the bitter strife between old Radicals and the growing body of men who, while remaining Conservative, nevertheless accepted the Republic, marked him out as a man capable of interpreting the signs of the times. At the age of 59 Briand had been seven times prime minister of France. He was first Minister of Public Instruction in the Sarrien Ministry of 1906, and maintained that portfolio in the succeeding Clemenceau Government until Jan. 1908, when, still under Clemenceau, he became Minister of Justice, a portfolio which he resigned to become prime minister on July 24 1909. After a reshuffle he continued as prime minister from Nov. 3 1910 until Feb. 27 1911. He again took office as Minister of Justice in the Ministry formed by Raymond Poincaré on Jan. 14 1912. He followed Poincaré as prime minister between Jan. 21 1912 and Feb. 18 1913, and retained that office under Poincaré's presidency until March 18 1913. He was Minister of Justice in the Viviani war Cabinet from Aug. 26 1914 until Oct. 29 1915, when he again became prime minister, remaining in office until March 20 1917. He succeeded Georges Leygues as prime minister on Jan. 16 1921. (See : History.)

By his eloquence and the suavity of his manner Briand earned for himself many soothing nicknames, such as the “charmer,” the “siren” and the “endormeur.” He had in his command a voice of pleasing resonance and yet capable of humour, and a wealth of gesture and a knowledge of histrionics acquired from his friend the great actor Antoine. These, with a handsome and dominating personality lightened by a very ready and supple intelligence, explain his countless successes at the tribune. They were reinforced by statesmanlike qualities of courage and firmness, and a proper appreciation of the right moment at which to strike or to stroke recalcitrant sections of the community. M. Briand struck hard when, in 1910, he mobilized the railwaymen and thus put an end to the most grave labour trouble that had yet threatened France. Leaving far behind him the bitter doctrines of class warfare from which he started, Briand, in speeches at Perigueux St. Chamond, appealed to the country to breathe the atmosphere of appeasement, to accept the clerical struggle as over, and to work unitedly on sane measures of social reform. He was, in these utterances, seeking to create a centre party of moderate Republican sentiment. The constant labour troubles and the dangerous pandering to the greed of labour which had marked previous Radical administrations made his task easy. It was upon this Republican centre that Briand based his majority. His chief work was done during the World War. He succeeded Viviani at a time of considerable difficulty. The first battle of the Marne had been won, but the second was still to come. He had ambitious desires to bring about the unification of allied war effort which Clemenceau and events alone had the power to achieve. It was under his influence that the first steps towards coördination were taken. He had to fight against the French Parliament's desire to play a greater part in the conduct of the war than that to which it was entitled. He had also to support in conference against British representatives the claims of the Salonika expedition. As Minister of Foreign Affairs he was largely responsible for the entry of Rumania into the war. In 1921 France gave him her confidence as being exceptionally qualified, by suppleness of character and firmness in argument, to maintain her claims for national security amid the difficulties encountered in enforcing the Peace Treaty. He attended the Disarmament Conference at Washington in Nov. 1921, and stated the case for his country.

 * (G. A.)


text: Author:Arthur Lawrence McMahon

title: Author:Arthur Lawrence McMahon


text: Author:George Jeffreys Adam

title: Author:George Jeffreys Adam


text:
Author:Walter Dwight

Works

 * The King's Table (1912)
 * Our Daily Bread (1912)

title: Author:Walter Dwight