text:
The Civil Service and the Patronage/Chapter 07

period from 1845 to 1865 marks the apogee of the spoils system in the United States: the old traditions of respectability had passed away, and the later spirit of reform had not arisen; the victors divided the spoils and were unashamed. The general interest was turned almost completely from attempts to limit the patronage of the executive and to improve the service, to the rival fortunes of the office beggars. These were, perhaps, watched with an interest the more keen because of the lack of sporting contests, of national base-ball leagues, and international yacht races. Horace Greeley paraded a contempt for such petty squabbles, and attributed to his subscribers a like disdain, but nevertheless added that those who wished the correct news in regard to such matters should read the Tribune. The presidential election became a quadrennial “event,” with the civil service as the prize. Every 4th of March great mobs filled the capital, and the streets and saloons were crowded with men betting heavy expense and vast loss of time on the chance of getting something out of the hurly-burly. This period can

best be made clear by first giving a brief account of each administration, and then examining the structure of the spoils system.

Of no previous president had so little been known before inauguration as of Polk, and consequently the development of his policy was closely watched. Whig papers predicted that a sweep would be made, but for a time it hung fire. March 28, 1845, John Quincy Adams heard that Buchanan, Walker, and Mason were against a general turnout; Marcy, Bancroft, and Johnson for it, and that Polk also favored it. By April 2 the proscription had begun, and Adams talked of it with Joseph Gales, who said that for the first time rotation was distinctly avowed as a motive for making removals.

Within the Democratic party there were many men who thought that they could dictate to this upstart president, but those who knew him did not share this opinion. Buchanan wrote to Governor Shunk of Pennsylvania, December 18, 1844: “You ask my advice in regard to recommendations from you to President Polk. I think you ought to be cautious in giving them, if you desire that they shall produce the effect your recommendations well deserve.” Buchanan's impression that caution would be necessary in dealing with the president must have been strengthened when, in February, 1845, the latter told him that he must retire from the cabinet if he became a candidate for the presidency; and that while head of a department he must not be long absent from Washington. The clearest indication of Polk's independence is given by his treatment of the various Democratic factions. Calhoun probably expected to retain his position as secretary of state, for his policy seemed

to harmonize with that of the president, yet he was allowed to retire. Tyler, as we have seen, hoped that his friends would be left in their respective offices, but he was disappointed. Polk did confirm his own brother in the post of chargé d'affaires at Naples, to which Tyler had appointed him, and continued a few others in office. John G. Mason, Tyler's secretary of the navy, was made attorney-general because he was Polk's personal friend, and some members of the third party were transferred to inferior places; but the majority were removed or they resigned.

Much more striking was the fate of the Globe. Since its foundation it had been the exponent of the Jacksonian democracy, and the Blairs fully expected that such would continue to be the case. The fact that they had supported the nomination of Van Buren and opposed the annexation of Texas was offset by their acquiescence in accomplished events; while a recognition of their claims would tend to salve the wounds which the Baltimore convention had caused; moreover, the influence of the dying Jackson was enlisted on their side. All this availed not against Polk's desire to be master. The venerable Mr. Ritchie was called from the Richmond Enquirer and established at Washington as editor of the Union, which was destined to occupy until 1857 the position, now given it of official organ of the Democratic party. Polk seems to have used the patronage for the purpose of pushing through his own policy, rather than of cementing alliances with hostile factions.

Three hundred and forty-two removals were made during Polk's administration; but the country was by this time so used to the practice that little complaint is heard, save in the case of one long lingering survivor of the Revolution. The president was, however, criticised as introducing politics into the naval service by displacing General McNeil and his

from the dry dock at Brooklyn, a criticism that grew more general as the Mexican War progressed. Wise men regretted, what we must all now most deeply lament, that the policy of rotation led to the recall of Henry Wheaton, at a time when the perfection of his equipment promised a splendid fruition for American diplomacy. In regard to appointments, Webster wrote to his son Fletcher, March 13, 1845, “I must do him the justice to say, however, that he appears to me to make rather good selections from among his own friends.” On the whole, many of his appointments were praised, while none excited any very marked disapproval, except from those immediately interested.

In 1849 the Whigs still had some qualms of conscience about making any extensive sweep; but, as the Republic said, “If, forsooth, the administration adopt the construction contended for by the party of the spoils [that the Whigs should make no removals], proscription will be perpetuated and the Whig Republican party proscribed forever.” “Thus far on my way to Washington,” wrote Seward, “I find myself floating on a strongly increasing tide of people. . . . The world seems almost divided into two classes, both of which are moving in the same direction; those who are going to California in search of gold, and those going to Washington in quest of office. How many adventurers are preparing themselves for disappointment, revenge, and misanthropy!”

The man who was to determine the fate of these eager pilgrims was even less known politically than Polk, and among

his many negative recommendations which were pressed upon public notice was the suggestion that, as he was not a politician, he would have no friends to reward with office, and could therefore proceed with impartiality, but after the election enough “original” Taylor men sprang up to absorb all offices had he yielded to them. Taylor's policy continued for some time problematical. He said in his inaugural that he would make “honesty, capacity and fidelity indispensable prerequisites to the bestowal of office”; but many feared that a fourth prerequisite was intended, though not mentioned; namely, antenomination support of General Taylor. It was thought that he might, acting under the direction of his secretary of state, Clayton, try to build up a new faction. In Massachusetts the division between the Taylor men, of whom Abbott Lawrence was the most prominent, and the supporters of Webster, who could not get over their disappointment at losing the nomination, was very bitter; and it was expected that this and similar feuds would be reflected in the appointments. Taylor did not quite justify these predictions, for, while he held aloof from the old party leaders, he did not refuse them recognition, and appointed friends and relatives of both Webster and Clay to office. Yet Clay was much displeased, and considered the appointments of Taylor both “wrong and impolitic”; he was disappointed at finding a second Whig President intractable, and was incensed at the weight given to Crittenden's advice, which Seward described as being “at once honest, misconceived, and erroneous.”

A significant contest took place in regard to the New York appointments. Seward became friendly with the president's brother, and expected, as senator, to control the patronage in that state; but Taylor developed an unusual respect for the vice-president, and when the time came, Mr. Fillmore, an opponent of Seward, was found firmly intrenched in the confidence of the executive. February 27, 1849, Seward, always

wrote to his wife that he and Mr. Fillmore had “begun to agree.” Later, when more aware of his difficulties, he wrote to Weed, “I have stipulated for time and inaction concerning Marshals, Postmasters, District Attorneys, and there I leave these matters.” At that time he was employed until eleven every morning with applicants for office. March 10 he wrote again to Weed: “Mr. F. cannot now agree to anything but that he and I shall go together to the Secretary and each name a candidate for Marshal. . . . The Cabinet is not unfavorable, but timid in their conduct between F. and myself. General Taylor has got out by casting all responsibility on the Cabinet.” Again, March 24: “Let Governor Fish now write to me when you have any advice to give the Cabinet. Some of the members take that point with great respect. It is the State Administration at Albany that is to be strengthened, and the Governor is its acknowledged head. This saves the necessity of deciding between the V. P. and the Senator.” This suggestion was acted upon and the affair was settled; Seward wrote, March 29, that “every member of the Cabinet breathed more freely.” In the preliminary encounter as a whole, Fillmore fared rather better than Seward; but later events brought the latter into the closest intimacy with the president, who came to listen attentively to the seductive voice of Seward's alter ego, Thurlow Weed.

Under Taylor 540 of the 929 presidential officers were removed; and in his first year, out of the total civil service of 17,780, 3406 were removed and 2802 resigned. When Congress met in December, 1849, this record was violently attacked, Senator Bradbury leading the way with a resolution asking the president to lay before the Senate “all charges which have been preferred or filed in any of the departments against individuals who have been removed,. . . with a specification of the cases, if any, in which the officers charged have had opportunity to be heard, and a statement of the number of removals made under each department,” a resolution which he amended later by adding, “including subordinates in the customs-houses, and other branches of the public service.” The debate was acrimonious,

but purely partisan, the Democrats accusing the president of insincerity, and the Whigs defending his action on the ground that it was made necessary by the previous conduct of the Democrats. No useful suggestions were made in the discussion.

When Fillmore succeeded to the presidency in 1850, there was almost as complete a change of policy as if an opposing party had come into power, and the drooping interest in the patronage revived. July 12, 1850, Seward wrote that Washington was “filling up with strangers”; and letters and newspapers are full of the absorbing topic. Seward, of course, fell from favor. He wrote to Weed, July 15: “I shall not touch, or attempt to touch, an appointment. I shall vote for all appointments.” In order to get rid of Weed, Fillmore offered him the Austrian mission. On the other hand, the traditional leaders of the party felt their influence revive. Clay wrote to his son, in August, that his relations with Mr. Fillmore were “perfectly friendly and confidential,” which of course meant that his advice was generally followed, and added that he anticipated that his candidate for the Lexington post-office would prevail. Fillmore made eighty-eight removals, indicating that he did not attempt entirely to undo the work of his predecessor, but that he did make use of his power to support his policy by rewarding his friends.

The independent attitude of Polk had been followed by the split in the Democratic party in 1848. Probably in the tangle of motives which drew the adherents of Van Buren to the point of actual separation, resentment at their exclusion from office would be found to be a cord of some strength. When, therefore, all factions came together in 1852, it was expected that all would receive a share of the fruits of victory. President Pierce was not adverse to such a policy: like Polk, in being a dark horse, he differed from him both in distinctly aiming for a second term and in trying to conciliate and patch together the

various factions of the party, rather than in boldly taking the lead.

He settled to his task in a businesslike way; but though he fixed hours for callers, he was pursued by them at all times and in all places. The cabinet officers received applicants, mechanically heard their stories, filed their papers, and then discussed their cases. It had by this time become the custom to put aside all ordinary business for the first month after the inauguration, in order that the administration might devote all its energies to the war of the spoilsmen. Pierce made Marcy secretary of state, a step which, it was feared, indicated a tendency to favor the “Softs” in the New York appointments; but a slate, greatly commended for its cleverness, was arranged for the state, which offset this danger by giving the best local appointments to the faithful “Hards” or “Hunkers,” while the “Softs” or “Barnburners,” or “Van Buren men,” received just enough to keep them quiet.

Through the country at large, office-seekers were divided into “Old Fogies” and “Young Americans.” The “Old Fogies” in New York State were the members of the Albany Regency; they had for a long time monopolized appointments, and as early as 1845 were unpopular as habitual office-holders. It was pointed out that an aristocracy was but a group of men enjoying the sole benefit of state emoluments, and that by this definition the Regency had ceased to be democratic. Since 1830 national politics had been controlled by one generation of leaders in both parties, and each proscription meant, to a great extent, simply the return of those exiled by the last. Was this rotation in office? Marcy was an Old Fogy, and seems to have been largely influential in selecting men for foreign posts; the New York Herald was led to complain that Young America was exiled to Central America. It advertised white hair-dye for office-seekers. Aside from these family quarrels, Pierce's appointments excited comparatively little comment; the press was apathetic.

For President Buchanan it was left to round out the spoils system. Pierce had made 883 removals, thus practically exorcising all non-Democratic elements from the civil service. Now Buchanan attained the presidency, as the Herald said, “with infinite labor, at vast expense, and by the skin of his teeth.” Much of this effort had been caused by the office-holders, nearly all of whom had aided Pierce in his struggle for renomination. Should they be spared, though they were Democrats? Were not the supporters of the successful candidate the real victors? Buchanan decided that the civil service should be remanned, and announced that no one should, unless under exceptional circumstances, receive a reappointment after his commission expired. The argument used to defend this innovation was, of course, the long-suffering one of rotation in office, which now was understood as implying that offices were but prizes and should not be enjoyed for more than four years by any good Democrat. The idea was not a new one, for Andrew Johnson, when member of Congress in 1846, had offered a resolution to the effect that subordinate positions should be held for eight years as a maximum.

Much criticism of this new practice was nevertheless aroused. Marcy said that the maxim, “To the victors belong the spoils,” was attributed to him, but that he never would have advised pillaging one's own camp. Yet so good was party discipline that no serious trouble resulted, and many faithful partisans even resigned voluntarily in order to maintain their standing in the party. The principle of rotation was not carried to an entirely logical conclusion; many an officer escaped incidentally through some unusual political influence, and the whole South was exempted. It was said that the North and West demanded change, but not the South; and Buchanan was enough of a Democrat to execute the will of the people according to local tastes.

Buchanan's interpretation of rotation in office was acted upon steadily until Roosevelt succeeded McKinley in 1901; and another innovation made in 1857 has continued to the present time, and will probably prove permanent, that is, the abolition of the official organ of the administration. He gave to Allen, the editor of the Union, the collectorship of Portland, Maine, and announced that no paper would succeed to the intimate relation with the government which it had occupied. Yet the Union continued its existence and still enjoyed, to some extent, the confidence of the cabinet.

At the time of the inauguration, the Herald expressed the hope that the new president would not attempt, as the last one had done, to conciliate all factions, but would pursue an independent course. This required more moral courage than Buchanan possessed, and he soon became involved in the usual meshes of intrigue, while endeavoring to arrange all-satisfying slates for Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York. The contests for the appointments in these cities throw much light on the politics of the time, and one example is worth giving as an illustration of the influences at work in securing appointments. In New York, the focus of the excitement, the most respected of the factions was the New York Hotel set, consisting of the capitalists of the Democratic party. These men were reported to have a special claim on the president, as they had contributed heavily to carry the Pennsylvania state election, which had such an important bearing on the nominating convention of 1856; and it was whispered besides that, unless they were conciliated, Robert J. Walker would not accept the governorship of Kansas. They secured the collectorship for Augustus Schell, an eminently

respectable gentleman. At the opposite extreme of the social scale was the unterrified city democracy of the “Bloody Sixth,” headed by the mayor, Fernando Wood. The New York Hotel set furnished money, Wood supplied votes. Isaiah Rynders, as the chief representative of this element, obtained an important office, — the marshalship; he was a notorious politician, with an evil reputation of many years' standing, and his appointment was gleefully derided by the opposition press. Between these extremes were cliques and factions of varying degrees of respectability and rapacity. “Prince John” Van Buren, one of the most accomplished of political anglers, landed the next most important office, the postmastership, for his friend, Isaac Fowler, or rather, he secured for him an exemption from the principle of rotation. The naval office was obtained by General Sickles for his friend, Samuel B. Hart.

In national politics, Buchanan favored the South, and his administration of the patronage reflects this tendency. One of the most notable instances was that of the California appointments. All the patronage for that state was given to Dr. Gwin, of a well-known proslavery expansionist family of Mississippi; while Broderick, the other senator, of more moderate views, was totally excluded from favor. The Kansas appointments afford another example of the same tendency.

Buchanan's removals were scattered through his entire term. The Democratic party was gradually disintegrating under the stress of the slavery contest; the orthodox were becoming steadily fewer, while the recalcitrant needed constant punishment. The most important break was that which occurred when Douglas proved unwilling to support the administration in its Kansas policy; when, in 1858, he was contending with

Lincoln for the senatorship from Illinois, he was read out of the party, and the whole executive patronage was turned against him. It was probably because of these feuds that Buchanan's appointments were more severely criticised than those of any previous president except Jackson. In themselves they do not seem to have been noticeably worse.

We are very prone to disentangle the web of the past, pick out the salient features, and then imagine that they, and they alone, absorbed contemporary attention as well as our own. Thus, when we speak of the Republican victory of 1861 and the inauguration of Lincoln, we think of the on-coming Civil War, and picture the men of that date as occupied wholly with the insoluble problems of slavery. Very differently employed, however, was the mind of the average politician: it was a party victory, and the customary scenes of party triumph were to be witnessed in the threatened capital. Lincoln said that he felt like a man who was letting offices in one end of his house while the other was burning down. An interesting illustration of conditions in Washington is given by one of the participants, who says that a large number of enthusiastic Republicans who desired post-offices formed a guard to protect the president from assassination, thinking that thereby they might obtain easy access to him and so press their claims to the best advantage.

Contemporaries complained that Lincoln devoted too much time to such matters; and now that criticism of him has become somewhat akin to treason, lamentation is made that these petty affairs were so much forced upon him. The fact is, it was part of Lincoln's God-given fitness for his time and place that he was a politican as well as a statesman. The Republican party was new; it was composed of diverse, hostile elements; it was full of petty jealousies, and its discipline was not good: if it was to be kept together, much depended on a proper disposition of the favors the president could bestow. If he had had no patronage,

if the spoils system had not been in vogue, all might have been well; but, as conditions were, the appointment to a petty post-office might be fraught with much import to the safety of the Union.

Lincoln made 1457 removals, there being 1639 places within his gift. When it is remembered that to many posts in the South no appointments could be made, and that consequently no removals are noted, it will be seen that the sweep was the most thoroughgoing that had ever been made; indeed, it was almost complete. This fact is partly to be explained by the long years during which Southern influence had been predominant at Washington, a circumstance which had made loyal men keenly suspicious of all who had obtained government favors. The stress and confusion of the time, and the rapid changes of the political kaleidoscope, are indicated by the fact that the occupants of some offices were changed two and three times between 1861 and 1865.

In making appointments, Lincoln pursued a middle course between Polk's independence and Pierce's attempt to please all factions. He took pains to consult every one who had any right to be heard, but controlled everything with a loose yet powerful rein. He had the faculty of pleasing men by asking their advice even if he did not take it. He let everything that would settle itself do so, provided certain general conditions were complied with. He made no attempt to obtain the men best fitted to perform the functions of the various offices, except in case of the very highest; for minor places he did not even insist that a man be fit. When a man was once appointed, Lincoln would neither remove him until he was thoroughly discredited, nor promote him; for in either case there would be a new office to fill.

Among the things considered in conferring office, geography

was very prominent throughout the administration; but the early attempt to procure a balance between the various elements — Whig, Democratic, Abolitionist, and Know-Nothing — that had combined to make up the Republican party was abandoned as time went on. The new division that grew up between the Radicals and the Conservatives was treated with an even hand, a policy which of course seemed unequal to some of those most interested. One of Secretary Chase's correspondents wrote that there was “war from the White House” upon Chase's friends. There was no such war. Lincoln wrote to an over-zealous postmaster the best letter ever written on the subject of the participation of government officials in party politics. While offices in general were used to prevent, and not to encourage, faction fights, and so skilfully used that the end was often obtained, minor places were often employed to please powerful individuals; and Lincoln did not forget himself in this connection, but appointed relatives and friends to places which might profit them and not harm the country. In general, Lincoln used his patronage which, it must be remembered, was enormously increased by the war for the purpose of serving the country by solidifying the Republican party. While he did not attempt any personal aggrandizement, he yet balked at nothing when the greater object was in view. Charles A. Dana gives an incident that seems authentic. He says that Lincoln, in order to secure the admission of Nevada as a state, — upon which, as he thought, hung the fate of the thirteenth amendment, — authorized the offer of several good offices to some doubtful congressmen to secure their votes.

Military appointments were treated, as they have been nearly always in time of war, as standing somewhat apart. The selection of volunteer officers was largely the work of the governors,

but Lincoln took care that they should not appoint Republicans only. It is, of course, unnecessary to point out that this separation was not by any means complete, and that politics interfered often and seriously with the good conduct of the war. If Lincoln had made appointments for merit only, the war might have been shortened; on the other hand, he might not have preserved a united North to carry on the war.

Lincoln showed to what use the spoils system could be put by a statesman, but he nipped in the bud a further development of the system, which was threatened. Politicans began to ask why, if rotation were correct doctrine, and a man should hold office only four years, a general sweep should not follow the beginning of every new term, even if a president succeeded himself. A demand gained ground that Lincoln should entirely re-allot the offices after March 4, 1865; and Washington was, as usual, filled with office-seekers on that day. Lincoln, however, was unwilling to go through the worry and labor of the task, and made a conclusive announcement that the administration would remain unchanged throughout. From that time the popularity of rotation declined. The tide had turned.


text: Studies of a Biographer/Life of Tennyson

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 2.djvu/243


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/400

China, and Tibet, meet in Tachienlu, 123; western boundary of, 124; revolution in, effect of, on relations between China and Tibet, uncertain, 125;

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/400


text: Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 2.djvu/239


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Douglas, Stephen Arnold

DOUGLAS, (1813-1861), An eminent American political leader. He was born in Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813. He passed his boyhood in his native State and in western New York; went to Illinois in 1833; taught

school and studied law for a year; was admitted to the bar in 1834, and began practice in Jacksonville. Within a year he was elected State's attorney for the most important judicial circuit in Illinois, and his rise thenceforward was rapid and brilliant. In 1836 he was elected to the Lower House of the State Legislature, and in the following year was made register of the Federal land office at Springfield. In 1838 he was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Congress, but in January, 1841, was appointed Secretary of State of Illinois, which position, however, he resigned within a month to take a seat on the bench of the Supreme Court of the State. After two years he resigned this position also, and thereafter served in Congress, first as a Representative (from 1843 to 1847), and then as a Senator, from 1847 until his death. In figure, he was below the middle height, but his frame was vigorous and his manner impressive. “Little Giant,” says Schouler, “he was presently called for, being both able and adroit in policy and full of resources, he gave the image of power under close compression.” As chairman of the Committee on Territories, first in the House and then in the Senate, his position was peculiarly important. He favored the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. opposed the ../Wilmot Proviso/ (q.v.), defended the Compromise measures of 1850, and upheld the extreme demands for the Oregon Territory. He became especially conspicuous, however, through his proposal and advocacy of the doctrine of ‘popular sovereignty,’ or ‘squatter sovereignty,’ which denied the power of the Federal Government to legislate on slavery within the Territories, and recognized the right of the people of each Territory to legislate upon the subject for themselves. This doctrine, first announced by Lewis Cass (q.v.), in December, 1847, was definitely formulated by Douglas in 1854, when he presented the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which precipitated anew the struggle over the extension of slavery in the national Territories. The bill, in its first draft, also in precise terms announced the doctrine that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded by the Compromise of 1850, and, although nothing in the statutes warranted such an assertion, its political effect was great and immediate. The passage of the act brought upon Douglas much harsh criticism throughout the North, and indicated, on the other hand, the increasing strength of the upholders of slavery. (See .) Douglas now became, more than ever, a national force. Nevertheless, in 1856, as in 1852, he failed to secure the Presidential nomination. His campaign in 1858 for the election of the State Legislature, which was to name his successor in the Senate, led to the famous debates with Lincoln, in which the problems of slavery were thoroughly discussed and the foundation laid for the national reputation of his opponent. Douglas secured a reëlection to the Senate, but his position had become so altered through his opposition to the recognition of the Lecompton Constitution in Kansas and by reason of his ‘Freeport Doctrine’ (see, Ill.), that in 1860 he was unacceptable to Southern Democrats as a Presidential candidate. However, the Northern Democrats would not support for the Presidency a man holding the prevailing Southern views on slavery. This brought about a sectional

division of the nominating convention and the subsequent nomination of Douglas for the Presidency by his Northern followers assembled in Baltimore. In the ensuing election, he received only twelve eleetoral votes, but his popular vote was next to that of Lincoln. His influence continued to be strong, and his hearty support of Lincoln's administration upon the outbreak of the Civil War was of powerful effect in the defense of the Union. He died June 3, 1861, at Chicago, Ill. There is a campaign Life of Stephen A. Douglas, by J. W. Sheahan (New York, 1860), and a much more critical review of Douglas's career is given in volumes i. and ii. of Rhodes's History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (New York, 1893 —). Consult, also, the brief biography, Stephen Arnold Douglas (Boston, 1902), by W. G. Brown, in the “Riverside Biographical Series.”


text: Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 2.djvu/241


text: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/399

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/399


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Halacha

HALACHA, hȧ-lä'kȧ (Heb., rule of procedure, from halak, to go). The general term for the Jewish oral law, which runs parallel with the written law contained in the Bible, and is supposed to be, like this, of divine origin. Its relation to the ordinances contained in the Pentateuch is that of an amplified code to the fundamental religious and civil maxims. The theory being that the oral law was handed down through a long chain of highest authorities (Sinaitic revelation, Moses, Joshua, elders, Great Synagogue [Ezra], etc.), it could only be treated and further developed by the foremost men of each generation, who through their eminence in learning belonged to a kind of aristocracy of mind (hakamim, wise men), towering above the multitude (hediotim, laymen). Their decision on all ordinances involved in contradictory traditions was final, because it was believed to spring from a deeper apprehension of Scripture. An elaborate system of interpretation of the biblical texts was devised, which, frequently sacrificing the spirit to the letter, attached great weight to certain special letters, words, and even signs in the Old Testament, which, seemingly superfluous where they stood, were supposed to point to the injunction under discussion. Halacha embraces the whole field of juridico-political, religious, and practical life, down to its most minute

and insignificant details. Originally, as already said, the oral law par excellence, it began to be written down when, as was natural, various opinions and traditions arose as to the correct practice and the danger of sectarianism was imminent. The first collection of laws was instituted by Hillel, Akiba, and Simon ben Gamaliel; but the final redaction of the general code, the Mishna (q.v.), is due to Jedudah Hanassi, about A.D. 220. Later additions to this code are the Baraithas and Tosephtas. Of an earlier date with respect to their contents, but committed to writing in later times, are the three Haggadic books (Midrashim): Siphra or Torath Kohanim (a Haggadic amplification of Leviticus), Siphre (of Numbers and Deuteronomy), and Mechiltha (of a portion of Exodus). The rabbis of the Mishnaic period are called the Tanaim. These were followed by the Arnoraim, who, by discussing and further amplifying the Mishna, became the authors of the ../Gemara/ (q.v.). The Halacha was further developed in subsequent centuries by the Saboraim, Geonim, and the authorities of each generation. See ;


text: Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 2.djvu/383


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/History, Logic of

HISTORY, Logic of. The relation of history to the problems of the philosopher has been mostly confined to those questions which are treated in the philosophy of history. The object of this discipline is to interpret the meaning of mankind's historical development and to comprehend the process of humanity in the setting of a metaphysical system. It is only in recent times that philosophy has recognized clearly the importance of an entirely different relation. If the philosopher studies in the science of logic the ways of thought and the special methods by which the different special sciences are able to reach the truth it must be logical and thus, ultimately, a philosophical task to examine the methods of historical investigation. The special schemes of the historian's technique belong to historical science proper. But as soon as the attitude which the historian has to take toward the world is in

question, we stand before a logical problem which is most nearly connected with the general problem of the meaning of truth. A rich literature devoted to this circle of problems has grown up in late years, partly through the activity of philosophers and psychologists, partly from the interests of historians and economists themselves.

Of course, it is possible to take the skeptical attitude and to deny the existence of a particular problem here. We can say that all science has the same kind of task, and that the logical problems are thus not other for history than for the natural sciences. Yet this attitude may lead to two different standpoints. The first is the most popular one. From that it would appear that history is not a real science at all. It collects a mass of material just as the zoologist collects his specimens; but that kind of treatment which makes zoology a real science, the study of the common characteristics and of the underlying laws, is not in question for the historical material. Instead, of this an art enters into play, the art of historical presentation. The works of the great historian are thus in first line works of art parallel to the great epic narratives, with only the difference that the epic poems follow the lines of imagination while the historian reconstructs the facts as they may have happened. Scientifically history would thus stand on the lowest level, as a mere collection of facts without that real scientific treatment which makes the value of the other sciences. The best which can be hoped, then, is that it may be brought to a kind of scientific height by introducing as much as possible the results of other sciences such as physics, biology, anthropology, geo-physics, etc., into the explanation of historical happenings. The influence of climate, of race disposition, of technical inventions, and so forth, then become predominant in the scholarly treatment of historical events. It may be said that this low opinion of the pure scientific character of history has been prevalent throughout the whole history of science.

But those who consider the natural sciences as the only type of real scientific work may be led, and have been led frequently in recent times to still another standpoint. They may say that history has the greatest possibility of being a full-fledged science. The only step it has to take is that from the merely descriptive to the law-seeking attitude. The real task of the historian, they say, would be to find the common features which belong to the growth of every nation and to the political and social, artistic and scientific, economic and religious movement of the different periods and of the different communities. As long as isolated processes are described, history indeed remains on a pre-scientific level, but as soon as we recognize characteristic types of development, we reach general laws like those of the biologist or the chemist. The interest concentrates itself then on the psychological factors which molded the fate of the nations, and especially the life of the masses becomes a true historical agency. That which is unique then becomes insignificant and accidental as compared with the great typical processes which repeat themselves under similar conditions in the most different countries. A kind of natural science of historical nations thus becomes the logical goal.

Those modern movements, however, which have forced the problems of the logic of history to public attention object to both these standpoints because they refuse to admit the first presupposition. They deny that the natural sciences are the only type of a real science. They claim, rather, that this is a prejudice which has been suggested to the world by the overwhelming influence of the Aristotelian logic on the one side, and the impressive triumphs of natural science on the other. They hold that there exists two types of scientific thought in principle commensurable, and that the historical way of thinking is in its importance and in its logical right perfectly co-ordinate with naturalistic thought. Yet here again a variety of standpoints have been taken.

The simplest presentation of this doubleness of logical method is offered by those who hold that the whole separation is to be deduced from the doubleness of the logical attitude. They say that we can take with reference to everything in the universe either the attitude of interest in the general law or the attitude of interest in the particular thing. The one interest can never be substituted for the other. In the one case the particular object is for us only a sample illustration for a general relation. We seek the law which expresses that relation and inhibits therefore the interest in the special chance case which is before us. That is the attitude of the naturalist. On the other hand we may give our whole attention to the particular object before us in its uniqueness, and there is no doubt that our practical interests of life force on us just this attitude. Our earth may be astronomically not more important than any other planet, but our practical interest belongs to this planet alone. Our friends may be to the biologist not more instructive than any other group of organisms, but for our friendship those particular men have their unique position and cannot be replaced by other chance copies. To develop systematically this interest in the particular is the function of the historian, and anything which has its particular existence is possible historical material. Yet it is evident that no science can have the task of describing every particular pebble on the beach. There must be a principle of selection, and this is given in the reference to our values. The men who have relation to that which is valuable in the world, to the development of state and law, of art and science and religion, are to be selected for the historian's account. And this ultimate reference to values binds the particular objects together, while it is evident that the law of natural science brings the facts under a point of view under which they have no special value at all, but are indifferent objects of theoretical observation. The antithesis is thus complete. The naturalist seeks the general, the historian seeks the particular. The naturalist refers everything to the law, the historian everything to the value. Both groups of interest create logically independent systems of knowledge. Their difference is thus in no way a difference of material, as there is nothing in the world which cannot be considered from both points of view. The sun which the astronomer studies in relation to the astronomical laws as a chance case of a general relation which holds for myriads of suns may be at the same time the object of interest for those

who ask about the development of this one particular sun which gives us light. And on the other hand, even the Napoleon of the historian may be brought under the laws of biology from the standpoint of the naturalist.

Others who welcome this sharp separation feel doubtful whether it is really the logical attitude which determines the difference and not the content. They claim that it is not true that natural science has to deal with laws only. Natural science may very well give its attention to particular objects too, and the development of our sun or our earth or our mankind is not history but natural science. The true difference, they say, lies rather in the doubleness of the objectifying and the subjectifying attitude.

The sun and earth are for us all objects, but men and their work can be considered in a double way. We can consider our neighbors as objects, as phenomena which we describe and explain, but we can consider them also as subjects of will which we understand and interpret and appreciate, and this doubleness of attitude reaches over the whole of mankind. Wherever there is will, there the object can be taken as a subject and it is claimed that the work of the naturalist is the study of the world in so far as it is conceived as a system of objects, while the study of the historian is the world in so far as it is conceived as a system of will relations. Only subjects of will would thus be able to enter into history at all. And the task of the historian is to understand the systematic relations between the purposive actions. The naturalist starts from the objects of his perception and seeks their causes and their effects. The historian starts from those will demands which teach him as the political, legal, artistic, scientific, economic, religious demands of his social world, and he seeks to interpret them by connecting them with the purposes of the past. The naturalist explains, while the historian interprets intentions and links the will purposes into a connected unity.

Bibliography. — Bernheim, Ernst, ‘Lehrbuch der historischen Methode’ (Leipzig 1894); Freeman, E. A., ‘Methods of Historical Study’ (London 1886); Droysen, J. G., ‘Grundriss der Historik’ (Boston 1893); Windelband, ‘Naturwissenschaft und Geschichte’; Simmel, ‘Probleme der Geschichtsphilosophie’; Rickert, ‘Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung’; Münsterberg, ‘Psychology and Life’; Lamprecht, ‘What is History?’; Morley, J., ‘Notes on Politics and History’ (New York 1914); Rhodes, J. F., ‘Historical Essays’ (New York 1909); Robinson, J. H., ‘The New History’ (ib. 1912).


text:
Author:Hugo Münsterberg

Works

 * Problems of To-day

Short works

 * "The Mind of the Juryman: With a side-light on women as jurors" (essay), The Century Magazine, Aug 1913
 * ' "Nothing But the Truth" ' (essay) McClure's Magazine, Sep 1907
 * "Prohibition and Social Psychology" (essay) McClure's Magazine, Jul 1908
 * "The Third Degree" (essay) McClure's Magazine, Oct 1907
 * "Twenty-five Years in America" (essay) The Century Magazine, May 1917
 * "The World Language" (essay) McClure's Magazine, Nov 1906
 * "The World Language" (essay) McClure's Magazine, Nov 1906

title: Author:Hugo Münsterberg


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/35

 a-Fishing by Dr W. C. Prime (1873), Fishing with the Fly by C. F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others (1883), The American Salmon Fisherman and Fly Rods and Fly Tackle by H. P. Wells (1886 and 1885), Little Rivers and other books by the Rev. H. Van Dyke—these are only a few specially distinguished in style and matter. Germany and France have not contributed so largely to the modern library, but in the first country we find several useful works by Max von dem Borne, beginning with the Handbuch der Angelfischerei of 1875, and there are a good many other writers who have contributed to the subject, while in France there are a few volumes on fishing by different hands. The most noticeable is M. G. Albert Petit’s La Truite de rivière (1897), an admirable book on fly-fishing. As yet, however, though there are many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has not established itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature of its own; the same may be said of Germany.

Modern Conditions.—In the modern history of angling there are one or two features that should be touched upon. The great increase in the number of fishermen has had several results. One is a corresponding increase in the difficulty of obtaining fishing, and a notable rise in the value of rivers, especially those which are famed for salmon and trout. Salmon-fishing now may be said to have become a pastime of the rich, and there are signs that trout-fishing will before long have to be placed in the same exclusive category, while even the right to angle for less-esteemed fish will eventually be a thing of price. The development is natural, and it has naturally led to efforts on the part of the angling majority to counteract, if possible, the growing difficulty. These efforts have been directed chiefly in two ways, one the establishment of fishing clubs, the other the adoption of angling in salt water. The fishing club of the big towns was originally a social institution, and its members met together to sup, converse on angling topics and perhaps to display notable fish that they had caught. Later, however, arose the idea that it would be a convenience if a club could give its members privileges of fishing as well as privileges of reunion. So it comes about that all over the United Kingdom, in British colonies and dependencies, in the United States, and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs rent waters, undertake preservation and restocking and generally lead an active and useful existence. It is a good sign for the future of angling and anglers that they are rapidly increasing in number. One of the oldest fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was the Schuylkill club, founded in Pennsylvania in 1732. An account of its history was published in Philadelphia in 1830. Among the earliest clubs in London are to be numbered such societies as The True Waltonians, The Piscatorial, The Friendly Anglers and The Gresham, which are still flourishing. A certain amount of literary activity has been observable in the world of angling clubs, and several volumes of “papers” are on the records. Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of Anglers’ Evenings published in 1880–1894, a collection of essays by members of the Manchester Anglers’ Association. The other method of securing a continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-angling as a substitute for fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern thing. Within the memory of men still young the old tactics of hand-line and force were considered good enough for sea fish. Now the fresh-water angler has lent his centuries of experience in deluding his quarry; the sea-angler has adopted many of the ideas presented to him, has modified or improved others, and has developed the capture of sea-fish into a science almost as subtle as the capture of their fresh-water cousins. One more modern feature, which is also a result of the increase of anglers, is the great advance made in fish-culture, fish-stocking and fish-acclimatization during the last half-century. Fish-culture is now a recognized industry; every trout-stream of note and value is restocked from time to time as a matter of course; salmon-hatcheries are numerous, though their practical utility is still a debated matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish are also bred for purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now considered a fairly simple matter to introduce fish from one country to another, and even from continent to continent. In England the movement owes a great deal to Francis Francis, who, though he was not the earliest worker in the field, was among the first to formulate the science of fish-breeding; his book Fish-Culture, first published in 1863, still remains one of the best treatises on the subject. In the United States, where fishery science has had the benefit of generous governmental and official support and countenance and so has reached a high level of achievement, Dr. T. Garlick (The Artificial Reproduction of Fishes, Cleveland, 1857) is honoured as a pioneer. On the continent of Europe the latter half of the 19th century saw a very considerable and rapid development in fish-culture, but until comparatively recently the propagation and care of fish in most European waters have been considered almost entirely from the point of view of the fish-stew and the market. As to what has been done in the way of acclimatization it is not necessary to say much. Trout (Salmo fario) were introduced to New Zealand in the late ’sixties from England; in the ’eighties rainbow trout (Salmo irideus) were also introduced from California; now New Zealand provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the world. American trout of different kinds have been introduced into England, and brown trout have been introduced to America; but neither innovation can be said to have been an unqualified success, though the rainbow has established itself firmly in some waters of the United Kingdom. It is still regarded with some suspicion, as it has a tendency to wander from waters which do not altogether suit it. For the rest, trout have been established in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in South Africa, and early in 1906 an attempt was made to carry them to British Central Africa. In fact the possibilities of acclimatization are so great that, it seems probable, in time no river of the civilized world capable of holding trout will be without them.

Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in fresh water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the sport have much in common, and sea-angling is really little more than an adaptation of fresh-water methods to salt-water conditions. Therefore it will not be necessary to deal with it at great length and it naturally comes in the second place. Angling in fresh water is again divisible into three principal parts, fishing on the surface, i.e. with the fly; in mid-water, i.e. with a bait simulating the movements of a small fish or with the small fish itself; and on the bottom with worms, paste or one of the many other baits which experience has shown that fish will take. With the premise that it is not intended here to go into the minutiae of instruction which may more profitably be discovered in the many works of reference cited at the end of this article, some account of the subdivisions into which these three styles of fishing fall may be given.

Fresh-Water Fishing.

Fly-fishing.—Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it is the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method par excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting family of fish, the Salmonidae. It may roughly be considered under three heads, the use of the “wet” or sunk fly, of the “dry” or floating fly, and of the natural insect. Of these the first is the most important, for it covers the widest field and is the most universally practised. There are few varieties of fish which may not either consistently or occasionally be taken with the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The large and gaudy bunch of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon, very large trout, black bass and occasionally other predaceous fish are taken is not, strictly speaking, a fly at all. It rather represents, if anything, some small fish or subaqueous creature on which the big fish is accustomed to feed and it may conveniently receive the generic name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however, which are used to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually feed on insect food are in most cases intended to represent that food in one of its forms and are entitled to the name of “artificial flies.” The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the imitation theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of closer observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters. Both wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/35


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/History of Economics

HISTORY OF ECONOMICS. See .


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/History of Education

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. See .


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, Charles Henry

HITCHCOCK, hĭch'kŏk, Charles Henry, American geologist: b. Amherst, Mass., 23 Aug. 1836. He was a son of Edward Hitchcock, geologist (q.v.) He was graduated from Amherst College in 1856, was assistant State geologist of Vermont in 1857-61, State geologist

of Maine 1861-62 and of New Hampshire 1868-78. In 1868 he was appointed professor of geology in Dartmouth College, retaining this position until 1908, when he became professor emeritus. In connection with his survey of New Hampshire, he maintained, during the winter of 1870, a meteorological station on Mount Washington, the earliest high-mountain observatory in the United States. He became known as a compiler of geological maps, and for his investigations regarding the geology of the crystalline schists, ichnology and glacial geology. The location of the terminal glacier in the United States was first suggested by him. His later work has been in connection with the Geological Survey of Vermont, particularly the glacial geology, and with the New Jersey Geological Survey, studying the Trianic footmarks. He claims that the animals that made the tracks were largely ‘birds with teeth’ and not dinosaurs. He was a founder of the Geological Society of America, and in 1883 vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His publications include ‘Elementary Geology’ (1861, with E. Hitchcock); ‘Mt. Washington in Winter’ (1871); and a ‘Report on the Geology of New Hampshire’ (1873-78), with folio atlas, his most valuable work; and ‘Hawaii and its Volcanoes’ (1909; 2d ed., 1911).


text: Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/7

 HISTORY OF THE GREAT WAR


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/8

MACMILLAN AND CO.,

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA,


text: Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/9


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/11

BY DIRECTION OF THE HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF IMPERIAL DEFENCE

MONS, THE RETREAT TO THE SEINE, THE MARNE AND THE AISNE, AUGUST-OCTOBER 1914

COMPILED BY

C.B., C.M.G., R.E. (Retired), p.s.c.

MAPS AND SKETCHES COMPILED BY

R.A. (Retired), Hon. M.A. (Oxon.)

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

1937


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/13

the original edition was compiled in 1920-21, the battlefields of 1914 have been visited by many parties of British officers, and much interesting information has been elicited on the ground. The volumes of the French and German official histories dealing with the period, besides numerous regimental histories, French, German and British, have been issued. It was therefore thought desirable to carry out a thorough revision of the text, particularly as the portions of the original dealing with the French and German forces had been pieced together from various unofficial books, and were by no means complete. The maps and sketches have been revised accordingly, and some new ones added, notably a layered map of the Marne battlefield. No such revision of the other published volumes of the history will be necessary.

The opportunity has been taken to give in greater detail the information obtained during open warfare by the Royal Flying Corps ; for in the first volume of the official history "The War in the Air," the late Sir Walter Raleigh did not include sufficient for the purposes of military study. Further particulars also have been given of the destruction of bridges during the retreat: the work of collecting information from survivors was undertaken by Major-General Sir Reginald Buckland, Chief Engineer of the Fourth Army of the B.E.F., and occupied him two years — which gives some idea of the labour involved in this kind of work. A summary of his investigations was published in the Journal of the Royal Engineers.

J. E. E.
 * August 1933.


text: Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/14


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/15

 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This history has been compiled with the purpose of providing within reasonable compass an authoritative account, suitable for general readers and for students at military schools, of the operations of the British Army in the Western theatre of war in 1914-1918. It is based on the British official records.

The present volume covers events from mobilization up to the middle of October 1914 only, a period of two and a half months, and is on a scale which to a large extent treats the battalion, squadron and battery records as the basis of the story. In succeeding volumes it will not be possible or desirable to adhere to this, and successively the brigade, division and even corps may become the unit of narrative. For this volume the scale adopted seems appropriate, in view of the importance of small units in the early operations, of the lessons to be derived from the study of the work of these units in open warfare, and of the desirability of leaving a picture of what war was like in 1914, when trained soldiers were still of greater importance than material, and gas, tanks, long-range guns, creeping barrages and the participation of aircraft in ground fighting were unknown.

The mass of documents to be dealt with was very great, and the difficulty has been not in obtaining information, but in compressing and cutting what was available. The British records comprise not only the war diaries of every staff and unit engaged, with their voluminous appendices containing all orders, intelligence, vii


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, Edward

HITCHCOCK, Edward, American Congregational clergyman and geologist: b. Deerfield, Mass., 24 May 1793; d. Amherst, Mass., 27 Feb. 1864. He was principal of the academy in his native place 1815-18; pastor of the Congregational Church in Conway, Mass., 1821-25; professor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst College 1825-45 and president of Amherst College and professor of natural theology and geology 1845-54. He was appointed State geologist of Massachusetts in 1830, of the State District of New York in 1836 and of Vermont in 1857. In 1850 he was commissioned by the government of his native State to examine the agricultural schools in Europe. His life was in a great measure identified with the history of Amherst College. Connected with it almost from the beginning, in his own presidency he procured for it buildings, apparatus and funds to the amount of $100,000, doubled the number of students and established it on a solid pecuniary as well as literary and scientific basis. His earliest scientific publications were the ‘Geology of the Connecticut Valley’ (1823), and a ‘Catalogue of the Plants within Twenty Miles of Amherst’ (1829). Later works were ‘Lectures on Diet, Regimen, and Employment’ (1831); ‘Lectures on the Peculiar Phenomena of the Four Seasons’ (1850); ‘Reports on the Geology of Massachusetts’ (1833-35-38-41); ‘Illustrations of Surface Geology’ (1857); ‘Elementary Geology,’ which passed through 25 editions in America, and one-third of that number in England; ‘Religion of Geology and Its Connected Sciences’ (1851); and ‘Reminiscences of Amherst College’ (1863). Dr. Hitchcock suggested as well as executed the geological survey of Massachusetts, the first not only in the long series of scientific surveys in the United States, but the first survey of an entire State under the authority of government in the world. He was the first to give a scientific exposition of the fossil footprints of

the Connecticut Valley, and with him ichnology as a science began.


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/17

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix records dealing with operations overseas. This latter part of its work absorbed most of its energy and time until well on into 1921. The Branch did not obtain a permanent home until October 1919; thus a large amount of important material did not become available until it was unpacked and sorted after this date, and it was then found necessary to re-write an account of the initial operations already partly drafted.

The British Expeditionary Force in France in 1914 was not acting independently, and formed only a small part of the Allied Armies engaged; it has therefore been necessary to include an account of the action of the French and Belgian forces sufficient to provide a proper framework for the British operations. As regards the Belgian Army, ample material for this purpose has been published by the Belgian General Staff. The French General Staff has not yet issued any history, but much information with regard to the French plans and operations has already been made public: officially in the reports of Parliamentary Enquiries, semi-officially by historians like M. Hanotaux, M. Engerand, M. Madelin and General Palat {Pierre Lehautcourt), and in the form of reminiscences and memoirs by actual participants, such as Generals Lanrezac, Gallieni, Dubail and Mangin. It was not, therefore, thought necessary to trouble the French General Staff except as regards the incident of the assistance rendered by General Sordet's Cavalry Corps at the battle of Le Cateau, when a copy of the war diary of the troops concerned was very courteously furnished. With this exception, it must be understood that for the French operations the only absolutely authoritative statements quoted are the orders, instructions, intelligence reports, etc., received officially by G.H.Q. from the French Grand Quartier General.

The published German accounts of the early part of the war are very numerous, and they deal both with the decisions and orders of the higher commanders and the operations of many corps and even smaller fighting units. The most notable are the books of the three Army


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/36

 oldest kind of surface-fishing, the use of a natural insect as a bait. Each method is referred to incidentally below.

Spinning, &c.—Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly consists in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it, and its devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey on their fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling are these devices. In the first a small dead fish or an imitation of it made in metal, india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve rapidly as it is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea of something in difficulties and trying to escape. In the second a small fish is put on the angler’s hook alive and conveys the same idea by its own efforts. In the third a small dead fish is caused to dart up and down in the water without revolving; it conveys the same idea as the spinning fish, though the manipulation is different.

Bottom-Fishing.—Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling which is the most general. There is practically no fresh-water fish that will not take some one or more of the baits on the angler’s list if they are properly presented to it when it is hungry. Usually the baited hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule suggested by the name “bottom-fishing” is not invariable and often the bait is best used in mid-water; similarly, in “mid-water fishing” the bait must sometimes be used as close to the bottom as possible. Bottom-fishing is roughly divisible into two kinds, float-fishing, in which a bite is detected by the aid of a float fastened to the line above the hook and so balanced that its tip is visible above the water, and hand-fishing, in which no float is used and the angler trusts to his hand to feel the bite of a fish. In most cases either method can be adopted and it is a matter of taste, but broadly speaking the float-tackle is more suited to water which is not very deep and is either still or not rapid. In great depths or strong streams a float is difficult to manage.

The Fish.

It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler catches according to the methods which he employs, as most fish can be taken by at least two of these methods, while many of those most highly esteemed can be caught by all three. Sporting fresh-water fish are therefore treated according to their families and merits from the angler’s point of view, and it is briefly indicated which method or methods best succeed in pursuit of them.

Salmon.—First in importance come the migratory Salmonidae, and at the head of them the salmon (Salmo salar), which has a two-fold reputation as a sporting and as a commercial asset. The salmon fisheries of a country are a very valuable possession, but it is only comparatively recently that this has been realized and that salmon rivers have received the legal protection which is necessary to their well-being. Even now it cannot be asserted that in England the salmon question, as it is called, is settled. Partly owing to our ignorance of the life-history of the fish, partly owing to the difficulty of reconciling the opposed interests of commerce and sport, the problem as to how a river should be treated remains only partially solved, though it cannot be denied that there has been a great advance in the right direction. The life-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns the matter in hand, may be very briefly summed up. It is bred in the rivers and fed in the sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn as high as they can get, the ova are deposited on gravel shallows, hatching out in the course of a few weeks into parr. The infant salmon remains in fresh water at least one year, generally two years, without growing more than a few inches, and then about May assumes what is called the smolt-dress, that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands and red spots of infancy and becomes silvery all over. After this it descends without delay to the sea, where it feeds to such good purpose that in a year it has reached a weight of 2 ℔ to 4 ℔ or more, and it may then reascend as a grilse. Small grilse indeed may only have been in the sea a few months, ascending in the autumn of the year of their first descent. If the fish survives the perils of its first ascent and spawning season and as a kelt or spawned fish gets down to the sea again, it comes up a second time as a salmon of weight varying from 8 ℔ upwards. Whether salmon come up rivers, and, if so, spawn, every year, why some fish are much heavier than others of the same age, what their mode of life is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer when the breeding season is not till about November or December, whether they were originally sea-fish or river-fish—these and other similar questions await a conclusive answer. One principal fact, however, stands out amid the uncertainty, and that is that without a free passage up and down unpolluted rivers and without protection on the spawning beds salmon have a very poor chance of perpetuating their species. Economic prudence dictates therefore that every year a considerable proportion of running salmon should be allowed to escape the dangers that confront them in the shape of nets, obstructions, pollutions, rods and poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the interests which are bound up in these dangers (the last excepted; officially poachers have no interests, though in practice their plea of “custom and right” has too often to be taken into consideration) that the salmon question consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish for the market, a fair proportion for the rods and a fair proportion for the redds, without unduly damaging manufacturing interests, this is the object of those who have the question at heart, and with many organizations and scientific observers at work it should not be long before the object is attained. Already the system of “marking” kelts with a small silver label has resulted in a considerable array of valuable statistics which have made it possible to estimate the salmon’s ordinary rate of growth from year to year. It is very largely due to the efforts of anglers that the matter has gone so far. Whether salmon feed in fresh water is another question of peculiar interest to anglers, for it would seem that if they do not then the whole practice of taking them must be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides of the argument, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and kelts excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do, and bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture by rod and line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious food-stuffs as dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side it is argued that food is never found inside a salmon after it has been long enough in a river to have digested its last meal taken in salt water. The very few instances of food found in salmon which have been brought forward to support the contrary opinion are in the scientific view to be regarded with great caution; certainly in one case of recent years, which at first appeared to be well authenticated, it was afterwards found that a small trout had been pushed down a salmon’s throat after capture by way of a joke. A consideration of the question, however, which may perhaps make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr J. Kingston Barton in the first of the two volumes on Fishing (Country Life Series). He maintains that salmon do not habitually feed in fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility of their occasionally taking food. His view is that after exertion, such as that entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the fish may feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap at anything in its vicinity which looks edible. The fact that the angler’s best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they are compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the worse becomes the prospect of catching them, and “unfishable” is one of the expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the condition of a river during the long periods of drought which too often distinguish the sport.

Salmon Tackle and Methods.—It is when the drought breaks up and the long-awaited rain has come that the angler has his chance and makes ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on some short streams only a few hours) during which the water will be right; right is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning not only that the colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but that its height shall be within an inch or two of a given mark, prescribed by experience. As to the tackle which is made ready,

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/36


text:
Talk:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Philips, Peregrine

i dont sure this maybe sound crazy but i think so i dream the life of Philips, Peregrine and may be in the dream he want to tell me somethind or do something i don't sure about this, maybe is a life pass, my email is humantorchy2009@hotmail.com


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/18

X. MILITARY HISTORY OF THE GREAT WAR commanders, von Kluck, von Bülow and von Hansen, the General Staff monographs "Lüttich-Namur" and "Mons," the official list of battles and engagements, with the names of the formations, etc., present, entitled "Schlachten und Gefechte," and the stories of participants like General von Zwehl, General von Kuhl, Hauptmann Bloem (the novelist) and Hofprediger Vogel. It was originally intended to give the accounts derived from German sources in the form of notes at the end of each Chapter; but, after consideration, it was decided that such an arrangement might prove inconvenient, and that it was better as a general rule to include them in the body of the Chapters, as close as possible to the events in the British narrative to which they refer. This arrangement, in view of the difference of the character of the material, has naturally caused breaks in the style and scope of the story, but it makes the comparison of the two accounts easier.

General Freiherr Mertz von Quirheim, the Director of the German Reichsarchiv, Berlin, which has custody of the war records, has been good enough to furnish material in order to clear up a few points on which there seemed insufficient information.

As separate histories of the Royal Air Force and the Medical Services are being compiled, a detailed account of their work has not been included in the narrative.

Two sets of maps have been prepared. The one, distinguished by the word " Sketches,"sufficient for the general reader, is bound in the volume; the other, intended for the use of students of war, is issued separately. Except the situation maps for the battle of the Aisne, which are taken from the originals, the maps have been compiled from data and sketches in the war diaries or furnished by officers, or from French and German publications.

The typescript or proof sheets have been read by a number of commanders and staff and regimental officers who took part in the events narrated, and the compiler has been greatly assisted by their advice and criticism, See List of Books, pp. xxv-xxix.


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/19

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xi for which he tenders them his most sincere thanks. He is specially grateful to Mr. C. T. Atkinson, his predecessor in charge of the Branch, for advice and help at all times, which his intimate knowledge of the records made most valuable; and both to him and to Mr. W. B. Wood, the partner in the compilation of a book on an earlier war, for the reading and correction of the proof sheets.

J. E. E. April 1922.


text: Irish Melodies

title: Irish Melodies


text: Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914/Preface


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/109

 Their destination was Chia-ting, which lies on the Min River at the eastern edge of a great plain, the home of the so-called "pai-la shu," or "white wax tree," a species of ash. The whole countryside is dotted over with this tree, so cut as to resemble the pollard willow. On arrival the scales are carefully made up into small packets of twenty or thirty scales each, wrapped in leaves and attached to the branches of the white wax tree. After a short interval the insects emerge from the scales and secrete a waxlike substance, covering the boughs and twigs with a white deposit about a quarter of an inch thick. This is carefully gathered, and after purification by boiling is made up into the small cakes of commerce to be put to various uses. It forms an important ingredient in sizing and polish, and also in giving a gloss to silk; but especially it is valued as imparting a greater consistency to tallow for candles, as it melts only at a temperature of 160° Fahrenheit. But the Standard Oil activities have dealt a serious blow to the white wax industry. Kerosene is now in general use where there is any lighting at all, and whereas formerly ten thousand coolies annually hurried up the valley carrying scales to Chia-ting, we now saw only a few hundred.

A generation ago Chien-ch'ang was perhaps the least known part of all China to the outside world. About the middle of the thirteenth century the

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/109


text:
Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/16

viii MILITARY HISTORY OF THE GREAT WAR etc., received and issued, and detailed reports of actions, but they include also the General Headquarters files, the Commander-in-Chief's diary, and practically every telegram and message despatched and received. These official documents have been supplemented by private diaries and papers which have been kindly lent, by regimental records, and by interviews with officers who took part in the operations.

On a modern battlefield, however, knowledge of events is extraordinarily local, and the transmission of information difficult ; in addition important witnesses only too often become casualties. Though written orders and messages are absolutely reliable evidence of the matters with which they deal, war diaries and reports of actions, written up immediately after events, are liable to contain mistakes. Commanders and staffs are naturally more concerned in finding out and reporting the exact situation and condition of their troops and of the enemy, in sending up reinforcements, ammunition and supplies, and recording experience for future use than in the collection of historical matter. In fact, even officers well known to be specially interested in military history have confessed that during the war the idea of collecting or keeping material for its future historian never occurred to them. Many incidents deserving of record may therefore have escaped notice.

It will greatly assist in the compilation of monographs or of a fuller official history in years to come, if readers who can supply further information or corrections will communicate with the Secretary of the Historical Section, Committee of Imperial Defence, 2 Whitehall Gardens, London, S.W.I.

The text and maps now presented are the result of the co-operative labours of the staff, past and present, of the Historical Section, Military Branch, which, in collaboration with the Disposal of Records Department, War Office, is also charged with the sorting and arrangement of the


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/110

, Kublai Khan, acting as general of the forces of his brother, Genghis Khan, went through here to the conquest of Tali, then an independent kingdom in the southwest, and the untiring Venetian following in his train noted a few of the characteristics of Caindu, the name he gave both to the valley and the capital city. Six centuries elapsed before the next traveller from the West came this way. In the late seventies Colborne Baber, Chinese Secretary of the British Legation, traversed the valley from north to south, being the first European since the time of Marco Polo to enter Ning-yüan-fu, save for an unfortunate French priest who arrived a few months earlier, only to be driven out with stones. At that time, according to Baber, "two or three sentences in the book of Ser Marco to the effect that after crossing high mountains he reached a fertile country containing many villages and towns, and inhabited by a very immoral population," constituted the only existing description of the district.

In spite of the importance of this route it remained until a few years ago very insecure. Overhung almost its entire length by the inaccessible fastnesses of Lololand, the passing caravans dared journey only with convoy, and even then were frequently overwhelmed by raiders from the hills, who carried off both trader and goods into the mountains, the former to lifelong servitude. The Ta Liang Shan, or "Great

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/110


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/111

 Cold Mountains," the country of the independent Lolos, is a mountainous region extending north and south some three hundred miles, which constitutes to this day an almost impenetrable barrier between east and west, crossed voluntarily by no Chinese, unless in force, and from which but one European party has returned to tell the tale. On the outskirts of this territory a little mission work has been undertaken with some success, but as yet no real impression has been made upon the people. Chinese hold upon the country is limited to an occasional more or less ineffective punitive expedition organized after some unusual outrage, such as the murder, a few years back, of Lieutenant Brooke, the English explorer. Naturally the Government does not care to assume any responsibility for the foolhardy foreigner bent on risking his life. Lieutenant Brooke went without permission, and during my stay in Ning-yüan I learned that two French travellers had just sought in vain for leave to attempt the crossing of the mountains to Suifu.

Within Lololand, of course, no Chinese writ runs, no Chinese magistrate holds sway, and the people, more or less divided among themselves, are under the government of their tribal chiefs. The little that is known of this interesting race has been learned from the so-called tame Lolos who have accepted Chinese rule, and are found scattered in small villages

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/111


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/112

 in the western part of Szechuan and Yunnan, being perhaps most numerous in the neighbourhood of the Anning and Yalung rivers, where an appreciable proportion of the population is of aboriginal or mixed aboriginal and Chinese stock. Accepting Chinese rule does not generally mean accepting Chinese customs. They hold to their own language and religion, one a dialect akin to Tibetan, and the other a form of animism. It is very easy to distinguish conquerors and conquered, for the Lolos are darker as well as taller and better formed than the Chinese. Their features are good and they have a frank, direct expression which is very attractive. In dress also they have not conformed to the ways of their masters. Instead of a queue the men wear the hair in a horn above the forehead, while the women hold firmly to the feminine petticoats, surrounded though they are by the trousered Chinese women. Nor do they bind their feet, but stride bravely along on the feet nature gave them.

What these people really are is one of the unsettled ethnological problems of the East, but probably they are of the same stock as the Shans and Burmese. Even their proper appellation is in doubt. The Chinese call them Lolos, which means simply "barbarians" or "wild men." By the people themselves the term is regarded as insulting, and one should avoid using it before them; but they are not agreed

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/112


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/113

 among themselves on a common name, and use ordinarily local tribal names.

Half a dozen years ago travellers were warned against the dangers of the road, but since then matters have been taken vigorously in hand by the Chinese authorities. Guard-houses have been erected at short intervals, the passes are strongly fortified, and a large force of well-trained men is stationed permanently in the valley. The journey can now be made in entire safety, but there are numerous signs of past dangers, and the precautions taken are very evident. Perhaps I was made especially conscious of possible danger because, as my interpreter said, though the officials were careful to secure the safety of every one of us, they were particularly anxious that nothing should happen to me; not, of course, from any personal concern for the foreigner, but because the foreigner's Government has such a way of making things unpleasant if anything happens to him.

From Hui-li-chou northwards I was escorted by real soldiers, quite of the new service. They looked rather shipshape in khaki suits and puttees, and their guns were of a good model, but they handled them in careless fashion at first, belabouring laden ponies and even coolies who were slow in getting out of the way of my chair. I am told that they are very ready to lord it over their countrymen when escorting Europeans, taking advantage of the fearful respect in which the

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/113


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/114

 foreigner is held. I checked them vigorously at the time, and before the next morning's start I called them up, and with the aid of the interpreter harangued them to the effect that I was pleased to see that they knew how to use their guns, and if need came I hoped they would give a good account of themselves in China's defence, but in the mean time they should be very slow to use their weapons on men or beasts, and if I saw them do it while they were with me they would get no "wine money." The soldiers took my orders very meekly, and the bystanders (there are always bystanders in China) grinned approvingly.

The first two marches out from Hui-li led over the range into the Anning valley, a high, rocky trail without much vegetation for the most part, but after we struck the river, cultivation was almost continuous, one hamlet following fast on another. This part of the valley is available for irrigation, and the skill and ingenuity shown in making use of the water supply is nothing short of marvellous. At one point we ascended a long, wide, gentle slope all laid out in tiny fields, and well watered from two large, fast-flowing streams. But where did they come from, for the slope ended abruptly in a sharp, high precipice overlooking a gorge through which flowed the Chin Ch'uan, a tributary of the Anning. But on turning a corner at the head of the slope we saw that from high up on the mountain-side an artificial channel had been

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/114


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/115

 with infinite labour, bringing water from the upper course of the stream to the thirsty fields below.

Late on this same day the trail crossed a bare, rocky hillside, at one point passing between masses of stone ruins; something like a tower to the right, and on the left a sort of walled enclosure. I had lingered behind to gather a nosegay of the small blue flowers that marked the day's march. As I approached I saw some twenty or thirty men clad in long white or black cloaks hanging about the ruins, and my big chair coolie, who had constituted himself my special protector, coming to meet me, hurried me by without stopping. When I joined the interpreter, who was waiting for me at a discreet distance, I learned that the men were Lolos, "half-tame wild men," employed by merchants and others to guard this rather dangerous place where the trail approached somewhat closely the territory of the independent Lolos. In spite of protests I went back, accompanied by the big coolie and a soldier, to take some pictures. A few of the men ran away, but most made no objection and good-humouredly grouped themselves at my direction while I photographed them as best I could in the waning light. Their independent bearing and bold, free look interested me, and I should have been glad to talk with them, but the interpreter was disinclined to come near, and it was doubtful, too, if

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/115


text:
Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/116

 they could have spoken Chinese well enough to have been understood.

The 25th of April was our last day into Ning-yüanfu, and I was glad; it was getting very hot, and the coolies were tired from their long journey. Several were hiring substitutes from the village-folk, paying less than half what they received from me. To avoid the heat we were off before sunrise. Often on that part of the trip we started in the half-light of the early dawn, and there was something very delightful in our unnoticed departure through the empty, echoing streets of the sleeping town where, the evening before, the whole population had been at our heels. And outside the stifling walls the joy of another day's ride through a new world was awaiting me.

For a time we followed up the narrow, winding valley, gradually opening out until we turned off to cross the low hills that barred the southern end of the Ning-yüan plain. Every inch of ground was under cultivation, but as yet few crops were up. Mulberries, however, were ripening fast, forerunners of the abundant fruit of this region. Shortly before tiffin we crossed a stream over which the bridge of stone was actually being repaired. In China, as elsewhere in Asia, it is a work of merit to construct a new building or road, but waste of time to repair the old. I wondered if by any chance some high official was expected, for the East fulfils quite literally the

title: Page:A Wayfarer in China.djvu/116


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (soldier)

HITCHCOCK, Ethan Allen, American soldier: b. Vergennes, Vt., 18 May 1798; d. Sparta, Ga., 5 Aug. 1870. He was a grandson of Ethan Allen (q.v.), and was graouated at West Point in 1817, entering the corps of artillery as a third lieutenant. In 1829 he became the military commandant of the corpa of cadets, in which office he continued until 1833. He served in Florida against the Indians, and in the war with Mexico, where he received two brevets, one as colonel and another as brigadier-general. In 1855 he printed for private circulation a pamphlet in support of his opinion that genuine alchemy was not an art for making gold, but that the alchemists were students of man, whose perfection was symbolized by their ‘philosophers stone.’ He subsequently published ‘Remarks upon Alchemy and the Alchemists’ (1857); ‘Swedenborg a Hermetic Philosopher’ (1858); ‘Notes on the Vita Nuova of Dante’ (1866).


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (politician)

HITCHCOCK, Ethan Allen, American politician: b. Mobile, Ala., 19 Sept. 1835; d. Washington. D. C., 9 April 1909. Was in mercantile business at Saint Louis, Mo., 1855-60, then went to China to enter a commission house, of which firm he became a partner in 1866. In 1872 he retired from business, in 1874 returned to the United States, and in 1874-97 was president of several manufacturing, mining and railway companies. He was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia in 1897 and in February 1898 Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, the first Ambassador accredited from the United States to the court of Russia. In 1898 he was nominated and confirmed as Secretary of the Interior, and held that position till 4 March 1907.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, James Ripley Wellman

HITCHCOCK, James Ripley Wellman, American art critic: b. Fitchburg, Mass., 3 July 1857. He was graduated at Harvard in 1877, and in 1882-83 made long journeys in the West, Mexico and Northwest as special correspondent of the New York Tribune, was art critic of the Tribune 1882-90. He was literary adviser to D. Appleton and Company in 1890-1902, and after 1902 to Harper and Brothers. He has written much upon American history, outdoor life and literary topics as well as art. He has lectured extensively upon artistic and literary subjects. He has written ‘The Western Art Movement’ (1885); ‘A Study of George Inness’ (1885); ‘Madonnas by Old Masters’ (1888), the text to photogravures; ‘The Future of Etching’; ‘Some American Painters in Water Colors’; ‘Etching in America’; ‘Notable Etchings by American Artists’; ‘Thomas De Quincy: a Study’; ‘The Louisiana Purchase and the Building of the West’ (1904); ‘The Lewis and Clark Expedition’ (1905). He edited ‘The Life of an Artist, by Jules Breton’; ‘The Last Words of Thomas Carlyle’; ‘The Art of the World Illustrated in the Paintings, Statuary and Architecture of the Columbian Exposition, with an introduction and much other text’; ‘The Story of the West Series,’ including ‘The Story of the Indian’; ‘The Story of the Mine’; ‘The Story of the Cowboy’; ‘The Story of the Railroad’; ‘The Story of the Soldier’; and ‘The Story of the

Trapper,’ with introduction; ‘Recollections,’ by Richard Henry Stoddard; ‘The Trail-Makers, a Library of History and Exploration’; ‘Decisive Battles of America,’ and other works.


text:
In the Wood (Coates)

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1898), "In the Wood" in Poems.
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "In the Wood" in Poems II.

title: In the Wood (Coates)


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Hitchcock, Roswell Dwight

HITCHCOCK, Roswell Dwight, American Congregational clergyman: b. East Machias, Me., 15 Aug. 1817; d. Somerset, Mass., 16 June 1887. Graduated from Amherst College in 1836 and from the Andover Theological Seminary in 1838, he also studied at Halle and Berlin (1847), in 1845-52 was pastor of the First Congregational Church at Exeter, N. H., and in 1852-55 professor of revealed religion in Bowdoin College. In 1855 he became professor of church history at the Union Theological Seminary, of which institution he was elected president in 1880. He became president of the Palestine Exploration Society in 1871, and vice-president of the American Geological Society in 1880. An editor of the ‘American Theological Review’; he wrote ‘The Life, Character, and Writings of Edward Robinson’ (1863); ‘Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible’ (1869); and ‘Socialism’ (1879). With Eddy and Madge, he compiled ‘Carmina Sanctorum’ (1885); and ‘Eternal Atonement,’ a volume of sermons, appeared in 1888.


text:
Lament of Brünhilde

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1898), "Lament of Brünnhilde" in Poems.
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "Lament of Brünhilde" in Poems II.

title: Lament of Brünhilde