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Rh a proud and fearless race of warriors; the men of that generation had never come in conflict with Europeans, and had never been defeated in their conflicts with native foes. Jameson’s forces were slender, and Rhodes, on being consulted, urged him by telegram to “Read Luke fourteen, thirty-one.” On obtaining a Bible, Jameson read the words: “Or what king, going to make war against another king, sitteth not down first, and consulteth whether he be able with ten thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty thousand?” He telegraphed in reply: “All right. I have read Luke fourteen, thirty-one.” The position, though dangerous, admitted of no delay, and Jameson determined to risk an expedition with the forces at his command. His success on this occasion doubtless weighed. with him on another and less fortunate one. The force available consisted of about 700 volunteers and 225 British Bechuanaland police, with some 700 natives. Jameson determined to march to Bulawayo, the headquarters of Lobengula and the capital of Matabeleland. The force was divided into two columns, and was to be met by a further column of Bechuanas marching from the south under Khama, the most influential of the Bechuan chiefs and a loyal friend of the British. The first engagement took place on the Shangani river, where the two columns which had started from Fort Charter and Fort Victoria were both engaged. Majors Forbes and Allan Wilson commanded in these engagements; and after a hot contest with between 4000 and 5000 Matabele, the latter were repulsed, machine guns being used with terrible effect upon the enemy. On the 1st of November a second fight occurred on the high ground in which it was estimated that 7000 of the Matabele attacked the laager of the two columns. The oldest and most tried regiments of Lobengula dashed right up to the muzzles of the guns, but were swept down before the modern rifles and machine guns with which the invaders were armed. Meanwhile the column of Khama’s men from the south had reached the Tati, and won a victory on the Singuesi river on the 2nd of November. On the 3rd of November Bulawayo was reached, and the columns from Mashonaland, accompanied by Jameson and Sir John Willoughby, entered the town, Lobengula, and his followers being in full flight towards the Zambezi. An endeavour was made to induce Lobengula to surrender; but, as no replies were received to the messages, Major Forbes, on the 13th of November, organized a column and started in pursuit. The pursuing party were delayed by difficult roads and heavy rains, and did not come up with Lobengula until the 3rd of December. Major Allan Wilson, in command of thirty-four troopers, crossed the Shangani river in advance, and bivouacked close to Lobengulas quarters. In the night the river rose, and reinforcements were unable to join him. During the early morning the Matabele surrounded the little band, and after fighting most gallantly to the last, Major Allan Wilson and all his followers, with the exception of three messengers, who had been sent back, were killed.

In January 1894 Lobengula died—from fever, or as the result of a wound, accounts differ—at a spot about forty miles south of the Zambezi. After his death his indunas submitted to the Chartered Company’s forces, and the war, which cost the company over one hundred lives and £110,000, was thus ended. An order in council of the 18th of July following defined the administrative power of the company over Matabeleland. Charges were made against the company of having provoked the Matabele in order to bring on the war and thus secure their territory, but after inquiry the company was expressly exonerated from the charge by Lord Ripon, then colonial secretary. With the close of the war the Matabele appeared to be crushed, and for over two years there was no serious trouble with the natives. The country was at once thrown open to white settlers. Close to the site of Lobengula’s kraal the new town of Bulawayo was founded, and rapidly grew in importance. Among the new settlers were many Dutch farmers. The Roman-Dutch law was chosen as that of the new colony, a land commission was established and commissioners appointed to look after the interests of the natives.

Considerable development in the part of the company’s territory north of the Zambezi had meantime taken place. Between 1889 and 1891 a large number of tribes in the region between lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika and the Zambezi had entered into treaty relations with the company, and a settlement named Abercorn had been founded at the south end of Tanganyika. This work was undertaken in part to forestall German action, as before the signature of the agreement of July 1890 German agents entertained the design of penetrating west of Lake Nyasa to the Congo State frontier. The company further acquired the property of the African Lakes Company—which had done much to secure British predominance in the Nyasa region—and on the organization of Nyasaland as an imperial protectorate the South Africa Company contributed £16,000 a year for three years (1891–92–93) towards the cost of the administration, the imperial commissioner during this period acting as administrator for the adjacent territories belonging to the company (see ). Farther west, Lewanika, the king of the Barotse, signed, on the 27th of June 1890, a treaty placing his country under the protection of the Chartered Company, which, while obtaining all mineral rights, undertook not to interfere in the internal administration of Barotseland. In securing a position thus early in Barotseland, Rhodes’s aim was to prevent the farther extension eastward of the Portuguese province of Angola. The subsequent development of Barotseland had little direct connexion with the events in other parts of Rhodesia (see and ). The growth of territory and the outlay on Matabeleland led to a great increase of expenditure, and the capital of the company was raised to £2,000,000 in November 1893, and to £2,500,000 in July 1895.

In every step taken by the company the guiding hand was that of Cecil Rhodes, a fact which received recognition when, by a proclamation of the 3rd of May 1895, the company’s territory received officially the name of “Rhodesia.” During this year there was great activity in exploiting Matabeleland. “Stands” or plots were sold at extraordinary prices in Bulawayo; 539 fetched a total of £153,312, about £285 a stand. In within nine months Bulawayo had a population of 1900 whites, and in the various goldfields there were over 2000 prospectors. The construction of telegraphs proceeded with rapidity and by the end of 1895, 500 m. of new lines had been constructed, making about 1500 in all. A new company, the African Transcontinental Company, had been founded under the auspices of Rhodes, with the ultimate purpose of connecting the Cape with Cairo. By the end of 1895, 133 m. of these lines had been laid. At this time too, the railway from Cape Town had passed Mafeking and was approaching the Rhodesian frontier, while on the east coast the line to connect Salisbury with Beira was under construction.

In November 1895 the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was annexed to Cape Colony, and the Chartered Company desired to take over the administration of the Bechuanaland protectorate, which stretched between the newly annexed portion of Cape Colony and Matabeleland, and through which the railway to Bulawayo had to pass. The British government consented, and arrangements were made for the transfer. The company’s police were moved down to a camp in the protectorate at Pitsani Potlogo. It was from this place that on the 29th of December Jameson crossed the Transvaal border and marched on Johannesburg, in his disastrous attempt to upset President Kruger’s administration. The “Jameson Raid” put an end to the proposed transfer of the protectorate to the Chartered Company, and caused a serious crisis in its affairs. Rhodes resigned his position as managing director, and Alfred Beit

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 retired from the directorate in London. Jameson was, on the 9th of January 1896, officially removed from his office of administrator of the company’s territories, and was succeeded by Earl Grey. Just at this time rinderpest made its appearance in southern Rhodesia, carrying off large herds of cattle, and this was followed in March 1896 by a revolt of the Matabele, while in June the Mashona also rebelled. The occasion, but not the cause, of the Matabele rising was the withdrawal of the greater part of the company’s force to take part in the Jameson Raid. The Matabele had various grievances, chiefly that after the war of 1893 they were treated as a conquered people. All able-bodied young men were required to work for the white farmers and miners a certain number of months per annum at a fixed rate of pay—a most irksome regulation, enforced, on occasions, by the native police in a tyrannical fashion. Another grievance was the seizure by the company, after the death of Lobengula, of the cattle of the Matabele—their chief source of wealth. Not only was there a first confiscation after the war, but subsequently there was a periodical taking away of cattle in small numbers—the company acting under the belief that nearly all the cattle in Matabeleland belonged to the king and were therefore lawfully theirs. However, before the end of 1895 the company had settled the question in agreement with the indunas, two-fifths of the cattle to go to the company and the remainder to become the absolute property of the natives. But it was neither the action of the company in the confiscation of cattle, nor the labour regulations, that induced the mass of the people to rebel; they were induced to act by chiefs who chafed under their loss of power and position and imagined themselves strong enough to throw off the yoke of the conquerors. In the manner customary among savages the Matabele began hostilities by the murder of defenceless white settlers—men, women and children. Bulawayo was threatened, and soon all the country south of the Zambezi was in a state of rebellion. Imperial troops under Sir Frederick Carrington were hurried up to the assistance of such police as the British South Africa Company still had at its command. Volunteers were enrolled, and much fierce fighting followed. Rhodes hastened to Bulawayo, and after conferences with the military and other authorities he determined to go, with Dr Hans Sauer and Mr J. Colenbrander, a well-known hunter and pioneer intimately acquainted with the natives, and interview the chiefs. They went (September 1896) unarmed into the heart of the Matoppo Hills, and there arranged terms of peace with the indunas. The interview involved grave danger to the emissaries, and depended for its success entirely upon Rhodes’s personality and influence over the native races, but it terminated what promised to be a long and disastrous native war. The Matabele, whose legitimate grievances were acknowledged and met, ceased the war after the indaba with Rhodes; the Mashona revolt continued, and was not finally crushed until October 1897, though all danger to settlers was over six months previously. At this time the rinderpest had carried off nearly all the cattle in the country—a disaster which, together with the destruction of grain during the war, had brought the natives almost to starvation—and steps had to be taken to supply their needs. Many of the white settlers too were reduced to sore straits and required assistance. The rebellions had cost the company fully £2,500,000, and to meet the debt incurred an additional capital of £1,500,000 was raised in 1898. At the meeting of the company in April 1898, at which this step was taken, Rhodes was re-elected a director.

The events of 1896—the Jameson Raid and the rebellions—caused the imperial government to remodel the constitution of Rhodesia. The armed forces of the company had already been placed under the direct control of the crown, and on the 20th of October 1898 an order in council was passed providing for the future regulation of the country. An imperial resident commissioner was appointed, who was also to be ex officio a member of the executive and legislative councils; and there was to be a legislative council, consisting of five nominated and four elected members. The first meeting of the newly appointed council took place at Salisbury on the 15th of May 1899. Other changes, in the direction of giving more power to the non-official element, were made subsequently (see above, Administration).

While these political changes were being made the company and the settlers set to work to repair the losses by war and plague. In particular the policy of railway development was pushed forward, and in November 1897 the line from Cape Town reached Bulawayo. The Mashonaland railway connecting Salisbury with Beira was completed in May 1899. In the same year gold-mining on a considerable scale began, the output for the year being over 65,000 oz. In the early part of 1899 Rhodes visited London and Berlin in furtherance of his schemes for the transcontinental telegraph extension from Cape Town to Cairo, and the transcontinental railway. He endeavoured to obtain from the British Government the guarantee of a loan for extending the railway, to be raised at 3%, but was unsuccessful. He received, however, the support of various companies in Rhodesia, who amongst them subscribed £252,800 at 3% for the immediate extension of the railway for 150 miles; and in May he stated, at a meeting of the Chartered Company, that the Rhodesia Railways Limited would raise another £3,000,000 at 4%, to be guaranteed by the Chartered Company. In this way he hoped that the remaining 1050 miles of railway from Bulawayo to the frontier of German East Africa might be constructed. In Berlin, Rhodes had an interview with the German Emperor, when arrangements were arrived at for the passage of telegraph lines over German territory, and also in certain contingencies for the continuation of the transcontinental railway through German East Africa.

In many respects the country recovered rapidly from the disasters of 1896, one of the most important measures taken being the compulsory inoculation for rinderpest, which finally stamped out the disease in 1898–99. By the last balance sheet issued by the company previous to the outbreak of the Boer War it would appear that the revenue of Rhodesia for the year ending the 31st of March 1898 amounted to £260,516 net, of which amount the sale of land plots accounts for £63,628; stamps and licences, £69,658; and posts and telegraphs, £46,745; so that the machinery of civilized life was already in full activity where eight years previously the only white inhabitants had been a few missionaries, hunters and traders. The government buildings were estimated in March 1898 to be worth £165,672, and the assessed value of the town property at Bulawayo was £2,045,000 and that at Salisbury £750,000. (Both those towns had been granted municipal government in 1897.) Education was arranged under the supervision of government inspectors, and various religious communities were also engaged in educational work. The country appeared indeed in 1899 to be starting on the road to industrial and agricultural prosperity, but an almost complete stop to progress resulted from the outbreak of the Boer War in October of that year. The company could point with satisfaction to the fact that Rhodesia contributed nearly 1500 men to the forces serving in the war, 12% of the European population. Rhodesia itself was not subjected to invasion, but the withdrawal of so large a number of able bodied men seriously interfered with the development of the country, the war not ending until June 1902. Throughout this period the natives, with few exceptions, remained peaceful and gave the administration no serious trouble.

Before the war ended, Cecil Rhodes, whose chief work during the period since the Raid had been the building up of the country which bore his name, was dead (26th of March 1902). Alfred Beit, who had in 1898 refused to rejoin the directorate, now consented (June 1902) to return to the board of the Chartered Company, on which he remained until his death in July 1906. The loss of Rhodes’s guiding mind and inspiring personality was, however, manifest, and among the Rhodesians there arose

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Rh a feeling of discontent at the company’s conduct of affairs. The company was willing on proper terms to hand over the administration to the colonists, and they secured the services of Sir George Goldie to examine the situation and report on what terms the transfer could be made. Sir George visited Rhodesia in 1903–4, and drew up a scheme which included the taking over by Rhodesia of the administrative liabilities incurred by the company, which would thus become a public debt. After consultation between leading Rhodesians and the directors of the company the scheme was abandoned, the Rhodesians considering the financial burden proposed too great for an infant colony. The company therefore continued the administration, devoting attention to the development of agriculture and mining. The two railway systems were linked together by a line from Bulawayo to Salisbury, and several short lines to mining properties were built. From Bulawayo the main line was continued to the Wankie coalfields, thence to the Zambezi, bridged in 1905 just below the Victoria Falls. From the Zambezi the line went north-east, so as to render accessible the mineral wealth of Barotseland and that of Katanga on the Rhodesian–Congo frontier. Although Rhodesia was affected by the commercial depression which prevailed in South Africa for some years after the close of the war, its industries showed considerable vitality. In 1906 the gold output exceeded 500,000 oz., and in the financial year 1905–6 the revenue of Southern Rhodesia slightly exceeded the expenditure.

Only once (1895–96) in the first fifteen years following the settlement of the country had the company’s annual revenue exceeded the amount expended in the same period. As a commercial undertaking, the company therefore was during this period of no pecuniary advantage to the shareholders. This was due in part to unforeseen and unavoidable causes, but it is also true that the founders of the company had other than commercial aims. Rhodes’s chief ambition was to secure the country for Britain and to open it up to the energies of her peoples, and he succeeded in this aim. He acted more quickly, and in many ways more effectively, than the imperial government would have been able to act had it at the outset taken over the country. To the sturdy colonists Rhodes made available a land rich not only in gold, but in coal and other minerals, and with very great agricultural and pastoral resources, and all this was done without the cost of a penny to the imperial exchequer. Despite all drawbacks, an area (reckoning Southern Rhodesia only) considerably larger than that of the United Kingdom had in less than twenty years been endowed with all the adjuncts of civilization and made the home of thousands of settlers.

The progress made by the country in the five years 1906–10 demonstrated that the faith Rhodes and his colleagues had placed in it was not ill-founded. Although the white population increased but slowly, in all other respects healthy development took place, the element of speculation which had characterized many of the first attempts to exploit the land being largely eliminated. In 1906 Lord Selborne (the high commissioner) visited Rhodesia. He inquired into the various grievances of the settlers against the Chartered Company; held an indaba with Matabele indunas in the Matoppo Hills, and at Bulawayo had a conference with Lewanika, the paramount chief of the Barotse. In 1907 Dr Jameson and other directors of the Chartered Company travelled through Rhodesia, and the result was to clear up some of the matters in dispute between the settlers and the company. Southern Rhodesia had become self-supporting, and the essentially temporary nature of the existing system of government was recognized. But the company held that the time was not yet ripe for Southern Rhodesia to become a self-governing colony. The directors, however, adopted a more liberal land policy, the increased attention given to agriculture being a marked and satisfactory feature of the situation. Mining and railway development were also pushed on vigorously.

The movement for the closer union of the British South African colonies excited lively interest in Southern Rhodesia. The territory, not possessing self-government, could not take part in the national convention which met at Durban in October 1908 on equal terms with the delegates of the Cape, &c. It was, however, represented by three delegates on the understanding that Rhodesia would not, for the time being at least, be included in any agreement which might be reached. The convention resulted in the union (on the 31st of May 1910) under one government of the Cape, Transvaal, Natal and Orange River colonies. The position of Rhodesia with respect to the Union was set forth in the South Africa Act 1909. It provides that “the king, with the advice of the Privy Council, may on addresses from the Houses of Parliament of the Union admit into the Union the territories administered by the British South Africa Company on such terms and conditions as to representation and otherwise in each case as are expressed in the addresses and approved by the king.”

In Rhodesia itself at this time there was a widespread feeling that there was no urgency as to the territory joining the Union, and the opinion was held by many that a separate existence as a self-governing community would be preferable. A section of the settlers were content for the present to remain under the government of the Chartered Company.

(A. P. H.; F. R. C.)  RHODIUM [symbol Rh; atomic weight 102.9 (O=16)], in chemistry, a metallic chemical element found, associated with the other elements of the platinum group, in crude platinum ore, wherein it was discovered in 1803 by W. H. Wollaston (Phil. Trans., 1804, p. 419). It may be obtained from the residues of platinum ore after treatment with aqua regia and removal of the platinum as chlorplatinate. The mother liquors are decomposed by treatment with metallic iron, the precipitate obtained being warmed with concentrated nitric acid and heated in an iron crucible with concentrated caustic potash. The residue thus obtained is mixed with salt and

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rhodesia

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rhodesia


text: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter IX

title: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter IX


text: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter X

title: Twenty years before the mast/Chapter X


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Rh who implied that the pope was superior even to the Great Khan, and offered no presents, refused the customary reverences before Baiju, declined to go on to the imperial court, and made unseasonable attempts to convert their hosts. The Frankish visitors were accordingly lodged and treated with contempt: for nine weeks (June and July 1247) all answer to their letters was refused. Thrice Baiju even ordered their death. At last, on the 25th of July 1247, they were dismissed with the Noyan’s reply, dated the 20th of July. This reply complained of the high words of the Latin envoys, and commanded the pope to come in person and submit to the Master of all the Earth (the Mongol emperor). The mission thus ended in complete failure; but, except for (q.v.), it was the earliest Catholic embassy which reached any Mongol court, and its information must have been valuable. It performed something at least of what should have been (but apparently was not) done by Lawrence (Lourenco) of Portugal, who was commissioned as papal envoy to the Mongols of the south-west at the same time that Carpini was accredited to those of the north (1245).

 SIMONIDES (or ) OF AMORGOS, Greek iambic poet, flourished in the middle of the 7th century B.C. He was a native of Samos, and derived his surname from having founded a colony in the neighbouring island of Amorgos. According to Suidas, besides two books of iambics, he wrote elegies, one of them a poem on the early history of the Samians. The elegy included in the fragments (85) of Simonides of Ceos is more probably by Simonides of Amorgos. We possess about thirty fragments of his iambic poems, written in clear and vigorous Ionic, with much force and no little harmony of versification. With Simonides, as with Archilochus, the iambic is still the vehicle of bitter satire, interchanging with melancholy, but in Simonides the satire is rather general than individual. His “Pedigree of Women” may have been suggested by the beast fable, as we find it in Hesiod and Archilochus, and as it recurs a century later in Phocylides; it is clear at least that Simonides knew the works of the former. Simonides derives the dirty woman from a hog, the cunning from a fox, the fussy from a dog, the apathetic from earth, the capricious from sea-water, the stubborn from an ass, the incontinent from a weasel, the proud from a high-bred mare, the worst and ugliest from an ape, and the good woman from a bee. The remainder of the poem (96–118) is undoubtedly spurious. There is much beauty and feeling in Simonides’s description of the good woman.

 SIMONIDES OF CEOS (c. 556–460 B.C.), Greek lyric poet, was born at Iulis in the island of Ceos. During his youth he taught poetry and music in his native island, and composed paeans for the festivals of Apollo. Finding little scope for his abilities at home, he went to live at Athens, at the court of Hipparchus, the patron of literature. After the murder of Hipparchus (514), Simonides withdrew to Thessaly, where he enjoyed the protection and patronage of the Scopadae and Aleuadae (two celebrated Thessalian families). An interesting story is told of the termination of his relations with the Scopadae. On a certain occasion he was reproached by Scopas for having allotted too much space to the Dioscuri in an ode celebrating the victory of his patron in a chariot-race. Scopas refused to pay all the fee and told Simonides to apply to the Dioscuri for the remainder. The incident took place at a banquet. Shortly afterwards, Simonides was told that two young men wished to speak to him; after he had left the banqueting room, the roof fell in and crushed Scopas and his guests (Cicero, De oratore, ii. 86). There seems no doubt that some disaster overtook the Scopadae, which resulted in the extinction of the family. After the battle of Marathon Simonides returned to Athens, but soon left for Sicily at the invitation of Hiero, at whose court he spent the rest of his life.

His reputation as a man of learning is shown by the tradition that he introduced the distinction between the long and short vowels, afterwards adopted in the Ionic alphabet which came into general use during the archonship of Eucleides (403). He was also the inventor of a system of mnemonics (Quintilian xi. 2, 11). So unbounded was his popularity that he was a power even in the political world; we are told that he reconciled Thero and Hiero on the eve of a battle between their opposing armies. He was the intimate friend of Themistocles and Pausanias the Spartan, and his poems on the war of liberation against Persia no doubt gave a powerful impulse to the national patriotism. For his poems he could command almost any price: later writers, from Aristophanes onwards, accuse him of avarice, probably not without some reason. To Hiero’s queen, who asked him whether it was better to be born rich or a genius, he replied “Rich, for genius is ever found at the gates of the rich.” Again, when someone asked him to write a laudatory poem for which he offered profuse thanks, but no money, Simonides replied that he kept two coffers, one for thanks, the other for money; that, when he opened them, he found the former empty and useless, and the latter full.

Of his poetry we possess two or three short elegies (Fr. 85 seems from its style and versification to belong to Simonides of Amorgos, or at least not to be the work of our poet), several epigrams and about ninety fragments of lyric poetry. The epigrams written in the usual dialect of elegy, Ionic with an epic colouring, were intended partly for public and partly for private monuments. There is strength and sublimity in the former, with a simplicity that is almost statuesque, and a complete mastery over the rhythm and forms of elegiac expression. Those on the heroes of Marathon and Thermopylae are the most celebrated. In the private epigrams there is more warmth of colour and feeling, but few of them rest on any better authority than that of the Palatine anthology. One interesting and undoubtedly genuine epigram of this class is upon Archedice, the daughter of Hippias the Peisistratid, who, “albeit her father and husband and brother and children were all princes, was not lifted up in soul to pride.” The lyric fragments vary much in character and length: one is from a poem on Artemisium, celebrating those who fell at Thermopylae, with which he gained the victory over Aeschylus; another is an ode in honour of Scopas (commented on in Plato, Protagoras, 339 b); the rest are from odes on victors in the games, hyporchemes, dirges, hymns to the gods and other varieties. The poem on Thermopylae is reverent and sublime, breathing an exalted patriotism and a lofty national pride; the others are full of tender pathos and deep feeling, combined with a genial worldliness. For Simonides requires no standard of lofty unswerving rectitude. “It is hard,” he says (Fr. 5), “to become a truly good man, perfect as a square in hands and feet and mind, fashioned without blame. Whosoever is bad, and not too wicked, knowing justice, the benefactor of cities, is a sound man. I for one will find no fault with him, for the race of fools is infinite. … I praise and love all men who do no sin willingly; but with necessity even the gods do not contend.” Virtue, he tells us elsewhere in language that recalls Hesiod, is set on a high and difficult hill (Fr. 58); let us seek after pleasure, for “all things come to one dread Charybdis, both great virtues and wealth” (Fr. 38). Yet Simonides is far from being a hedonist; his morality, no less than his art, is pervaded by that virtue for which Ceos was renowned— or self-restraint. His most celebrated fragment is a dirge, in which Danaë, adrift with the infant Perseus on the sea in a dark and stormy night, takes comfort from the peaceful slumber of her babe. Simonides here illustrates his own saying that “poetry is vocal painting, as painting is silent poetry.” Of the many English translations of this poem, one of the best is that by J. A. Symonds in Studies on the Greek Poets. Fragments in T. Bergk, Potëae lyrici Graeci; standard edition by F. G. Schneidewin (1835) and of the Danaë alone by H. L. Ahrens (1853). Other authorities are given in the exhaustive treatise of E. Cesati, Simonide di Ceo (1882); see also W. Schröter, De Simonidis Cei melici sermone (1906).  SIMON’S TOWN, a town and station of the British navy in the Cape province, South Africa, in 34° 15′ S., 18° 30’ E., on the

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Rh symptomatic only of a passing phase of irritation, for the evidence on the other side seems too overwhelming to be long withstood.

It is because the trilingual inscriptions have rendered such important service that we have considered it worth while to recount the history of their discovery after they had lain forgotten for some two thousand years, and to explain the steps that were taken in the work of decipherment by the many scholars whose patient toil was ultimately rewarded with success.


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HEODORE ROOSEVELT, twenty-sixth president of the United States, is a prominent instance of the best results of mind and character evolved by the Christian civilization and culture, the free institutions and progressive development of the Western world. His parentage placed him at his entrance into life on high vantage ground. Intelligent, lofty of purpose and benevolent, his father and mother made the home of his childhood and youth such an environment as gave to his excellent and growing capacities ideals of fidelity, honor and effectiveness in life. Early and surely were the essentials of right living fixed in his character, and in maturer years it needed but the occasion fitted for their display to bring them into forceful activity. The circumstances amid which, in the providence of God, he has been called to act have had world-wide relations. They have called for that determined will-power which effects changes for good, by putting into execution, in prompt and vigorous action, the plan which after due deliberation seems the next and inevitable step in progress. He is active and ardent in temperament, direct but self-controlled in conduct. He counsels with those who are competent to advise, but he does not shrink from taking the full responsibility for action in which the final decision rests with himself.

The acceleration of events in the twentieth century has made the arena in which the executive head of the United States acts at the present time, a center to which is drawn the attention of all civilized nations, subjecting his methods and his acts to the scrutiny of constant and searching criticism, favorable and adverse. Events march quickly, and a keen, forward-reaching intelligence is required to keep pace with the new possibilities of the world in which knowledge is increased, communication is almost instantaneous, and the nations stand watching each other's movements, ready to seize the least advantage in territory, in commerce, or in arms. It is just as necessary for a leader, if he is to guide the nation wisely, that he see clearly and sympathetically reckon upon another great


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 shores of Simon’s Bay, an inlet on the west side of False Bay. It is 22 m. S. of Cape Town by rail and 17 m. N. of Cape Point (the Cape of Good Hope). Apart from the naval station the town (pop. 1904, 6642) is an educational and residential centre, enjoying an excellent climate with a mean minimum temperature of 57° and a mean maximum of 70° F. Owing to the influence of the Mozambique current the temperature of the water in the bay is 10° to 12° F. higher than that of Table Bay, hence Simon’s Town and other places along the shores of False Bay are favourite bathing resorts. The naval establishment is the headquarters of the East India and Cape Squadron.

In 1900 the yard covered about 13 acres, exclusive of the victualling establishment and naval hospital, and was provided with a small camber, slipways for torpedo-boats and small vessels, together with various dockyard buildings, storehouses, coal stores, &c., but had no dry dock or deep-water wharf. Under the Naval Works Loan Act of 1899 £2,500,000 was provided for the construction of additional docks east of the original naval yard. These works were begun in 1900 and completed in 1910. They consist of a tidal basin 28 acres in extent, with a depth of 30 ft. at low-water spring tides, enclosed by a breakwater on the eastern and northern sides and a similar projecting arm or pier on the west. The entrance to the basin faces north-westerly, and is 300 ft. in width. South of the basin is a large reclaimed area forming the site of the new dockyard. Opening from the basin is a dry dock, 750 ft. in length on blocks, with an entrance 95 ft. wide and having 30 ft. over the sill at low-water spring tides. The foundation stone of the dry dock was laid in November 1906 by the earl of Selborne, after whom it is named, and the dock was opened in November 1910 by the duke of Connaught.

The Selborne dock can be subdivided by an intermediate caisson in such a manner as to form two docks, respectively 400 ft. and 320 ft. in length, or 470 ft. and 250 ft. in length on blocks, as may be required, or the full length of 750 ft. can be made available. The dockyard buildings include extensive shops for the chief engineer’s and chief constructor’s departments, the pumping-engine house, working sheds, &c., while ample space is reserved for additional docks and buildings. Berthing accommodation is provided in the basin alongside the wharf walls which surround it. The walls available for this purpose have a total length of 2585 ft. lineal, are constructed of interlocked concrete block work, with an available depth of water of 30 ft. at low water, and are furnished with powerful shear-legs and cranes for the use of vessels alongside. Extensive sheds for the storage of coal are provided. The whole of the dockyard area (35 acres), including the enclosing breakwater and pier, was formed by reclamation from the sea; and the total area of the new works, including the tidal basin, is 63 acres.

False Bay, which corresponds on the south to Table Bay on the north side of Table Mountain, is a spacious inlet which has an average depth of from 15 to 20 fathoms, and is completely sheltered on all sides except towards the south. Here a whole fleet of the largest vessels can ride at anchor. Defensive works protect the entrance to the bay.

Simon’s Town dates from the close of the 17th century, the town and bay being named after Simon van der Stell, governor of the Cape in 1679–1699. It was at Simon’s Town that the first British landing in Cape Colony was made by General Sir James Craig in 1795. About 1810 the bay was selected as the base for the South African squadron, Table Bay being abandoned for that purpose in consequence of its exposed position.  SIMONY, an offence, defined below, against the law of the church. The name is taken from (q.v.). In the canon law the word bears a more extended meaning than in English law. “Simony according to the canonists,” says Ayliffe in his Parergon, “is defined to be a deliberate act or a premeditated will and desire of selling such things as are spiritual, or of anything annexed unto spirituals, by giving something of a temporal nature for the purchase thereof; or in other terms it is defined to be a commutation of a thing spiritual or annexed unto spirituals by giving something that is temporal.” An example of the offence occurs as early as the 3rd century in the purchase of the bishopric of Carthage by a wealthy matron for her servant, if the note to Gibbon (vol. ii. p. 457) is to be believed. The offence was prohibited by many councils, both in the East and in the West, from the 4th century onwards. In the Corpus juris canonici the Decretum (pt. ii. cause i. quest. 3) and the Decretals (bk. v. tit. 3) deal with the subject. The offender, whether simoniacus (one who had bought his orders) or simoniace promotus (one who had bought his promotion), was liable to deprivation of his benefice and deposition from orders if a secular priest,—to confinement in a stricter monastery if a regular. No distinction seems to have been drawn between the sale of an immediate and of a reversionary interest. The innocent simoniace promotus was, apart from dispensation, liable to the same penalties as though he were guilty. Certain matters were simoniacal by the canon law which would not be so regarded in English law, e.g. the sale of tithes, the taking of a fee for confession, absolution, marriage or burial, the concealment of one in mortal sin or the reconcilement of an impenitent for the sake of gain, and the doing homage for spiritualities. So grave was the crime of simony considered that even infamous persons could accuse of it. English provincial and legatine constitutions continually assailed simony. Thus one of the heads in Lyndewode (bk. v.) is, “Ne quis ecclesiam nomine dotalitatis transfer at vel pro praesentatione aliquid accipiat.” In spite of all the provisions of the canon law it is well established that simony was deeply rooted in the medieval church. Dante places persons guilty of simony in the third bolgia of the eighth circle of the Inferno:—

The popes themselves were notorious offenders. In the canto just cited Pope Nicholas III. is made by the poet the mouthpiece of the simoniacs. He is supposed to mistake the poet for Boniface VIII., whose simoniacal practices, as well as those of Clement V., are again alluded to in Par. xxx. 147. At a later period there was an open and continuous sale of spiritual offices by the Roman curia which contemporary writers attacked in the spirit of Dante. A pasquinade against Alexander VI. begins with the lines—

Machiavelli calls luxury, simony and cruelty the three dear friends and handmaids of the same pope The colloquy of Erasmus De sacerdotiis captandis bears witness to the same state of things. And, best proof of all, numerous decisions as to what is or is not simony are to be found in the reported decisions of the Roman rota That part of the papal revenue which consisted of first-fruits (primitiae or annates) and tenths (decimae) must have been theoretically simoniacal in its origin. In England this revenue was annexed to the crown by Henry VIII. and restored to the church by Queen Anne (see ).

For the purposes of English law simony is defined by Blackstone as the corrupt presentation of any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for money, gift or reward. The offence is one of purely ecclesiastical cognizance, and not punishable by the criminal law. The penalty is forfeiture by the offender of any advantage from the simoniacal transaction, of his patronage by the patron, of his benefice by the presenter; and now by the Benefices Act 1892, a person guilty of simony is guilty of an offence for which he may be proceeded against under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. An innocent clerk is under no disability, as he might be by the canon law. Simony may be committed in three ways—in promotion to orders, in presentation to a benefice, and in resignation of a benefice. The common law (with which the canon law is incorporated, as far as it is not contrary to the common or statute law or the prerogative of the crown) has been considerably modified by statute. Where no statute applies to the case, the doctrines of the canon law may still be of authority. Both Edward VI. and Elizabeth promulgated advertisements against simony. The Act of 31 Eliz. c. 6 was intended to reach the corrupt patron as well as the corrupt clerk, the ecclesiastical censures apart from the statute not extending to the case of a patron. The first part of the act deals with the penalties for election or resignation of officers of churches, colleges, schools, hospitals, halls and societies for reward. The second part of the act provides that if any person or persons, bodies politic and corporate, for any sum of money, reward, gift, profit or benefit, directly or indirectly, or for or by reason of any promise, agreement, grant, bond, covenant or other assurances of or for any sum of money, &c., directly or indirectly present or collate any person to any benefice with cure of souls, dignity, prebend or living ecclesiastical, or give or bestow the same for or in respect of

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2 which is setting in the opposite direction, and makes for amity, conciliation and peace among nations. President Roosevelt stands where all eyes are focused upon his action. He has been alert to recognize, strengthen and utilize every leaning of the public mind to this "better way" of discussion and arbitration, not only in our internal affairs, but in all our relations with foreign governments, now so much more important and complex than in the early days of the Republic. He has shown wisdom in the choice of his cabinet, notably in retaining Mr. Hay. Our diplomatic relations are stronger and more influential than ever before in our history. His administration is the reflex of his own character. His character is the product of his early environment, of his education, and of his own choice and will, influenced (but not dominated) by the age in which his lot is cast.

President Roosevelt holds a place exceptionally his own in the affection, faith and admiration of the American people. His principles, politics and aims are as broad as the nation. He has been able to impress his puissant individuality on them, as only the towering figures of our history have done. He is a strong leader; a powerful organizer. His record as well as his character have given the people entire confidence in him as their chief executive.

Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York city, October 27, 1858. He is the son of Theodore Roosevelt (1831-78). Of his father, President Roosevelt writes for the readers of this book: "His marked characteristics were fearlessness, gentleness, intense energy and practicality, and great unselfishness. He always drilled into us that we had to work, that we had to count in the world, that we must not be afraid, and that we must be unselfish and truthful." He was a glass importer, in Maiden Lane, New York. A man of large-minded philanthropy he helped to organize the Sanitary Commission at the time of the Civil war, the Protective War Claims Association, the Soldiers' Employment Bureau; he was vice-president of the State Charities Aid Association, and later its president; he founded a hospital and dispensary for the treatment of hopeless spine and hip diseases; he was a trustee of the Children's Aid Society and never missed a Sunday evening with his newsboys. He projected the first efforts for civil service reform. He bequeathed to his son an interest in these great measures, and has left an example of unselfish civic service and self-forgetting philanthropy which has had a marked


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 Rh effect on the life of his city, and on the life of the whole nation. Theodore Roosevelt's mother, Martha Bullock Roosevelt, was from South Carolina, and is buried in that State. The home of his childhood was most happy, and by birth he is distinctly united with the South as well as the North. He is a grandson of Cornelius Van Schaak and Margaret Barnhill Roosevelt; great grandsongreat-grandson [sic] of Jacobus John and Mary Van Schaak Roosevelt, and his descent is in the direct line from Claes Martenszoon and Jaunetge Thomas Van Roosevelt, who came from Amsterdam, Holland, to New York, in 1651.

His early schooling was interrupted by delicate health, and after he had attended for a time the McMullen school, in New York city, his parents found it better for him to study under the care of private tutors at home. His college preparation was made under Mr. Cutler, who founded later the "Cutler School." His special tastes and interest in his boyhood and youth were gratified, he says, by reading, and particularly by natural history. And he writes (especially for the youthful readers of "Men of Mark"): "I was not athletic, but was absorbed in tales of adventure, and gradually took up vigorous sports, as a consequence of reading these tales, written by Scott, Cooper, Marryat, and Mayne Reid."

Much was done by his parents to improve his health. With them he visited Egypt, making a voyage up the Nile. He devoted himself to boating, tramping, running, and vigorous exercise generally, to the limit of his ability, and by force of will, that he might transform his frail body into a strong and responsive instrument for his spirit and will; and seeing that the lack of physical strength is a hampering hindrance to any career in life, by his personal resolution and by life in the open, he at length became the athlete, the hardy hunter and horseman whom the world knows through his books and his deeds.

He graduated from Harvard university in 1880. As an under-graduate he was enthusiastic in all college affairs. His scholarship was excellent, and his interest in athletics was marked. His early ambition was to be a naturalist and a college professor. While still an undergraduate he began that work as an author which he has kept up through life. Finding misstatements in a history of the War of 1812, he studied the subject in the official files, and these studies resulted in his first book, "The War of 1812." He was asked by the British editors of the work, "The Royal Navy" to write the chapter on that war.


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Chapter 9
, if there be the definition of a habit, take notice of what possesses it, but if the definition be of what possesses, consider the habit, and in like manner with regard to other things of this kind; e. g. if the pleasant is what is beneficial, he also who is pleased is benefited. In a word, it happens after a certain manner in such definitions, that the definer defines more things than one, since he who defines science, after a certain way defines ignorance also, likewise the scientific and the unscientific, also to know and to be ignorant, for the first being evident, the rest also in some way become evident. We must examine then, in all such cases, lest any thing should be discordant, employing the elements which are from contraries, and conjugates.

Examine too, in relatives, whether to what genus is referred, to that a certain species is referred, for instance, if apprehension to the object of apprehension, a certain apprehension also (is referred) to a certain object of apprehension, and if the multiple is to the sub-multiple, whether a certain multiple is to a certain sub-multiple, since if there is not such reference, there has been evidently an error.

Again, observe whether there is an opposite definition of the opposite, as whether the definition of the half is opposite to that of the double, since if the double be that which surpasses in the equal, the half will be what is surpassed in the equal. Likewise, also, in the case of contraries, for the definition of the contrary will be contrary according to one certain connexion of contraries, thus, if that is beneficial which is productive of good, what is productive of evil or is corruptive of good is injurious, since one of these must necessarily be contrary to that mentioned at first. If then neither be contrary to that mentioned at first, it is clear that neither of the definitions afterwards given,


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Rh proxies for voting at meetings of proprietors of joint-stock companies and receipts after a month from date. An unstamped instrument cannot be pleaded or given in evidence except in criminal proceedings or for a collateral purpose. If an instrument chargeable with duty be produced as evidence in a court, the officer whose duty it is to read the instrument is to call the attention of the judge to any omission or insufficiency of the stamp, and if the instrument is one which may legally be stamped after execution, it may, on payment of the amount of the unpaid duty and the penalty payable by law, and a further sum of £1, be received in evidence, saving all just exceptions on other grounds. The rules of the supreme court, 1883 (Ord. xxxix. r. 8, re-enacting a provision of the Common Law Procedure Act), provide that a new trial is not to be granted by reason of the ruling of a judge that the stamp upon any document is sufficient or that the document does not require a stamp. The stamp upon a document subject to the stamp laws of a foreign state is usually admissible in evidence in a court of the United Kingdom if it conform in other respects to the rules governing the admissibility of such documents, even though it be improperly stamped according to the law of the foreign country. The admissibility of documents belongs to the ordinatoria litis rather than the decisoria litis, and is governed by the lex fori rather than the lex loci contractus, unless indeed that law makes a stamp necessary to the validity of the instrument. Certain offences, such as forging a die or stamp, selling or using a forged stamp, &c., are made felonies punishable with penal servitude for life as a maximum.

United States.—The subject of stamp duties is of unusual historical interest, as the passing of Grenville’s Stamp Act of 1765 (see : History) directly led to the American War of Independence. The act was, indeed, repealed the next year as a matter of expediency, but an act of the same year dealing with the dependency of American colonies declared the right of the British legislature to bind the colonies by its acts. The actual yield of the stamp duties under the act of 1765 was, owing to the opposition in the American colonies, only £4000—less than the expenses of putting the act into force. The stamp duties of the United States are now under the superintendence of the commissioner of internal revenue.  STANCHION (Fr. étançon, a wooden post), an architectural term applied to the upright iron bars in windows which pass through the eyes of the saddle bars or horizontal irons to steady the lead lights. The French call the latter traverses, the stanchions montants, and the whole arrangement armature. Stanchions frequently finish with ornamental heads forged out of the iron.  STANDARD, a term with three main meanings: (1) an ensign or flag; (2) a fixed weight, measure, value or quality established by law or customarily recognized as a unit of comparison by which the correctness of others can be determined; (3) an upright or standing object, such as a large candelabrum, or, particularly, a fruit-tree which stands without support. With regard to the derivation, the word which appears in most European languages, e.g. Du. standaard, Ger. Standarte, O. Fr. estandart, estendard, mod. étendard, Ital. stendale, stendardo, &c., is to be referred to the Teut. standan, to stand, and refers to the fixed pole to which an object or a pole was attached. The “standard” as a military ensign was properly stationary and served as the signal of the position of its owner on the ordered field of battle. The O. Fr. form estendard points to the influence of Lat. extendere, to spread out, extend, of the flag when hung upon the pole (see further for the various meanings of the word and its history). The use of the term for a recognized unit of comparison is due probably to the fact that it is something fixed or set up, stable, and not to any fanciful reference to the ensign or flag as the object to which one turns as a rallying-point. For the standard weights and measures see and  below. There are many other standards, such as electrical standards (see ), standard solutions in (q.v.) for the purpose of volumetric analysis, &c. In engineering, the component parts of machines or other structures are “standardized” in accordance with agreed measurements. For “standard time” see.  STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, a name given to the battle of the 22nd of August 1138 near Northallerton, in which the Scottish army under King David was defeated by the English levies of Yorkshire and the north Midlands, who arrayed themselves round a chariot carrying the consecrated banners of St Peter of York, St John of Beverley, St Wilfrid of Ripon and St Cuthbert of Durham.

 STANDARDS DEPARTMENT, a department of the English Board of Trade, having the custody of the imperial standards of weights and measures. As far back as can be traced, the standard weights and measures, the primary instruments for determining the justness of all other weights and measures used in the United Kingdom, were kept at the exchequer, and the duties relating to these standards were imposed upon the chamberlains of the exchequer. The office of chamberlains was abolished in 1826, under the operation of 23 Geo. III. c. 82, passed in 1783, but the custody of the standards and any duties connected therewith remained attached to an officer in the (q.v.) until that department was abolished in 1866. Meanwhile, in pursuance of recommendations of Standard Commissions of 1841 and 1854 and a House of Commons Committee of 1862, the Standards of Weights, Measures and Coinage Act 1866 was passed. This act created a special department of the Board of Trade, called the “Standard Weights and Measures Department,” and a head of that department styled the “Warden of the Standards.” His duty was to conduct comparisons, verifications and operations with reference to the standards in aid of scientific research and otherwise. The first—indeed, the only real holder—of the office was Henry Williams Chisholm (1809–1901), previously chief clerk of the old exchequer, under whose direction the department was organized; and before his retirement in 1877 it embraced not merely the re-verification of the imperial standards, but the making of local standards for local authorities, the re-verification of standards and instruments for all parts of the United Kingdom and colonies, for foreign countries which did not possess standardizing departments, the verification of manufacturers’ standards and instruments, gas-measuring standards, apparatus for determining the flash-point of petroleum, &c. The Weights and Measures Act of 1878 left out all reference to the title and office of warden of the standards, and this opportunity was taken, in the words of the then permanent secretary of the Board of Trade, T. H. (afterwards Lord) Farrer, to make the office “more strictly a department of the Board of Trade.” It was put in charge of an officer (Mr H. J. Chaney) termed “Superintendent of Weights and Measures,” but on his death in 1906 an attempt was made partially to restore dignity and importance to the office by the appointment of Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., with the title of “Deputy Warden of the Standards.”

There are Standards departments under the charge of experienced scientists in Berlin, St Petersburg, Paris, Vienna, Rome, Madrid, Lisbon, Brussels, Bucharest and Constantinople and at Ottawa, Melbourne and Sidney. The United States Bureau of Standards is in the department of Commerce and Labor. It was established in 1901 and is under the charge of a director. Its work follows that of the English department and embraces also research in the domain of physics, extending from chemistry on the one side to engineering on the other. It also tests and investigates standards and methods of constructing measuring instruments for scientific societies, educational institutions, manufacturers and others.  STANDERTON, a town of the Transvaal, 114 m. S.E. of Johannesburg, on the railway from that city, via Newcastle to Durban, distant 369 m. Pop. (1904), 4589, of whom 2136 were white. Standerton is 5025 ft. above the sea and is built on the north bank of the Vaal, here spanned by two fine bridges. It is the chief town of a district of the same name and the centre of an important agricultural and pastoral region. A government stud farm is maintained here. In the neighbourhood are coal-fields. The name of the town is derived from that of the former owner of the site, an Adrian Stander, who fought against the British at Boomplaats in 1848. The town was laid out in 1870. Since 1903 it has been governed by a municipality.  STANDISH, MILES, or (c. 1584-1636), American colonist, was born about 1584 in Lancashire, probably of the

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text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Nores, Simon de


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 can be the definition of the contrary, so that neither has the definition given at first been rightly given. Nevertheless, since some contraries are said to be so, from the privation of another, as inequality seems the privation of equality, (for things are called unequal which are not equal,) it is clear that what is stated to be contrary as to privation, is necessarily defined through the other, but that it is no longer (necessary) that what remains (should be defined) through what is predicated as to privation, for each would happen to become known through each. We must pay attention, therefore, to such an error as this in contraries, as if some one should define equality to be the contrary to inequality, since it is defined through what is predicated according to privation. Further it is necessary that he who thus defines should use the thing defined, which indeed will be evident if the definition be assumed instead of the name, for there is no difference between saying inequality or the privation of equality, wherefore, equality will be the contrary to the privation of equality, so that the thing itself (defined) will be employed. Still if neither contrary should be predicated according to privation, but the definition similarly assigned, as that good is what is contrary to evil, it is evident that evil will be what is contrary to good, since of things thus contrary, the definition must be similarly assigned. Wherefore, again, the thing defined happens to be employed, as good is inherent in the definition of evil, so that if good is what is contrary to evil, but there is no difference between evil and the contrary to good, good will be that which is contrary to the contrary of good, so that the person has evidently used the thing itself.

Further, (remark) whether he who assigns what is predicated according to privation, has not assigned that of which it is the privation; for instance of habit, or of contrary, or of whatever it is the privation; or whether he has not added that


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4 He was married September 23, 1880, to Alice Lee, daughter of George Cabot and Caroline Haskell Lee, of Boston, Massachusetts. She died in 1883, leaving one daughter. Miss Alice Lee Roosevelt. He studied law in the New York law school, became in 1882 a Republican member of the Assembly, the lower house of the New York state legislature, and he was reëlected for the years 1883 and 1884. He was chairman of the committee known as the Roosevelt Investigating Committee. His efforts to better the condition of the poorer classes of New York city began in the Assembly, when he took up the cause of the tenement-house cigar makers, and in visiting their miserable dwellings he received deep and lasting impressions of the need of betterment in the conditions which surround tenement workers. He became an ardent supporter of civil service reform at this time and introduced bills which bettered the government of New York city, in particular one of importance which transferred to the mayor that power of confirming appointments which had been in the hands of the aldermen.

In 1884 he was sent as a delegate to the Republican state convention; in June of the same year he was delegate-at-large from New York, and chairman of the New York delegation to the Republican national convention at Chicago. Leaving for a time political life with its heat and stress he bought the ranches "Elk Horn" and "Chimney Butte," in northwestern Dakota, and there lived in a log house in the almost unbroken wilderness, devoting himself to hunting and to free life in the open for two years, 1884-86. His health and strength were finally and fully confirmed by this open air activity which he thoroughly enjoyed. The years spent in this western ranch have have proved invaluable to the whole country, because they gave to Theodore Roosevelt such an intimate knowledge as few eastern bred men ever acquire of the life of our great West, of the need of irrigation for the arid plains of the West, and of the enterprising spirit and whole-hearted manliness of the typical western man. This has not merely made him popular with westerners, but has been of the greatest use to him in influencing and passing finally upon legislation for the development of the vast resources of the West—which is by far the greater part of that National Territory over which he presides. This warm appreciation of western spirit and life is vividly shown in his most important historical work, "The Winning of the West."


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Rh From this congenial ranch life he was recalled, in 1887, by the news that he was to be nominated for mayor of New York. In this contest be was defeated by Abram S. Hewitt. In May, 1889, President Harrison appointed him one of the three National Civil Service Reform Commissioners, to reside in Washington, District of Columbia, and he served as president of the commission, strongly advocating and vigorously administering and defending the reforms. He continued to hold this position under President Cleveland until May, 1895, when he resigned it to accept the position of police commissioner of New York city. In accepting his resignation President Cleveland thus wrote him: "You are certainly to be congratulated upon the extent and permanency of civil service reform methods which you have so substantially aided in bringing about. The struggle for its firm establishment and recognition is past. Its faithful application and reasonable expansion remain subjects of deep interest to all who really desire the best attainable public service."

He at once entered on his new duties as Police Commissioner of New York city, under the administration of Mayor Strong, and was president of the bi-partisan Police Board, 1895-97. His work in enforcing laws already on the statute book, but which had purposely been ignored by the combination of politicians and saloon-keepers, is a record of the fearless unearthing of a state of things in that city most corrupt and most corrupting. His reply to those who urged him to use greater discretion was, "there was nothing about discretion in my oath of office," and he quoted to them Lincoln's words: "Let reverence of law be taught in schools and colleges, be written in primers and spelling books, be published from pulpits, and proclaimed in legislative houses, and enforced in courts of justice; in short, let it become the political religion of the nation."

His term of office was filled with efforts, in every direction in which he had any power, for the purification of politics. His reform of the police force, the war, which as a member of the Board of Health, he waged upon the proprietors of slum-tenements, his wise conferences with laboring men, all indicated his great desire to benefit the city, while they showed his courage, good judgment, efficiency and goodness of heart.

His appointment by President McKinley as assistant secretary of the navy, in April, 1897, put him in a position in which he was able to do a great work for the country in preparing the navy for


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Rh War. At Schleswig he so distinguished himself that Wrangel, the commander-in-chief, told him that he had “decided the battle.” He distinguished himself again at Düppel, and Prince William himself decorated him with the order pour le mérite on parade. For his campaign journals and letters see supplement to Militär Wochenblatt for 1878. On returning he was entrusted with the difficult command of the troops at Brandenburg during the sitting of a democratic popular convention at that place, and after this with the control of some troops that were known to be affected by the prevalent spirit of revolution. At the time of the Olmütz-Bronnzell incident of 1850 he was employed as military governor of Cassel, and in 1851, becoming colonel commandant of the cadet school of Berlin, he at once set about the reformation of the prevailing system of instruction, the defects of which he had openly condemned as early as 1820. Though more than fifty years of age, he now learned Latin and English in order to be a more competent instructor. In 1854, after forty-one years of active service, he was promoted major-general. At Magdeburg, as at Berlin, his reforming zeal made him many enemies, and in October of this year he sustained a loss which almost unhinged his mind in the death of his youngest and only surviving child, a girl of twenty-six. From Magdeburg he was removed to the command of a guard brigade at Berlin (1857), and thence almost immediately to a divisional command in the I. Corps. Early in 1858 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and for the five years that he held this command he devoted himself particularly to acquiring knowledge of the cavalry arm. About 1863, learning that von Bonin, his senior by date, but his junior in age and length of service, was about to be appointed to command the I. Corps, he meditated retirement, but the authorities at the same time as they appointed Bonin made Steinmetz commander of the II. Corps, and shortly afterwards, when the crown prince of Prussia took over this post, commander of the V. Corps at Posen. Shortly after this his wife died. He was promoted general of infantry in 1864, and led the V. Corps to the war against Austria in 1866. This was the chance of his lifetime. His skilful and resolute leadership was displayed in his three battles, won on three successive days, of Nachod, Skalitz and Schweinschadel (see ), and opened the way through the mountains in spite of the defeat of Steinmetz’s rival Bonin at Trautenau. In 1867, in his loneliness, the “Lion of Nachod,” as he was popularly called, contracted a second marriage with Elise von Krosigk (who after his death married Count Brühl). He was now, for the first time in his life, a fairly wealthy man, having been awarded a money grant for his brilliant services in 1866. About this time he was elected a member of the North German Confederation parliament.

At the outbreak of the war of 1870 Steinmetz was appointed to command one of the three armies assembled on the Rhine, the others being led by Prince Frederick Charles and the crown prince. It was not long before serious differences arose between Steinmetz and Prince Frederick Charles. The former, embittered by a lifelong struggle against the influences of wealth and position, and perhaps somewhat grisé by his successes in 1866, considered an order to clear the roads for the prince’s army as an attempt to crowd a humbler comrade out of the fighting line, and various incidents added day by day to his growing resentment until at last on the field of Gravelotte (see and  for an account of these quarrels) he lost his temper and wasted his troops. After this there was no alternative but to relieve him of the command of the I. Army and to send him home as governor-general of the V. and VI. Army Corps districts. In April 1871 he was retired at his own request, but his great services were not forgotten when victory had softened animosities, and he was promoted general field-marshal, given a pension of 2000 thalers and made a member of the upper chamber. In the spirit of loyalty which had guided his whole career as a soldier he made no attempt to justify his conduct in 1870 either against the criticisms of the general staff history or against unofficial attacks. His life in retirement was quiet and happy, and he retained his bodily health to the last. He died at Bad Landeck on the 2nd of August 1877. The 37th Fusiliers of the German army bear his name as part of their regimental title.

 STEINSCHNEIDER, MORITZ (1816–1907), Jewish bibliographer, was born in Moravia in 1816. He was the most accomplished bibliographer in the realm of Hebrew literature. His greatest work was his Catalogue of the Hebrew Collection of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, (1852–1860). In this masterly work he settled many questions as to the locality, date and authorship of early printed books, and provided a vast mass of biographical materials. His Jewish Literature (published in German in Ersch and Gruber in 1850, in English in 1857, and in Hebrew in 1899) is a complete survey of its subject. Steinschneider prepared many other catalogues (Leiden, Munich, Hamburg and Berlin). He wrote much on Arabic literature, and was the author of bibliographies on a great variety of subjects. Among them may be named bibliographies of Jewish mathematicians and travellers. His most extensive work after his Bodleian Catalogue was his treatise on Hebrew translations in the middle ages (Die hebräischen Übersetzungen des Mittelalters, 2 vols., 1893). Much of his work appeared in his periodical Hebräische Bibliographie (1859–1882). He died in Berlin in 1907.

 STEINTHAL, HEYMANN (1823–1899), German philosopher and philologist, was born at Gröbzig in Anhalt on the 16th of May 1823. He read philosophy and philology at the university of Berlin, where he graduated in 1850. From 1852 to 1855 he studied Chinese (language and literature) in Paris, and in 1863 became extraordinary professor of philology at Berlin. In his philosophic theories he sympathized with Moritz Lazarus, in conjunction with whom he founded in 1859 the Zeitschrift fur Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. Like Lazarus and the Herbartian school in general, he attached supreme value to psychology, and especially to the psychology of society, the study of which, combined with comparative philology, alone could give trustworthy results. In philology he was an admirer and disciple of Wilhelm von Humboldt, on whose methods he wrote several books.

His principal works are Der Ursprung der Sprache im Zusammenhang mit den lelzten Fragen alles Wissens (1851; 4th ed., 1888); Klassification der Sprachen (1850); Charakteristik der hauptsächlichen Typen des Sprachbaues (1860); Fie Entwickelung der Schrift (1852); Grammatik, Logik, Psychologie, ihre Prinzipien, &c. (1885; Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern (1863; 2nd ed., 1889–1891); Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet (1867); Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., 1881); Allgemeine Ethik (1880); Zu Bibel und Religionsphilosophie (1890 and 1895). His books on von Humboldt appeared in 1848, 1864 and 1867, and in 1884 he published an edition of his works.

 STELE, the Greek name for a pillar or vertical slab of stone or marble, sometimes decorated with bas-reliefs and bearing inscriptions, and generally terminated with a cresting  enriched with the anthemion plant. In later times the stele was crowned with a small pediment. The Way of the Tombs at Athens was lined with stelae, some of them in memory of prominent citizens.

 STELLENBOSCH, a town of the Cape province, South Africa, 31 m. by rail E. of Cape Town. Pop. (1904), 7573, of whom 2497 were whites. It lies 360 ft. above the sea in a pleasant upland valley on the Atlantic slope of the coast range, and is, next to the capital, the oldest settlement in the province, having been founded by order of Commandant Simon van der Stell in 1681 and named after him and his wife, whose maiden name was Bosch. The streets are lined with magnificent oaks, while many of the houses with heavy, thatched gables date from the 17th century. Stellenbosch is the headquarters of the Cape branch of the Dutch Reformed Church, and is also an important educational centre. The chief buildings, besides the churches, are the Dutch theological seminary, Victoria College, Bloemhof girls’ school, agricultural college and school of mines, laboratory and school of science and the S.A. conservatorium of music. The surrounding district is largely devoted to viticulture and

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 fruit-growing. The vineyards have been replanted with American stocks. The Stellenbosch valley is closed in by ranges of hills beyond which, eastward, lies Frenchhoek valley, with a village of the same name. This district was the headquarters of the Huguenot refugees who settled in South Africa at the close of the 17th century.

In the early days of the Boer War (1899–1902) Stellenbosch was one of the British military bases, and was used as a “remount” camp; and in consequence of officers who had not distinguished themselves at the front being sent back to it, the expression “to be Stellenbosched” came into use; so much, so, that in similar cases officers were spoken of as “Stellenbosched” even if they were sent to some other place. The remount dépôt is maintained; horses and mules thrive here.  STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stam, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to “staff”), in popular language the stalk of a plant, the trunk of a tree (for the technical use of the term in botany see below). There are many transferred uses of the word, such as for the slender structure which joins the foot or base of a vase or goblet to the bowl, a stock or branch of a family, or, in philology, a derivative from a root, the unchanged part in a series of inflected forms. The stem of a ship is the prow, properly a curved piece of timber or metal to which the two sides are attached at its foremost end. This was a Scandinavian use early adopted in English; the word meant simply post, and custom alone restricted it to the bows rather than to the stern; in Danish the distinction is made between fram stam and bak stam and also in German, Vorder-steven Hinter-steven.

In botany a stem may be defined as an axis bearing leaves. The stem with its leaves is known as the shoot. Structurally it differs from a root in having no development of cells forming a cap over the growing-point. Under the term caulome (stem structure) are included all those parts of a plant morphologically equivalent in bearing leaves. The stem generally ascends, seeking air and light, and has therefore been termed the ascending axis. Stems have usually considerable firmness and solidity, but sometimes they are weak, and either lie prostrate on the ground, thus becoming procumbent, or climb on plants and rocks by means of rootlets, like the ivy, being then called scandent, or twist round other plants in a spiral manner like Woodbine, when they are twining. Twining plants turn either from right —Orchid with pseudobulbs, p. to left, as the French bean, convolvulus, dodder and gourd; or from left to right, as honeysuckle, twining polygonum, hop and black bryony (Tamus). In other cases climbing plants are supported by tendrils, as in vine, bryony, passion-flower, or by the tendril-like leaf-stalks, as in clematis and Tropaeolum. In warm climates twining plants (lianas) often form thick woody stems, while in temperate regions they are generally herbaceous. Some stems are developed more in diameter than in height, and present a peculiar shortened and thickened aspect, as Testudinaria or tortoise-plant, cyclamen, Melocactus, Echinocactus and other Cactaceae; while in many orchids (fig. 1) the stem assumes an oval or rounded form, and is called a pseudobulb.

Names are given to plants according to the nature and duration of their stems. Herbs, or herbaceous plants, have stems which die down annually. In some of them the whole plant perishes after flowering; in others, the lower part of the stem forming the crown of the root remains, bearing buds from which the stem arises next season. In biennial herbs the whole plant perishes after two years, while in perennial herbs the crown is capable of producing stems for many years, or new annual products are repeatedly added many times, if not indefinitely, to the old stems. The short permanent stem of herbaceous plants is covered partially or completely by the soil, so as to protect the buds. Plants producing permanent woody stems are called trees and shrubs. The latter produce branches from or near the ground; while the former have conspicuous trunks. Shrubby plants of small stature are called under-shrubs or bushes. The limits between these different kinds of stem are not always well defined; and there are some plants occupying an intermediate position between shrubs and trees, to which the name of arborescent shrubs is occasionally given.

The stem is not always conspicuous. Plants with a distinct stem are caulescent; those in which it is inconspicuous are acaulescent, as the primrose, cowslip and dandelion. A similar term is given in ordinary language to plants whose stems are buried in the soil, such as cyclamen or sowbread. Some plants are truly stemless, and consist only of expansions of cellular tissue representing stem and leaf, called a thallus, and hence are denominated Thallogens, or Thallophytes.

The first rudiment of the young shoot of the embryo appears from the seed after the radicle (young root) has protruded. It is termed the plumule (fig. 2), and differs from the radicle in the absence of a root-cap and in its tendency to ascend. The apical growing portion constitutes the terminal bud of the plant, and by its development the stem increases in height; projections appear at regular intervals, which are the rudimentary leaves, and in addition there is a provision for the reduction of lateral buds, which develop into lateral shoots more or less resembling the parent stem, and by these the branching of the plant is determined (fig. 3). These buds are found in the axil of previously-formed leavers; or, in other words, in the angle formed between the stem and leaf. They are hence called axillary. They are produced like the leaves from the outer portion of the stem (exogenous), and at first consist entirely of celluar tissue, but in the progress ofgrowth vascular bundles are formed in them continuous with those of the stem, and ultimately branches are produced, which in every respect resemble the axis whence the buds first sprang. In the Lycopods branching takes place by forking of the growing-point, the main axis being thus replaced by two equivalent axes (fig. 4); in most cases the new axes develop unequally, the weaker becoming pushed aside and appearing later as a lateral branch of the stronger. The place of origin of the leaf is called a node; the intervals between nodes are called internodes. The stem, although it has a tendency to rise upwards when first developed, in many instances becomes prostrate, and either lies along the ground partially covered by the soil, or runs completely underneath its surface, giving off roots from one side and buds from the other. Some stems are therefore subterranean, and are distinguished from roots, by the provision made for regular leaf-buds.

Growth in length of the stem is due to elongation of the internodes; the zone of most rapid growth is at some distance below the apex; below this the rate of growth gradually diminishes until the portion is reached where growth in length no longer takes place. In some cases, as in the stems of grasses, growth in length persists for a longer time in a small region at the base of the internodes; this is known as intercalary growth. In the dwarf or short shoots, such as those of the larch, the internodes do not elongate and the leaves remain close together. Lateral buds give rise to branches, from which others, called branchlets or twigs, arise. The terminal bud, after producing leaves, sometimes dies at the end of one season, and the whole plant, as in annuals, perishes; or part of the axis is persistent, and remains for two or more years, each of the leaves before its decay producing a bud in its axil. This bud

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Rh Linnaeus and Thunberg, and began early to make excursions. He made a voyage to America in 1783, visited England in 1788, returned to Sweden in 1789, and was made professor of natural history in Stockholm. He was the author of many systematic works, and largely extended our knowledge of both flowering plants and cryptograms. He died in 1818.  SWAT, a tract on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province of India, consisting of the valley of the Swat river above its confluence with the Panjkora. This valley is some 70 m. long, varying from 10 m. to a few hundred yards in breadth; it is intersected by ravines and glens, which bring down the drainage of the ranges on either side. Only that portion of the valley which lies beyond the Peshawar frontier hills, and which is reached by the Malakand, the Shahkot and other passes from the south, is Swat. To the east are the independent hill tracts of Kohistan and Buner, all bordering the Indus, and to the west are Dir and Bajour.

The Swat river rises among snow mountains in the Kohistan, not far from the source of the Gilgit river. After flowing due south for nearly 70 m., it turns to the west and is joined by the Panjkora. It then passes through the Mohmand country, and on entering Peshawar district spreads out to the south-east in many channels which ultimately fall into the Kabul river. Total length about 400 m. In British territory its waters have been utilised by a series of canals to irrigate an area of about 160,000 acres; and the system is now being extended by means of a tunnel through the Malakand range, which will tap the river much higher up.

Swat was better known to the ancients, and to the warriors of Baber’s time, than it was to us until the frontier risings of 1895–97 gave British surveyors the opportunity of visiting the country. The ancient name of the river was Suastos, and that of the Panjkora was Ghoura, under which names they figure in the history of Alexander’s campaign. The site of the city Massaga, the capital of the Assakeni, is supposed to be near the modern Manglaur. But since the adoption of the Khyber as the main high road from Kabul to India the Swat routes had passed into oblivion. Only the lower portion of the Swat valley, where the river intervenes between Malakand and the passes leading to Dir from the Panjkora, is of military significance. The upper valley is closely gripped between mountain spurs stretching southwards from the Hindu Koh, rising to 15,000 ft. on one side and 19,000 ft. on the other, leaving but a narrow space between their rugged summits and the banks of the river. The valley, narrow though it is, and traversed by the worst conceivable type of hill tracks, contains many villages or hamlets, and is pretty thickly populated. The district has come into prominence of recent years, on account of its lying on the direct road to Chitral.

The Swatis are a clan of Yusafzai Pathans numbering 40,000 fighting men but are of weakly and thin physique, due to the malaria with which the valley is saturated. They are divided into three main clans, the Baizais, Ranizais and Khwazozais. They had not much name for valour, but they opposed a stout resistance to Sir Robert Low’s advance over the Malakand Pass in 1895 to the relief of Chitral; and again in 1897, under the influence of fanaticism, they showed desperate bravery in the attack on the Malakand Fort and Chakdara. They are all Suni Mahommedans, and have earned the reputation of being the most bigoted of all the Afghan tribes. For many years they were under the religious dominance of the Akhund of Swat, Abdul Ghafur, who, born in 1794, obtained ascendancy by means of his ascetic practices, ruled practically undisputed in Swat for the last 30 years of his life, and died in 1877. The Akhund, after his experience of the British strength in the Umbeyla Campaign of 1863, always exerted his influence in favour of peace with the British government, though in his earlier days he was sometimes troublesome. He was succeeded by his son Mian Gul, who never possessed the same influence as his father.  SWATOW (also Shan‘tow), a port of China, in the province of Kwang-tung, opened to foreign trade in 1869. The population is upwards of 60,000. The town is situated at the mouth of the main branch of the river Han, which 30 miles inland flows past the great city of Ch’aochow Fu or Tai-chu (Tie-chu), while the surrounding country is more populous and full of towns and villages than any other part of the province. The climate is good, but being situated at the southern end of the Formosa Strait the town is exposed to the full force of the typhoons, and much destruction is occasionally wrought. English merchants settled on Double Island in the river as early as 1856; but the city, which is built on ground but recently recovered from the sea, was formerly a mere fishing village. The trade of the port has rapidly increased. In 1869 the total value of the trade was £4,800,000, in 1884 £5,519,772, and in 1904 £7,063,579. The surrounding country is a great sugar-cane district producing annually about 2,400,000 cwt. of sugar, and there is an extensive refinery in the town employing upwards of 600 workmen and possessing a reservoir for 7,000,000 gallons of water. Next in value comes the manufacture of bean-cake, which is also imported in large quantities from Niuchwang, Chifu, Shanghai, Amoy and Hong-Kong. Among the leading exports are tea (since about 1872); grass-cloth, manufactured at Swatow from so-called Taiwan hemp (the fibre of the Boehmeria nivea from Formosa); pine-apple cloth, manufactured in the villages about Chieh-Yang (a town 22 m. distant); oranges, for which the district is famous; cheap fans; and pewter, iron and tin wares. Swatow is also a great emigration port and was the scene of many kidnapping adventures on the part of foreigners in the early days. Their outrages gave rise to much hostile feeling towards foreigners who were not allowed to enter the city of Ch’aochow Fu until the year 1861. Of the whole foreign trade of the port upwards of 83% is in British bottoms, the trade with Hong-Kong being of especial importance.

About 1865 the whole Swatow district was still divided into a number of “independent townships, each ruled by its own headmen,” and the population was described in the official gazetteer, as “generally rebellious and wicked in the highest degree.” Mr Forrest, British consular agent, relates that in that year he was witness to the preparations for a fight between the people living on the opposite sides of the estuary, which was only prevented by a British war-vessel. The T‘aip‘ings swept over the country, and by their ravages and plundering did much to tame the independence of the clans. The punishment inflicted in 1869 by Commander Tones on the inhabitants of Otingpui (Ou-ting-pei), about 8 m. from Swatow, for the attack they had made on the boats of H.M.S. “Cockchafer,” showed the Chinese authorities that such piratical villages were not so strong as had been supposed. General Fang (a native of Ch‘aochow Fu) was sent to reduce the district to order, and he carried out his instructions with remorseless rigour.  SWAZILAND (native name Pungwane), a country of British South Africa bounded S., W. and N. by the Transvaal, E. by the Portuguese possessions at Delagoa Bay and the Ingwavuma division of Zululand. It lies between the Drakensberg and Lebombo Mountains and is separated from the Indian Ocean by low land varying in width from 30 to 50 m. It has an area of 6536 sq. m. (being somewhat larger than Yorkshire) and a population (1904), of 85,484, of whom 898 were whites. The natives are nearly all Ama-Swazi Bantus, commonly called Swazis, and are closely allied to the Zulus.

Spurs from the Drakensberg occupy a large part of the country, which may be divided into three parallel belts running north and south. The western belt has an average altitude of about 4500 ft., and is known as the high veld. It is succeeded by the middle veld—not more than 2500 ft. above the sea, and that by the low veld—1000 ft. high, which reaches to the foot of the Lebombo Mountains. These are flat-topped, nowhere higher than 2000 ft. The country is well watered by numerous rivers, all of which discharge into Delagoa Bay. The central and southern parts are drained by the Usutu and other tributaries of the Maputa; the northern region by the (q.v.) and the Umbelozi. The Umbelozi has two chief headstreams, the Black and the White Umbelozi, the White branch being the more southerly. The climate is warm but healthy save in some of the river valleys. The flora and fauna differ in no

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