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 74 from the rivers, and hand them over to the little mason for the structure of the most stupendous works of solid masonry that man has ever seen—the coral islands of the sea".

The contemporary reviews of Maury's "Physical Geography of the Sea" gave unqualified praise to his style. The Revue des Deux Mondes declared, "Often indeed his powerful imagination makes of Maury a veritable poet, and his descriptions recall involuntarily those stories of the "Thousand and One Nights", which charmed our childhood, where Gulnare pictures for her husband marvellously the mysterious realms of the profundities under the sea". Humboldt considered it an epoch-making book, and the French scientist Jomard congratulated Maury upon the accomplishment of a "work so difficult, so useful, so laborious", which he regarded as a true present to physicists, geographers, and navigators as well as to the commerce of all nations. The Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine joined in the hymn of praise with the opinion that "the good that Maury has done, in awakening the powers of observation of the officers of the Royal and mercantile navies of England and America is incalculable", and added that such researches were exercising the most beneficial effect in improving and elevating the minds of seamen everywhere.

Some of Maury's theories, however, were early questioned, especially the one regarding the causes of ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream. He contended that they were set in motion by differences in specific gravity of the water in different places as caused by a disparity in temperature or in saltness. Sir John Herschel had considered that the currents were due entirely to the


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/ab

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 Rh Trade Winds; and C. Wyville Thomson, who thought that Maury's theory was ambiguous, was an adherent to the Herschel theory, though his colleague Carpenter was of a different opinion still. "It is now known, however," writes Sir Willam A. Herdman, "that the Gulf Stream is not an independent phenomenon, but is a part of the general system of surface circulation of the ocean, a system in which the currents, diverted to the east, as a result of the rotation of the earth in their course northwards from the equator, flow clockwise in the North Atlantic around a central, relatively calm area, the Sargasso Sea, in which seaweeds and other floating objects accumulate".

When one considers how science develops, one theory changing or giving place entirely to another as new and wider research is made, such criticisms as those above do not lessen at all the estimation of Maury's greatness as a pioneer scientist in a comparatively new field of investigation, nor do they at all rob him of the right to be called the world's first great oceanographer. This is the opinion of a recent authority on the science of the sea, who writes, "Marine meteorology may be said to date from the time of M. F. Maury, U. S. Navy, whose 'Physical Geography of the Sea', though out of date as to facts and somewhat fantastic as to theories, remains a model book of popular science, written by a man who was possessed of all the knowledge of his time, and afire with the enthusiasm of research".

Maury's researches in oceanography led to his


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 Science, then, commands our respect, not on the basis that its present assumptions and deductions are absolutely and for all time true, but on the ground that its method is for all time true the method of discovery, the method of observation, research, experimentation, comparison, examination, testing, analysis and synthesis. Author:Maynard Shipley, "The War on Modern Science."

''In the bare three and one-half centuries since modern science began, the churches had conducted an unremitting crusade against it. That much of this crusade had turned into a rear-guard action was due less to the weakness of the defenders of the faith than to the invulnerability of their non-resistant victim''. Author:Horace M. Kallen, "Why Religion?"

sixty years ago in the "Dogmatic Constitution of the Catholic Faith," the Church stated, "But never can reason be rendered capable of thoroughly understanding mysteries as it does those truths which form its proper subject. We, therefore, pronounce false every assertion which is contrary to the enlightened truth of faith ... Hence, all the Christian faithful are not only forbidden to defend as legitimate conclusions of science those opinions which are known to te contrary to the doctrine of faith, especially when condemned by the Church, but are rather absolutely bound to hold them for errors wearing the deceitful appearance of truth. Let him be anathema ...

"Who shall say that human sciences ought to be


text:
Author:Maynard Shipley

Works

 * Hypnotism Made Plain (1924)
 * Principles of Electricity (1924)
 * The Intelligence of Vertebrate Animals (1924)
 * The ABC of the Electron Theory of Matter (1924)
 * New Light on Prehistoric Cultures (1924)
 * The Origin and Development of the Atomic Theory (1924)
 * Sources of Bible Myths and Legends (1925)
 * Evolution vs. Dogma (1925)
 * The Wonders of Radium (1926)
 * Physics Self Taught (1925)
 * X-Ray, Violet Ray and Other Rays (1925)
 * Sex and the Garden of Eden Myth: A Collection of Essays on Christianity (1927)
 * The War on Modern Science (1927)
 * The Key to Evolution (1929)
 * 33 "Little Blue Books" on science

title: Author:Maynard Shipley


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text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/c


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Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/56

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  : settlement. We appreciate fact that Vietnam started present fighting in Indochina on December 19 and that this action has made it more difficult for French to adopt a position of generosity and conciliation. Nevertheless we hope that French will find it possible to be more than generous in trying to find a solution."

Thus, the U.S. chose to remain outside the conflict; the announced U.S. position was, in the words of Secretary of State George C. Marshall, to hope that "a pacific basis of adjustment of the difficulties could be found." Events conspired against this hope, however, and as the fighting continued, the prospect of a Moscow-controlled state in Vietnam continued to draw the U.S. nearer to involvement. On 13 May 1947, the Department of State furnished the following guidance to U.S. diplomats in Paris, Saigon, and Hanoi:

 * "Key our position is our awareness that in respect developments affecting position Western democratic powers in southern Asia, we essentially in same boat as French, also as British and Dutch. We cannot conceive setbacks to long-range interests France which would not also be setbacks our own. Conversely we should regard close association France and members French Union as not only to advantage peoples concerned, but indirectly our own.

 * "In our view, southern Asia in critical phase its history with seven new nations in process achieving or struggling independence or autonomy. These nations include quarter inhabitants world and their future course, owing sheer weight populations, resources they command, and strategic location, will be momentous factor world stability. Following relaxation European controls, internal racial, religious, and national differences could plunge new nations into violent discord, or already apparent anti-Western Pan-Asiatic tendencies could become dominant political force, or Communists could capture control. We consider as best safeguard against these eventualities a continued close association between newly-autonomous peoples and powers which have long been responsible their welfare. In particular we recognize Vietnamese will for indefinite period require French material and technical assistance and enlightened political guidance which can be provided only by nation steeped like France in democratic tradition and confirmed in respect human liberties and worth individual.

 * "We equally convinced, however, such association must be voluntary to be lasting and achieve results, and that protraction present situation Indochina can only destroy basic voluntary cooperation, leave legacy permanent bitterness, and irrevocably alienate Vietnamese from France and those values represented by France and other Western democracies.

Rh

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text: Category:1870s plays

title: Category:1870s plays


text: Category:1880s plays

title: Category:1880s plays


text: Category:1890s plays

title: Category:1890s plays


text: Category:1830s plays

title: Category:1830s plays


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/1


text: Category:1910s plays

title: Category:1910s plays


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/2


text: Category:1900s plays

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text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/3


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/4


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/4a


text: Category:1850s plays

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text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/5


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text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/6


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/7


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/7a


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/7b


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/7c


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Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/57

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :"While fully appreciating difficulties French position this conflict, we feel there is danger in any arrangement which might provide Vietnamese opportunity compare unfavorably their own position and that of other peoples southern Asia who have made tremendous strides toward autonomy since war.

 * "While we are still ready and willing do anything we can which might be considered helpful, French will understand we not attempting come forward with any solution our own or intervene in situation. However, they will also understand we inescapably concerned with situation Far East generally, upon which developments Indochina likely have profound effect....

 * "For your INFO, evidence that French Communists are being directed accelerate their agitation French colonies even extent lose much popular support France (URTEL 1719 Apr 25) may be indication Kremlin prepared sacrifice temporary gains with 600 million French to long range colonial strategy with 600 million dependent people, which lends great urgency foregoing views....DEPT much concerned lest French efforts find QUOTE true representatives Vietnam UNQUOTE with whom negotiate result creation impotent puppet GOVT along lines Cochinchina regime, or that restoration Baodai [sic] may be attempted, implying democracies reduced resort monarchy as weapon against Communism. You may refer these further views if nature your conversations French appears warrant."

The U.S. position may have influenced the French to revise the first Ha Long Bay Agreement (December, 1974) and when the second agreement was signed in June, 1948, the U.S. promptly instructed the U.S. Ambassador to "apply such persuasion and/or pressure as is best calculated [to] produce desired result" of France's "unequivocally and promptly approving the principle of Viet independence." Again, however, the Ambassador was instructed to avoid ostensible intervention while making it clear that the U.S. foresaw France's losing Indochina if it persisted to ignore American advice. These instructions were repeated at the end of August, 1948, with the assertion that the Department of State "believes nothing should be left undone which will strengthen truly nationalist groups in Indochina and induce present supporters of the Viet Minh to come to the side of that group."

The first suggestions that the U.S. became tangibly involved in Vietnam appear in a reported conversation of the U.S. Ambassador with the French Foreign Office in September, 1948. The U.S. Ambassador again urged on France legislation or other definite action to move toward the unification of Vietnam, and the immediate negotiation of concrete steps toward autonomy as envisaged by the Ha Long Bay Agreement. He then told the French representative that: Rh

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 a building near sawmill yesterday.

In passing sawmill we met a Mexican with a wagon load of cantaloupes and fruit. Santiago had a dime, the only money in the outfit, and the cantaloupes were 20[cents] each, so we compromised on half-ripe peaches. Collected salamanders and snails, etc., under the aspens. Only found one dead Ashmunella in an hour, numbers of Pupilla, a few Euconulus and probably Zonites. Snails not common.

We had a fine view of the nuthatch like bird which has puzzled me. It is nearly as large as an English sparrow, white below and on sides of head, giving it the appearance of a white headed bird from the front. Back probably bluish gray, tail rounded, tipped with white band as in Lark Sparrow. Noisy (Rocky Mt. Nuthatch) ((this parenthetical statement added later; color of ink is different)).

After breakfast Robbins started out with the rifle on the S side of the gulch after deer. At 8 a.m. Santiago started down stream with the shotgun after turkeys and grouse and I went up the slope on the north side with the "Game Getter". Long crested jays abundant, Rocky Mt. hairy


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 woodpecker common, chickadees common; say several Say's spermophiles, flickers, house wren, hawk with light throat and upper breast, a darker zone below formed by dark transverse bars and barred wings, about size of Swainson's hawk. Our camp is near the head of a gulch just across the divide E from a point about 2 miles below the head of the Valle Grande. The latter is one of the most beautiful valleys I have ever seen, entirely devoid of trees in the lowlands, but trees coming down the mountain slopes on all sides in dense conifer forests and ending abruptly where the slopes become more gentle. A stream meanders through it. There are lots of cattle and 2 big flocks of sheep to be seen from the slopes. All the open park-like places in the forests on the mountains are covered with fine grass.

I have concluded that Robbins' "deer signs" are all mad by sheep. I have seen no unmistakable deer tracks.

At the divide I saw three turkey vultures. Turning N, I soon found a flock of 20 or 30 turkeys in dense spruce timber. Tried them with the little gun, but without success, so turned back


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/8a


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 reaching camp at 12:45. As there was no one in camp I cooked my dinner and ate it. Saw gray headed juncos and crossbills up on top of the mountain. Obsidian flakes are found, scattered all over the mountain sides, as at Rito de los Frijoles. Santiago returned at 2:30 with 7 dusky grouse. The I took the shotgun and went back after the turkeys, but they were wild and I failed, and returned at 6 p.m. I heard crows near camp, and Robbins says he saw several and a campbird. Heard poorwills mournful song (2 birds apparently) near camp all evening. E of Valle Grande, N. M. Saturday, Aug 20, 1910

Up early, breakfast at 5:30. Robbins started after turkeys, where I was yesterday. Santiago, our Indian guide and cook, is an old native priest speaks Spanish well and English rather brokenly. Says old Indians tell about great herds of buffalo, how they used to go off, get buffalo skins to make blankets


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :"...US is fully appreciative difficulties which face French Government in Indochina at this time and reminds him that US had already indicated its willingness, if French Government so desired, to give public indication its approval of concrete steps by French Government to come to grips with basic political problem of Indochina. I informed him that US also willing under similar circumstances to consider assisting French Government with respect to matter of financial aid for Indochina through ECA but could not give consideration to altering its present policy in this regard unless real progress made in reaching non-Communist solution in Indochina based on cooperation of true nationalists of that country."

As negotiations proceeded with Bao Dai preliminary to the Elysee Agreement, the Department of State instructed the American Ambassador in Paris, on 17 January 1949, that:

 * "While the Department is desirous of the French coming to terms with Bao Dai or any truly nationalist group which has a reasonable chance of winning over the preponderance of Vietnamese, we cannot at this time irretrievably commit the U.S. to support of a native government which by failing to develop appeal among Vietnamese might become virtually a puppet government separated from the people and existing only by the presence of French military forces."

Following the Edysee Agreement, the U.S. was better disposed toward providing aid in Indochina. On 10 May 1949, the American Consul in Saigon was informed that the U.S. desired the "Bao Dai experiment" to succeed, since there appeared to be no other alternative.

 * "At the proper time and under the proper circumstances, the Department will be prepared to do its part by extending recognition to the Bao Dai government and by expressing the possibility of complying with any request by such a government for U.S. arms and economic assistance. It must be understood, however, that an aid program of this nature would require Congressional approval. Since the U.S. could, however, scarcely afford backing a government which would have the color and be likely to suffer the fate of a puppet regime, it must be clear that France will offer all necessary concessions to make the Bao Dai solution attractive to the nationalists. This is a step of which the French themselves must see the urgency and necessity in view of the possibly short time remaining before Communist successes in China are felt in Indochina. Moreover, the Bao Dai government must through its own efforts demonstrate the capacity to organize and conduct affairs wisely so as to insure the maximum opportunity for obtaining requisite popular support, inasmuch as a government created in Indochina analogous to the Kuomintang would be foredoomed to failure."

Rh

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 blankets and sell them at good prices. Now all gone. I explained that white men's deadly methods destroyed them. I went down gulch and in half hour shot 4 pine squirrels, then came back and got one Say spermophile. Found Oreohelix sp. in mixed conifer and aspen grove. Robbins returned at 8:40 a.m., having seen no turkeys. At 9:40 we ate grouse lunch. At 10:10 I started down trail on foot hunting squirrels, leaving Robbins and Santiago to follow on horseback. Bright morning but cloudy now. Rained on way down. Saw Clarke's crow and thrust without rufous tail in gulch. Say's spermophile found clear out to mesa. Reached mesa at 12:15. Warblers just outside of canyon, bluish gray, yellow rump, and apparently white band on end of rounded tail. Gray headed junco abundant at edge of mesa at old sawmill with a few lark sparrows. Also red tailed hawk and two badgers with very reddish hair.

Reached camp at 4 p.m. and cleaned the grouse and squirrels. Took a very refresh


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 ing bath at creek at dusk and retired at 8:15, very tired. Took one of the large nuthatches on the mesa near camp. It is Rocky Mt. nuthatch. They report 2 adult baldheaded eagles, with snow white heads, passing over camp yesterday.

Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Sunday, Aug.21,1910

Did not arise until 6:20 this morning. Bright hot morning. Spent forenoon taking care of the skins taken on our trip. In afternoon I wrote letters and worked on the report on birds and mammals of the region, In evening, Judd and Beauregard returned from Santa Fe, and Mr. Harrington, the linguist, came with them.


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/9


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 Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Monday, Aug 22, 1910

Bright hot morning. Had a talk with Harrington about some proposed field work in the Colorado River near Needles next winter. Hope I may go. At 8:20 I went up on the south mesa and started down the old trail, reaching the rim of the Rio Grande Canyon at 10:30, very hot and tired. Saw few birds and no mammals. A few bluebirds, 4 white throated swifts piñon or Woodhouse jays, small sparrows, 1 nighthawk, 1 rock wren which I took for identification. Saw coyote tracks and dung at various places on trail. In places trail worn to a depth of 6 or 8 inches in the tufa. Both walls of deep, narrow Rio Grande Canyon where I reached it are basalt, but the vertical contact on the N side is only a short distance from the rim as shown in lateral gulches. Canyon opens to a wide green valley a few miles down. Started back at 11 a.m. travelling slowly and resting occasionally on account of the extreme heat.

No rock pines on lower part of mesa, only piñons and cedars, rock pines coming in some distance up the mesa.


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 At the old pueblo on the rim above camp which has been excavated there are implements of mica schist, quartzite etc. which must have been brought from some distance. Reached camp at 2 p.m., exhausted from steady walking in intense heat. Rained in mountains, as it does every day, but we have had none here for a long time. Set traps up canyon half a mile.

Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Tuesday, Aug. 23, 1910

Had 2 deermice only in traps. Ginger Dowell caught a coyote at camp and Robbins and I skinned and skeletonized it. Rained hard at 1 p.m. In afternoon 11 people arrived in camp, including Frank Springer, the paleontologist, and Mr. Loomis, public librarian of Los Angeles.


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 Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Wednesday, Aug 23 ((sic)), 1910

Rather hazy morning, not so hot as yesterday. Spent some time looking over material taken from the ruins. In implements basalt of course predominates. A little tufa was used. A very few pieces of mica schist and at least one piece which looks like gneiss have been found. Some rubbing stones seem to be of quartzite and perhaps some are quartz. Thick flakes of selenite occur, which may have been used for ceremonial purposes, or perhaps for closing the holes or window openings of the rooms, as was done by the Pueblo Indians when whites first visited the Southwest. No nearby source for such materials is known and some or all must have come from far away. Some of the pottery may be nearly pure clay, some contains many small mica flakes, largely composed of mica, in fact, and in a few heavy pieces small quartz grains occur. The latter point clearly to tufa origin. Possibly the fine debris from weathered tufa was mixed with clay or some other substance to make the paste. The source of the clay and mica is undiscovered, but it


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/9a


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 may be and probably is distant. At nine o'clock I conducted a field excursion in geology explaining the geological history of the canyon and mesa. Clear and warm by 10 a.m. I experimented with tufa and included fragments in water. The igneous inclusions sink instantly, the light tufa very slowly, especially the very light pieces which look like an older tufa included in the new. In the cliffs no assortment whatever occurs. I do not believe it could have been deposited in water. Why have this canyon and the Rio Grande Canyon been cut through basalt in places instead of along the vertical contact? Are prevailing winds from the south. Judge Abbott says south winds passing over canyon produce an eddy, so that they blow toward his house from the north. This would suck out soft material on north side and affect cliff.


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 Also says snow does not remain on N side at all. Perhaps no frost in vertical fissures to topple cliff over on that side, while good freeze on S side, as he says snow has laid there 2 months at a time. Dr. Chas. F Lummis says he saw and caught trout in the creek here about 20 years ago (1891) and that then there were certainly many pools not now seen. Judge Abbott says the same of Otero Went down creek looking for snakes but did not see any. Have seen none since the first week here. Bats seen the first two or three nights but none since. Thrushes have apparently disappeared. Found one Succinea avara, but I put a leaf hopper in the bottle with it and the hopper hopped out, carrying the Succinea with him. This is the only Succinea found on the trip. Abbott says 2 rattlesnakes have been killed in the valley in 2 years, and he saw a big bull snake near house a day or two ago. Also says scaled partridge was killed here recently and pin squirrel found


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive But "anti-communism" initially proved to be no better guideline for the formulation of American policy in Indochina than it had been for the French. Indeed, early U.S. attempts to discern the nature and extent of communist influence in Vietnam devolved to the seeming paradox that if Ho Chi Minh were communist, he seemed to have no visible ties with Moscow. For example, a State Department appraisal of Ho Chi Minh provided to the U.S. Ambassador in China in July, 1948, was admittedly speculative:

 * "1. Depts info indicates that Ho Chi Minh is Communist. His long and well-known record in Comintern during twenties and thirties, continuous support by French Communist newspaper since 1945, praise given him by Radio Moscow (which for past six months has been devoting increasing attention to Indochina) and fact he has been called 'leading communist' by recent Russian publications as well as  makes any other conclusion appear to be wishful thinking.

 * "2. Dept has no evidence of direct link between Ho and Moscow but assumes it exists, nor is it able evaluate amount pressure or guidance Moscow exerting. We have impression Ho must be given or is retaining large degree latitude. Dept considers that USSR accomplishing its immediate aims in Indochina by (a) pinning down large numbers of French troops, (b) causing steady drain upon French economy thereby tending retard recovery and dissipate ECA assistance to France, and (c) denying to world generally surpluses which Indochina normally has available thus perpetuating conditions of disorder and shortages which favorable to growth communism. Furthermore, Ho seems quite capable of retaining and even strengthening his grip on Indochina with no outside assistance other than continuing procession of French puppet govts."

In the fall of 1948, the Office of Intelligence Research in the Department of State conducted a survey of communist influence in Southeast Asia. Evidence of Kremlin-directed conspiracy was found in virtually all countries except Vietnam:

 * "Since December 19, 1946, there have been continuous conflicts between French forces and the nationalist government of Vietnam. This government is a coalition in which avowed communists hold influential positions. Although the French admit the influence of this government, they have consistently refused to deal with its leader, Ho Chi Minh, on the grounds that he is a communist.

Rh

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 sometimes. Misses May and Friarmareca say they saw a badger this side of Water Canyon Monday. Mt. sheep heads are found in the ruins and catfish bones have been found in some ruins of the region, according to Hewett. Mr. John Adams says he saw a turkey vulture on rim of canyon at camp a day or two ago. In evening I gave a talk at the library tent on the zoology of the canyon.

Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Thursday Aug. 24 ((sic)) 1910 The notes for this day and the one following have been gone over at a later date with a green pencil with "X"s and check marks as if he was tabulating what he wanted to include in a document. It is obvious that he was writing down impressions of the Indian informants

Foggy morning, cool, east wind. Forenoon with Harrington, Miss Friarmareca and 3 Indians getting names and ideas about birds and mammals. They seem to have very definite ideas about animals, with names for all parts, as bills, feet, claws, whiskers, hair, feathers footprints etc. 	Hummingbird – they distinguished male and female correctly, say not found down in Rio Grande valley but confined to mountainous


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/10


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 tainous districts. Pine Squirrel – they say found higher up in tall slender trees tapering gradually toward the top, not down among the rock pines etc. Doubtless mean spruces and firs, which is accurate, though they do occur sparsely in pines below spruce belt in winter. Ground squirrel – good to eat, found all over cliffs in canyon and everywhere. Shed in April or may, hair begins to thicken in July – clearly a mistake. Don't use hair or skin. Now gets "nice hair, fix up for winter". Does great damage to fruit and gets into their food. Live about rocks, in holes not in trees, but climb trees. Deermouse – distinguished adult and nearly grown young # 22-23, but thought the bluish gray specimens were male and those with more reddish tinge female. Did not of course correctly distinguish sexes by color. Get young in Spring at same time as horse and cows. Same with squirrels. Gives young milk. Woodrat – blue gray like deer mouse above, white below, tail round and short haired. Gather piñon nuts in nest for winter. Jumping mice(probably pocket mouse) – yellowish above, white below, Long hind limbs, short forelegs, smaller than deermouse. Also one about size of chipmunk.


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 Prairie Dog – at Valle Grande and San Ildefonso Big whitish rats living at Ojo Caliente probably old individuals. Smell like skunk. Skunk – striped black down middle, white stripes on side of black stripe. Porcupine – Back in mts. sometimes in fields below, eat bark of trees Pocket gopher – described making holes, carry dirt in pockets, push out, then cover over. Tufted ear squirrel – lives in 'by' rock pine. Seem to have correct ideas of anatomy Mole and shrew – described to them, but did not seem to know either. Tufted ears have special name on squirrel. Badger – described well. Told of badger getting angry and catching man by trousers and holding on until dragged long way to river. Bears – Describe white, yellow, brown and black, Two kinds of white ones, one very large, one small. Describe stroke of forepaw.


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 Say spermophile – Big chipmunk, live under wood, not in trees, but same name as pine squirrel. Live in mts. where pine squirrel lives Little chipmunk – Live in rocks and trees in holes, live everywhere, canyons, mesa, mts., and everywhere. Deer – 2 kinds- describe 2 kinds with same horns and color, but differ in length of tail. No elk here – Two of them have seen elk in Colorado, red brown. Pupilla and Ashmunella – recognized by name, but confuse with Zonitoides or Vitrina, Vallonia etc. Lizard – swift – not eaten, not poison, live in ground everywhere, not bite. Snakes smaller than. Big lizard – scales edged with black, bite, poison, have medicine, All old men say bad when they bite. Live under rocks. Snake swallows them Horned toad – not bite. Do not eat them. Not used, Snake swallow them, snake swells, bursts, horned toad comes out alive. The apparent fog is evidently fine dust, as it is not moist, does not smell like snake and the wind is blowing. Judge A. J. Abbott says road runner occurs


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 on the mesas not far from camp. Spent most of afternoon packing up. Has been cool all day and quite cool in evening. Rito de los Frijoles, N. M. Friday, Aug, 25 ((sic)), 1910

Cold night and cold and hazy this morning. Dowell and Adams say scaled partridge comes into the canyon in big flocks. Showed them pictures for identification. The Indians seem honest. We have left numerous taxidermy tools, traps etc., which would attract them, especially the boys, around loose all the time , and have missed nothing. Sent off the trunks and 2 boxes of specimens to Buckman by mule team with Indian driver at 7:30 a.m., trunks to be expressed from Buckman to Santa Fe and boxes to Boulder. Abel Sanchez ((in different handwriting)). 10 years old. This is his signature. Says he cannot write except this. Continued linguistics work with Indians. They say in curing skin first dry it in sun.


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 The wash blood away with warm water. Then dry again in the sun. Then boil brain in water and break it up, rather thin solution, thin enough to pour, and wash skin inside with solution when hair on, when cured without hair, use it on outside too. Then hand in sun to dry and leave it out in air for two nights and days, "soak" in air. Then to make soft, put in cold water again and soak, then fasten one end to stick or tree and twist from other end to squeeze water out. Then hang in sun and begin to work by pulling back and forth from all sides until dry to soften, whether hair on or not. Without hair takes one day to soften, with hair takes 2 days. Keep on working until soft. Long crested jay – do not note that crest is lowered for flying. Chestnut backed bluebird – found in mts., not in canyon. Correct. Red shafted flicker – picks into wood for "worms" to eat, and makes hole for nest, but not observed on ground or eating ants. Recognize picture of junco as winter bird. Red wing blackbird – down Rio Grande, build nests in grass that grows in water, Distinguish females color. Eaten by Indians Yellow head blackbird – In Rio Grande valley only in winter, same places as redwing. Eaten by Indians.


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/11


text:
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 Canyon wren – on cliff, song whistle in descending scale. Some other wren – described as jumping about rocks, pointed to picture of winter wren, possibly mean house wren or rock wren. Western red-tailed hawk – they note colors, tail, scream etc. Hawks not eaten Turkey vulture – red head, no "hair" on head, lives on dead meat, not catch live animals, found in mts., not eaten. Mourning dove – describe calls and wing whistles, good to eat One Indian has been in California and describes California Condor, bigger than eagle and turkey.

When I imitated call of mourning dove in discussing it, one of the old Indians started the rain song, but in answer to questions they seemed to have no rain tradition in connection with it.


text:
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 Report frogs in water and flatter frogs (toads) jumping on land.

Ignacio says that Indians here all use same language, but from different places, as Santa Clara and San Ildefonso, pronounce slightly different, as "white men from different places do". Describe mockingbird by colors, and say it sings songs of other birds. When I said "mockingbird" he instantly recognized the name as one he had heard applied by whites. Describe W yellowthroat by habit and song and recognize picture. Dowell says that La. Tanager comes here in migration and that coons come up from the Rio Grande. Hodge, of the Bureau of Ethnology, arrived late in the afternoon and in the evening we all had a conference about the form of our report and its publication. Retired at 10 p.m.

Rito de los Frijoles, N.M. Aug, 27, 1910. Saturday Up at 5 a.m. and Robbins and I with Mrs. Goldsmith and one of her sons, started for


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 Santa Fe by carriage. Bright and warm. To north of the road as we came down hill to Buckman, in gulch, there is a fine exposure of columnar basalt. Along the road here is also a boulder deposit extending far up the hillside, including same material as is found in form of artifacts in the Frijoles ruins and may be the source of the latter. Saw no mica schist. Reached Buckman at 10 a.m., bright and hot. After passing Buckman frequently saw mica schist boulders. Probably they occurred also before reaching Buckman, but were unobserved. Reached Santa Fe at 2:45 p.m.. Expressed plants, had trunks transferred from Rio Grande depot to Santa Fe depot, then called on Dendahl, a University student who is also in the dry goods and clothing business. Had dinner at 6 p.m. at Palace Hotel 75[cents]. Express on trunks, Buckman to Santa Fe $1.00, transfer of trunks 50[cents], other baggage 25[cents]. Bought a Pajarito rug of Dendahl


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 $5.50 and he gave me a smaller Estrella, both Chimayo weavers, Left Santa Fe on 7:20 p.m. train. Reached Lamy at 8:10. Got on the "Limited" on time 9 p.m.. Sleeper $2.50. Warm evening. La Junta, Colo., Aug 28, 1910

Reached here at 6:50 Partly cool, cloudy morning. Breakfast 75[cents]. Got train out for Denver at 8:35, Pullman 95[cents]. Reached Denver at 2:45 p.m. and dined at depot 50[cents]. Then caught the 4 p.m. train for Boulder. Sprinkled a little between Colorado Springs and Palmer Lake. Hot most of day. Reached Boulder at 5:20 p.m., very tired. Boulder, Colo. Monday Aug. 29, 1910

Bright warm morning. Had fine night's rest and feel better. Went to Seven gables for breakfast, Lunched with Prof. George and family.


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 Long Beach, Cali., Thursday July 28, 1910

Fine cool morning, breezy, cloudy at first, soon clearing. Sent my trunk to Los Angeles on morning "Salt Lake" train. In afternoon we all went to Denver ((?)). I got my ticket validated, rechecked my trunk to Santa Fe, and we dined at Frank's house, returning to Long Beach on the 10 p.m. car Long Beach, Cali., Friday July 29, 1910

A beautiful morning, cool and breezy. At 3 p.m. Nellie and I took the Pacific Flyer for Los Angeles, Dr. carter coming later. Went out to Frank's house. Took the 8 p.m. train on the Santa Fe Road for Santa Fe. Got ticket from Lamy to Santa Fe yesterday so as to check my trunk clear through, 75[cents]. Validation fee on my return ticket 50[cents]. I left Los Angeles at 8 p.m., fine cool breeze.


text: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night/Volume 3/12


text:
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 Bagdad, Cali., Saturday July 30, 1910

Breakfasted here at 6 a.m. 1 1/2 hours late. Cloudy and hot. Started on at 7 a.m. Breakfast 50[cents] fruit 25[cents]. We are going through a region of dissected lava flows, the mountains being abrupt, with broad fans of broken rock, gravel and sand occupying the valleys, sparsely covered with a desert flora. They sent us around over the new road to avoid a washout. At 11 a.m. we stopped at Parker, a new town in the copper region, where we got dinner. 112° + in the shade. Left Parker at 1:15 p.m. Reached A and C Jct. At 6 p.m. and waited there until 8 :15 for our engine to go and get fuel and for an extra engine to help up the grades to Prescott. Then we mad another, long stop soon afterwards. It has rained in the nearby mountains yesterday and today. Ash Fork, Ariz., Sunday July 31, 1910

Quite cool in early morning. Passed


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 Crepidula aculeata- low apex curved to one side, irregular radiating ribs, small, yellowish, white southern. Crucibulum spinosum- cup and saucer Calyptrate mamillaris- Chinese hat, white, low conical, pointed, small, deck twisted, mostly northern. Capulus californicus- like Crepidula adunca but no deck, white inside, brown epidermis outside, 40 mm Amalthea antiquata-ancient hoofshell, rough, irregular, flat, apex at one end. Amalthea cranoides-flat hoofshell, like last but still flatter, apex near center Amalthea tumens-much more regular, apex recurved, radial lines crossed by growth lines, small. Chlorostoma brunneum-brown turban-brown, white about aperture, growth lines very oblique, umbilicus rather smooth ((Callistoma)) Chlorostoma aureotinctum-few spiral ridges, waved, gray or black, yellow umbilical stain ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma montereyi-very rare ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma pulligo- ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma viridulium ligulatum, raised beaded spiral bands, dotted with black ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma gallina-southern, mostly black, speckled with lighter ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma gallina, var. tinctum- yellowish at base ((Tegula)) Chlorostoma funebrale- black turban-black or dark purple, umbilicus nearly closed, 2 teeth at base of columella. ((Tegula)) Calliostoma, spp. Raised, often beaded lines, some spp. Small Margarita – same as Calliostoma but smaller Olivella biplicata- large Olivella intorta- like above, smaller, on((e)) fold on columella Olivella pedroana- tapering to spire Cerithidea californica-on tideflats - Newport, Alamitos, San Pedro.


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 Bivalves Platyodon cancellatus-swollen beaks, spoon shaped tooth, finely cancellated exterior Mytilus californianus- common ribbed mussel Mytilus stearnsii- very small shell, numerous ribs Modiolus capax- red under epidermis, Terminal ((Island)) Modiolus rectus- long, slender, fragile Septifer bifurcatus-divided ribs, decks within beaks Donax laevigata-beaks near end ((?Tellina)) Donax flexuosus-beaks more nearly central. ((?Tellina)) Tagelus californicus-long, narrow razor shell, beaks central, very abundant. Siliqua lucida-small, beak nearer end, rib vertical within from beak to ventral edge Solen sicorius-beak terminal Solen rosaceus-beak terminal Phacoides nuttallii-finely cancellated ((Lucina)) Phacoides californicus- not cancellated (Portuguese Bend) ((Codakia)) Mactra falcata- 2 internal radiating ribs, long, triangular, small, sinus thus ((drawing in field book)) ((Spisula)) Mactra californica- sinus shorter, wide thus ((drawing in field book)) ((Mactrellina)) Mactra exoleta- Mexican (Cali. Pleist.) sharply triangular, convex, elevated umbo, sharp submarginal posterior ridge. Mactra hemphilli- large, triangular. Sinus ((drawing in field book)) Mactra catilliformis- oblong, large, sinus ((drawing in field book)) Tresus nuttallii- very large, oblong, spoon pit, big sinus, beak near end, largest except Tivella. Heterodonax bimaculata-small, purple rayed, brackish water (at Alamitos) Petricola-Irregular, rough, rock borers Zirphaea crispata- rough at one end, large, common Penitella penita-rough at one end, small, not common Diplodonta orbella- round, inflates Diplodonta sericata- round, less inflated Metis alta- big sinus, double ridge posteriorly, abundant Semele decisa- shape like above, rough, red at Terminal ((Island)) Saxidomus nuttallii-heavy, prominent growth wrinkle. Glycimeris intermedia- Terminal Isl. many toothed Cardium substriatum-small, nearly obsolete ribs-Terminal ((Island)) Cardium quadrigenarium- large 40 ribbed, ribs tuberculate on posterior angle


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 Cardium procerum-22 subangular, smooth ribs, narrow grooves between-angle nearer anterior side. Cardium corbis-37 prominent, squarish, regular, close set ribs, slightly rugose by growth lines-ribs less prominent and rounder toward posterior side. Cardium elatum- numerous faint, square ribs, fine wavy growth lines, very large, nearly smooth surface. Tivela stultorum-large, heavy, short triangular sinus Cryptomya californica- spoon tooth in one valve, shell small, oblong. Lima dehiscens-small, oblique, narrow winged, finely ribbed as in Pteria Pecten aequisulcatus- large, abundant Pecten circularis-now lives only S of Cali. Pecten latiauratus-thin, round. Common Pecten (Hinnites) giganteus-large, heavy, irregular Anomia lampe- radial ridges, common at Long Beach Anomia limatula-southern, no radial sculpture Ostrea lurida- common Ostrea lurida expansa- circular Ostrea lurida rugoides-red within Monia macroschisma- like large heavy Anomia, green within, muscle scar radial ribbed Chama exogyra- sinistral from above, not pellucid Chama pellucida- dextral from above, pellucid Psammobia-oblong, red rayed, sharp cardinal tooth with vertical raised plate back of it. Macoma secta-large, with horizontal plate back of cardinal tooth, sinus large and irregular, posterior external ridge-common. Macoma nasuta-smaller, no plate back of tooth posterior point bent back Chione succinata- concentric ridges remote, prominent lunule with growth lines and radial ribs Chione undatella- concentric ridges more numerous and regular, and more prominent than ribs, lunule not radially ribbed Chione fluctifraga- surface blocked, no lunule, sinus small on this genus, cf. next Paphia staminea- concentric and radial ridges about equal, cancellation beautiful Paphia ruderata- concentric ridges much heavier than ribs Paphia tenerrima- concentric and radial lines fine, sinus in this genus very long Amiantis callosa- common, fine.


text: The Civil Service and the Patronage/Appendix C


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yale University


text:
Translation:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/23

Laws of tzitzit in cemeteries

''' דיני ציצית בבית הקברות '''

Paragraph 1 — It is permitted to enter a cemetery while wearing tzitzit as long as the fringes do not drag on the graves. But if the fringes drag on the graves it is forbidden as an example of "mocking the poor." The conditional prohibition (only if the fringes are dragging on the graves) applied in their (Talmudic) times, when they placed fringes on their daily garments, but for we who wear fringed garments only for the sake of fulfilling the mitzvah (of tzitzit), it is forbidden even if the fringes do not drag on the graves. However, it is forbidden only if the fringes are visible, but if they are covered, it is permitted.

סעיף א — מותר ליכנס בבית הקברות והוא לבוש ציצית והוא שלא יהא נגרר על הקברות אבל אם הוא נגרר על הקברות אסור משום לועג לרש במה דברים אמורים בימיהם שהיו מטילים ציצית במלבוש שלובשים לצורך עצמם אבל אנו שאין מכוונים בהם אלא לשם מצוה אסור אפילו אינם נגררים והני מילי כשהציציות מגולים אבל אם הם מכוסים מותר:

Paragraph 2 — There are those with the custom to tie two tzitzit on two corners together when they enter a cemetery and there is no purpose in doing so.

סעיף ב — יש נוהגים לקשור שני ציציות שבשני כנפים זה עם זה כשנכנסים לבית הקברות ולא הועילו כלום בתקנתן:

Paragraph 3 — The laws of one who goes within four amot of a corpse or of a grave are the same as those for one who enters a cemetery. In those places where it is the custom to remove the tzitzit from a dead person's tallit in the home, if the pallbearers wear tzitzit there is reason to suspect transgression of "mocking the poor."

סעיף ג' — הנכנס תוך ד' אמות של מת או של קבר דינו כנכנס לבית הקברות. במקום שנוהגים להסיר ציצית מטלית המת בבית אם הכתפים לובשים ציצית איכא למיחש בהו משום לועג לרש:
 * }


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, History of

EDUCATION, History of. The history of education begins with primitive man — in fact even with the lower animals, for any training which is given by one being to another to enable it to do something better than it would otherwise be able to do may be designated education. We might distinguish between the education which is given by animals, which is instinctive, and that which is given by human beings, which is partly instinctive and partly consciously and deliberately worked out into a system.

The earliest system, if it may be called such,

that of primitive man, had, perhaps very much of it instinctively, as its end the object of teaching others, particularly the young, methods of protection from enemies and of obtaining food, clothing and shelter. In other words, savage education adapted itself to the immediate needs of life. To estimate how widely it extended itself alone such lines one only has to think of the actually widely extended domain of savage activity; the making of arms, boats, clothing, huts, the manufacture of articles used in the catching and preparation of food, fish-hooks, spears, traps and pottery of all sorts.

From the first times of which we know anything, considerable attention was given by primitive man to self-adornment, sometimes with a sex motive, at others with motives of protection and religious belief. The training given in making gaudy articles of decoration d not have that close relationship to the most immediate needs of life, and thus almost at the beginning of things education was unconsciously divided into training for the doing of those things which were useful and those which we may denominate as luxuries or superfluous — though where one merges into the other it is difficult to determine.

As man progressed from his extreme simplicity, and great industrial changes gradually took place, such as came with the domestication of animals and the discovery of agriculture, new things for which training or education was to be given arose. The more complex civilization has become, the more numerous have become the various elements for which the individuals have had to be trained, and thus every educational or training system should have adapted itself to the needs of the civilization in which it was existing. The natural conservatism of man has, however, as history shows, led him frequently to cling to an educational system adapted to earlier ages.

The influence of religion among all early peoples was so great that those of the community into whose hands the religious ceremonies gradually fell exercised an enormous influence. Training for their particular class became an end in itself and those who succeeded in becoming members not only determined the training which future entrants should have, but also by virtue of the peculiar influence of their profession succeeded in influencing all other training given — even for ends other than religion.

So powerful has been the influence of religion on education that beginning with the earliest people, of whose history we know much, the Egyptians, it continued to be the dominantly determining and usually reactionary and conservative factor right down through the middle of the 19th century, in a measure accounting for the fact that systems of education have so frequently lagged far behind the demands of civilization, and have riven a training in one century of a sort adapted to a condition of man's development of some centuries before.

The earliest teachers were with primitive peoples the parents, and they continued to be a very large factor in all ages. The professional teacher, however, had already come into existence at the dawn of history in Egypt. The priests were the most important of them, though there were many private teachers for teaching practical trades and professions. The methods employed in teaching were those largely of

and imitation. Writing by the stylus on wood or with ink on papyrus was taught as was always reading and numbers. The discipline was severe, corporal punishment resorted to and the teacher held in respect.

Variations of the system in vogue among the Egyptians were to be found among the Chinese and Hindus. The Semitic peoples — the Babylonians, Assyrians, Hebrews, Phœnicians, showed less rigidity and fixity in their systems, probably due to less attention to caste in the social organisation than was the case with the former peoples. The studies given were reading, writing, arithmetic, history, religion, psalms, domestic arts, music, dancing and trades. Law, ethics, astronomy and geography were studied by those who went above the ordinary trades and went into the professions. The teaching was dominated by the priests and they exercised, a restraining influence on that breadth of education which might have come from bringing in Greek and Roman methods.

The history of Greek education extended over many centuries and during that time the educational system, beginning in Homeric times and closing with the Roman conquest, underwent many changes in ideals and content. Even over the period when the Greek world was supreme there were within its boundaries states that had very divergent systems of education. The two extremes are usually represented by Athens and Sparta and the difference between their educational ideals may be in a measure accounted for by differences in tribe and environment. The Athenians, sprung from the Ionians, were highly imaginative, artistic and literary. The Spartans, sprung from the Dorians, were lacking in imagination, were extremely practical and highly military. The former lived near the sea and in their maritime trade got a breadth of view and culture by trading with foreign nations, while the latter lived in the interior surrounded by their mountains, cut off from the broadening influence of contact with others. The educational ideal of the Athenians therefore came to be that of leading a complete life, beautifully and happily. The individual and his opinion were made much of. Ever with the idea of beauty in mind the young were taught grammar, poetry, style, oratory, rhetoric, music, mathematics, physics, economics and politics. The teachers, who were more or less free lances, overdeveloped themselves in their individualism and brought their pupils up to be unduly forward and disputatious and lacking in reverence for the state and religion.

In Sparta the ideal was to develop strength, courage and obedience — to subordinate the individual to the state. Much less stress was laid on the literary and the artistic. To accomplish this ideal the state was turned into a military school, and each citizen was trained accordingly. As the individual was not trained as such he was lacking in moral force.

It was from Athens rather than Sparta then that the first greatest teachers and writers on educational systems and theories came: Socrates, Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle, and probably no four men from any one people have exercised greater influence on educational history than these.

The Romans by nature were much more similar to the Spartans than to the Athenians.

Their early educational work was very practical and centred in the home in which the father was the dominating and all-powerful factor. Training was thus given in the Laws of the Twelve Tables, in business, farming, civic duties, reading, writing and arithmetic. Girls received instruction in household duties.

After the conquest of the Greeks by the Romans the former began to exert a powerful influence on Roman education. Greek teachers came over in large numbers and the former purely practical education of the Romans began to take on a literary and artistic turn. The study of Greek prose and poetry was introduced even for the younger children, and in the higher schools training in history and science, philosophy, oratory, declamation and debate was given. Rome like Athens produced some profound students of education, the most important being Cicero, Seneca and Quintilian. Schools were multiplied and state support widely and generously given. With the incoming of the barbarian Teutonic hordes from the north and the disruption of the Roman Empire, the culture and the educational work of the Greeks and Romans largely disappeared. Education suffered a shock from which it did not recover for centuries and the world had in a way to begin all over again.

The Church assumed leadership not only in matters of religion but also in matters of state. For a time very little could be done about general education. As the ideal of life was ascetic and all things which pertained to man's life on this earth looked down upon, the education which was given was, in the ideal at least, to prepare men for the life to come. In the monasteries, where such teaching as was given was carried on, time was devoted to prayer and contemplation. The past was revered for its spiritual and religious teachings and books containing them were carefully copied. To this end largely the novices were taught reading, writing, singing, the church service and a little arithmetic. Then they were given the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic geometry, astronomy and music) which made up the Seven Liberal Arts.

Though some outside of the religious order might enjoy the privileges of this education, the chief object of all of this instruction was religious. Even the attempts of Charlemagne in his Palatine School under the headship of Alcuin could not make the educational ideal very different After his death as during his life the only educated class was the clergy. The people generally and even the nobility received very little education in the ordinary acceptance of the term in ancient and modern times.

Such training of the noble classes as was given that might he called educational is to be described under the title of chivalry. A youth was trained as a page in attendance on a knight or lady, was given some instruction in music and poetry, and taught how to play chess. Later as a squire he was given military training and instruction in hunting, riding, jousting, swimming, religion and singing. As a knight he was taught ethics, to practise the virtues, to defend the Church and protect women. See ;.

Out of the monastic schools there grew up a certain type of scholarship known as

(q.v.), whose object was to use Greek knowledge for religious ends. Great stress was laid by its devotees on dialectics, the object of which study became not to discover new but to prove old truths. Aristotle and his works became to these students the chief source of knowledge.

During the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries there was a remarkable growth of cities, due to the activities of the artisan and commercial classes. These people were organized into trade and merchant guilds and it became the object of each guild to have its prospective members educated. The guilds employed teachers, usually drawn from the clergy, to give the children of members instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic. Even the cities as chartered bodies established schools for the same purposes. In each of the guilds there was a system of teaching boys a trade by the system of apprenticeship.

Toward the end of the 11th century and during the course of the 12th, universities began to grow. At first these were groups of students banded together for a common purpose, such as the study of medicine at Salerno or for law at Bologna. In Paris the university grew out of a school attached to the cathedral and was an organization of masters or teachers. The instruction there was at first mainly in theology. A university in our sense, with a large plant and numerous buildings, these were not. The students met for lectures in private houses or rented halls.

During the Middle Ages art, love of beauty, literature, poetry, science thrived as contributions to the support of religion and the Church. One important result of the ../Crusades/ (q.v.) was that they broadened men's minds, and subjects of study which had been formerly condemned because of the influence of the Church and the clergy came to be taught during the Renaissance. The study of the Greek and Latin languages for the knowledge of the literature and wealth of learning which the Greeks and Romans had was revived. The development of the individual became an object. The Church ceased to be everything and the men now thought of fame and glory for themselves. Teaching still remained in the hands of the clergy, but the subject matter of instruction was broadened. These Renaissance teachers in their turn fell into narrow ways and came to emphasize linguistic training to the exclusion of physical, social, artistic and scientific elements. Petrarch was such a teacher, whereas his fellow countryman, Vittorino da Feltre, emphasised history and civilization.

The ../Reformation/ and ../Counter-Reformation/ (qq.v.) brought about considerable changes in education as well as in religion. Luther and Melanchthon both demanded that education should be provided for all and that the state should maintain and control the schools and see that children attended them. Thus the idea of compulsory education was initiated. Stress was laid on teaching the vernacular, on providing simple instruction in the elementary schools to meet the immediate needs of the people. In the secondary schools, or Latin schools as they are called in England, instruction was given in the classics, history, mathematics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, music and gymnastics. Though in theory these schools

were to supply leaders of thought, in practice they became preparatory schools for the universities, whose main object was the preparation of teachers and ministers. The liberalism in education which was at first promised by the Renaissance failed to materialize during the Reformation and education look on the form of supporting the various sects which had grown up after the revolt from Roman Catholicism. Corresponding to the Protestant schools were those of the Jesuits whose insistence on thoroughness and on well-trained teachers has become proverbial.

During the last half of the 16th and the whole of the 17th century this religious control and formalism dominated education. In content the curriculum was humanistic, but in spirit it was almost as ascetic and scholastic as in the Middle Ages.

This kind of education met with protests from certain scholars like Rabelais, Milton, Montaigne and Sir Francis Bacon, who have been denominated realists because they insisted on the study of thought and substance in literature, instead of the words and grammar, and on the study of nature, law, arts and trades by means of actual observation. The curriculum of studies, however, still remained literary and linguistic and this met with little opposition. The object of its supporters came to be to justify it and this they did through the theory of formal discipline, so well enunciated by the Englishman, John Locke. According to him it is not so much what is learned as how it is learned. The value to the pupil is in the discipline obtained in the process of learning.

The stiffness and formalism which had held sway in religion and education for so many centuries led, in the 18th to a revolt best illustrated by Rousseau. His was a cry “back to nature” — to doing things in a natural way — to permitting the development of a child according to its nature.

The influence of Rousseau was not immediate, but it left an indelible impression on the educational progress of the 19th century. Formalism gradually gave way to a natural treatment of the child and training was adapted to age and individuality. Following him came: Pestalozzi, who preached that in order to give proper education the psychology of the pupil taught must be studied and his needs, interests and abilities taken into consideration; Herbart, who emphasized the importance of education as a science and of the proper training of teachers to teach; Froebel, who was responsible for the establishment of the kindergarten and the development of the ideas that self-activity, initiative and individuality are important ends of education.

In the 19th century there has been a steady if slow development toward the theory that the proper education is that which enables the student to turn that which he acquires by learning to immediate use — that mental power is best developed by learning those things which are of most use in life. Herbert Spencer was the best exponent of this “turn to use” education. Children should be taught those subjects which will enable them to earn a livelihood and be good citizens. His influence was responsible for bringing science into the school curricula and for an attack on the formal discipline theories of Locke.

Down to the 19th century education had been generally considered from the point of view of the individual. The great growth in industries and in democracy during that century emphasized the need of educational systems which should take into consideration the position of the individual in society. The individual must be educated mentally, physically and morally, and he must be trained for the professions, or the trades, or in agriculture or commerce, for if he is not he will in a way be a drag on society and the body politic. For such an education all means known must be placed at the disposal of the child and citizen: schools, elementary and secondary, manual and vocational, colleges, academic and technical. Nor is the question as to whether the individual shall take the education one for voluntary action. Society has the power and the right to compel him to get an education.

To justify its place in the curriculum a study must be shown to have some immediate and practical relation to life. In the first quarter of the 20th century a visit to our schools and colleges shows the extremely practical turn which education has taken. In addition to instruction in the mother tongue, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history and other subjects familiar in earlier centuries, are to be found an array of such subjects as woodwork, ironwork, cooking, sewing, printing, drawing, architecture, engineering of all kinds, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, dairying, bookkeeping, business practice, civics, commercial law, stenography, typewriting, economics, banking, finance, transportation, insurance, sociology, carpentry, blacksmithing, molding, plumbing, machine-shop work, bricklaying, plastering, textile industries and many others. Thus the authorities in charge of public schools and universities have taken over many studies formerly left to private employers or agencies, and now by the establishment of playgrounds, nurseries, recreation centres, camps and many other activities are tending toward a control by the state in the interest of society which is cramping the freedom of action by the individual. The latest innovation advocated along such lines is that of compulsory military training in a democracy like the United States. This has been brought about by the Great War which began in 1914. How far this sociological method in education will go only the future can tell. See ; subjects.
 * and related
 * and related

Bibliography.— Aspinwall, William B., ‘Outlines of the History of Education’; Hall, G. Stanley, and Mansfield, John M., ‘Hints toward a Bibliography of Education’; Monroe, Will S., ‘Bibliography of Education’; Monroe, Paul, ‘A textbook in the History of Education’; Columbia University Library, books on education; Bibliography of education in the Education Review 1899-1907, continued by the Bureau of Education annually 1907-11 and monthly 1912-18.


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text: Index:Wyn Roberts Letter to SecStateWales 1980 08 09.pdf


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Page:Wyn Roberts Letter to SecStateWales 1980 08 09.pdf/1

 From Wyn Roberts M.P.

P.U.S.S. Welsh Office

To Rt Hon Nicholas Edwards M.P.

Sec. of State for Wales

HOUSE OF COMMONS

LONDON S.W.1.

Dear Nick

6em Aug 9 '80

I travelled home yesterday with Lord Goronwy Roberts who told me that the Shadow Cabinet last week decided to put forward an amendment to the Broadcasting Bill in the Lords to concentrate all Welsh language programmes on the Fourth Channel. The amendment may be moved by Cledwyn because Lord Elwyn Jones who normally speaks on Welsh matters for the Opposition, does not feel that he is familiar enough with the subject. Goronwy was uncertain as to whether they would press the amdmt. to a division.

I believe the date of the Lords' discussion is Oct 8 - two days after Gwynfor Evans begins his fast. If the Lords were to carry the amdmt. it would clearly weaken our position very considerably.

The argument likely to be deployed is that the cost of concentrating Welsh programmes on the Fourth Channel is less than we believe and amounts to the loss of advertising revenue associated with placing an additional 10 hours of B.B.C. Welsh programmes on the Fourth Channel.

I am copying this to John Belstead.

Yours ever Wyn.


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Author:James Sullivan

Works

 * The Study of History in Secondary Schools (1911)
 * The Government of the State of New York (1912)
 * A Bibliography Concerning Vocations (1916)
 * (editor-in-chief)
 * (editor-in-chief)
 * (editor-in-chief)

title: Author:James Sullivan


text: Fourth Channel (Wyn Roberts letter)

title: Fourth Channel (Wyn Roberts letter)


text:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1248

Adopted by the Security Council at its 4016th meeting on 25 June 1999

The Security Council,

Having examined the application of the Republic of Kiribati for admission to the United Nations (S/1999/477),

Recommends to the General Assembly that the Republic of Kiribati be admitted to membership in the United Nations.


text:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1249

Adopted by the Security Council at its 4017th meeting on 25 June 1999

The Security Council,

Having examined the application of the Republic of Nauru for admission to the United Nations (S/1999/478),

Recommends to the General Assembly that the Republic of Nauru be admitted to membership in the United Nations.


text:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1253

Adopted by the Security Council at its 4026th meeting, on 28 July 1999

The Security Council,

Having examined the application of the Kingdom of Tonga for admission to the United Nations (S/1999/793),

Recommends to the General Assembly that the Kingdom of Tonga be admitted to membership in the United Nations.


text:
The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Munsees

MUNSEES, Monseys, or Minsis, a tribe of American Indians formerly residing on the upper Delaware and the Minisink. In 1663 they aided the Esopus Indians in attacking the Dutch post, and were chastised by Kregier. They claimed all the land from the Minisink to the Hudson, the head waters of the Delaware and Susquehanna, and south to the Lehigh and Conewago. Settlers began to encroach on them early in the 18th century, and they fell back to the Susquehanna. The Moravians drew some to their missions, but the main body were discontented; moving westward through the Iroquois country, they joined the French at Niagara, and were with difficulty gained over by Sir William Johnson. After the fall of the French, some listened to the Moravians, but in the revolution most of the tribe, under Capt. Pipe, retired to Sandusky and joined the English, and even after the war remained hostile, rejecting terms in 1793, and not making peace till 1805. In 1808 a part settled on Miami land at White river. Some years later they joined the Stockbridge Indians near Green bay. Most of the Munsees, under a treaty in 1839, removed to Kansas. They are now nearly extinct, being represented in Wisconsin by a single family of half a dozen souls, and in Kansas by part of a band of 56 Chippewas and Munsees. Their language was an Algonquin dialect closely allied to the Delaware.

title: The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Munsees


text:
Page:The White Peacock, Lawrence, 1911.djvu/315

Rh “I can’t make out how it is, he’s so different. I suppose it’s being in love——”

We went into the barn to get the bicycles to cycle over to Greymede. George struck a match to look for his pump, and he noticed a great spider scuttle off into the corner of the wall, and sit peeping out at him like a hoary little ghoul.

“How are you, old chap?” said George, nodding to him—“Thought he looked like an old grandfather of mine,” he said to me, laughing, as he pumped up the tyres of the old bicycle for me.

It was Saturday night, so the bar parlour of the Ram Inn was fairly full.

“Hello, George—come co’tin’?” was the cry, followed by a nod and a “Good evenin’,” to me, who was a stranger in the parlour.

“It’s a raïght for thaïgh,” said a fat young fellow with an unwilling white mustache, “—tha can co’te as much as ter likes ter ’ae, as well as th’ lass, an’ it costs thee nöwt——” at which the room laughed, taking pipes from mouths to do so. George sat down, looking round.

“ ’Owd on a bit,” said a black-whiskered man, “tha mun ’a ’e patience when tu ’t co’tin’ a lass. Ow’s puttin’ th’ öwd lady ter bed—’ark thee—can t’ ear—that wor th’ bed latts goin’ bang. Ow’ll be dern in a minnit now, gie ’er time ter tuck th’ öwd lady up. Can’ ter ’ear ’er say ’er prayers.”

“Strike!” cried the fat young man, exploding:

“Fancy th’ öwd lady sayin’ ’er prayers!—it ’ud be enough ter ma’e ’er false teeth drop out.”

The room laughed.


text:
The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Munsell, Joel

MUNSELL, Joel, an American printer, born in Northfield, Mass., April 14, 1808. He went to Albany in 1827, edited and published the “Albany Minerva” in 1828, and was publisher

and editor of the “New York State Mechanic” from 1841 to 1843. He has compiled “Annals of Albany” (10 vols., Albany, 1850-'58); “The Typographical Miscellany” (1850); “Chronology of Paper and Paper Making” (1857); and “Every-Day Book of History and Chronology” (New York, 1858). He has also published “Historical Series” (10 vols.), in great part edited and annotated by himself; “Woodworth's Reminiscences of the City of Troy” and “Collections on the History of Albany” (4 vols., 1865-71), and numerous other works. He has at various times been the publisher of papers and periodicals, among which are the following dailies: the “Unionist,” “Albany Daily State Register,” “Albany Morning Express,” and “Statesman.” He has made the art of printing, in its history and application, a special study, and his collection of works on the subject, the largest ever made in America, has been in part purchased by the state for the New York state library. In 1872 he published a catalogue with full titles of all the books and pamphlets he had printed down to that date, in 191 closely printed brevier pages, 8vo.