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102 insisted on with recurrent emphasis. Thus Augustinianism is altered in form and barbarized.

Gregory is throughout prefigurative of the Middle Ages, which he likewise prefigures in his greatness as a sovereign bishop and a man of ecclesiastical affairs. He is energetic and wise and temperate. The practical wisdom of the Catholic Church is in him and in his rightly famed book of Pastoral Rule. The temperance and wisdom of his letters of instructions to Augustine of Canterbury are admirable. The practical exigency seemed always to have the effect of tempering any extreme opinion which apart from it he might have expressed; as one sees, for example, in those letters to this apostle to the English, or in his letter to Serenus, Bishop of Marseilles, who had been too violent as to paintings and images. Gregory's stand is moderate and reasonable. Likewise he opposes the use of force to convert the Jews, although insisting firmly that no Jew may hold a Christian slave.

There has been occasion to remark that decadence tends to join hands with barbarism on a common intellectual level. Had Boëthius lived in a greater epoch, he might not have been an adapter of an elementary arithmetic and geometry, and his best years would not have been devoted to the translation and illustration of logical treatises. Undoubtedly his labours were needed by the times in which he lived and by the centuries which followed them in spirit as well as chronologically. He was the principal purveyor of the strictly speaking intellectual grist of the early Middle Ages; and it was most apt that the great scholastic controversy as to universals should have drawn its initial text from his translation of Porphyry's Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle. Gregory, on the other hand, was a purveyor of theology, the subject to which logic chiefly was to be applied. He purveyed matter very much to the mediaeval taste; for example, his wise practical admonishments; his

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CHAP. V elaboration of such a doctrine as that of penance, so tangible that it could be handled, and felt with one's very fingers; and, finally, his supreme intellectual endeavour, the allegorical trellising of Scripture, to which the Middle Ages were to devote their thoughts, and were to make warm and living with the love and yearning of their souls. The converging currents—decadence and barbarism—meet and join in Gregory's powerful personality. He embodies the intellectual decadence which has lost all independent wish for knowledge and has dropped the whole round of the mind's mortal interests; which has seized upon the near, the tangible, and the ominous in theology till it has rooted religion in the fear of hell. All this may be viewed as a decadent abandonment of the more intellectual and spiritual complement to the brute facts of sin, penance, and hell barely escaped. But, on the other hand, it was also barbarization, and held the strength of barbaric narrowing of motives and the resistlessness of barbaric fear.

Such were the rôles of Boëthius and Gregory in the transmission of antique and patristic intellectual interests into the mediaeval time. Quite different was that of Gregory's younger contemporary, Isidore, the princely and vastly influential Bishop of Seville, the primary see in that land of Spain, which, however it might change dynasties, was destined never to be free from some kind of sacerdotal bondage. In Isidore's time, the kingdom of the Visigoths had recently turned from Arianism to Catholicism, and wore its new priestly yoke with ardour. Boëthius had provided a formal discipline and Gregory much substance already mediaevalized. But the whole ground-plan of Isidore's mind corresponded with the aptitudes and methods of the Carolingian period, which was to be the schoolday of the Middle Ages. By reason of his own habits of study, by reason of the quality of his mind, which led him to select the palpable, the foolish, and the mechanically correlated, by reason, in fine, of his mental faculties and interests, Isidore gathered and arranged in his treatises a conglomerate of knowledge, secular and sacred, exactly suited to the coming centuries.

In drawing from its spiritual heritage, an age takes what it cares for; and if comparatively decadent or barbarized or

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104 childlike in its intellectual affinities, it will still manage to draw what is like itself. In that case, probably it will not draw directly from the great sources, but from intermediaries who have partially debased them. From these turbid compositions the still duller age will continue to select the obvious and the worse. This indicates the character of Isidore's work. His writings speak for themselves through their titles, and are so flat, so transparent, so palpably taken from the nearest authorities, that there is no call to analyze them. But their titles with some slight indication of their contents will show the excerpt character of Isidore's mental processes, and illustrate by anticipation the like qualities reappearing with the Carolingian doctors.

Isidore's Quaestiones in vetus Testamentum is his chief work in the nature of a Scripture commentary. It is confined to those passages of the Old Testament which were deemed most pregnant with allegorical meaning. His Preface discloses his usual method of procedure: "We have taken certain of those incidents of the sacred history which were told or done figuratively, and are filled with mystic sacraments, and have woven them together in sequence in this little work; and, collecting the opinions of the old churchmen, we have made a choice of flowers as from divers meadows; and briefly presenting a few matters from so many, with some changes or additions, we offer them not only to studious but fastidious readers who detest prolixity." Every one may feel assured that he will be reading the interpretations of the Fathers, and not those of Isidore—"my voice is but their tongue." He states that his sources are Origen, Victorinus, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Fulgentius, Cassian, and "Gregory so distinguished for his eloquence in our own time." The spirit of the mediaeval commentary is in this Preface. The phrase about "culling the opinions of the Fathers like flowers from divers meadows," will be repeated hundreds of times. Such a commentary is a thing of excerpts; so it rests upon authority. The writer thus comforts both his reader and himself; neither runs the

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Author:Alfred John Wyatt

Works

 * Old English Riddles (1912)
 * An Anglo-Saxon Reader (1919)
 * The Tutorial History of English Literature

Works as editor

 * Beowulf (Wyatt) (1894: transcription based on the facsimilie edition of Julius Zupitza)
 * The Aynebite of Inwyt and Remorse of Conscience, by Dan of Northgate (fl. 1340) and Michael of Northgate (fl. 1340)
 * Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales; The Prologue and the Man of Law’s Tale (1896)
 * Cymbeline, in The Warwick Shakespeare (1897)

Works as translator

 * The Tale of Beowulf (1895: translation into modern English, co-author William Morris)
 * The Lay of Havelok the Dane. Done into modern English
 * "Quondam First Riddle" (Wulf and Eadwacer) (from the introduction to Old English Riddles)

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CHAP. V peril of originality, and together they repose on the broad bosom of the Fathers.

Throughout his writings, Isidore commonly proceeds in this way, whether he says so or not. We may name first the casual works which represent separate parcels of his encyclopaedic gleanings, and then glance at his putting together of them, in his Etymologiae. The muster opens with two books of Distinctions (Differentiarum). The first is concerned with the distinctions of like-sounding and like-meaning words. It is alphabetically arranged. The second is concerned with the distinctions of things: it begins with God and the Creation, and passes to the physical parts and spiritual traits of man. No need to say that it contains nothing that is Isidore's own. Now come the Allegoriae quaedam sacrae Scripturae, which give in chronological order the allegorical signification of all the important persons mentioned in the Old Testament and the New. It was one of the earliest hand-books of Scriptural allegories, and is a sheer bit of the Middle Ages in spirit and method. The substance, of course, is taken from the Fathers. Next, a little work, De ortu et obitu Patrum, states in short paragraphs the birthplace, span of life, place of sepulture, and noticeable traits of Scriptural personages.

There follows a collection of brief Isidorean prefaces to the books of Scripture. Then comes a curious book, which may have been suggested to the writer by the words of Augustine himself. This is the Liber numerorum, the book of the numbers occurring in the Scriptures. It tells the qualities and mystical significance of every number from one to sixteen, and of the chief ones between sixteen and sixty. These numbers were "most holy and most full of mysteries" to Augustine, and Augustine is the man whom Isidore chiefly draws on in this treatise—Augustine at his very worst. One might search far for an apter instance of an ecclesiastical writer elaborately exploiting the most foolish statements that could possibly be found in the writings of a great predecessor.

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text: Twenty years before the mast

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O'Neill (, Diary in Harl. MS. 164, f. 167). Neither Conyers nor Astley would hear of that plan, and meanwhile the secret committee of the House of Commons had reported on the first plot. On 14 June O'Neill was summoned to answer for his share in it, but fled from York, and, in spite of his reported capture in Norfolk, escaped to Brussels in safety.

A committee of the house was appointed to inquire into his proceedings, and in August his pay was stopped ; in September O'Neill returned to Wey bridge with Sir John Berkeley, and surrendered himself at Pym's house in Chelsea during the recess. Alter an examination bail was refused, and he was taken into custody by the sergeant-at-arms. On 20 Oct. he was committed to the gatehouse, and on 4 Dec. was brought to the bar of the house. He pleaded the act of oblivion, but this was disallowed ; it was resolved to impeach him, and articles of high treason were passed on 13 Dec. After further examination by the House of Lords, his trial was Postponed by a difference between the two houses ; in January 1642 he was removed, on the plea of ill-health, to the Tower, whence on 6 May he escaped in female attire, and made his way to Brussels in spite of proclamations for his arrest (Treason Discovered, or the Impeachment of Daniel Oneale, 1641 ; Oneale's Escape out of the Tower, 1642 ; Commons' Journals, ii. 175, &c. ; Lords' Journals, iv. 399, &c. ;, Diary, ed. Bray, App. passim).

On the outbreak of the civil war O'Neill returned to England; his first commission was that of major in Colonel Osborne's regiment (, Life of Milton, ii. 442 ;, Army Lists, p. 17) ; in October he was with Rupert at Abingdon, complaining of the bad discipline of his troops (, Prince Rupert, ii. 82). His promotion was retarded by Charles I, who could not forgive O'Neill's hostility to Strafford. In June 1643 he was lighting at Gloucester, and on 27 Sept. was at the first battle of Newbury. During the winter he was at Oxford (, Original Letters, &c. i. 26). In January 1643-4 he was selected to accompany Randal MacDonnell, second earl of Antrim [q. v.], on his mission to Ormonde, with the object of procuring ten thousand Irish troops for England and three thousand for Scotland. O'Neill was on good terms with Ormonde, and had great influence over Antrim, with whom he was distantly connected. By a court intrigue of Digby's, detailed at great length by Clarendon, O'Neill was previous to his departure made groom of the bedchamber by Charles, under the impression that it would be long before he returned to assume his duties. He arrived at Kilkenny on 23 Feb., and superintended the despatch of fifteen hundred troops for Scotland, but otherwise the mission was unsuccessful. O'Neill had returned to Beaumaris by 25 June, and joined Rupert's army in time to take part in the battle of Marston Moor on 2 July; he commanded Rupert's regiment of foot (, Studies of the Great Rebellion, p. 595 ;, Life of Fairfax, pp. 161-9). He then joined the army of the west, at Bath, on 17 July, and marched into Devonshire 'Essex-hunting' (O'Neill to Trevor in, Original Letters, i. 58-61); he was present in September when Essex allowed nimself to be surrounded in Cornwall, and fought at the second battle of Newbury on 27 Oct. He was again at Oxford during the winter, and fought at Naseby on 14 June 1645; he was then directed, on 27 June, to proceed to Falmouth to procure ships, probably in order to secure a retreat for Prince Charles (, A Collection of Ordinances, 1646, pp. 855-6 ; , Memoirs, ed. 1753, iii. 306). Thence he was sent with a letter of recommendation from Charles I to Ormonde, and landed at Passage, co. Waterford, on 24 Aug.

For the next few years O'Neill was principally engaged in fruitless negotiations between his uncle Owen Roe and Ormoude, and in endeavours to save the royalist cause in Ireland. In 1647 he was treating with Sir James Turner and the Scots (, Memoirs, Bannatyne Club, p. 47); and in October of the same year he was despatched by Ormonde to seek aid at St. Germains, when he took part, as second, in the duel between Digby and Wilmot (O'Neill to Ormonde in, Original Letters, i. 146-59). Returning to Ireland, he was made governor of Ormonde's horse-guards, and served with Castlehaven in Carlow (, Memoirs, ed. 1753, pp. 87, &c.) In July 1649, as governor of Trim, he defended that town against the parliamentarians, and in the autumn he brought to a successful issue the fresh negotiations with Owen Roe, which had been started early in the year. Soon after he was sent with two thousand foot and four hundred horse to recover places in Down and Antrim, but retired on finding the country completely in the power of the parliamentarians. O'Neill was now promoted major-general, a step which subsequently formed one of the charges brought by the bishops against Ormonde (, Hibernia Angl. vol. ii.) For a short time during his uncle's illness he actually commanded the Ulster army, being the only man from whom


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x on the other hand, adverbial prefixes, such as ūp in ūp-lang, ūt in ūt-weard, are so marked off. This then is where I have, not without misgivings, “drawn the line.” Where the two parts of a compound seem to preserve their full notional force I have used a hyphen; where the force of one part seems to be quite subordinate to that of the other, I have written them as one word. It is the familiar distinction of compounds and derivatives over again, but at a stage of the language when some compounds were in course of becoming derivatives. Doubtless there are mistakes and inconsistencies. I need hardly say I shall be glad to have them printed out.

Punctuation. The punctuation of “Beowulf” has hitherto been largely traditional, as it were, and largely German, and German punctuation of course differs in some respects from English. Some editors have shown daring originality in the substitution of colons for the semi-colons, and marks of exclamation for the full-stops, of previous editors. Periods have usually been held too sacred to question. I may say at once, that although I have been extremely conservative in my handling of the text, I have felt and have shown scant courtesy for much of the traditional punctuation. Let me state here the principles, right or wrong, upon which I have acted. First, I have made the punctuation as simple as possible. I have therefore done sway with the somewhat fine distinction between the colon and the semicolon, and have restricted the use of the former to marking the opening of an oratio recta, and to a very few similar loci, such as ll. 801, 1392, 1476. In the some way, I have, wherever possible, done away with parentheses, and with our modern meretricious marks of exclamation. If the reader’s sense or emotions

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Rh do not tell him where he ought to feel exclamatory, he must suffer the consequences. Secondly, I have attempted to make the punctuation logical, especially by the use of pairs of commas wherever the sequence of a sentence is interrupted by parallelisms. This may be made clearer by a reference to ll. 1235–7, 1283–4, 3051–2. But, on the other hand, I have as far as possible avoided breaking up the metrical unit of the half line with a comma.

Foot-notes. The chief peculiarity of the footnotes is that, unlike Wülcker’s (to which I am greatly indebted), they are not intended to he read by the next “Beowulf” editor only. Therefore they are not lumbered with a mass of antiquated and impossible emendations, which no one but a “painful and studious” literary chiffonnier would think of collecting and perpetuating. Their main intention has been already referred to—to call attention to every departure in the text from the readings of the MS. If they have any influence towards making readers intolerant of the shameless, silent alterations of MS. readings which disfigure some O. E. texts—alterations such as have been banished from the best editions of the Latin and Greek classics—great indeed will he my reward.

A word or two of explanation must be added. “A” and “B” refer to the transcripts or copies of the poem, which the Danish scholar Thorkelin made (one himself, the other by a scribe ignorant of O. E.) in 1786, and which ere of great value for parts now defective. “Grein 1” is Grein’s Bibliothek der A. S. Poesie; “Grein 2” is his seperate edition of Beowulf. “Grein-Wülcker” and “Wülcker” refer to the latter’s new edition of the Bibliothek, which very rarely departs from Grein’s own readings. “Heyne 5” and “Heyne and Socin” refer to the 5th edition of Heyne’s

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 its various sections were willing to receive orders (The Marquess of Ormondes Answer to the Declaration &c., in Cox, vol. ii.) He endeavoured to bring the army to Ormonde's assistance while Cromwell was marching on Wexford. Owen Roe died on 6 Nov. Daniel was proposed as his successor, and the nobility and gentry were generally in his favour; he was also supported by Ormonde, but as a protestant he was obnoxious to the papal party, and Heber or Emer MacMahon [q. v.], bishop of Clogher, who had promised, if elected general, to hand over the command to O'Neill, made his conversion an absolute condition (Henry O'Neill's Diary in, Desiderata Cur. Hib.; , Life of Ormonde, iii. 532). O'Neill declined to abjure his faith; the royalist cause in Ireland was now hopeless, and O'Neill sought terms from Ireton, who gave him permission to enlist five thousand Irish troops for the service of Spain or the States-General (O'Neill to the Marchioness of Ormonde in, Original Letters, i, 384-90).

O'Neill arrived at the Hague just in time to accompany Charles II, who embarked at Terheyden on 2 June 1650 for Scotland. As in the case of most of Charles's followers, his expulsion had been already voted by the Scottish parliament. Falling into the hands of the Scots, he was accordingly expelled, but was first forced to sign a document consenting to his death if ever he returned. In October he was back at the Hague pressing his services upon the Spanish ambassador. He stipulated for the command of all the Irish in the Spanish dominions, with the rank of colonel-general. This was apparently refused; and after a visit to Paris, O'Neill, in April 1651, again joined Charles in Scotland (, Diary of Transactions, Bannatyne Club, p. 52). Charles was now practically at liberty to choose his own followers. O'Neill remained in Scotland throughout the summer, and joined in the Scottish invasion of England; he was at Penrith on 8 Aug., but he ridiculed the idea of invading England while Charles was utterly unable to hold Scotland (, Memorials of the Civil War, ii. 306). After the battle of Worcester on 3 Sept. he made his escape to the Netherlands.

From this time he was the busiest of the exiled intriguers, and his journeys in Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany were incessant. He was principally attached to the princess royal, but as groom of the bed-chamber to Charles II his influence was considerable; at one time Nicholas complained that O'Neill directed all the correspondence of the court. In 1652 he was in England; in March 1654-5 he paid another visit to estimate the prospects of a royalist rising Landing at Dover, he proceeded to London, where, after interviewing the principal royalists, he was arrested, but soon made his escape to Holland. In the same year his expulsion from France was stipulated in the treaty between Cromwell and Mazarin. In February 1657-8 he set out with Ormonde from Cologne, landed at Westmarch in Essex, and, leavmg Ormonde at Chelmsford, proceeded to London, whence he returned in safety to Flanders. In August 1659 he accompanied Charles through France to Fuentarabia, and returned with him to Brussels in November.

At the Restoration O'Neill received numerous rewards for his loyal exertions; he was made captain of the king's own troop of horse-guards, became M.P. for St. Ives, and was admitted a member of Gray's Inn. His numerous grants of land, in London and elsewhere, included one of fourteen hundred feet in length and twenty-three feet broad between St. James's Park and Pall Mall; he was also sole manufacturer of gunpowder to the crown, and accountant for the regulation of alehouses. He received a pension of 500l. and a grant of the profits of all mines north of the Trent, the working of which he had investigated as early as 1641 (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1641-3, pp. 12, 13, 1660-1). In March 1662-3 he became postmaster-general; he paid 21,500l. annually for the lease, in return for which he had a monopoly of carrying letters, with liberty to make as much as he could from it provided he adhered rigidly to the rates fixed by parliament; he was also empowered to make contracts with foreign postmasters for the transmission of letters abroad (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1661, &c.;, Hist. of Post Office, pp. 33-4). With the wealth he thus acquired he built Belsize House, Hampstead, 'at vast expense' (, Diary, ed. Bray, ii. 106); he also had a country house at Boughton-Malherbe, Kent. He died on 24 Oct. 1664. Charles II, writing to the Duchess of Orleans, said: 'This morning poor O'Neill died of an ulcer in the guts; he was as honest a man as ever lived. I am sure I have lost a good servant by it.' Pepys writes: 'This day the great Oneale died; I believe to the content of all the Protestant pretenders in Ireland' (Diary, ed. Wheatley, iv. 273-4; cf. also Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1664-5, pp. 43, 49; Edward Savage to Dr. Sancroft in Harl. MS, 3785. f. 19). He was buried in Boughton-Malherbe church, and his tomb was subsequently removed within the altar rails, but it no longer exists; a full inscription on it stated


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 that he died in 1663, aged 60, both of which assertions are erroneous.

Clarendon draws an elaborate portrait of O’Neill: ‘A great observer and discerner of men's natures and humours, and very dexterous in compliance when he found it useful,' he had, 'by a marvellous dexterity in his nature, and extraordinary influence' over those with whom he was brought in contact. Naturally inclined ‘to ease and luxury, his industry was indefatigable when his honour required it, or his particular interest;' ‘he was in subtlety and understanding much superior to the whole notion of the old Irish’—qualities which earned him the nickname of ‘Infallible Subtle,' and the distinction of being the first Irishman to occupy a conspicuous position at the court and in the English administration. In 1642 he was described as being ‘of a sanguine complexion, of a middle stature, light brown hair, about the age of thirty years, little or no beard.' A number of letters from O'Neill are printed in the works mentioned below, especially Carte's ‘Collection of Original Letters,' the ‘Clarendon State Papers,' and Gilbert's ‘Contemporary History of Affairs;’ many letters, memoranda, and plans are among the Carte MSS. in the Bodleian Library.

He married Catherine, eldest daughter of Thomas, second baron Wotton, and widow of (l) Henry, second baron Stanhope, by whom she was mother of Philip, second earl of Chesterfield; and (2) John Poliander der Kirckhoven, lord of Henfleet, Holland, by whom she had Charles Henry, subsequently created Baron Wotton and Earl of Bellamont. For her services at court she was created Countess of Chesterfield for life; she died in 1666, and was buried at Boughton-Malherbe. O'Neill had no issue by her to whom he left all his wealth; but apparently he had by a previous marriage a son Harry, whom he educated as a protestant; nothing more is known of him, and he probably died young.

 O'NEILL, ELIZA (179l–1872), actress. [See .]

 O'NEILL, FELIM (1604?–1668). [See .]

 O'NEILL, FLAITHBHEARTACH (d. 1036), king of Ailech, son of Muircheanach (d. 943) [q. v.], and grandson of Niall (810?–919) [q. v.], is sometimes called Flaithbheartach an trostain, i.e. of the pilgrim's staff—a name given to him because he went on a pilgrimage to Rome. He first appears in the chronicles in 1004, when he ravaged the district of Lethchathail, now Locale, co. Down, and then part of the kingdom of Lesser Ulster or Ulidia. He slew the king of Lethchathail, and in a second battle overthrew the


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 command off Cadiz, expressed his concern that his ship was not able to accompany him. 'I hope,' answered Nelson, 'you will come in time to tow some of the rascals.' The Melpomene joined the fleet off Trafalgar the day after the battle, and did help to tow off the prizes. Oliver was appointed to the Mara, vacant by the death of Captain Duff, which he commanded on the coast of France till September 1806. In May 1810 he commissioned the Valiant, in which, in 1813-14, he took part in the operations on the coast of the United States. He resigned the command In July 1814, and had no further service, though promoted in regular succession to be rear-admiral 12 Aug. 1819, vice-admiral 22 July 1830, admiral 23 Nov. 1841. He died at his residence, near Dublin, on 1 Sept. 1850. Oliver married, in 1806, Mary, daughter of Sir Charles Saxton, bart., far many years resident commissioner of the navy at Portsmouth, and by her had a large family.

OLIVER or OLYUER, THOMAS (d. 1624), physician and mathematician, is said to have been educated at Cambridge. He certainly published his chief book at the university press, but his name does not figure In the university register, and no details respecting his connection with the university are accessible. Before 1597 he was settled at Bury St. Edmunds as a physician, and usually described himself as 'Buriensis Philiatros.' He practised his profession at Bury St. Edmunds until his death in 1624.

Oliver was a mathematician as well as a physician, and wrote learnedly in both capacities. In 1601 he published 'A New Handling of the Planisphere, divided into three sections … pleasant and profitable generally for all men, but especially such as would get handines in using the ruler and compasse, and desire to reape the fruits of astronomicall and geographicall documents without being at the charge of costly instruments. Invented for the most part, and first published in English, by Thomas Olyver,' London, by Felix Kyngston for Simon Waterson and Rafe Iacson, 1601, 4to. In a dedication dated from Bury St. Edmunds 6 Jan. 1600-1, and addressed to Sir John Peter of Thorndon, Essex, he acknowledges obligations to 'Clauius his Astrolabe.' Many diagrams appear in the text.

In 1604 Oliver published at the press of [q. v.] at Cambridge four separate tracts bound in a single volume, and usually known by the title of the first tract: 'De Sophismatum Præstigiis cavendis Admonitio,' dedicated to Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, from Bury, 23 Nov. 1603. This tract is succeeded by 'De Rectarum Linearum Parallelismo et Concursu Doctrina Geometrica,' dedicated to [q. v.], 'archiatro doctissimo,' and by 'De Missione Sanguinis in Pueris ante annum decimum quartum Diatribe medica,' dedicated to (1536 [sic]–1618) [q. v.], 'medico et philosopho præstantiesimo amico suo charissimo Cantabrigiam.' The book concludes with 'De Circuli Quadratura Thesis logica,' dedicated to 'Adriano Romano equiti aurato in Academia Wurceburgensi Mathematicorum professori celeberrimo nunc medico Cæsareo,' 27 Aug. 1697. In Addit. MS. 4626 (art. 23 or 24) are two unpublished tracts by Oliver, respectively entitled 'Thomæ Oliveri Buriensis Tabula Longitudinum et latitudinum locorum memorabilium in Europa,' and 'Mechanica Circuli quadratura cum equatione cubi et sphæeræ.'

OLIVER, THOMAS (1725-1799), methodist preacher. [See .]

OLIVER, THOMAS (1734–1815), lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, said to have been born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on 5 Jan. 1734, was son of Robert Oliver by Ann, daughter of James Brown of Antigua. His father was living in Antigua in 1738, but had settled at Dorchester before 1747. Thomas graduated at Harvard in 1753. He probably resided at Dorchester until 1766, when he purchased an estate on Elmwood Avenue, near Mount Auburn, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and erected the mansion afterwards the residence successively of Governor Gerry, the Rev. Dr. Lowell, and James Russell Lowell. Being a man of fortune, he was not actively engaged in business, nor did he take much part in public affairs until March 1774, when he accepted the office of lieutenant-governor of the province and president of a council appointed by the king in a manner especially galling to popular feeling. The councillors were visited by bands of Middlesex freeholders, and one after another forced to renounce their offices. On the seizure by the royal troops of the public stock of powder provided for the militia, the yeomen of the neighbouring towns marched to Cambridge, some of them bringing arms. General Gage


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 London, 1878, 8vo.  'Are you my Wife? a novel,' 3 vols. London, 1878, 8vo.  'The Old House in Picardy,' a novel, London, 1887, 8vo.  'Narka,' a novel, 2 vols. London, 1888, 8vo.

Her biographical works are:  'Frederick Ozanam, Professor at the Sorbonne, his Life and Works,' Edinburgh, 1876, 8vo.  'One of God's Heroines : a Biographical Sket4;h of Mother Mary Teresa Kelly, New York, 1878, 16mo.  'The Bells of the Sanctuary : Mary Benedicta, Agnes, Alice, One of God's Heroines, Monseigneur Darboy,' London, 1879, 8vo. Some of these biographies had previously been published separately.  'Henri Perreyve, and his Counsels to the Sick,' being a translation of Perreyve's 'Journée des Malades,' with a sketch of his life prefixed, London, 1881, 8vo.  'Madame Mohl, her Salon and her Friends. A Study of Social Life in Paris,' London, 1885, 8vo ; another edition. Boston, Massachusetts, 1886, 8vo; translated into French, Paris [1886], 12mo.  'Queen by Right Divine, and other Tales, being the second series of '"Bells of the Sanctuary,"' London, 1885, 8vo.  'Thomas Grant, First Bishop of Southwark,' London, 1874, 8vo : 2nd edit., with a preface by Dr. William Bernard Ullathorne, bishop of Birmingham, London, 1886, 8vo.  'The Blind Apostle (Gaston de Ségur), and a Heroine of Charity (Madame Legras), being the third series of "Bells of the Sanctuary,"' with an introduction by Cardinal Manning, London, 1890, 8vo.  'The Venerable Jean Baptiste Vianney, Curé d'Ars,' a biography, London, 1891, 8vo.

OMMANNEY, JOHN ACWORTH (1773–1855), admiral, born in 1773, eldest son of Rear-admiral Cornthwaite Ommanney (d. 1801), entered the navy in 1786 on board the Rose frigate, commanded by Captain  [q. v.], on the Newfoundland station. He afterwards served, 1788-92, in the Mediterranean, and in July 1792 was appointed to the Lion, which, under the command of Sir [q. v.], took Lord Macartney to China. On 20 May 1793 Ommanney was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and on returning to England was appointed, in October 1794, to the Aquilon frigate, cruising in the Channel. In March 1795 he was moved into the Queen Charlotte, one of the ships with Lord Bridport in the engagement off Lorient on 23 June. On Dec. 1796 he was promoted to be commander. During the mutiny at the Nore he commanded gun-brig No. 28 for the defence of the Thames, and in December 1797 was appointed to the Busy brig, in which, during the next two years, he cruised in the North Sea with considerable success. In August 1799, in company with the Speedwell brig, he stopped a fleet of Swedish merchant ships under the convoy of a frigate. Ommanney had intelligence that some of these ships were laden with contraband of war, and were bound for French ports, and, as the frigate refused to allow them to be searched, he sent the whole fleet into the Downs for examination. His tact and determination in this business received the particular approval of the admiralty. In January 1800 he went to the West Indies, but was obliged by the state of his health to return in July. On 16 Oct. he was advanced to post rank, and during 1801 commanded, in rapid succession, the Hussar frigate, the Robust, and the Barfleur, bearing the flag of Rear-admiral Collingwood, in the Channel fleet. From 1804 to 1806 he was flag-captain to Sir Erasmus Gower on the Newfoundland station. In 1825 he was appointed to the Albion, in which, after some time at Lisbon, he joined Sir [q. v.] in the Mediterranean, and had an important part in the battle of Navarino on 20 Oct. 1827, for which he was made a C.B., and from the allied powers received the crosses of St. Louis, the third class of St. Vladimir, and the Redeemer of Greece. On 22 July 1830 he was promoted to be rear-admiral, was knighted on 23 May 1835, and nominated a K.C.B. on 20 July 1838. From 1837 to 1840, with his flag in the Donegal, he had command of the Lisbon station, and from September 1840 to October 1841 he commanded at Malta, during the prolonged absence of the commander-in-chief. Sir [q. v.] He became a vice-admiral on 23 Nov. 1841, and admiral 4 May 1849. He was commander-in-chief at Devonport from 1851 to 1854, during the latter part of which time the fitting out of the fleet for the Baltic brought a severe strain on nerves enfeebled by age. He died on 8 July 1855. Ommanney had married in 1803 Frances, daughter of Richard Ayling of Slidham in Sussex, and had by her four daughters. Lady Ommanney died a few days after her husband, on 17 Aug. Sir Francis Molyneux Ommanney, the navy agent and M.P. for Barnstaple, was the admiral's brother.


text:
User talk:62.189.169.182

Welcome

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Page:Australian Emigrant 1854.djvu/79

 Weevel, however, tried to make an arrangement, whereby he was to live on board the ship all the time she remained in harbour, and then proceed in her to Calcutta, and from thence home. As there appears a prospect of losing sight of our friend, it may be as well to say, that however the Weevel species may thrive in a country like England, Australian air does not agree with them, and generally changes their habits, or drives them away. We must do Mr. Weevel the justice to state, that he returned the borrowed trousers to Mr. Binns, and appeared on the occasion dressed in the most elaborate manner; but we regret to record, that the effect he intended to have produced was quite lost, for on passing a gang of Government men at work, he was hailed with such enquiries as—

"What were you transported for?"

"Did Government find you your toggery?"

We will not recount the adventures which befel the partners for the first two years spent in the colony, as during that period they seldom left the town, which had assumed a more compact and substantial appearance. The land which Mr. Binns had purchased for them at £20 the half acre allotment, had increased so greatly in value, that the same was now worth from £500 to £700, with its value still on the increase. The firm of Raymond and Co. made other good speculations, and so far all was prosperity.

One day about this time Slinger brought a packet for Hugh from the Post Office, containing information of the greatest importance. We have before said, Miss Leslie's property which was large, was in the hands of her guardian, Jarroll. By the

title: Page:Australian Emigrant 1854.djvu/79


text: User:AplombCommons

title: User:AplombCommons


text:
Author:James Smithson

Works

 * Draft Will of James Smithson (c. October 1826)
 * Last Will of James Smithson (23 October 1826)

title: Author:James Smithson


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Children's Libraries

CHILDREN'S LIBRARIES. In a concrete sense, special collections of books intended for juvenile readers and usually kept in separate rooms of general public libraries. From a broader point of view, however, children's libraries may be defined as an educational agency seeking to acquaint the young with the world's best literature and to cultivate an abiding love for good reading. Their work, therefore, supplements and transcends that of the public schools which exercise but a limited influence on the child's outside reading.

History and Development. — Active library work with children is a comparatively recent development — not more than 35 years old, at the utmost. Owing, however, to the laxity with which the term children's library has been used, there is considerable uncertainty as to iust where and when the institution originated. Sporadic and usually abortive efforts in this direction appear to have been made as early as 1885, when a children's library was opened in New York by a public school principal (Emily S. Hanaway). A more successful experiment was made, also in New York, the following year, when a separat e library for children was opened as a branch of the Aguilar Free Library. But these forerunners of the children's library movement do not appear to have been generally imitated before 1890, when a children's reading room was opened at the Brookline (Mass.) Public Library. Soon thereafter special provisions for children in public libraries were made at Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New York, Lowell, Medford, Brooklyn, Pawtucket, New Haven and elsewhere. By 1896 Milwaukee, Denver, Detroit Omaha, Seattle and San Francisco — the movement spreading more rapidly in the West — all had their children's departments. To the Minneapolis Public Library, however, seems to belong the honor of first recognizing the full importance of the children's library movement by making adequate provisions for

library work with children in 1893. By 1897 the movement had assumed such proportions that the American Library Association made the subject of children's libraries a special topic for discussion at its annual conference at Philadelphia that year. This gave so much additional impetus to the movement that children's departments or children's rooms soon became a component part of every progressive public library in the United States. The best of these carry on systematic work with children and have all the delightful adjuncts of children's rooms. In some instances even — in such cities as Brooklyn (N. Y.), Cleveland and Griffin (Ga.) — children's libraries are housed in entirely separate buildings, which naturally afford many exceptional opportunities. This indicates how juvenile readers have come to their own in our public libraries since the day of “children's corners,” designed quite as much to keep children out of the way of adult readers as for their own good. In most of the larger cities of the United States children's libraries are now completely organized and fully supervised. In such cities the central library serves as a model for the various branches, all of which are administered and conducted in accordance with the general principles formulated by the supervisor.

Some idea of the general growth and popularity of children's libraries may be had by a glance at a few actual figures. In 1914 there were over 1,500,000 volumes intended specially for juvenile readers in but 51 of the larger libraries in the country, which shelved some 300,000 new volumes in 1913 alone. By a very conservative estimate half a million children held library cards the same year, drawing more than eleven million books for home use in the few libraries above mentioned. Of course such large library centres as those of Pittsburgh (Pa.) and New York, where children's libraries constitute an entirely separate system, present figures even more impressive. In 1915 the various children's library branches of Pittsburgh had 119,678 volumes and a circulation of 702,139. During the same year the combined circulation of all the children's branches of Greater New York exceeded seven and a-half million volumes (7,649,462, to be exact), while the number of children using the 44 branches of three of its boroughs (the boroughs of Manhattan, the Bronx and Richmond) was 1,608,753. The great popularity of children's story hours, an important and seemingly indispensable phase of library work with children, may be judged from the fact that 119,678 children attended them in 1915 in Pittsburgh alone. In New York, exclusive of the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, 2,489 story-hour groups gathered during the same period in the various branch libraries and the Central Children's Room. At the latter, on one special occasion, the number of auditors was 270.

The children's library movement abroad has not, on the whole, kept pace with its rapid development in the United States. Not even England and Germany have caught the full educational signficance of this movement. In England the limited funds available under the Public Library Acts has greatly hindered progress in this direction. In Germany, likewise, the juvenile library movement has lagged behind considerably, despite a very extensive and

well organized library system. Both joined the movement very recently. Germany, for instance, opened her first children's library only in 1909 and even five years later had children's rooms in but 30 cities — a showing easily surpassed by Denmark, where by 1916 more than 400 children's libraries had been opened, 62 in Copenhagen alone. Russia, on the other hand, has more separate libraries for children than many a more progressive country. In 1915 there were at least 10 such libraries in Moscow alone. But the American example is gradually making itself felt to the ends of the civilized world — in Sweden, New Zealand, Japan, etc. — and there is probably no large book-reading community anywhere that has not some kind of children's library or reading room.

Aims and Means. — Besides the chief aim of children's libraries — the general aim already mentioned, which may be called inspirational — there is another and perhaps a secondaiy aim, which may be called informational. This consists in teaching library children, directly or indirectly, the intelligent use of libraries and their accessories, including such indispensable library tools as books of reference and card-indexes. Speaking relatively, the second aim is really a means to the more general end for which libraries are maintained; for, obviously, the better children learn how to use the resources of their own libraries the more they necessarily contribute to the efficient use of the adult department.

The attainment of these general aims involves various more or less distinct lines of work with children, which naturally varies both in kind and degree with local conditions. In general, according to an eminent librarian (Arthur E. Bostwick), “a typical children's department of an American public library carries on some or all of the following kinds of work: (1) Controlled and guided circulation of books for home use; (2) use of books and periodicals as in an ordinary reading room; (3) reference use of books, largely in connection with school work; (4) work with very young children, chiefly by means of picture books; (5) exhibitions, the display of illustrated bulletins, etc., always in connection with courses of reading; (6) story-telling to selected groups.” The three great factors in carrying on these manifold activities are, of course, the children, the books and the librarians; and although the success of any particular library centre depends upon all three, only the second and third elements can properly be considered in this article.

The selection of books for a children's library is at once the most difficult and most important task of the children's librarian. Great diversity of opinion prevails on this subject among librarians themselves, and while the problem of children's reading is a new and very serious one (see ), the conscientious librarians are trying hard to solve it. Since the establishment of children's libraries, policies as to the choice of books have varied all the way from puritanical exclusion of everything not positively didactic to latitudinarian inclusion of everything the child will read. Such extreme views of the function of children's libraries have naturally put their supervisors on their guard, with the result that, although the golden mean has not yet been generally attained, far higher standards of

book selection prevail in children's rooms than in the average adult department. The best children's libraries follow neither moral nor literary criteria to the utter disregard of children's tastes, but provide enough books in sufficient variety to supply the normal needs of boys and girls of all tastes and of all ages. Special attention, too, is given in children's rooms to the mechanical features of the books selected — such as editions, type, binding, and illustration — since it is realized that attractiveness in children's volumes has more than the obvious æsthetic end to recommend it. Indeed, the ideal children's book shelf, already the most attractive in the whole public library, is gradually being made a thing of beauty as well as a joy forever.

Next in importance to the quality and quantity of the books in a children's library are the personality and qualifications of the children's librarian, upon whom the success of the children's room largely depends. Consequently, the most experienced assistants — experienced in dealing with children as well as in library routine — are coming to be employed in the best children's rooms. Such librarians should know intimately the entire range of juvenile literature and be in thorough sympathy with the rising generation of book readers' whose reading they must guide and direct, if they would make the most of their vocation. Besides expert knowledge of children's books and special library experience, aptitude for work with children is an indispensable requisite in the children's librarian. Indeed, so important and responsible is her position that special preparatory courses are now given for such work in nearly all library training schools, at least one of which (The Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh) devotes itself exclusively to the professional training of children's librarians — a training that may well be made as broad and as cultural as is required for the profession of teaching.


text: Beowulf (Wyatt)

title: Beowulf (Wyatt)


text: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Preface

title: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Preface


text:
Author:David Anissim Modell

Works

 * "Skitalets", in The Russian Review, Volume 3, No. 2, February 1917.

title: Author:David Anissim Modell


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gasparin, Agénor Etienne, Comte de

GASPARIN, găs'pă'răṅ, Agénor Etienne, , French author: b. Orange, France, 12 July 1810; d. near Geneva, Switzerland, 4 May 1871. Elected to the Chamber in 1846, he attracted attention by his advocacy of religious liberty, prison reform, abolition of slavery and social purity. At the outbreak of the American Civil War he published two books maintaining the justice of the Federal cause entitled, ‘The Uprising of a Great People’ (1861), and ‘America Before Europe’ (1862). Other important works were ‘Slavery’ (1838); ‘Christianity and Paganism’ (1850); ‘Liberal Christianity’ (1869); ‘Innocent III,’ published posthumously.


text:
User talk:67.52.122.226

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title: User talk:67.52.122.226


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User talk:91.42.22.141

Welcome

Hello, and welcome to Wikisource! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:

 * Help pages
 * Style Guide
 * Inclusion policy
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You are welcome to continue editing articles without logging in, but you may wish to  [ create an account] . Doing so is free, requires no personal information, and provides several benefits. Creating an account on Wikisource has many of the same benefits as creating an account on Wikipedia. For one thing, if you continue to edit without a username, your IP address is used to publicly identify you.

In any case, I hope you enjoy donating your time to grow the Wikisource library that is free for everyone to use! In discussions, please sign your comments using four tildes ( ~ ); this will automatically produce your IP address (or username if you're logged in) and the date. If you need help, ask me on my talk page, or ask your question here (click  [ edit] ) and place  before your question. Again, welcome! — billinghurst  sDrewth  14:10, 24 March 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:91.42.22.141


text: Page:Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions.djvu/14


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gasparin, Valérie Boissier, Comtesse de

GASPARIN, Valérie Boissier,, French author: wife of A. E. de Gasparin (q.v.): b. Geneva, Switzerland, 13 Sept. 1813; d. near Geneva, 1894. Two of her works obtained the Montyon prize at the Academie Française: ‘Marriage from the Christian Point of View,’ and ‘There are Poor in Paris and Elsewhere.’ Among her other publications are ‘Journey in the South by an Ignoramus’; ‘Let's Go Make a Fortune in Paris’; ‘A Book for Wives’; ‘Read and Judge’ (strictures on the Salvation Army), and ‘The Near and the Heavenly Horizons.’ Several of her books were translated into English, the last named being read very widely in America in its English form.


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Page:Australian Emigrant 1854.djvu/80

 letters now received, it appeared that this Jarroll had been detected in forging a will, and had been actually committed to take his trial for the crime. The evidence was said to be quite clear against him: and now came the part of the news which principally affected Hugh. For some months before the discovery of the "honest" lawyer's villany, Miss Leslie had been subjected to the persecutions of his son, and on complaining, was rather blamed than otherwise for not receiving his addresses. This made her most unhappy, and immediately on receiving intelligence of the suspicion which attached to her guardian, she sought and received the protection of old Mr. Raymond, with whom, so ran the letters, "she would reside for the present." Such was the state of matters in England according to Hugh's first advices. The next mail which arrived, contained a circumstantial account of Jarroll's trial, conviction, and sentence to transportation for life. The deeds of Amy Leslie's property were not to be found, nor would he give any account of them. Upon this subject as well as all others he preserved a dogged silence.

months afterwards, business in Melbourne proving dull, the two partners determined to purchase cattle and to go in search of a convenient station on which to run them. As the Westernport district had not been much explored at that time, they decided to proceed there. Accordingly an offer was made to the native Benbo to accompany them, the great

title: Page:Australian Emigrant 1854.djvu/80


text:
Page:Beowulf (Wyatt).djvu/22

, king of the Danes, with whose ancestry the poem opens, in the pride of his success in war builds a great hall, Heorot, for feasting and the giving of treasure (ll. 1—85). But a monster named Grendel, enraged by the daily sounds of revelry, attacks the hall, makes a meal of fifteen thanes, and carries off fifteen more, returning with similar intent the next night. Thus Heorot is deserted, and remains so for twelve years (ll. 86—193). Then Beowulf, a mighty warrior of the Geats famous for the strength of his grip, hearing of Grendel’s ravages crosses the sea with fourteen comrades, keeps watch in Heorot, and, after seeing one of his men killed and eaten, grapples with the monster and pulls off his whole arm. Grendel escapes to his haunts, and dies (ll. 194—852). The following night, when the Danes are again in possession of the hall and Beowulf is lodged elsewhere, Grendel’s mother breaks in, and revenges the death of her son by slaying Aeschere, a noble Dane (ll. 853—1309). Beowulf undertakes the pursuit and revenge; he tracks the she-monster to her lair in the bottom of a mere, and slays her there. Seeing Grendel’s corpse, he severs the head from the body, and bears it back with him in triumph to Hrothgar’s court (ll. 1310—1798).

Loaded with rich gifts, the hero returns to his own land, and recites his adventures to Hygelac, his uncle, the king of the Geats (ll. 1799—2199). On the death of the latter, Beowulf refuses the throne for himself, and acts as guardian and adviser to the young king Heardred, who is, however, slain in battle.

Then Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, whom he rules wisely for fifty years, until a dragon begins to lay waste the land (ll.

title: Page:Beowulf (Wyatt).djvu/22


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Rh The old hero’s spirit is undaunted as ever, but deserted by all his chosen warriors save one, although he succeeds in quelling the fiery “drake”, he himself meets with his death in the terrible encounter (ll. 2401—2820). With the burning of his body the poem ends (ll. 2821—3182).

Of the several episodes, the chief are the swimming-match with Breca (ll. 506 ff.), Sigemund and the dragon (ll. 874 ff.), and the Finn-episode (ll. 1068 ff.).

For the connexion between “The Fight at Finnsburg” (Appendix) and the Finn-episode in “Beowulf” see Finn in the index of Persons and Places.

title: Page:Beowulf (Wyatt).djvu/23


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gaspé, Philip Aubert de

GASPÉ, gäs'pā', Philip Aubert de, Canadian author: b. Quebec, 30 Oct. 1786; d. there, 29 Jan. 1871. A lawyer, afterward sheriff, he became involved in debt for which he was imprisoned four years; and when released, secluded himself on his estate of Saint Jean Port-Joli. His ‘Old-Time Canadians’ (1863), and his ‘Memoirs’ (1866), treat of Canadian traditions and folklore, and were written in French. The former was perhaps the most popular book ever published in the province of Quebec. English translations have been made by Mrs. Pennie and G. C. D. Roberts.


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 being that the party should carry plenty of tea, sugar, flour and tobacco.

"Yes" said Benbo "me go—me take my wife too—strong fellow my wife—carry ebbery ting—good fellow dat—no gammon my wife." A few days afterwards the journey was commenced. The two white men were dressed a la bush, each carried a kangaroo skin knapsack, one compartment of which contained a clean shirt, a small bag of flour, some tea, sugar, and tobacco, and a tin cup and plate; in the other was ammunition and the few articles of a bush toilet, namely, soap, a towel, and brush. On the top of each knapsack was buckled a thick blanket. Their guns were slung or carried in the hand as best suited the convenience of the bearer.

Benbo carried with him his native weapons, consisting of boumerangs, waddy or heavy club, a stone tomahawk, some long spears, and an instrument by which they are thrown, called a womera. A kangaroo skin bag was thrown over his left shoulder which contained them all, with the exception of the spears. His body was enveloped in an opossum skin rug, each skin being wrought in such a manner as to leave the whole as supple as if it had been tanned. His lubra, or wife, who was a short woman about eighteen years of age, was also dressed in the same garb. She had a full bag similar to her husband's on her back, which emulated a marine store in the diversity of its contents: there were wooden utensils for water, tin pots, an old saucepan, a chisel, a large lump of gum, a store of flour, and other provision for herself and husband (genuine from the mart of Raymond and Co.), six miserable puppy dogs, a half roasted opossum, and many other smaller but equally miscellaneous chattels; a little black child about two years old (whom Benbo had been commissioned by some of his tribe to take to its friends, vaguely supposed to be some-

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text: Twenty years before the mast/To the reader


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 in the Westernport district) and whose bright little eyes and restless behaviour gave him the appearance of a small black dog on the qui vive over the treasures in the bag.

On reaching the opposite side of the Yarra, they found themselves amongst brick kilns and deep pits from whence clay had been dug; many of these pits were half full of stagnant water, and the bull frogs in them were keeping up a continual croaking. Little hovels rose here and there in which dwelt whole families, who were commencing their daily labour of making bricks. The party picked their way through the unhealthy territory, over which hung heavily a cloud of a leaden color, partly vapour and partly smoke, and pregnant with sickness and fever; on emerging from this swamp, the sun shone through a pure atmosphere, and a fresh breeze which was blowing, fanned the travellers as they moved onwards at a good pace, considering the unusual load each carried. Occasionally, after examining minutely the bark of a tree, Benbo would cast aside his cloak and weapons, with the exception of the tomahawk, and cutting notches in the bark, would mount and in a short time would be seen walking about upon the larger branches, prying into the decayed limbs in the hope of finding the opossum which his observation below had induced him to believe was an inhabitant of the tree. It was not often he was disappointed; and when having detected small portions of fur at the entrance of a cavity, he would insert a long twig, and hearing the opossum scrambling about inside, his merry laugh was worth listening to. He would then cut a hole at the extremity of the hollow part, all the time keeping up a continual chattering, addressing himself to the opossum, as yet unseen.—"Eigh! eigh! old 'possum (chop—chop—chop), you dere eh? (chop, &c.,) berry good; you wait a lilly bit (chop, &c). Ah! Ah! me see him back (chop, &c.)—me make him door (chop, &c). Now den,

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 where your tail, eh?" and having seized it and twirled it round rapidly several times, he would bring its head against a limb, and as he watched its struggles, would continue, "Poor fellow, neber mind; me eat you by and by;" and then apparently in a great passion, "What; you no die, eh? (whack—whack—with the tomahawk) You ugly tief, me knock your eye out (whack—whack). Oh! Ah! Dead, I belieb." If it were not so, the fall from such a height sufficed to destroy life, for he would let it drop from an elevation of perhaps seventy or eighty feet, when his wife taking it, would add it to her already extraordinary burden. This she sometimes cast upon the ground, and with a small tomahawk, which she carried, would cut into the root of a honeysuckle or wattle, and by means of a small twig with a hook at the end, extract a large species of grub, from two to three inches in length, after regarding which for a moment, as a gourmand would a particularly tit bit, she would give to the child or eat it herself.

"What a disgusting morsel!!!" says a sensitive reader.

Hast never eaten an oyster, Sir?

About sunset, and after they had left Melbourne some miles behind, Benbo expressed a wish to camp, and pointing to a hut which could be just distinguished through the trees, said some "good white fellows" lived there, who would give them food and shelter for the night. "I think" said Slinger, "we will economise our stores, and will only sleep in the open air when we can't under a roof." "Agreed" said Hugh; and wishing Benbo a good night, they advanced to the hut, and were received by several very fine kangaroo dogs (a breed between the greyhound and bull-dog, noted for fleetness and strength), which ran barking up to them, but were evidently not in a blood-thirsty humour, for on Hugh speaking to one of them, it came up and licked his hand.

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 "Halloo, strangers! glad to see you," said a tall young man, as he opened the door.—"Our dogs are taught manners—they won't hurt you—they know better than to drive any one from our poor hut.—Such as it is, come in and welcome.—From town, I guess—What news?"

"We are from town," replied Hugh, "and if there is any news, you'll find it in the Melbourne newspapers," and he produced several from his hat.

"Now then," said their entertainer, "sit down, we'll soon have something ready for you.—No grog to offer you, I'm sorry to say.—It wont keep in these parts, will it, Jim?" he said, appealing to one of the other inmates.

"No," said Jim in return, "it wasn't made to keep, was it Tom?"

"Of course not," replied Tom, who appeared to be the eldest of the family: "my brothers, gentlemen," he continued, with a sweep of his arm round the hut, "five on'em, and altho I say it, there aint a happier family in the country. We commenced our colonial edication with five year in Van Dieman's Land, and we're finishing it here. There's my brother Tom, there's Jack, Jim, and Bob; I'm Ned, and the youngest is little Jake (who was about six feet out of his boots)—there; I haven't been so polite for a long time."

"Your hospitality and good feeling," said Hugh, is worth all the politeness in the world. But you have omitted to tell us your sirname.

"Did I?—Martin:—a name well known in the Lincolnshire fens:—but now take a tightner from that cold beef, you shall soon have some tea."

The two did ample justice to the fare which was set before them, whilst one of the brothers Martin, read the newspapers aloud for the edification of the others.

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L. 27, for “frēan” read “Frēan.” L. 59, for “feower” read “fēower.” L. 63, for “Scilfinges” read “Scilfingas”; and in the note on l. 63, for “MS. ‘heaðo scilfingas’” read “See note on l. 2453.” L. 112, for “orcneas” read “orcnēas.” L. 366, for “wrīxlan” read “wrixlan.” L. 434, for “rēcceð” read “recceð.” L. 436, for “bliðe” read “blīðe.” L. 454, for “Hrædlan” read “Hrēðdlan”; and in place of the note on l. 454 read “MS. ‘hrædlan’; cf. l. 1485.” L. 484, for “morgen tīd” read “morgen-tīd.” L. 501, for “sið” read “sīð” Ll. 536, 769, for “begen” read “bēgen.” L. 674, for “-geātwe” read “-geatwe.” L. 706, for “metod” read “Metod.” L. 759, for “up-lang” read “ūp-lang.” To the note on l. 762 add “Cf. l. 797.” L. 902, for “ellen;” read “ellen,”. L. 1292, for “ōfste” read “ofste.” Ll. 1382, 1430, 2096, for “onweg” read “on weg.” L. 1479, for “forð-gewitenum” read “forð gewitenum.’ L. 1617, for “ǣttren” read “ættren.” L. 2066, for “-wælmum” read “-wǣlmum.” L. 2135, for wælmes” read “wǣlmes.” L. 2439, for “mercelses” read “mērcelses.” Ll. 2539, 2755, for “-sercean” read “-sērcean.” L. 2546, for “wælm” read “wǣlm.” L. 2598, for “bugon” read “bugon,”. L. 2713, for “swēlan” read “swelan.” Note on l. 2964, for “and note” read “(note), and cf. eafor, 2152.” L. 3119, for “-gēarwum” read “-gearwum.” P. 136, add inverted commas at end of note on l. 3155.

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 "I see" said Ned, "they are fighting again."

"Who?" asked Slinger.

"O! only the editors. When the Gazette was first published, the Patriot took to squabling, and getting the worst of it, wound up a crushing leader, with a flourish something like this—The editor of the Patriot regrets that he, 'a gentleman by birth, rank, manners, and education,' should have condescended to notice any remarks published in the columns of such a dirty rag as the Gazette. Now it unfortunately happened, that shortly afterwards the Patriot, who had been 'dining out' mistook the watch-house door for his own, and after repeated applications, and a contest with one of the constables, he was obligingly admitted, and the ensuing morning paid five shillings for the accommodation—the penalty for a clearly proved charge of drunkenness being included under the same payment. That was a glorious day for the Gazette, and the whole force of the paper were at the police-office to triumph over the poor Patriot in trouble. That was not the end of it, for when the Gazette appeared next, one sheet was occupied with the following announcement—'Police News: —The Editor of the Patriot, 'a gentleman by birth, rank, manners, and education was yesterday morning fined five shillings for DRUNKENNESS.'"

The party passed the evening in pleasant conversation, and a shake-down being made, the brothers occupied it—a fourpost bedstead (literally; for the posts were in the original state as brought in from the forest,) was allotted to the strangers.

Early the next morning Hugh and Slinger were roused by Benbo, who had stalked into the hut, to the owners of which he was well known. Having breakfasted, the travellers thanked their hospitable entertainers for their kindness, and proceeded on their way.

We do not propose to follow them through each day's

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gaspé

GASPÉ, Canada, a district in the province of Quebec, consisting of the counties of Gaspé and Bonaventure, and forming the northern part of the peninsula that lies between the Bay of Chaleur and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Area, 8,015 square miles. Pop. (1911) 63,111. The name is sometimes extended to the whole peninsula. Cape Gaspé is a bold headland of the Schikshock or Notre Dame Mountains, terminating the peninsula and forming the north shore of Gaspé Bay. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in important fisheries, which, with the export of lumber, form the staple industries. Gaspé, a village and port of entry in Gaspé Bay where Cartier landed in 1534, set up a cross and assumed formal possession in the name of the king of France, is the capital and commercial centre of the district. Pop. 606.

title: The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gaspé


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gaspee, The

GASPEE, The, British revenue vessel, burned 1772. She was an armed schooner of eight guns, stationed at the entrance of Narragansett Bay to prevent that evasion of the British navigation laws which had largely built up the prosperity of the Atlantic Coast and was almost the entire subsistence of Rhode Island. Its authorities connived at the traffic, and at a regular price furnished false flags, which for years passed muster, but Lieutenant Dudingston of the Gaspee adopted the method of searching thoroughly every trading vessel which entered or left the bay, without regard to her flag or papers, and sending the contraband goods to Boston for adjudication. This meant ruin to Rhode Island; the executive wrote demanding Dudingston's authority, and the chief justice sent a sheriff on board; both held that his proceedings were illegal, as he should have a commission from the governor and be sworn in. They were referred to the admiral, and then to the British Secretary of State. On 9 June 1772, the regular packet left Newport for Providence without notifying Dudingston, who gave chase but ran the Gaspee aground at Namquit Point, seven miles below Providence, at low tide. That night the leading men of that city, with a company of assistants, set out in eight large boats, boarded and captured the vessel, badly wounding the commander, set the crew on shore and burnt the schooner. The Rhode Island authorities opened an investigation with great zeal, and offered rewards for the apprehension of the guilty persons, but could discover none. The home government was greatly incensed, and appointed colonial commissioners, who sat at Newport 4-22 Jan. 1773, to make inquiry, and ordered Governor Wanton to arrest the offenders and send them to England for trial. The governor and the chief justice applied to the assembly for instructions, which body referred it to the discretion of the chief justice, who refused to allow any arrests for transportation to be made.


text: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter I

title: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter I


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn

GASKELL, Elizabeth Cleghorn, an English authoress, born at Chelsea about 1810, died at Alton, Hants, Nov. 12, 1865. Her maiden name was Stevenson, and she was the wife of a Unitarian clergyman, who was for some time a resident of Manchester. Her first novel, “Mary Barton,” published in 1848, is a striking picture of the daily life of a large manufacturing town. The pathetic power of many of the scenes delineated, and the literary merit of the book, gave Mrs. Gaskell at once a position among the first writers of fiction of the day. She afterward became a contributor to “Household Words” and “All the Year Round,” And her tales, after having appeared

in these journals, were republished in book form. Her principal works of fiction besides the one already mentioned were: “Moorland Cottage” (1850); “Ruth” (1853); “Cranford” (1853); “North and South” (1855); “Lizzie Leigh;” “ Round the Sofa ” (1859); “Right at Last”(1860); “Sylvia's Lovers” (1863); and “Wives and Daughters” (1866). Most of them were republished in this country and translated into French. The work, however, which attracted the greatest attention was “The Life of Charlotte Brontë” (2 vols. 8vo, 1857). It was written in a charming style, and, as Mrs. Gaskell had been a personal friend of the author of “Jane Eyre,” she was able to furnish many interesting details of her private life.


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xvi imaginations of poets from the days of Freneau to those of Bliss Carmen. Under the tremendous pressure of the work of subduing a continent men have never ceased to lift their eyes to the hills and to the stars and to feed their souls with the vision of the beauty of the world. A large group of recording naturalists, faithful secretaries of Nature, minute reporters of the seasons, has contributed to our literature a varied and deeply interesting account of natural life in America and of man's relation to it. These records have not been colorless; on the contrary, they have been saturated with individuality; and there are no books of American writing more racy and pungent, more deeply rooted in the soil, than the books of Thoreau and Mr. Burroughs. For one of the ideals of the American is free and intimate life with Nature.

Faith in God and in man because there is something divine in him; respect for force, independence, energy, audacity; reverence for women; love of home; the free life, the range and vitality of Nature on a great scale—these are the fundamental ideas at the bottom of American literature because they are the ideals in the hearts of Americans.


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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Candelabrum


text: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Argument

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text: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Errata

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2. He was appointed assistant secretary of the navy in April, 1900, but in December, 1901, he resigned the position. He is a member of the Loyal Legion; of the New Hampshire and Maine Historical societies; of the Cosmos and University clubs, Washington, District of Columbia; of the Sons of the Revolution; and of the Harvard club of New York; and is one of the vice-presidents of the Navy League. He is one of the council of the Harvard law school alumni association. He is a member of the Republican party and has been accustomed to speak for it, in political campaigns, chiefly in New Hampshire. In 1877 he was a representative from Portsmouth, in the New Hampshire legislature.

He is a communicant of the Episcopal church. Fond of biography, he finds pleasure in all writers who hold the reader's attention closely; notably, in Hume, Locke, and Stuart Mill. He names particularly Mill's "Liberty" as a favorite book. He "means to let no day go by without a walk of two or three miles." He is a believer in out-of-door exercise. His was a family of lawyers, and he "took to the law quite as a matter of course." He says, "I have not striven for prizes, but have simply gone ahead and kept at work, and the usual results have followed. The chief advantage of college is the opportunity it gives to mingle with bright, able men. Make friends with men of brains and force." "Men rather than books." "Conversation and intellectual strife help a young man in life. Worship the truth, scorn the least deception. Acquire habits of order and system." To this latter acquisition he attaches much weight. "Find your happiness in making others happy. These are trite remarks. But go ahead and put these principles into practice (and don't talk about them), and you will be a happy man, for you will succeed in the best sense of the word."

Among his writings are: "Memoir of William Henry Young Hackett," 1878; "The Geneva Award Acts," 1882; "The Gavel and the Mace," 1900; "The Attitude of the Scholar Towards Men in Public Life"; Phi Beta Kappa Address, Hobart college, June, 1902; etc. He has resided in Washington, District of Columbia, since 1873, and has practised law.

On April 21, 1880, he married Ida, youngest daughter of the late Rear-Admiral Craven, United States navy. They had two sons living in 1905.


text:
The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Gasparin, Adrien Étienne Pierre, count de

'''GASPARIN. I. Adrien Étienne Pierre''', count de, a French statesman and agriculturist, born in Orange, June 29, 1783, died there, Sept. 7, 1862. He entered the army, but was soon compelled by illness to give up military life. After the revolution of 1830 he was made successively prefect of the departments of Loire and Isère, and in 1831 of Rhône; and for his promptness in suppressing an insurrection at Lyons in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. He became minister of the interior in 1836, and gave his attention especially to prison reforms and the establishment of hospitals. He occupied the same position in the short-lived cabinet of March, 1839. In 1848 he accepted the management of the national agricultural institute at Versailles, which was abolished in 1852. He published a large number of papers and several extended works on agricultural subjects, the principal of which is Cours d'agriculture (5 vols., Paris, 1843-'9). II. Agénor Étienne, count de, a French publicist, son of the preceding, born in Orange, July 10, 1810, died in Geneva, May 14, 1871. He was employed in the ministries of public instruction and the interior, under Guizot and his father, and in 1842 was elected to the chamber of deputies for Bastia, Corsica. He was a conservative, but advocated parliamentary reform, the emancipation of slaves in the colonies, and the rights of the Protestant church, of which he was a member. His independence was not relished by the government; and his sympathy for Protestantism not being shared by his constituents, he failed of reëlection to the chamber in 1846, and retired from political life. He was in the East when the revolution of 1848 took place. When solicited to declare himself in favor of the new constitution, he refused. His disapprobation of the form afterward given to the government by Louis Napoleon was even stronger, and he permanently removed to Switzerland. In the winter he resided near Geneva, and delivered courses of lectures on economical, historical, and religious subjects, many of which were subsequently published. During the civil war in the United States he published two works warmly sustaining the Union cause: Les États-Unis en 1861: un grand peuple qui se relève

(1861), translated and published in New York under the title “The Uprising of a Great People: the United States in 1861;” and L'Amérique devant l'Europe (1862), translated under the title “America before Europe.” During the Franco-German war he addressed an appeal to the French people urging them not to persevere in it. His death was hastened by his exertions in the care of refugees from Bourbaki's army, whom he received into his house. Besides the works already mentioned, and numerous articles in the Journal des Débats and the Revue des Deux Mondes and other publications, he published De l'amortissement (1834); Esclavage et traite (1838); Intérêts généraux du protestantisme français (1843); Christianisme et paganisme (2 vols. 8vo, 1846); Des tables tournantes, du surnaturel en général et des esprits (2 vols. 12mo, 1854; translated into English); La question du Neufchâtel (1857); La famille, ses devoirs, ses joies et ses douleurs (2 vols. 12mo, 1865); and La liberté morale (1868). His Vie d'Innocent III. was published posthumously in 1873, and his Le bon vieux temps in 1874. — His wife,, born about 1815, has been conspicuous as an opponent of religious and social innovations, and has published several volumes of travels and works on religious subjects. Two of these obtained the prize of the academy: Le mariage au point de vue chrétien (1842; 3d ed., 1853), and II y a des pauvres à Paris et ailleurs (1846).


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 formerly called Botetourt Springs (there is a sulphur spring), is Hollins Institute (1842) for girls; and in the city are the National Business College, the City Hospital (1899), private hospitals, and St Vincent’s Orphan Asylum (1893) for boys, under the Sisters of Charity. Stock-raising, tobacco-growing, and coal and iron-mining are the industries of the district. Roanoke’s factory product in 1905 was valued at $5,544,907 (2.7% more than in 1900). Its railway car repair and construction shops, belonging to the Norfolk & Western railway, employed in that year 66.9% of the total number of factory wage-earners; pig-iron, structural iron, canned goods, bottles, tobacco, planing-mill products and cotton are among the manufactures. The municipal water supply comes from a reservoir at Crystal Springs at the foot of Mill Mountain near the city limits. Roanoke was the town of Big Lick (founded about 1852; incorporated in 1874; pop. in 1880, 669) until 1882, when it received its present name; in 1884 it was chartered as a city.  ROARING FORTIES, the name given to the zone in the southern hemisphere, near the 40th parallel of latitude, in which the north-westerly “anti-trade” winds attain their greatest development. Since the belt lies in the (q.v.), and is little interrupted by land, the “planetary circulation” undergoes little modification and barometric gradients are steep. The “brave west winds” are accordingly of great strength, and, as in the corresponding belt of the northern hemisphere, the movement is largely broken up into the low and high pressure vortices known as cyclones and anticyclones.  ROBBEN ISLAND, an island at the entrance of Table Bay, 7 m. N.N.W. of Cape Town. It is some 4 m. long by 2 broad. At its southern end is a lighthouse with a fixed light visible for 20 m. It got its name (robben, Dutch for seal) from the seals which formerly frequented it, now only occasional visitants. The island when discovered was uninhabited. It is first mentioned by an English seaman named Raymond, who states that in 1591 seals and penguins were there in large numbers. In 1614 ten criminals from London were landed on the island to form a settlement and supply fresh provisions to passing ships. The attempt, which ended in failure, is interesting as the first recorded settlement of English in South Africa. In the 18th century the slate quarries of Robben Island were extensively worked by the Dutch of Cape Town. The island is now noted for its leper asylum and its convict establishment. For many years an asylum for lunatics was also maintained, but in 1904 the lunatics were removed to the mainland. The common rabbit, brought from England, abounds, but its introduction to the mainland is prohibited. As early as 1657 criminals were banished to the island by the Dutch authorities at Cape Town; it has also served as the place of detention of several noted Kaffir chiefs.

 ROBBER SYNOD, the name given to an irregular ecclesiastical council held at Ephesus in A.D. 449. See.  ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal), the unlawful and forcible taking of goods or money from the person of another by violence or threatened violence. Robbery is (q.v.) with violence. It is a specific offence under the Larceny Act 1861, and is punishable by penal servitude for any term not exceeding fourteen years and not less than three years, or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour. Under the Garrotters Act 1863, whipping may be added as part of the sentence for robbery. In Scots law robbery is termed stouthrief.

United States.—The nature of the offence is practically the same in America as in England, but what constitutes robbery is provided by statute in each state, as is also the punishment. The chief difference between English and American law is that the latter often divides the offences into grades and takes a liberal view of what constitutes force or fear. Train robbery is specially dealt with in some states owing to the prevalence of that species of crime.

Federal Statute.—Congress has made it piracy punishable with death to commit robbery on the high seas or on shore or in any harbour out of the jurisdiction of any state by landing from a piratical vessel (U.S. Rev. St. § 1047).

In Alabama it is train robbery to “enter upon or go near to any locomotive, engine, or car, on any railroad and by threats or exhibition of a deadly weapon or discharging a pistol or gun on or near such engine or car induce or compel any one to deliver up anything of value. It is punishable at the discretion of the jury by death or imprisonment for not less than ten years. Any one who stops, impedes or detains any locomotive or car with intent to commit train robbery must be punished by imprisonment for not less than ten nor more than thirty years. Conspiring to commit train robbery is, punishable to the same extent (Crim. Code, §§ 5430–5482)

In Arizona, California and Missouri the “fear” may be that of the person robbed or of any relative of his or member of his family or of any one in his company. The punishment is imprisonment for not less than five years.

In Arkansas and Missouri extorting money or property by blackmail is an “attempt to rob”; it is punishable by not less than one nor more than five years’ imprisonment. In Georgia larceny from the person is statutory robbery (Hickey v. Slate (1906), 125, Ga. 145).

Louisiana.—Train robbery is punishable by imprisonment for not less than live nor more than ten years.

Missouri.—Train robbery is punishable by death or imprisonment for not less than ten years. It may consist in placing an obstruction on the line with intent to rob.

Massachusetts.—Robbery, committed when armed with a dangerous weapon, is punishable by imprisonment for life (Rev. L., 1902, ch. 207, § 17).

Minnesota.—The extreme penalty for robbery is forty years’ imprisonment (L. 1905, ch. 114).

New Jersey.—The extreme penalty is $3000 fine or twelve years’ imprisonment.

Texas.—Falsely personating an officer and by means of arrest extorting money is robbery (Burnside v. State (1907), 102, S.W. Rep. 178).  ROBERT I., “THE BRUCE” (1274–1329), king of Scotland, was the son of the 7th Robert de Bruce, earl of Carrick by right of his wife Marjorie, daughter of Niel, or Nigel, earl of Carrick, and was the eighth in direct male descent from a Norman baron who came to England with William the Conqueror. After the death of Margaret, the “maid of Norway,” in 1290, Bruce’s grandfather, the 6th Robert de Bruce, lord of Annandale, claimed the crown of Scotland as the son of Isabella, the second daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and great granddaughter of King David I.; but John de Baliol, grandson of Margaret, the eldest daughter of Earl David, was preferred by the commissioners of Edward I.

The birthplace of Bruce is not certainly known, but was probably Turnberry, his mother’s castle on the coast of Ayr. The date is the 11th of July 1274. His youth is said by an English chronicler to have been passed at the court of Edward I. At an age when the mind is quick to receive the impressions which give the bent to life he must have watched the progress of the great suit for the crown of Scotland. Its issue in 1292 in favour of Baliol led his grandfather to resign Annandale to his son, the 7th Robert de Bruce, who either then or after the death of his father in 1295 assumed the title of lord of Annandale. Already on his wife’s death in 1292 he had resigned the earldom of Carrick to his son, the future king, who presented the deed of resignation to Baliol at Stirling in August 1293, and offered the homage which his father, like his grandfather, was unwilling to render. Feudal law required that the king should take seisin of the earldom before regranting it and receiving the homage, and the sheriff of Ayr was directed to take it on Baliol’s behalf. As the disputes between Edward I. of England and Baliol, which ended in Baliol losing his kingdom, commenced in this year, it is doubtful whether Bruce ever rendered homage; but he is henceforth known as earl of Carrick, though in at few instances this title is still given to his father. Both father and son sided with Edward against Baliol. In April 1294 the younger Bruce had permission to visit Ireland for a year and a half, and as a further mark of Edward’s favour a respite of all debts owing by him to the exchequer.

In August 1296 Bruce and his father swore fealty to Edward I. at Berwick, but in breach of this oath, which had been renewed

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roaring Forties


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robben Island


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robber Synod


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robbery

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Rh there had been no decisive battles. The Turks had been defeated owing to the incapacity of their leaders, none of whom had previously commanded an army organized according to modern ideas. They were ignorant of strategic principles. Then, again, the interference with the generals in the field by the authorities at Constantinople had in each case resulted in the disasters which invariably follow the attempt of civilian amateurs to control warlike operations.

On the Russian side, the enemy had been at first despised, and consequently the forces originally employed were inadequate, which meant subsequent delays, losses and expense. The command of the sea had proved of little value to the Turks. Their flotilla rendered them no assistance. In the early stages it could have materially assisted by landing reconnoitring parties N. of the Danube, and by interfering with the Russians when crossing the river. The Russian bridge offered a tempting objective throughout the campaign, but commanders with the requisite dash and initiative were not forthcoming. The defeat of the Turks was due in the first place to the failure of their politicians to ensure the adequate organization and training of the army during peace time, in the second place to the want of a commander who had educated himself to undertake the responsibilities entrusted to him.

 RUST (O.E. rûst, a word which appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with “ruddy” and “red,” the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosion. Formerly the process was regarded as oxidation pure and simple, and, although it was known that iron did not rust in dry air, yet no attempt was made to explain why water was necessary to the action. F. Crace-Calvert in 1871 showed that the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere was a factor; and in 1888 Crum Brown published the theory—termed the “carbonic acid theory”—that water and carbon dioxide react with iron to form ferrous carbonate and hydrogen, the ferrous carbonate being subsequently oxidized by moist oxygen to ferric hydrate and regenerating carbon dioxide, which again reacts with more iron. This theory was controverted by Wyndham Dunstan, who attempted to prove that carbon dioxide was not necessary to rusting; and in place of the acid theory, he set up a scheme which involved the production of hydrogen peroxide. G. T. Moody has since shown that when all traces of carbon dioxide are removed (which is a matter of great experimental difficulty) iron may be left in contact with oxygen and water for long periods without rust appearing, but on the admission of carbon dioxide specks are rapidly formed. It also appears that rust changes in composition on exposure to the atmosphere, both the ferrous oxide and carbonate being in part oxidized to ferric oxide. Acids, other than carbonic, may promote rusting; this is particularly the case with ironwork exposed to the acids—sulphurous, nitric, &c.—contained in smoke. It is probable that the action depends upon the presence of iron, oxygen and water, and some acid which makes the wateran electrolyte.

Steel differs in many ways from iron in respect of atmospheric corrosion; the heterogeneous nature of steel gives occasion to a selective rusting, ferrite is much more readily attacked than the cementite and pearlite; moreover, the introduction of other elements may retard rusting; this is particularly the case with the nickel-steels.  RUSTCHUK (Bulg. Russé), the capital of the department of Rustchuk, Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, where it receives the E. Lom. Pop. (1906) 33,552. Rustchuk is the headquarters of a military division and of a naval flotilla stationed on the Danube. As a river-port and the terminus of railways from Varna and from Sofia via Trnovo, it has much commercial importance; and it possesses tobacco and cigarette factories, soap-works, breweries, aerated water factories, dyeworks, tanneries, sawmills, brick and tile works and a celebrated pottery.

In the time of the Romans Rustchuk was one of the fortified points along the line of the Danube. In the Tabula Peutingeriana it appears as Prisca, in the Antonine Itinerary as Serantaprista, in the Notitia as Seragintaprista and in Ptolemy as Priste Polis. Destroyed by barbarian invaders in the 7th century the town recovered its importance only in comparatively modern times. In 1810 it was captured by the Russians, who destroyed the fortifications. It played an important part in the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1828–29, 1853–54 and 1877–78. In 1877 it was nearly destroyed by the Russian artillery stationed in the Rumanian town of Giurgevo, on the opposite bank of the Danube.  RUSTENBURG, a district and town of the Transvaal, South Africa. The district originally included all the N.W. part of the country, but is now of much smaller dimensions. Its S. border is marked by the Magaliesberg and other hills forming the N. escarpment of the high veld and the watershed between the Vaal and Limpopo. Several of the head streams of the Limpopo rise within the district on the N. slopes of the Magaliesberg. The climate of the district is sub-tropical and the principal cultivation is that of tobacco, and fruit trees, notably oranges; The opening of the railway to Pretoria in 1906 led to a marked development of trade. In an amphitheatre formed by the hills and 61 m. by rail W. of Pretoria is the town of Rustenburg with a population (1904) of 1815. The town is one of the oldest in the Transvaal, having been founded in 1850 by the Voortrekkers. It was at Rustenburg that the volksraad met in March 1852 to ratify the Sand River Convention granting independence to the Transvaal Boers. At the time it was feared that there would be civil war between Hendrik Potgieter and Andries Pretorius, but they were reconciled in Potgieter’s tent. Later Rustenburg became the home of the Kruger family. It was occupied by the British under R. S. Baden Powell in June 1900.  RUSTICATION (i.e. the making “rustic” or countrified, from Lat. rus, country; thus the term “rusticate” is used for taking a country holiday, or in academic circles to be “rusticated” is to be sent away from a university for punishment), in architecture, the technical term (French equivalent bossage) given to masonry in which the centre part of the face of the stone is either left rough as it came from the quarry, or is worked in various ways to give variety to the surface. The earliest example exists in the platform at Pasargadae in Persia (560 ), erected by Cyrus, where the edge round the four sides of the stone forms a draft, two or three inches wide, worked with a chisel, the centre

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rust

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rust


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustchuk

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustchuk


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustenburg

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustenburg


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