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 Dogmengeschichte (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, Zum Verständnis d. Apostolats in NT. (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier, La Notion de l’apostolat, des origines à Irénée (Paris, 1903). The later legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, Propheten- und Apostellegenden (Leipzig, 1907).

APOSTLE SPOONS, a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver gilt, with the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each bearing their distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal gifts during the 15th and 16th centuries, but were dying out by 1666. Often single spoons were given, bearing the figure of the patron or name saint of the child. Sets of the twelve apostles are not common, and complete sets of thirteen, with the figure of our Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The Goldsmiths’ Company in London has one such set, all by the same maker and bearing the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at Christie’s in 1904 for £4900.

APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ( or  ), a collection of ecclesiastical regulations in eight books, the last of which concludes with the eighty-five Canons of the Holy Apostles. By their title the Constitutions profess to have been drawn up by the apostles, and to have been transmitted to the Church by Clement of Rome; sometimes the alleged authors are represented as speaking jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been very variously estimated; the Canons, as a rule, more highly than the rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople (quini-sextum), 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by its second canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground that spurious matter had been introduced into them by heretics; and whilst the former were henceforward used freely in the East, only a few portions of the latter found their way into the Greek and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius Exiguus (c. 500) translated fifty of the Canons into Latin, although under the title Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum, and thus they passed into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as a whole remained unknown in the West until they were published in 1563 by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm, their authenticity soon came to be impugned; and their true significance was largely lost sight of as it began to be realized that they were not what they claimed to be. Vain attempts were still made to rehabilitate them, and they were, in general, more highly estimated in England than elsewhere. The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who calls them “the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in authority to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority to the epistles of single apostles, some parts of them being our Saviour’s own original laws delivered to the apostles, and the other parts the public acts of the apostles” (Historical preface to Primitive Christianity Revived, pp. 85-86). Others, however, realized their composite character from the first, and by degrees some of the component documents became known. Bishop Pearson was able to say that “the eight books of the Apostolic Constitutions have been after Epiphanius’s time compiled and patched together out of the didascaliae or doctrines which went under the names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors” (Vind. Ign. i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still, Archbishop Usher, had already gone much further, and concluded, forestalling the results of modern critical methods, that their compiler was none other than the compiler of the spurious Ignatian epistles (Epp. Polyc. et Ign. p. lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644). The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are spurious, and they are one of a long series of documents of like character. But we have not really gauged their significance by saying that they are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten church custom; and a short account of this process will show their real importance and value.

These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is found in every society, religious or secular, at some point in its history. The society begins by living in accordance with its fundamental principles. By degrees these translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties are faced and solved as they arise; and when similar circumstances recur they will tend to be met in the same way. Thus there grows up by degrees a body of what may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no particular point of time at which this customary law can be said to have begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution and gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually modified as time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when the attempt is made, either by private individuals or by the society itself, to put this “customary law” into writing. Now when this is done, two tendencies will at once show themselves. (a) This “customary law” will at once become more definite: the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an effort after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and to add to that which is the custom that which, in his opinion, ought to be. (b) There will be a strong tendency to fortify that which has been written with great names, especially in days when there is no very clear notion of literary property. This is done, not always with any deliberate consciousness of fraud (although it must be clearly recognized that truth is not one of the “natural virtues,” and that the sense of the obligations of truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to emphasize the importance of what was written, and the fact that it was no new invention of the writer’s. In a non-literary age fame gathers about great names; and that which, ex hypothesi, has gone on since the beginning of things is naturally attributed to the founders of the society. Then come interpolations to make this ascription more probable, and the prefixing of a title, then or subsequently, which states it as a fact. This is precisely the way in which the Apostolical Constitutions and other kindred documents have come into being. They are attempts, made in various places and at different times, to put into writing the order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for private instruction and edification, but in part also with a view to actual use; frequently even with an actual reference to particular circumstances. In this lies their importance, to a degree which is only just being adequately realized. They contain evidence of the utmost value as to the order of the Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of the writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs are continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence. It is only by careful investigation, by the method of comparisons, that these elements can be disentangled; but as the number of documents of this class known to us is continually increasing, their value increases even more than proportionately. And whilst their local and fugitive character must be fully recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set them aside or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore negligible.

It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections of this kind which came into existence during the first four centuries; generally as the work of private individuals, and having, at any rate, no more than a local authority of some kind, (a) The earliest known to us is the Didachē or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, itself compiled from earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see ). (b) The Apostolic Church Order (apostolische Kirchenordnung of German writers); Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles of one MS.; Sententiae Apostolorum of Pitra: of about 300, and emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14, depends upon the Didachē, and the rest of it is a book of discipline in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments of church law (Texte u. Unters. ii. 5). (c) The so-called Canones Hippolyti, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the first half of the 3rd century. It will be observed that these

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/211


text:
Caserta surrender

Record of First Caserta Meeting 1/2
TOP SECRET

ALLIED FORCE HEADQUARTERS Supreme Allied Commander's Secretariat

TOP SECRET COPY NO //

RECORD OF THE FIRST MEETING HELD WITH THE GERMAN PLENIPOTENTIARIES AT 1800 HOURS ON SATURDAY 28 APRIL 1945

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PRESENT :

Lieutenant General W. D. Morgan,		Lieutenant Colonel von Schweinitz, Chief of Staff to						German Commander-in-Chief, Southwest Supreme Allied Commander Major General Lyman L. Lewnitzer,		Major Wenner, representing Deputy Chief of Staff to				S.S. General Karl Wolff Supreme Allied Commander

Rear Admiral H. A. Packer, Chief of Staff to	Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Major General T. S. Airay, Assistant Chief of Staff G-2, AFHQ Brigadier General C. F. Cabell, Director of Operations and Intelligence, HQ MAAF INTERPRETER Mr. von Guvernitz, C. S. S.								SECRETARIES Colonel J. E. Bastion, Jr. Lt. Col. J. G. Sweetman LIEUTENANT GENERAL MORGAN said that he was Chief of Statt to Field Marshal Alexander, Supreme Allied Commander, Mediterranean Theatre. with him were the Chiefs of the Naval and Air Staffs and other high ranking officers on the Field Marshal's staff. They had full powers to act on behalf of the Field Marshal. He understood that the two German officers, whom he believed were name Lt. Col. von Schweinitz and Major Wenner, representing, respectively, General von Vietinghoff, Commander-in-Chief Southwest, and S. S. General Wolff. He asked if this was correct. LIEUTENANT COLONEL VON SCHWEINITZ replied that was correct. LIEUTENANT GENERAL MORDAN asked if the officers had full powers to act on behalf of these commanders.

LIEUTENANT COLONEL VON SCHWEINITZ said he was acting on behalf and with the authority of Colonel General Von Vietinghoff, Commander of Army 'C' and Commander-in-Chief, Southwest, and Commander of the Wehrmacht in ITALY. He had authority within the orders he had got. It was possible, however, that proposi- tions might be made to him which would be outside his orders and would therefore have to be refereed to his commander.

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Record of First Caserta Meeting 2/2
TOP SECRET

LIEUTENANT GNERAL MORGAN again asked Lt. Col. von Schweinitz if he had full powers.

LIEUTENANT COLONEL VON SCHWEINITZ replied that within his orders he had full powers. He then produced his credentials which were dated April 22nd 1945 and as translated read:-

"Lieutenant Colonel in the General Staff von Schweinitz has been		authorised by me to conduct negotiations within the frame of the		instructions given by me and to make binding commitments on my		behalf." (agd) V. Vietinghoff

MAJOR WENNER then produced his credentials. They were dated April 25th 1945 and as translated read:

"I hereby authorise my Chief Adjutant S.S. Major Wenner to nego-		tiate on my behalf and to make binding commitments on my behalf." (agd) Wolff Major Wenner further explained that General Grasiani had given full powers to General Wolff, who in turn had passed them on to him.

LIEUTENANT GENERAL MORGAN said he was now going to hand over three copies of the Instrument of Surrender and its appendices. He asked the German officers to examine these documents. A further meeting would be held that night at 2100 hours and at this meeting he would expect to be told whether the terms were ac- cepted or not. Any questions regarding the terms of the document could be asked then. (He then handed over two copies in german and one in English.) He asked the officers to withdraw to their camp where they could study the documents in peace and, he hoped, in comfort. If they had any maeterial wants they had only to ask the liasion officers who were attached to them by the Field Marshal's orders.

J. G. SWEETMAN, LIEUTENANT COLONEL, SECRETARY.

DISTRIBUTION									 COPY NO.

Annexed to signed copies of Instrument				1-3 Supreme Allied Commander						    4 Deputy Supreme Allied Commander						 5 Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean					 6 Air Commander-in-Chief, MAAF						 7 Commander, United States Naval Forces North- west African Waters							 8 Deputy Air Commander-in-Chief, MAAF					 9 Chief of Staff										 10 SACS (Spares)										11-12

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Instrument of Local Surrender Appendix A 1/3
APPENDIX 'A'

ORDERS FOR GERMAN LAND FORCES

1.	The term "German Land Forces" wherever used in these orders shall be deemed to include all German and Italian Republican military or para military for- ces or organisations, under the command or control of the German Commander- in-Chief Southwest, who is hereafter referred to as "the German Authority".

2.	The Term "Supreme Allied Commander" will be deemed to include all subordi- nate Allied Commanders. 3. 	The German Authority will send to HQ 15 Army Group, as soon as possible after the signing of the instrument of surrender, senio representatives with full executive powers to carry out the following orders and such fur- ther orders as the Commander General, 15 Army Group, may issue for compli- ance by the German Land Forces. "STAY-PUT" ORDER 4.	All formations, units and sub-units of the German Land Forces, whereever they may be, will remain in their present positions and in their existing formations pending further orders from the Supreme Allied Commander. Only such local movement is permitted as is essential for the transmission of	orders, the supply of food, water, forage and petrol and the treatment of sick and wunded. (See also paragraph 7.) 5.	In particular, all large scale road and rail movement between ITALY and any point outside ITALY is absolutely prohibited. Any movement east of the ISONZO River will be liable to air attack without warning. DISARMAMENT OF GERMAN LAND FORCES 6. 	All German Land Forces will be completely disarmed. They will hand over their arms, ammunition, equipment and all war-like stores at places and times and in a manner to be further ordered by the Commanding General, 15 Army Group or any of his subordinate Commanders. MAINTENANCE OF GERMAN LAND FORCES 7.	The German Authority will, pending further orders from the Supreme Allied Commander, maintain its own forces from its own resources. Purchase or requisition from local sources is forbidden. STATUS OF SURRENDERED PERSONNEL 8.	All personnel of the German Armed Forces shall be subject to such conditions and directions as may be prescribed by the Supreme Allied Commander. At the Supreme Allied Commander's discretion, some or all of such personnel may be declared to be prisoners of war. PROHIBITION OF DESCTRUCTION AND DAMAGE

9.	The German Authority will prevent the removal, destruction of or damage to, and will safeguard in good condition at the disposal of the Supreme Allied commander: a.	All arms, ammunition, explosives and war-like stores, equipment, vehicles, material of all kinds, fuel and oil stocks, and any items of supply used by or for members of the German lan forces. b.	All military installations and establishments, including permanent and temporary land fortifications, fortresses and fortified areas together with all plans and drawings of the same. SECRET - 1 -

Instrument of Local Surrender Appendix A 2/3
c.	All transportation and communications facilities and equipment, including all ports and port facilities and equipment, roads, rail- ways, waterways, bridges, tunnels and telecommunications systems. d.	All civil and industrial factories, installations and plant, work- shops, laboratories, experimental stations, stores, equipment, supplies, raw materials and finished products, buildings and civil property. e.	All cryptographic methods and equipment, cyphers, codes and call- sign systems, whether military, diplomatic or civilian. f.	All military, para military and civil documents, records and archives.

PROVISION OF INFORMATION AND FACILITIES 10.	The German Authority will forthwith furnish to the Supreme Allied Commander: a.	Complete information regarding the German Land Forces and in par- ticular such details as the Supreme Allied Commander may require concerning the numbers, locations, dispositions, stores and equip- ment of the German Land Forces wherever located. b. 	Complete information concerning mines, minefields and other obstacles to movement and the safety lanes in connection therewith. c. 	Such military, para military and civil documents, records and archives as the Supreme Allied Commander may require. 11.	The German Authority will:

a.	Maintain in operation all public utility and essential civilian services. b.	Clearly mark and maintain safety lanes through all minefields and other obstacles to movement. c.	Remove or render safe all demolition charges and all booby-traps. d.	Make available for the Supreme Allied Commander such military per- sonnel with the necessary equipment, as he may require, for the clearance of mines, minefields and other obstacles to movement; and such labour as he may require for any purpose. DISPOSAL OF PRISONERS OF WAR AND OF PERSONS IN CUSTODY 12. The German Authority will release in accordance with the instructions of	the Supreme Allied Commander all prisoners of war (naval, military or air) at present in their power and will furnish forthwith complete lists of these persons with the places of their detention. Ponding release of such prisoners of war, the German Authority will continue to protect them in	their persons and property, and accord them such treatment and facilities as are prescribed under the Geneva Convention. 13.	The provisions of paragraph 12 preceding will be applied by the German Authority equally to all other persons who are confined, interned or other- wise under restraint for political reasons or as the result of any action, law or regulation originating from discrimination on grounds of nationali- ty, race, colour, creed or political belief. Such persons as are not en- titled to treatment in accordance with the Geneva Convention will be	afforded comparable rights and amenities in accordance with their rank or official positions. - 2 -

Instrument of Local Surrender Appendix A 3/3
14.	Without prejudice to any other provisions in these orders, the German Authority will hand over to the Supreme Allied Commander the control of all places of detention. RADIO AND TELE-COMMUNICATIONS

15.	The use of military and civil radio and land line communication systems is 	permitted with the provises that :

a.	All messages and signals will be made in clear. b.	All forms of scrambling and secrecy equipment will be disconnected and safoguarded intact. MAINTENANCE OF DISCIPLINE 16.	The German Authority will remain responsible for the maintenance of disci- pline throughout the German Land Forces as defined in paragraph 1 above.* TREATMENT OF ALLIED LIASON OFFICERS AND ITALIAN GOVERNMENT FORCES IN	GERMAN-OCCUPIED ITALY

17.	Italian Government forces in Northern ITALY comprise all partisan forma- tions and organisations owing allegiance to the CLNAI, which is the re- cognised delegate in German-occupied ITALY of the Italian Government. Immediate contrl of these groups is exercised through Allied and Co- belligerent officers operating in conjunction with these forces in the field. Such officers are being instructed immediately to get in tough with local German commanders. 18. The German Commander-in-Chief Southwest and all German subordinate com- manders will receive and afford all facilities to these Allied or Co- belligerent officers together with representatives of the CLNAI for the purpose of establishing and maintaining pending arrival of Allied forces, liaison with the following objects: a.	The general maintenance of law and order. b.	The maintenance of all essential civilian services. c.	The provision of communications and transport which may be necessary for the adequate distribution of supplies and the continuance of local administration.

19.	For the execution of the above functions all Allied Liaison officers will be considered as the representatives of the Supreme Allied Commander. They will be afforded complete freedom of communication by any means. * Until such time as this responsibility is taken over by Allied troops, e.g., until German troops become prisoners of war, German commissioned officers and military police (Felder gendarmaric and Geheim feld polizei) will retain their hand weapons.

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Record of Second Caserta Meeting 1/6
TOP SECRET

ALLIED FORCE HEADQUARTERS Supreme Allied Commander's Secretariat

TOP SECRET COPY NO //

RECORD OF THE SECOND MEETING NEED WITH THE GERMAN PLENIPOTENTIARIES AT 2100 HOURS ON SATURDAY 28 APRIL 1945

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PRESENT :

Lieutenant General W. D. Morgan,			Lieutenant Colonel von Schweinitz Chief of Staff to							representing Supreme Allied Commander					German Commander-in-Chief, Southwest Lieutenant General Sir Brian H. Robertson,	Major Werner, representing Chief Administrative Officer, AFHQ			S.S. General Wolff Major General Lyman L. Lewnitzer, Deputy Chief of Staff Supreme Allied Commander Rear Admiral H. A. Packer, Chief of Staff to	Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Major General T. S. Airey, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, AFHQ

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Caserta surrender


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 2 August 2008

Good morning. This weekend marks the beginning of August, the month when many Americans take their summer vacation. This year, however, the high price of gas is taking a toll on summer travelers. Congress is now taking a month-long recess of its own. Unfortunately, Democratic leaders are leaving town without taking any action to ease the burden of high gas prices on families across America.

The fundamental source of high gas prices is the fact that supply is not keeping pace with demand. To reduce pressure on prices, we need to increase the supply of oil, especially oil produced here at home. So in June, I called on Congress to lift the legislative ban that prevents offshore exploration of parts of the Outer Continental Shelf, or OCS. But the leaders of the Democratic Congress have refused to allow a vote. Lifting the ban on this offshore exploration would benefit our economy in two important ways.

First, lifting the ban would allow our Nation to take advantage of a large and reliable source of domestic oil. Experts believe that these restricted areas could eventually produce about 18 billion barrels of oil; that's almost 10 years worth of America's current oil production.

Second, lifting the ban would create new opportunities for American workers and businesses. On Tuesday, I visited the Lincoln Electric Company in Cleveland, Ohio, a business that produces welding products used for offshore exploration. If Congress were to permit this exploration, it would mean new jobs at businesses like Lincoln Electric. American drivers are counting on Congress to lift the ban on offshore exploration, and so are American workers.

Bringing these resources on line will take time, and that means that the need for congressional action is urgent. I've lifted the executive restrictions on offshore exploration. This means that the only thing now standing between the American people and these vast oil resources is the United States Congress. The sooner Congress lifts the ban, the sooner we can get this oil from beneath the ocean floor to your gas tank.

We also need to take other essential steps to strengthen domestic oil production. Congress needs to pass legislation that allows us to tap the extraordinary potential of oil shale, permits exploration in currently restricted areas of northern Alaska, and enables the expansion of America's domestic refining capacity.

It appears that the leaders of the Democratically controlled Congress will let the entire summer pass without voting on any of these vital steps to help reduce pressure on gas prices. This failure to act is unacceptable to me and unacceptable to the American people. So when they return from their summer break, Democratic leaders should show that they've heard the frustration of the American people by allowing a vote on offshore exploration. If Congress does not act, they will owe families across America an explanation for why they're ignoring their concerns.

I know that high energy prices are making this a difficult time for many of our citizens, but it is important to remember that these high prices were not inevitable. They are partially the result of policy choices that have been made over the years by the United States Congress. Now Congress has an opportunity to begin reversing that damage. By opening up new resources at home, we can help bring energy costs down, and that will help ensure that our economy remains the strongest, most vibrant, and most hopeful in the world.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 9 August 2008

Good morning. I'm speaking to you from Beijing, where I've come to support American athletes participating in the Olympic games. This is a moment of pride for our Olympians and the great Nation they represent, and Laura and I are honored to share it with them.

In addition to attending the Olympics, my schedule includes meeting with China's President, dedicating a new U.S. Embassy in Beijing, and worshiping at a local church. During my time here, I'm expressing America's deep concerns about freedom and human rights in China. This trip has reaffirmed my belief that men and women who aspire to speak their conscience and worship their God are no threat to the future of China; they are the people who will make China a great nation in the 21st century.

One of the most striking parts of this trip is seeing how much China has changed. I first visited the country more than three decades ago, when my dad was America's representative in Beijing. Poverty was rampant, and the streets swarmed with bicycles. Today, China is sprinting into the modern era. Beijing is covered in skyscrapers and filled with cars, and the people of China have more connections to the world than ever before.

These changes present the Chinese people, the American people, and the world with tremendous opportunities. So over the past 8 years, America has sought to put our relationship with China on a more solid and principled footing. We've advanced both our nations' interests by expanding free and fair trade and encouraging the rise of a Chinese middle class, which can be an enormous market for American exports. We have also cooperated on other shared challenges, from fighting pandemic disease to opposing North Korea's nuclear weapons programs.

At the same time, America has spoken candidly and consistently about our concerns over the Chinese Government's behavior. We have made it clear that trusting their people with greater freedom is necessary for China to reach its full potential. We have emphasized that being a global economic leader carries with it the duty to act responsibly on matters from energy to the environment to development and Africa.

Only China can decide what course it will follow, but I'm optimistic about the prospects. Young people who grow up with freedom in one area of their lives will ultimately demand freedom in other areas. The China of the future will reflect its own culture and traditions, but it will also reflect the universal aspirations of mankind. And there's no deeper human desire than liberty.

America's relationship with China is one element of our broader strategy for the region. When I took office, I brought a clear conviction that America is a Pacific nation, and our engagement with Asia should be stronger than ever before. We've acted on that conviction by pursuing four broad objectives.

We bolstered all five of our treaty alliances in the Asia Pacific region: Japan, Australia, the Philippines, and two countries I visited this week, South Korea and Thailand. We have strengthened our relationships with other free societies in Asia, including India, the world's largest democracy, and Indonesia, a democratic nation that is home to more Muslims than any other nation on Earth. We have seized opportunities for prosperity by negotiating new free trade agreements, including an historic agreement with South Korea, an agreement which our United States Congress must pass. And we helped bring together nations throughout the Asia Pacific to fight terrorism, seek an end to tyranny in Burma, respond to natural disasters, and address other challenges to our people and our prosperity.

My trips to Asia as President have brought many uplifting moments. One of the most moving came this week in Seoul, when I spoke to American troops at the Yongsan Garrison. These men and women are carrying the burdens of military life far from home. Yet in their faces you can see a quiet pride that comes from having an important job and doing it right. These brave Americans are preserving peace, and they're sending a broader message about our approach toward Asia. Now and always, the United States will keep our word to our friends. We will stand confidently for liberty. And we will advance our Nation's interests and ideals by staying engaged in this pivotal part of the world.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 16 August 2008

Good morning. For more than a week, the people of the nation of Georgia have withstood assault from the Russian military. The world has watched with alarm as Russia invaded a sovereign, neighboring state and threatened a democratic government elected by its people. This act is completely unacceptable to the free nations of the world.

The United States and our allies stand with the people of Georgia and their democratically elected Government. We insist that Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity be respected. And Moscow must honor its pledge to withdraw its invading forces from all Georgian territory.

Earlier this week, I directed a series of steps to demonstrate America's solidarity with the Georgian people and to help bring about a peaceful resolution of the conflict. On Thursday, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice was in France, where she conferred with President Sarkozy about the diplomatic effort that the French Government is leading on behalf of the European Union.

Yesterday she was in the Georgian capital of Tbilisi, where she conveyed America's support for Georgia's democratic Government. And next week, Secretary Rice will travel to Brussels, where she will meet with the foreign ministers of our NATO allies and EU officials to continue our efforts to rally the free world in defense of a free Georgia.

Secretary of Defense Robert Gates is overseeing a mission by the United States military to provide humanitarian aid for the people of Georgia. In recent days, U.S. cargo planes carrying humanitarian supplies have arrived in Georgia. In the days ahead, we will continue using U.S. aircraft and other assets as needed to deliver more humanitarian and medical supplies. Russia has agreed to let in all forms of humanitarian assistance, and Russia must keep open all lines of communication and transport, including seaports, airports, roads, and airspace for civilian transit and the delivery of humanitarian assistance.

Some Americans listening today may wonder why events taking place in a small country halfway around the world matter to the United States. In the years since it gained independence after the Soviet Union's collapse, Georgia has become a courageous democracy whose people are making the tough choices that are required of free societies.

Since the Rose Revolution in 2003, the Georgian people have held free elections, opened up their economy, and built the foundations of a successful democracy. Georgia has sent troops to Afghanistan and Iraq to help others achieve the liberty that they struggled so hard to attain. To further strengthen their democracy, Georgia has sought to join the free institutions of the West. The people of Georgia have cast their lot with the free world, and we will not cast them aside.

Georgia's emergence as a young democracy has been part of an inspiring and hopeful new chapter in Europe's history. Europe has moved beyond the world wars that killed millions of people and the cold war that divided its citizens between two superpowers. For the first time in memory, Europe is becoming a continent that is whole, free, and at peace. And it is essential that America and other free nations ensure that an embattled democracy seeking to stand with us remains sovereign, secure, and undivided.

Russia's actions in Georgia raise serious questions about its role and its intentions in the Europe of the 21st century. In recent years, Russia has sought to integrate into the diplomatic, political, economic, and security structures of the West. The United States has supported those efforts. Now, Russia has put its aspirations at risk by taking actions in Georgia that are inconsistent with the principles of those institutions.

To begin to repair the damage to its relations with the United States, Europe, and other nations and to begin restoring its place in the world, Russia must act to end this crisis.

Thank you for listening.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apostle

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apostle


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 23 August 2008

Good morning. Before they left Washington for their August recess, Congress failed to take action on an issue that is currently of great concern to Americans: high prices at the gas pump.

The fundamental reason for high gasoline prices is that the supply of oil is not keeping pace with demand. To reduce pressure on prices, we need to increase the supply of oil, especially oil produced here at home. So in June, I called on Congress to open up more of America's domestic oil resources for exploration, including offshore exploration of the Outer Continental Shelf. The American people overwhelmingly support this proposal. But throughout the summer, the leaders of the Democratic Congress have refused to allow it to come to a vote.

Now that the pressure to take action has become overwhelming, Democratic leaders in Congress have changed their strategy. Rather than attempting to block expanded drilling by preventing a vote, they are now attempting to block it by bringing up a bill that is designed to fail.

News reports indicate that Democratic leaders in Congress may plan to hold a vote on a bill that would make us more dependent on foreign oil and would likely make energy costs go up, not down. This bill would raise taxes on energy companies, which would reduce domestic production. This bill would make the Nation more vulnerable to supply shocks by tapping into our emergency supply of oil, the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. And it would impose a rigid national mandate that would increase electricity costs in States where there are few renewable resources.

Democratic leaders know that these counterproductive proposals will not become law. Yet they seem ready to push this legislation as a way to block offshore drilling while appearing to be in favor of it. They need to stop standing in the way of expanding domestic production and take meaningful steps now to address the pain caused by high energy prices.

I've proposed a comprehensive approach to our energy problems that would permit a range of new drilling options and encourage the development of alternative resources. If Democratic leaders will not approve this comprehensive approach, the very least they should do when they return in September is to take action on three commonsense energy solutions that enjoy bipartisan support.

First, Congress should open the way for environmentally responsible offshore exploration on the Outer Continental Shelf. Experts believe that these areas could eventually produce nearly 10 years worth of America's current annual oil production. This exploration is now banned by a provision included in the annual interior appropriations bill. When Congress returns, they should remove this restriction so we can get these vast oil resources from the ocean floor to your gas tank.

Second, Congress should expand access to oil shale, a resource right here in America that could produce the equivalent of more than a century's worth of imports at current levels. Last year, however, Democratic leaders pushed through legislation blocking oil shale leasing on Federal lands. They should lift that ban as soon as they return.

Third, Congress should extend renewable power tax credits to spur the development of alternative sources of energy like wind and solar. They should make these credits long-term and expand them to cover all forms of low-emission power generation, including nuclear power. Increasing production of low-carbon electricity will help us reduce our addiction to oil by allowing us to power a new generation of plug-in hybrid and hydrogen-powered vehicles.

There is bipartisan support in Congress for all three of these measures. So, instead of spending the next month deadlocked on matters where Republicans and Democrats disagree, Members of Congress should come together to pass legislation in these areas, where there is agreement.

This Congress has been one of the most unproductive on record. They've failed to address the challenge of high gas prices. Members still have time to take action on this vital priority for the American people. They need to send me a bill next month that I can sign, so we can bring relief to drivers, small-business owners, farmers and ranchers, and every American affected by high prices at the pump.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 30 August 2008

Good morning. This weekend, millions of Americans will celebrate Labor Day. This holiday marks the traditional end of the summer season. It is also an opportunity to reflect on the contributions of hard-working Americans all across our country—from teachers, farmers, and health care professionals, to firefighters, police officers, small-business owners, and workers on the assembly line.

The American workforce continues to be the marvel of the world, yet many working families have been weathering tough economic times. There are families across our country struggling to make ends meet. There is an understandable concern about the high price of gas and food, and many Americans are worried about the health of our housing and job markets.

I share these concerns about our economy, yet there have been some recent signs that our economy is beginning to improve. While the housing market is continuing to experience difficulty, the decline in home sales has leveled off recently, and sales are rising in some parts of the country. Orders for some durable goods, such as business equipment, are rising. And earlier this week, we received a report that America's economy grew in the second quarter at an annual rate of 3.3 percent, surprising analysts who were predicting an economic recession.

These welcome signs indicate that the economic stimulus package that I signed earlier this year is having its intended effect. The growth package will return more than $150 billion back to American families and businesses this year. Many Americans who received tax rebates are spending them. Businesses are taking advantage of tax incentives to purchase new equipment this year. And there are signs that the stimulus package will continue to have a beneficial impact on the economy in the second half of the year.

Labor Day is also the traditional start of the election season. In the coming months, it will be tempting for some in Congress to try to score political points instead of getting work done for the American people. Our citizens deserve better. We still have time to accomplish important goals for our country. My administration remains hopeful that we can work with Democratic leaders in Congress on bipartisan measures to help Americans cope with this period of economic uncertainty.

We need to work together on a comprehensive approach to our energy problems. I've called on Congress to permit us to tap vast, unused sources of oil and gas, expand domestic refining capacity, and encourage the development of alternative energy sources. Congress continues to stand in the way of this comprehensive approach. At a minimum, Democratic leaders in Congress should move forward on commonsense energy proposals that have bipartisan support, and it is not too late to do this. They should act responsibly by lifting the ban on offshore drilling, expanding access to oil shale, and implementing long-term tax credits to spur the development of alternative sources of energy like wind, solar, and nuclear power.

We need to work together to open up markets for American goods. Exports account for a greater share of America's gross domestic product than at any time in our history. It is not too late for Congress to approve free trade agreements with strong allies like Colombia, Panama, and South Korea, so that we can create more opportunities for American farmers, ranchers, and entrepreneurs.

We need to work together to keep your taxes low. At a time of economic challenge, the last thing American families need is a massive tax increase. It's not too late for Congress to make the tax relief we passed in 2001 and 2003 permanent.

Despite our economic difficulties, there is every reason to be optimistic about America's future. Our workforce is dynamic and productive. Our economy is showing that it is resilient. And our Nation is the most industrious, creative, and prosperous on Earth.

Laura and I wish you a safe and joyous Labor Day weekend. Thank you for listening.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apostle Spoons


text: Betelguese, a Trip Through Hell

title: Betelguese, a Trip Through Hell


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 6 September 2008

Good morning. Throughout the past week, Americans anxiously watched weather conditions in the gulf coast region. The people of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas were well prepared for Hurricane Gustav, and the coordination between these States and the Federal Government was strong.

Now we're focusing on the relief effort. Gustav caused damage to infrastructure, forced tens of thousands into shelters, and left more than a million people without power. The Federal Government is working with State and local officials to repair this damage, to help residents get back home, and to return life in the region to normal as soon as possible.

While these relief efforts have been in progress, we've also been preparing for the arrival of storms like Hanna, Ike, and others that may follow. My administration will continue to provide assistance to those affected by violent weather throughout this hurricane season. And we will continue to work diligently to coordinate our emergency response efforts with State and local governments.

While the Federal Government continues this vital work, there are also important responsibilities awaiting Members of Congress as they return to Washington. In just a few weeks, Members will be back out on the campaign trail, emphasizing the differences between the two parties. But before they leave Washington, they should show that they can work together on bipartisan measures to help strengthen America's economy: measures like approving the Colombia and Korean free trade agreements, extending relief from the Alternative Minimum Tax, and addressing one of the American people's biggest concerns—the high price of gasoline.

The fundamental reason for high gasoline prices is that the supply of oil is not keeping pace with demand. By increasing supply through the use of our domestic resources, we can begin reducing the pressure on prices. So in June, I called on Congress to open up more of America's domestic oil resources for exploration, including offshore exploration of the Outer Continental Shelf. The American people overwhelmingly support this proposal. But throughout the summer, the leaders of the Democratic Congress refused to allow it to come to a vote.

At the very least, Congress should take action on three commonsense energy solutions that enjoy bipartisan support.

First, Congress should open the way for environmentally responsible offshore exploration on the Outer Continental Shelf. Experts believe that these areas could eventually produce nearly 10 years worth of America's current annual oil production. This exploration is now banned by a provision included in the annual interior appropriations bill. Congress should remove this restriction immediately.

Second, Congress should expand access to oil shale, a domestic resource that could produce the equivalent of more than a century's worth of imports at current levels. Last year, however, Democratic leaders slipped a provision blocking oil shale leasing on Federal lands into an omnibus spending bill. They should lift that ban immediately.

Third, Congress should extend renewable power tax credits to spur the development of alternative sources of energy like wind and solar. They should make these credits long-term and expand them to cover all forms of low-emission power generation, including nuclear power. In the long run, increasing production of low-carbon electricity can help us reduce our addiction to oil by allowing us to power a new generation of plug-in hybrid and hydrogen-powered vehicles.

This Congress has earned a reputation as one of the least productive in history. Throughout this year, Democratic leaders have ignored the public's demand for relief from high energy prices. This is their final chance to take action before the November elections. If Members of Congress do not support the American people at the gas pump, then they should not expect the American people to support them at the ballot box.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 13 September 2008

Good morning. This week, Americans marked seven years since the terrorist attacks that shook our Nation on September the 11th, 2001. On that day, we witnessed unspeakable destruction perpetrated by evil men, but we also witnessed selfless acts of valor and compassion performed by courageous citizens. And we saw the strength of the American people as they rallied in defense of the Nation.

On Thursday, I dedicated a new 9/11 memorial at the Pentagon. In the years to come, parents will visit this site to remember children who boarded Flight 77 for a field trip and never emerged from the wreckage. Husbands and wives will visit the memorial to remember spouses who left for work one morning and never returned home. And people from across our Nation will visit to remember the heroism of rescue workers who rushed into the burning Pentagon to save the lives of their fellow citizens.

Seven years after the attacks of 9/11, this spirit of heroism lives on. We see it in the courageous members of the United States Armed Forces. These brave men and women have volunteered to defend our Nation during a time of war. Every day, they are confronting our enemies abroad so we do not have to face them here at home. And because of their efforts, our Nation is safer today than it was 7 years ago.

In Afghanistan, where the 9/11 attacks were planned, our men and women in uniform toppled the Taliban regime, destroyed Al Qaida camps, and liberated more than 25 million Afghans. In the years since, members of the Taliban and Al Qaida have sought to regain power through acts of terror. The United States and our allies are meeting this challenge head on. We will not allow Afghanistan to once again become a safe haven for terror.

Earlier this week, I announced additional American troop deployments to Afghanistan. In November, a Marine battalion that was scheduled to deploy to Iraq will deploy to Afghanistan instead. It will be followed in January by an Army combat brigade. This continuing commitment to the Afghan people illustrates a stark contrast: While the terrorists and extremists deliberately target and murder the innocent, coalition and Afghan forces risk their lives to protect the innocent.

America is also on the offense against terrorists and extremists in Iraq. Since we launched the surge last year, violence has fallen to its lowest point since the spring of 2004. While the enemy in Iraq is still dangerous, we seized the offensive, and Iraqi forces are becoming increasingly capable of leading and winning the fight. As a result, we've been able to carry out a policy of return on success, reducing the number of American combat forces in Iraq as conditions on the ground there continue to improve.

After reviewing conditions in Iraq, General Petraeus and the Joint Chiefs of Staff have recommended additional force reductions. By February, about 8,000 additional American troops will have returned home without replacement. And if this progress in Iraq continues to hold, General Petraeus and our military leaders believe additional reductions will be possible in the first half of 2009.

In the 7 years since the attacks of September the 11th, the men and women of our Armed Forces and their wonderful families have been a source of pride for the Nation. Those who do not wear the uniform also have a responsibility to serve our country. After 9/11, I called on Americans to devote at least 4,000 hours—or 2 years over the course of a lifetime—to volunteering in their communities. This morning, I renew that call. Serving others is more than just a generous act, it is essential to the health of our society. And as any volunteer can tell you, when you bring hope to the lives of others, the life you enrich most is usually your own.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 20 September 2008

Good morning. This is a pivotal moment for America's economy. Problems that originated in the credit markets and first showed up in the area of subprime mortgages have spread throughout our financial system. This has led to an erosion of confidence that has frozen many financial transactions, including loans to consumers and to businesses seeking to expand and create jobs.

As a result, the Government is acting to protect our Nation's economic health from serious risk. Our free enterprise system rests on the conviction that the Federal Government should intervene in the marketplace only when necessary. Given the precarious state of our financial markets and their vital importance to the daily lives of the American people, Government intervention is not only warranted, it is essential.

In recent weeks, the Federal Government has taken a series of targeted measures designed primarily to stop the problems of individual firms from spreading more broadly, but more action is needed. We must address the root cause behind much of the instability in our markets. America's economy is facing unprecedented challenges, and we're responding with unprecedented action.

My administration is working with Congress on legislation which will approve the Federal Government's purchase of illiquid assets such as troubled mortgages from banks and other financial institutions. This decisive step will address underlying problems in our financial system, and it will allow financial institutions to resume lending and get our financial system moving again.

The Department of the Treasury is also acting to restore confidence in a key element of America's financial system by offering Government insurance for money market mutual funds. For every dollar you have invested in an insured fund, you'll be able to take a dollar out.

The Federal Reserve is also providing more liquidity to money market mutual funds, which will help ease pressure on our financial markets.

The Securities and Exchange Commission has issued new rules temporarily suspending the practice of short selling on the stocks of financial institutions. This is intended to prevent investors from intentionally driving down particular stocks for their own personal gain.

Finally, when we get past the immediate challenges, my administration looks forward to working with Congress on measures to bring greater long-term transparency and reliability to the financial system.

These measures require us to put a significant amount of taxpayer dollars on the line, but I'm convinced that this bold approach will cost American families far less than the alternative. Further stress on our financial markets would cause massive job losses, devastate retirement accounts, further erode housing values, and dry up new loans for homes, cars, and college tuitions.

In this difficult time, I know many Americans listening may be wondering about the security of your finances. Through the FDIC, every savings account, checking account, and certificate of deposit is insured by the Federal Government for up to $100,000. The FDIC has been in existence for 75 years, and no one has ever lost a penny on an insured deposit. And this will not change.

In the long term, Americans can have reason to be confident in our economic strength. America has the most talented, productive, and entrepreneurial workers in the world. This country is the best place in the world to invest and do business. And as we've seen repeatedly over the past 8 years, we have a flexible and resilient system that absorbs challenges, makes corrections, and bounces back.

We will weather this challenge too, and we will do it together. This is not a time for partisanship. I'll work with Democrats and Republicans alike to steer our economy through these difficult times and back to the path of long-term growth. Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 27 September 2008

Good morning. This is an extraordinary period for America's economy. Many Americans are anxious about their finances and their future. On Wednesday, I spoke to the Nation and thanked Congress for working with my administration to address the instability in our financial system. On Thursday, I hosted Senator McCain, Senator Obama, and congressional leaders from both parties at the White House to discuss the urgency of passing a bipartisan rescue package for our economy.

The problems in our economy are extremely complex, but at their core is uncertainty over mortgage-backed securities. Many of these financial assets relate to home mortgages that have lost value during the housing decline. In turn, the banks holding these assets have restricted credit, and businesses and consumers have found it more difficult to obtain affordable loans. As a result, our entire economy is in danger. So I proposed that the Federal Government reduce the risk posed by these troubled assets and supply urgently needed money to help banks and other financial institutions avoid collapse and resume lending.

I know many of you listening this morning are frustrated with the situation. You make sacrifices every day to meet your mortgage payments and keep up with your bills. When the government asks you to pay for mistakes on Wall Street, it does not seem fair, and I understand that. And if it were possible to let every irresponsible firm on Wall Street fail without affecting you and your family, I would do it. But that is not possible. The failure of the financial system would mean financial hardship for many of you.

The failure of the financial system would cause banks to stop lending money to one another and to businesses and consumers. That would make it harder for you to take out a loan or borrow money to expand a business. The result would be less economic growth and more American jobs lost. And that would put our economy on the path toward a deep and painful recession.

The rescue effort we're negotiating is not aimed at Wall Street; it is aimed at your street. And there is now widespread agreement on the major principles. We must free up the flow of credit to consumers and businesses by reducing the risk posed by troubled assets. We must ensure that taxpayers are protected, that failed executives do not receive a windfall from your tax dollars, and that there is a bipartisan board to oversee these efforts.

Under the proposal my administration sent to Congress, the government would spend up to $700 billion to buy troubled assets from banks and other financial institutions. I know many Americans understand the urgency of this action but are concerned about such a high price tag. Well, let me address this directly.

The final cost of this plan will be far less than $700 billion. And here's why: As fear and uncertainty have gripped the market for mortgage-related assets, their price has dropped sharply. Yet many of these assets still have significant underlying value, because the vast majority of people will eventually pay off their mortgages. In other words, many of the assets the government would buy are likely to go up in price over time. This means that the government will be able to recoup much, if not all, of the original expenditure.

Members of Congress from both sides of the aisle have contributed constructive proposals that have improved this plan. I appreciate the efforts of House and Senate Democratic and Republican leaders to bring a spirit of bipartisan cooperation to these discussions. Our Nation's economic well-being is an issue that transcends partisanship. Republicans and Democrats must continue to address it together. And I am confident that we will pass a bill to protect the financial security of every American very soon.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 4 October 2008

Good morning. This week, Congress passed a bipartisan rescue package to address the instability in America's financial system. This was a difficult vote for many Members of the House and Senate, but voting for it was the right choice for America's economy and for taxpayers like you. I appreciate their efforts to help stop the crisis in our financial markets from spreading to our entire economy. And I appreciate their willingness to work across party lines in the midst of an election season.

The legislation Congress passed provides the necessary tools to address the underlying problem in our financial system. The root of this problem is that, as assets that banks hold have lost value, their ability to provide credit has been restricted, making it more difficult for businesses and consumers to obtain affordable loans.

Without decisive action, this credit crunch threatens to harm our entire economy. With this legislation, the Federal Government can help banks and other financial institutions resume lending. This will allow them to continue providing the capital that is essential to creating jobs, financing college educations, and helping American families meet their daily needs.

Though the $700 billion dedicated to this plan is a large amount, the final cost to taxpayers will actually be much lower. Many of the assets that the Government will be purchasing still have significant underlying value. As time passes, they will likely go up in price. And this means that the Government should eventually be able to recoup much, if not all, of the original expenditure.

This package will also increase the safety of Americans' personal finances. For 75 years, the FDIC has provided insurance for savings accounts, checking accounts, and certificates of deposit. A similar insurance program is in effect for deposits in credit unions. And since these programs were instituted, no one has ever lost a penny on an insured deposit. The rescue package expands this protection by temporarily increasing the amount insured by the Federal Government in banks and credit unions from $100,000 to $250,000. These steps should reassure Americans, especially small-business owners, that their money is safe, and it should restore confidence in the health of our banking system.

In addition to addressing the immediate needs of our financial system, this package will also help to spur America's long-term economic growth. This week, we learned that our Nation lost more jobs in September. Under these circumstances, it is essential for the Government to reduce the burdens on workers and business owners. And that is why the rescue package includes relief from the Alternative Minimum Tax, which would otherwise increase taxes for 26 million taxpayers by an average of $2,200. And that is why it includes tax relief for businesses, which can use these savings to hire new employees and finance new investment.

By taking all these steps, we can begin to put our economy on the road to recovery. While these efforts will be effective, they will also take time to implement. My administration will move as quickly as possible, but the benefits of this package will not all be felt immediately. The Federal Government will undertake this rescue plan at a careful and deliberate pace to ensure that your tax dollars are spent wisely.

I know many of you listening this morning are anxious about the state of our economy and what it means for your personal finances. I am confident that the implementation of this relief package can begin to address those concerns. I'm confident by getting our markets moving, we will help unleash the key to our continued economic success, the entrepreneurial spirit of the American people.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 11 October 2008

Good morning. Over the past few days, we have witnessed a startling drop in the stock market, much of it driven by uncertainty and fear. Many Americans have serious concerns about their economic well-being.

Here's what the American people need to know. The United States Government is acting, and will continue to act, to resolve this crisis and restore stability to our markets. The Federal Government has a comprehensive strategy and the tools necessary to address the challenges in our economy.

Here are the problems we face and the steps we are taking. First, key markets are not functioning because there is a lack of liquidity. So the Federal Reserve has injected hundreds of billions of dollars into the system. The Fed has joined with central banks around the world to coordinate a cut in interest rates, a step that should help free up credit. The Fed has also announced a new program to provide support for a vital tool that many American businesses use to finance their day-to-day operations, the commercial paper market, which is freezing up. As this program kicks in over the next week or so, it will help revive a key source of short-term financing for businesses and financial institutions.

Second, some Americans are concerned about whether their money is safe. So the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Credit Union Administration have significantly expanded the amount of money insured in savings accounts and checking accounts and certificates of deposit. That means that if you have up to $250,000 in one of these insured accounts, every penny of that money is safe. The Treasury Department has also acted to restore confidence in a key element of America's financial system by offering Government insurance for money market mutual funds.

Third, we are concerned that some investors could take advantage of the crisis to illegally manipulate the stock market. So the Securities and Exchange Commission is launching rigorous enforcement actions to detect fraud and manipulation in the market.

Fourth, the decline in the housing market has left many Americans concerned about losing their homes. My administration launched the HOPE NOW Alliance, which brings together homeowners and lenders and mortgage servicers and others to find ways to prevent foreclosure. We're also making it easier for responsible homeowners to refinance into affordable mortgages insured by the Federal Housing Administration. Americans listening today can know that if you're struggling to meet your mortgage, there are ways you can get help.

These actions are helping to address a key problem in the housing market. The supply of homes now exceeds demand, and as a result, home values have declined. Once supply and demand balance out, our housing market will be able to recover, and that will help our broader economy begin to grow.

Fifth, we have seen that problems in the financial system are not isolated to the United States. So we're working closely with partners around the world to ensure that our actions are coordinated and effective. Today I'm meeting with the finance ministers from our partners in the G-7 and the heads of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, and Treasury Secretary Paulson is also hosting finance ministers from the world's 20 leading economies.

Finally, American businesses and consumers are struggling to obtain credit. So my administration worked with Congress to pass a $700 billion financial rescue package. This new law authorizes the Treasury Department to use a variety of measures to help banks rebuild capital, including buying or insuring troubled assets and purchasing the equity of financial institutions. The Department will implement measures that have maximum impact as quickly as possible. Seven hundred billion dollars is a significant amount of money, and as we act, we will do it in an effective way.

In the short term, we'll continue to face challenges. But in the long run, Americans have reason to be confident. We have the strongest and most resilient economy in the world. When we have faced difficult tests in the past, the American people have always risen to meet them. And that is exactly what we're going to do again.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 18 October 2008

Good morning. Our Nation is dealing with a serious financial crisis. Over the past month, Americans have witnessed fast-moving events involving complicated financial issues. I know many of you are concerned about your finances. So this morning, I want to tell you how we're addressing the uncertainty in our economy.

The Federal Government has responded to this crisis with systematic and aggressive measures to protect the financial security of the American people. These actions will take more time to have their full impact. But they are big enough and bold enough to work.

The primary focus of our efforts is addressing the underlying problem behind the freeze in our credit markets. Earlier this month, Congress passed bipartisan legislation authorizing the Treasury Department to use up to $700 billion to help banks rebuild capital. This week, I announced that the Treasury will use a portion of that money to inject capital directly into banks by purchasing equity shares. This new capital will help banks continue making loans to businesses and consumers. In addition, the Treasury will use part of the $700 billion to purchase some of the troubled assets that are weighing down banks' balance sheets and clogging the financial system. This extraordinary effort is designed with one overriding purpose: to help banks get loans flowing to American consumers and businesses, so they can create jobs and grow our economy.

I know many Americans have reservations about the Government's approach, especially about allowing the Government to hold shares in private banks. As a strong believer in free markets, I would oppose such measures under ordinary circumstances. But these are no ordinary circumstances. Had the Government not acted, the hole in our financial system would have grown larger, families and businesses would have had an even tougher time getting loans, and ultimately, the Government would have been forced to respond with even more drastic and costly measures later on. So I decided that Government had to move, but that Government's involvement in individual banks had to have prudent limits.

The Government's involvement is limited in size. The Government will only buy a small percentage of shares in banks that choose to participate, so that private investors retain majority ownership.

The Government's involvement is limited in scope. The Government will not exercise control over any private firm, and Federal officials will not have a seat around your local bank's boardroom table. The shares owned by the Government will have voting rights that can be used only to protect the taxpayers' investment, not to direct the firm's operations.

The Government's involvement is limited in duration. It includes provisions to encourage banks to buy their shares back from the Government when the markets stabilize and they can raise money from private investors. This will ensure that banks have an incentive to find private capital to replace the taxpayers' investment, and to do so quickly.

I know many of you are also concerned about the price tag of this rescue package. Ultimately, we believe the final cost will be significantly less than the initial investment. Many of the troubled assets that the Government buys will increase in value as the market recovers. That means the Government eventually will be able to resell them for a higher price. In addition, the Government will receive quarterly dividends from the equity shares it purchases in financial institutions. If banks do not repurchase these shares within 5 years, the dividends they owe the Government will increase substantially. This provides a clear incentive for banks to buy back their shares, thus returning the money to taxpayers as soon as possible.

In the long run, the American people can have confidence that our economy will bounce back. America is the best place in the world to start and run a business, the most attractive destination for investors around the globe, and home to the most talented, enterprising, and creative workers in the world. We're a country where all people have the freedom to realize their potential and chase their dreams. This promise has defined our Nation since its founding, this promise will guide us through the challenges we face today, and this promise will continue to define our Nation for generations to come.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 25 October 2008

Good morning. Americans from all walks of life are continuing to feel the effects of the financial crisis. In recent weeks, concerns about the availability of credit, the safety of financial assets, and the volatility of the stock market have made many families understandably anxious about their economic future.

The Federal Government has taken bold action to stabilize our economy. Earlier this month, my administration worked with Congress to pass bipartisan legislation that is providing funds to help banks rebuild capital and resume lending. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation has temporarily guaranteed most new debt issued by insured banks, which will make it easier for these banks to borrow needed money. And the Federal Reserve is launching a new program to provide support for commercial paper, a key source of short-term financing for America's businesses and financial institutions. These steps are beginning to show results, but it will take time for their full impact to be felt.

In coordination with the United States, many other nations have taken similar steps to address turbulence in their domestic markets. This crisis is global in reach and addressing it will require further international cooperation. So this week, I consulted with leaders from throughout the world and announced that I would convene an international summit in Washington on November the 15th.

This summit will be the first in a series of meetings aimed at addressing this crisis. The summit will bring together leaders of the G-20 nations, countries that represent both the developed and the developing world. And the summit will also include the heads of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Financial Stability Forum, as well as the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

During this summit, we will discuss the causes of the problems in our financial systems, review the progress being made to address the current crisis, and begin developing principles of reform for regulatory bodies and institutions related to our financial sectors. While the specific solutions pursued by every country may not be the same, agreeing on a common set of principles will be an essential step towards preventing similar crises in the future.

As we focus on responses to our short-term challenges, our nations must also recommit to the fundamentals of long-term economic growth: free markets, free enterprise, and free trade. Open market policies have lifted standards of living and helped millions of people around the world escape the grip of poverty. These policies have shown themselves time and time again to be the surest path to creating jobs, increasing commerce, and fostering progress. And this moment of global economic uncertainty would be precisely the wrong time to reject such proven methods for creating prosperity and hope.

Despite the ups and downs that our markets have experienced in recent months, the American people have reason for optimism in our Nation's economic future. Throughout our history, we have seen that when Americans are given the freedom to apply their talents and imagination, prosperity and success follow closely behind. For over two centuries, that principle has allowed our economy to overcome every obstacle it has faced. And we can all be confident that it will do so again.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 1 November 2008

Good morning. This Tuesday is election day. After months of spirited debate and vigorous campaigning, the time has come for Americans to make important decisions about our Nation's future. I encourage all Americans to go to the polls and vote.

Election season brings out the spirit of competition between our political parties, and that competition is an essential part of a healthy democracy. But as the campaigns come to a close, Republicans, Democrats, and Independents can find common ground on at least one point: Our system of representative democracy is one of America's greatest strengths.

The United States was founded on the belief that all men are created equal. Every election day, millions of Americans of all races, religions, and backgrounds step into voting booths throughout the Nation. Whether they are rich or poor, old or young, each of them has an equal share in choosing the path that our country will take. And every ballot they cast is a reminder that our founding principles are alive and well.

Voting is one of the great privileges of American citizenship, and it has always required brave defenders. As you head to the polls next week, remember the sacrifices that have been made by generations of Americans in uniform to preserve our way of life. From Bunker Hill to Baghdad, the men and women of American Armed Forces have been devoted guardians of our democracy. All of us owe them and their families a special debt of gratitude on election day.

Americans should also remember the important example that our elections set throughout the world. Young democracies from Georgia and Ukraine to Afghanistan and Iraq can look to the United States for proof that self-government can endure. And nations that still live under tyranny and oppression can find hope and inspiration in our commitment to liberty.

For more than two centuries, Americans have demonstrated the ability of free people to choose their own leaders. Our Nation has flourished because of its commitment to trusting the wisdom of our citizenry. In this year's election, we will see this tradition continue, and we will be reminded once again that we are blessed to live in a free nation guided by the will of the people.

Thank you for listening.


text:
Presidential Radio Address - 8 November 2008

Good morning. Earlier this week, more than 120 million Americans went to the polls and voted for a new President and Congress. No matter how we cast our ballots, all Americans have reason to be proud of our democracy. Our citizens have chosen a President who represents a triumph of the American story, a testament to hard work, optimism, and faith in the enduring promise of our Nation.

When I called President-elect Obama to congratulate him on his historic victory, I told him that he can count on my complete cooperation as he makes his transition to the White House. Ensuring that this transition is seamless is a top priority for the rest of my time in office. Our country faces economic challenges that will not pause to let a new President settle in. This will also be America's first wartime Presidential transition in four decades. We're in a struggle against violent extremists determined to attack us, and they would like nothing more than to exploit this period of change to harm the American people.

So my administration will work hard to ensure that the next President and his team can hit the ground running. For more than a year now, the White House and agencies throughout the Federal Government have been preparing for a smooth transition. We've provided intelligence briefings to the President-elect, and the Department of Justice has approved security clearances for members of his transition staff. In the coming weeks, we will ask administration officials to brief the Obama team on major ongoing policy issues, ranging from the financial markets to the war in Iraq. I will keep the President-elect fully informed on important decisions during this critical time for our Nation. Taken together, these measures represent an unprecedented effort to ensure continuity throughout the executive branch.

A successful transition is just one of the many important tasks remaining for my administration. Yesterday we learned that America's economy lost jobs in the month of October, and I will continue working hard to return our Nation to the path of prosperity and growth. To help address the global financial crisis, my administration will host an historic international summit in Washington on November the 15th. We will also keep urging Congress to approve America's free trade agreements with Colombia and Panama and South Korea. We will continue working to defeat the terrorists and extremists abroad to keep the American people safe here at home.

Americans expect their President to conduct the people's business. I will continue to uphold this solemn obligation for as long as this office remains in my trust. In the meantime, I join the American people in wishing President-elect Obama every success. Laura and I wish the Obama family as much joy and happiness as our family has found in this wonderful house.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 15 November 2008

Good morning. This weekend, I am hosting a summit on the global financial crisis with leaders of developed and developing nations. By working together, I'm confident that with time we can overcome this crisis and return our economies to the path of growth and vitality.

I know many of you listening are worried about the challenges facing our economy. Stock market declines have eroded the value of retirement accounts and pension funds. The tightening of credit has made it harder for families to borrow money for cars, homes, and education. Businesses have found it harder to get loans to expand their operations and create jobs. Many nations have suffered job losses and have serious concerns about the worsening economy.

Nations around the world have responded to this situation with bold measures, and our actions are having an impact. Credit markets are beginning to thaw, and businesses are gaining access to essential short-term financing. It will require more time for these improvements to fully take hold, and there will be more difficult days ahead. But the United States and our partners are taking the right steps to get through the crisis.

As we address the current crisis, we also need to make broader reforms to adapt our financial systems to the 21st century. So during this summit, I will work with other leaders to establish principles for reform, such as making markets more transparent and ensuring that markets, firms, and financial products are properly regulated.

All these steps will require decisive actions from governments around the world. At the same time, we must recognize that government intervention is not a cure-all. While reforms in the financial sector are essential, the long-term solution to today's problems is sustained economic growth. And the surest path to that growth is free markets and free people.

This is a decisive moment for the global economy. In the wake of the financial crisis, voices from the left and right are equating the free enterprise system with greed, exploitation, and failure. It is true that this crisis included failures by lenders and borrowers, by financial firms, by governments, and independent regulators. But the crisis was not a failure of the free market system. And the answer is not to try to reinvent that system. It is to fix the problems we face, make the reforms we need, and move forward with the free market principles that have delivered prosperity and hope to people around the world.

The benefits of free market capitalism have been proven across time, geography, and culture. Around the world, free market capitalism has allowed once impoverished nations to develop large and prosperous economies. And here at home, free market capitalism is what transformed America from a rugged frontier to the greatest economic power in history.

Just as important as maintaining free markets within countries is maintaining the free movement of goods and services between countries. There are many ways for nations to demonstrate their commitment to open markets. The United States Congress can take the lead by approving free trade agreements with Colombia, Panama, and South Korea before adjourning for the year.

In the long run, Americans can be confident in the future of our economy. We will work with our partners around the world to address the problems in the global financial system. We will strengthen our economy, and we will continue to lead the world toward prosperity and peace.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 22 November 2008

Good morning. This weekend I am in Lima, Peru, meeting with leaders from nations in the Asia Pacific region at our annual summit.

This summit comes at a time of serious turmoil in the global economy. It also comes at a time of unprecedented cooperation. A week ago in Washington, I hosted the first in what will be a series of international meetings to address the financial crisis. We reviewed the actions we have taken to manage the crisis, and we agreed on principles and specific actions to modernize our financial structures for the 21st century and help prevent another crisis.

As we work to rebuild confidence in our financial systems in the short term, we must also work to promote long-term economic growth. Together, our nations must focus our efforts on three great forces that drive this growth: free markets, free trade, and free people.

No region of the world demonstrates the power of these forces more vividly than the Asia Pacific. Free markets have helped millions lift themselves out of poverty. Free trade has helped small nations turn themselves into global economic powers. And as more people in the Asia Pacific are free to develop their talents and pursue their ambitions, the whole region has grown in prosperity. We're facing a difficult challenge, and there will be tough days ahead. But by relying on these principles, we can be confident in the future of our Nation and the world.

Back at home, one of the most serious economic challenges we face is the situation in our auto industry. America's auto manufacturers are facing severe and urgent financial shortfalls. Earlier this fall, I signed a bill that authorized up to $25 billion in loans to help these automakers make more fuel-efficient vehicles. Under the law, this money is not available to help auto companies with their immediate funding challenges. So this past week, Senators Bond, Levin, and Voinovich came forward with a new proposal that would allow auto companies to access the loans they need, as long as they're willing to restructure to become financially viable.

This proposal earned support from both sides of the aisle on Capitol Hill. Unfortunately, the leadership in Congress adjourned without even allowing this measure to come up for a vote.

My position is clear: If the automakers are willing to make the hard decisions needed to become viable, they should be able to receive the funds Congress already allotted to them for other purposes. This is a critical issue for our economy and our country. The American people expect their elected leaders to do what it takes to solve it.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 26 November 2008

Good morning. This week, Americans gather with loved ones to celebrate Thanksgiving. This holiday season is a time of fellowship and peace. And it is a time to give thanks for our many blessings.

During this holiday season, we give thanks for generations of Americans who overcame hardships to create and sustain a free nation. When the Pilgrims celebrated their first Thanksgiving nearly four centuries ago, they had already suffered through a harsh and bitter winter. But they were willing to endure that adversity to live in a land where they could worship the Almighty without persecution. When President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed Thanksgiving a national holiday in 1863, the United States was in the midst of a terrible civil war. But in that hour of trial he gave thanks, because he believed America would weather the storm and emerge into a new era of liberty.

During this holiday season, we give thanks for those who defend our freedom. America's men and women in uniform deserve our highest respect, and so do the families who love and support them. Lately, I have been asked what I will miss about the Presidency. And my answer is that I will miss being the Commander in Chief of these brave warriors. In this special time of year, when many of them are serving in distant lands, they are in the thoughts and prayers of all Americans.

During this holiday season, we give thanks for the kindness of citizens throughout our Nation. It is a testament to the goodness of our people that on Thanksgiving millions of Americans reach out to those who have little. The true spirit of the holidays can be seen in the generous volunteers who bring comfort to the poor and the sick and the elderly. These men and women are selfless members of our Nation's armies of compassion, and they make our country a better place, one heart and one soul at a time.

Finally, I have a special note of thanks to the American people. On this my last Thanksgiving as your President, I am thankful for the good will, kind words, and heartfelt prayers that so many of you have offered me during the past 8 years. I have been blessed to represent such decent, brave, and caring people. For that I will always be grateful, and I will always be honored.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 6 December 2008

Good morning. This weekend I'm attending the Army-Navy game in Philadelphia, and I'm looking forward to a great day of college football. But more importantly, I'm looking forward to spending time with the brave men and women of the United States military.

Throughout the past 8 years, I've seen the tremendous talent and courage of those who wear the uniform. Their efforts have overthrown tyrants, made our Nation safer, put terrorists on the run, and opened the door to liberty for more than 50 million people. And now, thanks to their work in Iraq and the courage of the Iraqi people, a hopeful new era is dawning for their democracy and ours.

Earlier this week, Iraq's Presidency Council approved two landmark agreements that will solidify Iraq's democratic gains, affirm its sovereignty, and put its relations with the United States on a strong and steady footing.

The first agreement that America and Iraq have signed is called a strategic framework agreement. This pact sets out a common vision for U.S.-Iraqi relations in the years ahead. Under this agreement, we will work together to bring greater stability to Iraq and the region. We'll promote trade and investment between our nations. And we will support Iraq's leaders and their citizens as they strengthen their democratic institutions.

Only a few years ago, such an agreement was unimaginable. Chaos and violence were consuming Iraq. Terrorists were seizing new ground and using violence to divide the Iraqi people along sectarian lines. And the nation was nearing the point of political collapse and civil war.

Today, violence is down dramatically. Our forces have struck powerful blows against Al Qaida. The Iraqi military is growing in capability, taking the lead in the fight against the extremists, and working across sectarian lines. Sunni, Shi'a, and Kurdish leaders are sitting together at the same table to peacefully resolve their differences and chart their country's future. And there is hope in the eyes of young Iraqis for the first time in many years.

The second agreement that America and Iraq have signed is a security agreement, known as a status of forces agreement. One of the primary purposes of this agreement is to ensure protection for our troops and Defense Department civilians as the Iraqi Government begins to exercise greater sovereignty. Our military commanders have assured me that the agreement's provisions meet this purpose. At the same time, it also respects the authority of the Iraqi Government. And it lays out a framework for the withdrawal of American forces in Iraq, a withdrawal that is possible because of the success of the surge.

This withdrawal will take place in two stages. The first stage will occur next year, when Iraqi forces assume the lead for security operations in all major population centers, while U.S. combat forces move out of Iraqi cities and move into an overwatch role. After this transition has occurred, the drawdown of American forces will continue to the second stage, with all U.S. forces returning home from Iraq by the end of 2011.

As we enter this new phase in America's relations with Iraq, we have an opportunity to adopt a new perspective here at home. There were legitimate differences of opinion about the initial decision to remove Saddam Hussein and the subsequent conduct of the war. But now the surge and the courage of brave Iraqis have turned the situation around. And Americans should be able to agree that it is in our Nation's strategic and moral interests to support the free and democratic Iraq that is emerging in the heart of the Middle East.

The American people have sacrificed a great deal to reach this moment. The battle in Iraq has required a large amount of time and a large amount of money. Our men and women in uniform have carried out difficult and dangerous missions and endured long separations from friends and family. And thousands of our finest citizens have given their lives to make our country safer and bring us to this new day. The war in Iraq is not yet over. But thanks to these agreements and the courage of our men and women in Iraq, it is decisively on its way to being won.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 13 December 2008

Good morning. This week, our country received good news in the fight against illegal drugs. New data show that illicit drug use amongst young people continues to decline, and that we are making good progress in our efforts to help thousands of Americans renew their health and hope.

Substance abuse is a serious challenge for our Nation. Addiction breaks hearts, destroys families, and keeps our citizens from fulfilling their God-given potential. The drug trade also enriches our enemies and brings crime and violence to our streets. So in 2002, I committed our Nation to an ambitious effort to cut drug use by limiting demand, reducing supply, and helping addicts get treatment.

Over the past 6 years, we've made great strides toward these goals. Parents, teachers, mentors, and counselors have done fantastic work to educate children about the dangers of drug abuse. Law enforcement officers have risked their lives to cut the supply of drugs on city streets. And with help from our international partners, we're pursuing drug dealers around the world and interdicting supply before it reaches our shores. This year, the Coast Guard took possession of more than 360,000 pounds of South American cocaine—an alltime record.

To help Americans break the chains of addiction, we've built strong partnerships with faith-based and community groups. These groups open minds and change hearts in a way no government bureaucracy can, so my administration has supported their life-changing work. Through our Access to Recovery program, addicts receive vouchers they can redeem at treatment centers of their choice, including faith-based centers. So far, this program has helped more than 260,000 addicts along the path toward clean lives.

Taken together, our efforts to reduce demand, cut supply, and help people break the chains of addiction are yielding measurable results. Over the past 7 years, marijuana use by young people has dropped by 25 percent. Methamphetamine use by young people is down by 50 percent. And the use of cocaine, hallucinogens, steroids, and alcohol by America's youth are all on the decline. Overall, illegal drug use by Americans is down by 25 percent, meaning we have helped approximately 900,000 young people stay clean.

These statistics reflect successful government policies. They also represent the courage and compassion of Americans who are determined to help their fellow citizens win their struggle against drugs. On Thursday, I met with some of these people at the White House, and I am inspired by their stories.

I was especially interested in a young man named Josh. At age 19, Josh had never touched drugs or alcohol. He had a promising life and career ahead of him. Yet after a car accident left him injured and unable to work, Josh started abusing alcohol and cocaine. He put his marriage and career in jeopardy. Eight different treatment programs failed to turn his life around, but the intervention of his grandmother, the support of his wife, and the loving influence of God did. Today, this young man is free of drugs. He's a caring husband and father. And Josh Hamilton of the Texas Rangers is one of the best players in Major League Baseball. More importantly, he and his wife Katie make time to share their blessings. Through their ministry, they're helping other Americans avoid the suffering their family endured.

Josh Hamilton shows that the devastation of drug addiction can happen to anyone, but that with faith and determination, anyone can turn a life around. So today I ask every American with a drug or alcohol problem to seek treatment, because your life is precious to the people who love you. Our Nation needs your contributions, and there is a more hopeful future ahead. I ask all Americans to reach out to your neighbors in need and do your part to help our Nation win the fight against illegal drugs.

Thank you for listening.


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Presidential Radio Address - 20 December 2008

Good morning. For years, America's automakers have faced serious challenges: burdensome costs, a shrinking share of the market, and declining profits. In recent months, the global financial crisis has made these challenges even more severe. Now some U.S. auto executives say that their companies are nearing collapse, and that the only way they can buy time to restructure is with help from the Federal Government.

This is a difficult situation that involves fundamental questions about government's proper role. On the one hand, government has a responsibility not to undermine the private enterprise system. On the other hand, government has a responsibility to safeguard the broader health and stability of our economy.

Addressing the challenges in the auto industry requires us to balance these two responsibilities. If we were to allow the free market to take its course now, it would almost certainly lead to disorderly bankruptcy and liquidation for the automakers. Under ordinary economic circumstances, I would say this is the price that failed companies must pay, and I would not favor intervening to prevent automakers from going out of business.

But these are not ordinary circumstances. In the midst of a financial crisis and a recession, allowing the U.S. auto industry to collapse is not a responsible course of action. The question is how we can best give it a chance to succeed. Some argue the wisest path is to allow the auto companies to reorganize through chapter 11 provisions of our bankruptcy laws and provide a Federal loan to keep them operating while they try to restructure. But given the current state of the auto industry, my economic advisers believe that bankruptcy could now lead to its disorderly collapse, sending our economy into a deeper and longer recession.

A more responsible option is to give auto companies an incentive to restructure outside of bankruptcy, and a brief window in which to do it. My administration proposed legislation to achieve this, but Congress was unable to get a bill to my desk before adjourning for the year. This means the only way to stave off a collapse of the auto industry is for the executive branch to step in. So, yesterday I announced that the Federal Government will grant loans to auto companies, which will provide help to them in two ways.

First, the loans will give automakers 3 months to put in place plans to restructure into viable companies, which we believe they are capable of doing. Second, if restructuring cannot be accomplished outside of bankruptcy, the loans will provide time for companies to make the legal and financial preparations necessary for an orderly chapter 11 process that offers a better prospect of long-term success.

The terms of the loans will require the auto companies to demonstrate how they would become viable. They must pay back all their loans to the Government and show that their firms can earn a profit and achieve a positive net worth. This restructuring will require meaningful concessions from all involved in the auto industry: management, labor unions, creditors, bondholders, dealers, and suppliers. If a company fails to come up with a viable plan by March 31st, it will be required to repay its Federal loans. Taken together, these conditions send a clear message to everyone involved in American automakers: The time to make the hard decisions to become viable is now, or the only option will be bankruptcy.

The actions I'm taking represent a step that we all wish were not necessary. But given the situation, it is the most effective and responsible way to address this challenge facing our Nation. By giving the auto companies a chance to restructure, we will shield the American people from a harsh economic blow at a vulnerable time. And we will give American workers an opportunity to show the world once again that they can meet challenges with ingenuity and determination and emerge stronger than before.

Thank you for listening.