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Twenty Years After/Chapter 6

Years have elapsed, many events have happened, alas! since, in our romance of "The Three Musketeers," we took leave of D'Artagnan at No. 12 Rue des Fossoyeurs. D'Artagnan had not failed in his career, but circumstances had been adverse to him. So long as he was surrounded by his friends he retained his youth and the poetry of his character. He was one of those fine, ingenuous natures which assimilate themselves easily to the dispositions of others. Athos imparted to him his greatness of soul, Porthos his enthusiasm, Aramis his elegance. Had D'Artagnan continued his intimacy with these three men he would have become a superior character. Athos was the first to leave him, in order that he might retire to a little property he had inherited near Blois; Porthos, the second, to marry an attorney's wife; and lastly, Aramis, the third, to take orders and become an abbe. From that day D'Artagnan felt lonely and powerless, without courage to pursue a career in which he could only distinguish himself on condition that each of his three companions should endow him with one of the gifts each had received from Heaven.

Notwithstanding his commission in the musketeers, D'Artagnan felt completely solitary. For a time the delightful remembrance of Madame Bonancieux left on his character a certain poetic tinge, perishable indeed; for like all other recollections in this world, these impressions were, by degrees, effaced. A garrison life is fatal even to the most aristocratic organization; and imperceptibly, D'Artagnan, always in the camp, always on horseback, always in garrison, became (I know not how in the present age one would express it) a typical trooper. His early refinement of character was not only not lost, it grew even greater than ever; but it was now applied to the little, instead of to the great things of life -- to the martial condition of the soldier -- comprised under the head of a good lodging, a rich table, a congenial hostess. These important advantages D'Artagnan found to his own taste in the Rue Tiquetonne at the sign of the Roe.

From the time D'Artagnan took quarters in that hotel, the mistress of the house, a pretty and fresh looking Flemish woman, twenty-five or twenty-six years old, had been singularly interested in him; and after certain love passages, much obstructed by an inconvenient husband to whom a dozen times D'Artagnan had made a pretence of passing a sword through his body, that husband had disappeared one fine morning, after furtively selling certain choice lots of wine, carrying away with him money and jewels. He was thought to be dead; his wife, especially, who cherished the pleasing idea that she was a widow, stoutly maintained that death had taken him. Therefore, after the connection had continued three years, carefully fostered by D'Artagnan, who found his bed and his mistress more agreeable every year, each doing credit to the other, the mistress conceived the extraordinary desire of becoming a wife and proposed to D'Artagnan that he should marry her.

"Ah, fie!" D'Artagnan replied. "Bigamy, my dear! Come now, you don't really wish it?"

"But he is dead; I am sure of it."

"He was a very contrary fellow and might come back on purpose to have us hanged."

"All right; if he comes back you will kill him, you are so skillful and so brave."

"Peste! My darling! Another way of getting hanged."

"So you refuse my request?"

"To be sure I do -- furiously!"

The pretty landlady was desolate. She would have taken D'Artagnan not only as her husband, but as her God, he was so handsome and had so fierce a mustache.

Then along toward the fourth year came the expedition of Franche-Comte. D'Artagnan was assigned to it and made his preparations to depart. There were then great griefs, tears without end and solemn promises to remain faithful -- all of course on the part of the hostess. D'Artagnan was too grand to promise anything; he purposed only to do all that he could to increase the glory of his name.

As to that, we know D'Artagnan's courage; he exposed himself freely to danger and while charging at the head of his company he received a ball through the chest which laid him prostrate on the field of battle. He had been seen falling from his horse and had not been seen to rise; every one, therefore, believed him to be dead, especially those to whom his death would give promotion. One believes readily what he wishes to believe. Now in the army, from the division-generals who desire the death of the general-in-chief, to the soldiers who desire the death of the corporals, all desire some one's death.

But D'Artagnan was not a man to let himself be killed like that. After he had remained through the heat of the day unconscious on the battle-field, the cool freshness of the night brought him to himself. He gained a village, knocked at the door of the finest house and was received as the wounded are always and everywhere received in France. He was petted, tended, cured; and one fine morning, in better health than ever before, he set out for France. Once in France he turned his course toward Paris, and reaching Paris went straight to Rue Tiquetonne.

But D'Artagnan found in his chamber the personal equipment of a man, complete, except for the sword, arranged along the wall.

"He has returned," said he. "So much the worse, and so much the better!"

It need not be said that D'Artagnan was still thinking of the husband. He made inquiries and discovered that the servants were new and that the mistress had gone for a walk.

"Alone?" asked D'Artagnan.

"With monsieur."

"Monsieur has returned, then?"

"Of course," naively replied the servant.

"If I had any money," said D'Artagnan to himself, "I would go away; but I have none. I must stay and follow the advice of my hostess, while thwarting the conjugal designs of this inopportune apparition."

He had just completed this monologue -- which proves that in momentous circumstances nothing is more natural than the monologue -- when the servant-maid, watching at the door, suddenly cried out:

"Ah! See! Here is madame returning with monsieur."

D'Artagnan looked out and at the corner of Rue Montmartre saw the hostess coming along hanging to the arm of an enormous Swiss, who tiptoed in his walk with a magnificent air which pleasantly reminded him of his old friend Porthos.

"Is that monsieur?" said D'Artagnan to himself. "Oh! Oh! He has grown a good deal, it seems to me." And he sat down in the hall, choosing a conspicuous place.

The hostess, as she entered, saw D'Artagnan and uttered a little cry, whereupon D'Artagnan, judging that he had been recognized, rose, ran to her and embraced her tenderly. The Swiss, with an air of stupefaction, looked at the hostess, who turned pale.

"Ah, it is you, monsieur! What do you want of me?" she asked, in great distress.

"Is monsieur your cousin? Is monsieur your brother?" said D'Artagnan, not in the slightest degree embarrassed in the role he was playing. And without waiting for her reply he threw himself into the arms of the Helvetian, who received him with great coldness.

"Who is that man?" he asked.

The hostess replied only by gasps.

"Who is that Swiss?" asked D'Artagnan.

"Monsieur is going to marry me," replied the hostess, between two gasps.

"Your husband, then, is at last dead?"

"How does that concern you?" replied the Swiss.

"It concerns me much," said D'Artagnan, "since you cannot marry madame without my consent and since "

"And since?" asked the Swiss.

"And since -- I do not give it," said the musketeer.

The Swiss became as purple as a peony. He wore his elegant uniform, D'Artagnan was wrapped in a sort of gray cloak; the Swiss was six feet high, D'Artagnan was hardly more than five; the Swiss considered himself on his own ground and regarded D'Artagnan as an intruder.

"Will you go away from here?" demanded the Swiss, stamping violently, like a man who begins to be seriously angry.

"I? By no means!" said D'Artagnan.

"Some one must go for help," said a lad, who could not comprehend that this little man should make a stand against that other man, who was so large.

D'Artagnan, with a sudden accession of wrath, seized the lad by the ear and led him apart, with the injunction:

"Stay you where you are and don't you stir, or I will pull this ear off. As for you, illustrious descendant of William Tell, you will straightway get together your clothes which are in my room and which annoy me, and go out quickly to another lodging."

The Swiss began to laugh boisterously. "I go out?" he said. "And why?"

"Ah, very well!" said D'Artagnan; "I see that you understand French. Come then, and take a turn with me and I will explain."

The hostess, who knew D'Artagnan's skill with the sword, began to weep and tear her hair. D'Artagnan turned toward her, saying, "Then send him away, madame."

"Pooh!" said the Swiss, who had needed a little time to take in D'Artagnan's proposal, "Pooh! Who are you, in the first place, to ask me to take a turn with you?"

"I am lieutenant in his majesty's musketeers," said D'Artagnan, "and consequently your superior in everything; only, as the question now is not of rank, but of quarters -- you know the custom -- come and seek for yours; the first to return will recover his chamber."

D'Artagnan led away the Swiss in spite of lamentations on the part of the hostess, who in reality found her heart inclining toward her former lover, though she would not have been sorry to give a lesson to that haughty musketeer who had affronted her by the refusal of her hand.

It was night when the two adversaries reached the field of battle. D'Artagnan politely begged the Swiss to yield to him the disputed chamber; the Swiss refused by shaking his head, and drew his sword.

"Then you will lie here," said D'Artagnan. "It is a wretched bed, but that is not my fault, and it is you who have chosen it." With these words he drew in his turn and crossed swords with his adversary.

He had to contend against a strong wrist, but his agility was superior to all force. The Swiss received two wounds and was not aware of it, by reason of the cold; but suddenly feebleness, occasioned by loss of blood, obliged him to sit down.

"There!" said D'Artagnan, "What did I tell you? Fortunately, you won't be laid up more than a fortnight. Remain here and I will send you your clothes by the boy. Good-by! Oh, by the way, you'd better take lodging in the Rue Montorgueil at the Chat Qui Pelote. You will be well fed there, if the hostess remains the same. Adieu."

Thereupon he returned in a lively mood to his room and sent to the Swiss the things that belonged to him. The boy found him sitting where D'Artagnan had left him, still overwhelmed by the coolness of his adversary.

The boy, the hostess, and all the house had the same regard for D'Artagnan that one would have for Hercules should he return to earth to repeat his twelve labors.

But when he was alone with the hostess he said: "Now, pretty Madeleine, you know the difference between a Swiss and a gentleman. As for you, you have acted like a barmaid. So much the worse for you, for by such conduct you have lost my esteem and my patronage. I have driven away the Swiss to humiliate you, but I shall lodge here no longer. I will not sleep where I must scorn. Ho, there, boy! Have my valise carried to the Muid d'Amour, Rue des Bourdonnais. Adieu, madame."

In saying these words D'Artagnan appeared at the same time majestic and grieved. The hostess threw herself at his feet, asked his pardon and held him back with a sweet violence. What more need be said? The spit turned, the stove roared, the pretty Madeleine wept; D'Artagnan felt himself invaded by hunger, cold and love. He pardoned, and having pardoned he remained.

And this explains how D'Artagnan had quarters in the Rue Tiquetonne, at the Hotel de la Chevrette.

D'Artagnan then returned home in thoughtful mood, finding a somewhat lively pleasure in carrying Mazarin's bag of money and thinking of that fine diamond which he had once called his own and which he had seen on the minister's finger that night.

"Should that diamond ever fall into my hands again," he reflected, "I would turn it at once into money; I would buy with the proceeds certain lands around my father's chateau, which is a pretty place, well enough, but with no land to it at all, except a garden about the size of the Cemetery des Innocents; and I should wait in all my glory till some rich heiress, attracted by my good looks, rode along to marry me. Then I should like to have three sons; I should make the first a nobleman, like Athos; the second a good soldier, like Porthos; the third an excellent abbe, like Aramis. Faith! that would be a far better life than I lead now; but Monsieur Mazarin is a mean wretch, who won't dispossess himself of his diamond in my favor."

On entering the Rue Tiquetonne he heard a tremendous noise and found a dense crowd near the house.

"Oho!" said he, "Is the hotel on fire?" On approaching the hotel of the Roe he found, however, that it was in front of the next house the mob was collected. The people were shouting and running about with torches. By the light of one of these torches D'Artagnan perceived men in uniform.

He asked what was going on.

He was told that twenty citizens, headed by one man, had attacked a carriage which was escorted by a troop of the cardinal's bodyguard; but a reinforcement having come up, the assailants had been put to flight and the leader had taken refuge in the hotel next to his lodgings; the house was now being searched.

In his youth D'Artagnan had often headed the bourgeoisie against the military, but he was cured of all those hot-headed propensities; besides, he had the cardinal's hundred pistoles in his pocket, so he went into the hotel without a word. There he found Madeleine alarmed for his safety and anxious to tell him all the events of the evening, but he cut her short by ordering her to put his supper in his room and give him with it a bottle of good Burgundy.

He took his key and candle and went upstairs to his bedroom. He had been contented, for the convenience of the house, to lodge in the fourth story; and truth obliges us even to confess that his chamber was just above the gutter and below the roof. His first care on entering it was to lock up in an old bureau with a new lock his bag of money, and then as soon as supper was ready he sent away the waiter who brought it up and sat down to table.

Not to reflect on what had passed, as one might fancy. No, D'Artagnan considered that things are never well done when they are not reserved to their proper time. He was hungry; he supped, he went to bed. Neither was he one of those who think that the necessary silence of the night brings counsel with it. In the night he slept, but in the morning, refreshed and calm, he was inspired with his clearest views of everything. It was long since he had any reason for his morning's inspiration, but he always slept all night long. At daybreak he awoke and took a turn around his room.

"In '43," he said, "just before the death of the late cardinal, I received a letter from Athos. Where was I then? Let me see. Oh! At the siege of Besancon I was in the trenches. He told me -- let me think -- what was it? That he was living on a small estate -- but where? I was just reading the name of the place when the wind blew my letter away, I suppose to the Spaniards; there's no use in thinking any more about Athos. Let me see: with regard to Porthos, I received a letter from him, too. He invited me to a hunting party on his property in the month of September, 1646. Unluckily, as I was then in Bearn, on account of my father's death, the letter followed me there. I had left Bearn when it arrived and I never received it until the month of April, 1647; and as the invitation was for September, 1646, I couldn't accept it. Let me look for this letter; it must be with my title deeds."

D'Artagnan opened an old casket which stood in a corner of the room, and which was full of parchments referring to an estate during a period of two hundred years lost to his family. He uttered an exclamation of delight, for the large handwriting of Porthos was discernible, and underneath some lines traced by his worthy spouse.

D'Artagnan eagerly searched for the heading of this letter; it was dated from the Chateau du Vallon.

Porthos had forgotten that any other address was necessary; in his pride he fancied that every one must know the Chateau du Vallon.

"Devil take the vain fellow," said D'Artagnan. "However, I had better find him out first, since he can't want money. Athos must have become an idiot by this time from drinking. Aramis must have worn himself to a shadow of his former self by constant genuflexion."

He cast his eyes again on the letter. There was a postscript:

"I write by the same courier to our worthy friend Aramis in his convent."

"In his convent! What convent? There are about two hundred in Paris and three thousand in France; and then, perhaps, on entering the convent he changed his name. Ah! If I were but learned in theology I should recollect what it was he used to dispute about with the curate of Montdidier and the superior of the Jesuits, when we were at Crevecoeur; I should know what doctrine he leans to and I should glean from that what saint he has adopted as his patron.

"Well, suppose I go back to the cardinal and ask him for a passport into all the convents one can find, even into the nunneries? It would be a curious idea, and maybe I should find my friend under the name of Achilles. But, no! I should lose myself in the cardinal's opinion. Great people only thank you for doing the impossible; what's possible, they say, they can effect themselves, and they are right. But let us wait a little and reflect. I received a letter from him, the dear fellow, in which he even asked me for some small service, which, in fact, I rendered him. Yes, yes; but now what did I do with that letter?"

D'Artagnan thought a moment and then went to the wardrobe in which hung his old clothes. He looked for his doublet of the year 1648 and as he had orderly habits, he found it hanging on its nail. He felt in the pocket and drew from it a paper; it was the letter of Aramis:

"Monsieur D'Artagnan: You know that I have had a quarrel with a certain gentleman, who has given me an appointment for this evening in the Place Royale. As I am of the church, and the affair might injure me if I should share it with any other than a sure friend like you, I write to beg that you will serve me as second.

"You will enter by the Rue Neuve Sainte Catherine; under the second lamp on the right you will find your adversary. I shall be with mine under the third.

"Wholly yours,

"Aramis."

D'Artagnan tried to recall his remembrances. He had gone to the rendezvous, had encountered there the adversary indicated, whose name he had never known, had given him a pretty sword-stroke on the arm, then had gone toward Aramis, who at the same time came to meet him, having already finished his affair. "It is over," Aramis had said. "I think I have killed the insolent fellow. But, dear friend, if you ever need me you know that I am entirely devoted to you." Thereupon Aramis had given him a clasp of the hand and had disappeared under the arcades.

So, then, he no more knew where Aramis was than where Athos and Porthos were, and the affair was becoming a matter of great perplexity, when he fancied he heard a pane of glass break in his room window. He thought directly of his bag and rushed from the inner room where he was sleeping. He was not mistaken; as he entered his bedroom a man was getting in by the window.

"Ah! You scoundrel!" cried D'Artagnan, taking the man for a thief and seizing his sword.

"Sir!" cried the man, "In the name of Heaven put your sword back into the sheath and don't kill me unheard. I'm no thief, but an honest citizen, well off in the world, with a house of my own. My name is -- ah! But surely you are Monsieur d'Artagnan?"

"And thou -- Planchet!" cried the lieutenant.

"At your service, sir," said Planchet, overwhelmed with joy; "if I were still capable of serving you."

"Perhaps so," replied D'Artagnan. "But why the devil dost thou run about the tops of houses at seven o'clock of the morning in the month of January?"

"Sir," said Planchet, "you must know; but, perhaps you ought not to know "

"Tell us what," returned D'Artagnan, "but first put a napkin against the window and draw the curtains."

"Sir," said the prudent Planchet, "in the first place, are you on good terms with Monsieur de Rochefort?"

"Perfectly; one of my dearest friends."

"Ah! So much the better!"

"But what has De Rochefort to do with this manner you have of invading my room?"

"Ah, sir! I must first tell you that Monsieur de Rochefort is "

Planchet hesitated.

"Egad, I know where he is," said D'Artagnan. "He's in the Bastile."

"That is to say, he was there," replied Planchet. "But in returning thither last night, when fortunately you did not accompany him, as his carriage was crossing the Rue de la Ferronnerie his guards insulted the people, who began to abuse them. The prisoner thought this a good opportunity for escape; he called out his name and cried for help. I was there. I heard the name of Rochefort. I remembered him well. I said in a loud voice that he was a prisoner, a friend of the Duc de Beaufort, who called for help. The people were infuriated; they stopped the horses and cut the escort to pieces, whilst I opened the doors of the carriage and Monsieur de Rochefort jumped out and soon was lost amongst the crowd. At this moment a patrol passed by. I was obliged to sound a retreat toward the Rue Tiquetonne; I was pursued and took refuge in the house next to this, where I have been concealed between two mattresses. This morning I ventured to run along the gutters and "

"Well," interrupted D'Artagnan, "I am delighted that De Rochefort is free, but as for thee, if thou shouldst fall into the hands of the king's servants they will hang thee without mercy. Nevertheless, I promise thee thou shalt be hidden here, though I risk by concealing thee neither more nor less than my lieutenancy, if it was found out that I gave one rebel an asylum."

"Ah! Sir, you know well I would risk my life for you."

"Thou mayst add that thou hast risked it, Planchet. I have not forgotten all I owe thee. Sit down there and eat in security. I see thee cast expressive glances at the remains of my supper."

"Yes, sir; for all I've had since yesterday was a slice of bread and butter, with preserves on it. Although I don't despise sweet things in proper time and place, I found the supper rather light."

"Poor fellow!" said D'Artagnan. "Well, come; set to."

"Ah, sir, you are going to save my life a second time!" cried Planchet.

And he seated himself at the table and ate as he did in the merry days of the Rue des Fossoyeurs, whilst D'Artagnan walked to and fro and thought how he could make use of Planchet under present circumstances. While he turned this over in his mind Planchet did his best to make up for lost time at table. At last he uttered a sigh of satisfaction and paused, as if he had partially appeased his hunger.

"Come," said D'Artagnan, who thought that it was now a convenient time to begin his interrogations, "dost thou know where Athos is?"

"No, sir," replied Planchet.

"The devil thou dost not! Dost know where Porthos is?"

"No -- not at all."

"And Aramis?"

"Not in the least."

"The devil! The devil! The devil!"

"But, sir," said Planchet, with a look of shrewdness, "I know where Bazin is."

"Where is he?"

"At Notre Dame."

"What has he to do at Notre Dame?"

"He is beadle."

"Bazin beadle at Notre Dame! He must know where his master is!"

"Without a doubt he must."

D'Artagnan thought for a moment, then took his sword and put on his cloak to go out.

"Sir," said Planchet, in a mournful tone, "do you abandon me thus to my fate? Think, if I am found out here, the people of the house, who have not seen me enter it, will take me for a thief."

"True," said D'Artagnan. "Let's see. Canst thou speak any patois?"

"I can do something better than that, sir, I can speak Flemish."

"Where the devil didst thou learn it?"

"In Artois, where I fought for years. Listen, sir. Goeden morgen, mynheer, eth teen begeeray le weeten the ge sond heets omstand."

"Which means?"

"Good-day, sir! I am anxious to know the state of your health."

"He calls that a language! But never mind, that will do capitally."

D'Artagnan opened the door and called out to a waiter to desire Madeleine to come upstairs.

When the landlady made her appearance she expressed much astonishment at seeing Planchet.

"My dear landlady," said D'Artagnan, "I beg to introduce to you your brother, who is arrived from Flanders and whom I am going to take into my service."

"My brother?"

"Wish your sister good-morning, Master Peter."

"Wilkom, suster," said Planchet.

"Goeden day, broder," replied the astonished landlady.

"This is the case," said D'Artagnan; "this is your brother, Madeleine; you don't know him perhaps, but I know him; he has arrived from Amsterdam. You must dress him up during my absence. When I return, which will be in about an hour, you must offer him to me as a servant, and upon your recommendation, though he doesn't speak a word of French, I take him into my service. You understand?"

"That is to say, I guess your wishes, and that is all that's necessary," said Madeleine.

"You are a precious creature, my pretty hostess, and I am much obliged to you."

The next moment D'Artagnan was on his way to Notre Dame.

title: Twenty Years After/Chapter 6


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, George Alfred

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Giles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Henry (1600-1664)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Henry Montgomery


text:
Author:J. R. Chitty

Works

 * Things Seen in China. (1909)
 * Internet Archive scan of 1912 Seeley, Service and Co. edition

title: Author:J. R. Chitty


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, James Henry


text: Template:User Simple English Wikipedia administrator


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, John (1753-1839)


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 On the canals the trekschuit (drawboat or water 'bus) is fast becoming a thing of the past. Here and there only a cumbersome kind of house-boat is to be met with, moving slowly by dint of a deal of poling and pulling. Of such is the venerable boat which plies between Edam and Volendam, along perhaps the dirtiest canal in Holland. It may be slow in its progress along this sewer, but it is a pleasing remembrance, that of having been towed by one of the members of the Nierop family. Like a mule does he harness himself to the “express-boat,” and like a tortoise does he plod along the yellow-bricked towpath. He is in no hurry, nor would you be were it not for the “emanations” from the canal and the duck-farms. There is, however, compensation in all things, and the vista as one approaches Volendam is not to be forgotten.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, John Laird Mair


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Richard


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 In one of the slime-covered ditches of that noted fishing village on the shores of the Zuider Zee lies an old barge, quaintly and gorgeously embellished with mouldings once white. It is vaguely and more or less truthfully described as “belonging to the time of the French King, Louis XIV.,” and was in days past much in demand on festal and festive occasions; but its glory has departed, and it lies “on sluggish, lonesome, muddy waters, anchor'd near the shore, an old, dismasted, grey and batter'd ship, disabled, done, and broken … rusting, mouldering.”

As one passes through this noiseless landscape, unfolding itself, undisturbed by any other sound than the tinkling of the cow-bells and the musical chimes of the


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 town or village belfry ringing out gently not only quaint old tunes familiar centuries ago, but also airs that are painfully modern, drawn, as they often are, from the répertoire of music that is not classical, one falls into the somnolence of a lazy reverie, in the midst of which arises the awakening recollection of the difficulties under which the entrancing landscape has been fashioned by the hand of man and the sweat of his brow. Over and over again have the cruel and greedy waters claimed more than their pound of human flesh and more than their share of the land, begrudging the poor Hollander every square inch of his country.

Towards the close of the thirteenth century the sea destroyed a peninsula near the mouth of the Ems, and engulfed over thirty villages. In the same century a series of marine inundations opened a gap in North Holland, formed the Zuider Zee,


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 and claimed 80,000 persons. In 1421 the Maas overflowed its banks as the result of a storm, carrying away seventy-two villages and 100,000 lives in a single night. Again, in 1532, the sea broke the embankments of Zeeland, and a hundred villages were of the past. Amsterdam, Zeeland, and the province of Utrecht were inundated in 1570, while 20,000 persons were drowned in Friesland. In 1825 North Holland, Friesland, Over-Yssel, and Gelderland were inundated. In 1855 the overflowing Rhine flooded Gelderland, a portion of Utrecht, and submerged a large portion of Brabant. As late as 1873 the polder of Borselen, 21 English acres in extent, sank into the waters. Undaunted by all these disasters, to mention but a few of the principal ones, the Dutch fought on, draining the Lake of Haarlem, 44 kilometres in circumference, because its waters were a perpetual


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 threat to Haarlem, Amsterdam, and Leyden. And now they are seriously considering the draining of the Zuider Zee, an accomplishment that will add 1,400 square miles to their land. Holland may be called “toy-land,” or “the land of miniature,” but it is assuredly the “land of pluck,” for its citizens, undismayed by the numerous victories of sea and river, and by the terrible loss of life attendant upon them, pursue the even tenor of their way, for ever erecting new forts which are to repel the vigorous onslaught of the eternal enemy.

To return to the towns—the three most important ones—Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and The Hague. The town on the Rotte is given precedence because most travellers land there. It is the Liverpool or the Glasgow of Holland, and since 1830 the powerful rival of Antwerp. As you look up the haven, and catch a glimpse of a tall,


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 commanding windmill, you feel that you have arrived in a very Dutch town. Its cosmopolitan shipping has perhaps given it a reputation abroad of being less Dutch than other towns in Holland, but here again the activity and energy of the race are prominent. Rotterdam's charm lies in its virile strength, its business-like aspect, its magnificent port, and a stroll along the Boompjes (so called from the "little trees," now fully-grown elms), the principal quay, is well repaid by the endless vista of ships flying the colours of all nations. Rotterdam is a merchant city pure and simple. The saying goes that you make your fortune at Rotterdam, consolidate it at Amsterdam, and spend it at The Hague.

Rotterdam has an appearance of solidity about it, but perhaps less of the conservative stolidity to be met with elsewhere in the Netherlands. It is an essentially


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 progressive town, and both English and German influences have made and are making themselves felt in its daily life. About one-half of the total national imports by sea, and nearly one-half of the exports, pass through it, besides four-fifths of the Dutch trade with the Rhine. No lengthy stay need be made in Rotterdam. A pilgrimage to the statue and house of the illustrious Gerrit Gerritsz, better known to fame as Erasmus, is a tribute that should be paid to his memory. The Boymans Museum is also worthy of attention, although hardly a rival to the Amsterdam and The Hague galleries, as are also the Diergaarde, or “Zoo,” which is tastefully laid out, and the Gothic Groote Kerk, or Church of St. Lawrence, from the tower of which those of The Hague, Leyden, Gouda, Delft, Dordrecht, and Brielle can be distinguished in clear weather.


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Apparent Contradiction?

 * Noted en passant: the author's assertion on this page "Gerrit Gerritsz, better known to fame as Erasmus" is in apparent conflict with content of Geertgen tot Sint Jans and Desiderius Erasmus. MODCHK (talk) 17:08, 27 December 2012 (UTC)


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 INTRODUCTION.

these days of strong party feeling and of keenly-contested social and religious issues, it might perhaps be thought difficult to find a single question having a vital bearing upon national life and well-being on which all persons, no matter of what political party, or of what


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gosse, Edmund


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10 shade of sociological opinion, would be found to be fully and entirely agreed. Discuss the temperance cause, and you will hear from Mr. John Morley that it is "the greatest moral movement since the movement for the abolition of slavery"; but Lord Bruce will remind you that "every year the trade contributes £40,000,000 to the revenue of the country, so that practically it maintains the Army and Navy, besides which it affords employment to many thousands of persons"—that "even the tee-totalers owe much to the licensed victuallers, for if it were not for them the refreshment bars at the Crystal Palace would have been closed long ago." Discuss the opium traffic, and, on the one hand, you will hear that opium is rapidly destroying the morale of the people of China, and, on the other, that this is quite a delusion, and that the Chinese are capable, thanks to opium, of doing work which to a European is quite impossible, and that on food at which the least squeamish of English people would turn up their noses in disgust.

Religious and political questions too often divide us into hostile camps; and so, in the very realms where calm, dispassionate thought and pure emotions are the essentials of all advance towards right beliefs and sound principles of action, the din of battle and the struggles of contending hosts are more forcibly suggested to the onlooker than the really sincere love of truth and love of country which, one may yet be sure, animate nearly all breasts.

There is, however, a question in regard to which one can scarcely find any difference of opinion. It is well-nigh universally agreed by men of all parties, not only in England, but all over Europe and America and our


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Soulden


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Stringer


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Thomas (1711-1783)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, Thomas (1769-1830)


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Gorham, George Cornelius

GOR'HAM, (1787-1857). An English theologian, who became known as the principal figure in the ‘Gorham case.’ He was born at Saint Neots, Huntingdonshire, was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, received the degree of B.A. in 1808, was elected a fellow of his college in 1810, and held that appointment until 1827. Even before his ordination (1811) there, his views on baptism had caused comment, and particularly his contention that by baptism infants do not become members of Christ and the children of God; but the discussion did not become crucial until the question of his appointment to the vicarage of Brampford Speke came up before Dr. Phillpotts, Bishop of Exeter. (See .) Gorham obtained his vicarage in 1851. He was an antiquary of some reputation, and the author of a number of pamphlets.


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Rh colonies, that it is deeply to be deplored that the people should continue to stream into the already over-crowded cities, and should thus further deplete the country districts.

Lord Rosebery, speaking some years ago as Chairman of the London County Council, dwelt with very special emphasis on this point:—

Sir John Gorst points out the evil, and suggests the remedy:

Dean Farrar says:


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, William (1611?-1681)


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12 Dr. Rhodes, at the Demographic Congress, called attention to

The Press, Liberal, Radical, and Conservative, views this grave symptom of the time with the same alarm. The St. James's Gazette, on June 6, 1892, remarks:

The Star, 9th October, 1891, says:

The Daily News, a few years ago, published a series of articles, "Life in our Villages," dealing with the same problem.

Trade Unionist leaders utter the same note of warning. Mr. Ben Tillet says:


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrence, William (1783-1867)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrenson, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawrie, William


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The New International Encyclopædia/Gorham Controversy

GORHAM CONTROVERSY. A theological controversy within the Church of England as to the teaching of this Church with reference to the sacramental grace of baptism. The occasion was a suit by the Rev. against the Bishop of Exeter for induction into the vicarage of Brampford Speke, in spite of his denial of baptismal regeneration. The Arches Court of Canterbury decided in 1845 against Mr. Gorham, maintaining that baptismal regeneration is the doctrine of the Church of England, while on appeal the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

reversed the judgment of the lower court, without, however, expressing any opinion as to the theological accuracy of Mr. Gorham's opinions. The decision and the attitude of the high dignitaries of the Church of England, amid the fierce controversy which arose in regard to it, were the main determining factors in Manning's decision to submit to the Roman obedience. Consult Purcell, Life of Cardinal Manning (London, 1897).


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawson, Cecil Gordon


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Rh Mr. Tom Mann observes:

All, then, are agreed on the pressing nature of this problem, all are bent on its solution, and though it would doubtless be quite Utopian to expect a similar agreement as to the value of any remedy that may be proposed, it is at least of immense importance that, on a subject thus universally regarded as of supreme importance, we have such a consensus of opinion at the outset. This will be the more remarkable and the more hopeful sign when it is shown, as I believe will be conclusively shown in this work, that the answer to this, one of the most pressing questions of the day, makes of comparatively easy solution many other problems which have hitherto taxed the ingenuity of the greatest thinkers and reformers of our time. Yes, the key to the problem how to restore the people to the land—that beautiful land of ours, with its canopy of sky, the air that blows upon it, the sun that warms it, the rain and dew that moisten it—the very embodiment of Divine love for man—is indeed a Master-Key, for it is the key to a portal through which, even when scarce ajar, will be seen to pour a flood of light on the problems of intemperance, of excessive toil, of restless anxiety, of grinding poverty—the true limits of Governmental interference, ay, and even the relations of man to the Supreme Power.

It may perhaps be thought that the first step to be taken towards the solution of this question—how to restore the people to the land—would involve a careful


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawson, George (d.1678)


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14 consideration of the very numerous causes which have hitherto led to their aggregation in large cities. Were this the case, a very prolonged enquiry would be necessary at the outset. Fortunately, alike for writer and for reader, such an analysis is not, however, here requisite, and for a very simple reason, which may be stated thus:—Whatever may have been the causes which have operated in the past, and are operating now, to draw the people into the cities, those causes may all be summed up as "attractions"; and it is obvious, therefore, that no remedy can possibly be effective which will not present to the people, or at least to considerable portions of them, greater "attractions" than our cities now possess, so that the force of the old "attractions" shall be overcome by the force of new "attractions" which are to be created. Each city may be regarded as a magnet, each person as a needle; and, so viewed, it is at once seen that nothing short of the discovery of a method for constructing magnets of yet greater power than our cities possess can be effective for re-distributing the population in a spontaneous and healthy manner.

So presented, the problem may appear at first sight to be difficult, if not impossible, of solution. "What," some may be disposed to ask, "can possibly be done to make the country more attractive to a work-a-day people than the town—to make wages, or at least the standard of physical comfort, higher in the country than in the town; to secure in the country equal possibilities of social intercourse, and to make the prospects of advancement for the average man or woman equal, not to say superior, to those enjoyed in our large cities?" The issue one constantly finds presented in a form very similar to that. The


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Rh subject is treated continually in the public press, and in all forms of discussion, as though men, or at least working-men, had not now, and never could have, any choice or alternative, but either, on the one hand, to stifle their love for human society—at least in wider relations than can be found in a straggling village—or, on the other hand, to forego almost entirely all the keen and pure delights of the country. The question is universally considered as though it were now, and for ever must remain, quite impossible for working people to live in the country and yet be engaged in pursuits other than agricultural; as though crowded, unhealthy cities were the last word of economic science; and as if our present form of industry, in which sharp lines divide agricultural from industrial pursuits, were necessarily an enduring one. This fallacy is the very common one of ignoring altogether the possibility of alternatives other than those presented to the mind. There are in reality not only, as is so constantly assumed, two alternatives—town life and country life—but a third alternative, in which all the advantages of the most energetic and active town life, with all the beauty and delight of the country, may be secured in perfect combination; and the certainty of being able to live this life will be the magnet which will produce the effect for which we are all striving—the spontaneous movement of the people from our crowded cities to the bosom of our kindly mother earth, at once the source of life, of happiness, of wealth, and of power. The town and the country may, therefore, be regarded as two magnets, each striving to draw the people to itself—a rivalry which a new form of life, partaking of the nature of both, comes to take part in. This may be illustrated


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16 by a diagram of "The Three Magnets," in which the chief advantages of the Town and of the Country are set forth with their corresponding drawbacks, while the advantages of the Town-Country are seen to be free from the disadvantages of either.

The Town magnet, it will be seen, offers, as compared with the Country magnet, the advantages of high wages, opportunities for employment, tempting prospects of advancement, but these are largely counterbalanced by high rents and prices. Its social opportunities and its places of amusement are very alluring, but excessive hours of toil, distance from work, and the "isolation of crowds" tend greatly to reduce the value of these good things. The well-lit streets are a great attraction, especially in winter, but the sunlight is being more and more shut out, while the air is so vitiated that the fine public buildings, like the sparrows, rapidly become covered with soot, and the very statues are in despair. Palatial edifices and fearful slums are the strange, complementary features of modern cities.

The Country magnet declares herself to be the source of all beauty and wealth; but the Town magnet mockingly reminds her that she is very dull for lack of society, and very sparing of her gifts for lack of capital. There are in the country beautiful vistas, lordly parks, violet-scented woods, fresh air, sounds of rippling water; but too often one sees those threatening words, "Trespassers will be prosecuted." Rents, if estimated by the acre, are certainly low, but such low rents are the natural fruit of low wages rather than a cause of substantial comfort; while long hours and lack of amusements forbid the bright sunshine and the pure air to gladden the hearts


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Lawson, George (1749-1820)


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 jurisdiction in cases of homicide and the care of sacred olive trees. From this time to the establishment of the Thirty (462–404 ) the Areopagitic council, degraded still further by the opening of the archonship to the Zeugitae (457 ) and by the absolute use of the lot in filling the office, was a political nullity. The first indication of a revival of its prestige is to be traced in the action attributed to it by Lysias during the siege of Athens (404 ) (in Eratosth. 69:  ). After the surrender of Athens and the appointment of the Thirty, the repeal of the laws of Ephialtes and Archestratus prepared the way for the rehabilitation of the council as guardian of the constitution by the restored democracy (Arist. Ath. Pol. xxxv. 2; decree of Tisamenus, in Andoc. i. 84; cf. Din. i. 9). Although under the new conditions the Areopagites could not hope to recover their full supremacy, they did exercise considerable political influence, especially in crises. In the time of Demosthenes, accordingly, we find them annulling the election of individuals to offices for which they were unfit (Plut. Phoc. 16), exercising during a crisis a disciplinary power extending to life and death over all the Athenians “in conformity with ancestral law,” procuring the banishment of one, the racking of another, and the infliction of capital punishment on several of the citizens. This authority seems to have been delegated to them by the assembly with reference either to individual cases or temporarily to the whole body of Athenians (Din. i. 10, 62 f.; Aeschin. iii. 252; Lye. Leoc. 52; Demosth. xviii. 132 f.; Plut. Demosth. 14). Religion, too, was their care (Pseud. Demosth. lix. 80 f.). Lycurgus (ibid.) even goes so far as to claim chat by their action during the crisis after Chaeroneia they had saved the state. After the period of the great orators their influence continued to grow. Demetrius of Phalerum empowered them to assist the gynaeconomi in supervising festivals held in private houses (Philoch. in Müller, ibid. i. 408. 143). Under Roman supremacy in addition to earlier functions they had jurisdiction in cases of forgery, tampering with the standard measures, and probably other high crimes, the supervision of buildings, and the care of religion and of education (Cic. Fam. xiii. i; Att. v. 9; Tac. Ann. ii. 55; Plut. Cic. 24; C.I.G. i. 123. 9; C.I.A. ii. 476; iii. 703, 714, 716; Acts xvii. 19). Their council acquired, too, in conjunction with the assembly, with or without the co-operation of the Five Hundred (or Six Hundred), the right to pass decrees and to represent their city in foreign relations (C.I.A. iii. 10, 31, 40, 41, 454, 457, 458). From the overthrow of the Thirty to the end of their history they enjoyed a high reputation for ability and integrity (Isoc. vii.; Demosth. xxiii. 65 f.; Val. Max. viii. 1. Amb. 2; Gell. xii. 7; Lucian, Bis Acc. iv. 12. 14). About 400 their council came to an end (Theodoret, Curat. ix. 55).

With regard to the jurisdiction of the council in cases of homicide, the procedure, so far as it may be gathered from the orators and other sources, was as follows:—accusations were brought by relatives within the circle of brothers’ and sisters’ children, supported by the wider kin and the phratry (Demosth. xliii. 57). On receiving the accusation the king-archon by proclamation warned the accused to keep away from temples and other places forbidden to such persons. He made three investigations of the case in the three successive months, and brought it to trial in the fourth month. As he was forbidden to hand a case over to his successor, it resulted that in the last three months of the year no accusations of homicide could be brought (Ant. vi. 42). After the examination he assigned the case to the proper court, and presided over it during the trial, which took place in the open air, that the judges and the accuser might not be polluted by being brought under the same roof with the offender (Ant. v. 11). The accuser and the accused, standing on two white stones termed “Relentlessness” ( ) and “Outrage” ( ) respectively (Paus. i. 28. 5), bound themselves to the truth by most solemn oaths (Demosth. xxiii. 68). Each was allowed two speeches, and the trial lasted three days. After the first speech the accused, unless charged with parricide, was at liberty to withdraw into exile (Poll. viii. 117). If condemned, he lost his life, and his property was confiscated. A tie vote acquitted (Aeschyl. Eumen. 735; Ant. v. 51; Aeschin. iii. 252). See further.

.—Among other works may be mentioned E. Dugit, Étude sur l’Aréopage athénien (Paris, 1867); E. Caillemer, “Areopagus,” in Daremberg et Saglio, ''Dict. d. Antiq. grecq. et rom. (Paris, 1873) i. 395-404; A. Philippi, Areopag und Epheten'' (Berlin, 1874). The discovery of the Aristotelian “Constitution of Athens” (Ath. Pol.) has largely rendered obsolete all works published before 1891. See Hermann-Thumser, Griechische Staatsaltertümer (6th ed., Freiburg, 1892), 365-371, 387-391, 788; U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893), ii. 186-200; J. J. Terwen, De Areopago Atheniensium Quaestiones Variae (Utrecht, 1894); G. Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta (Eng. trans., London and New York, 1895), 114, 122, 137, 154, 282; F. Cauer, “Aischylos und der Areopag,” in ''Rhein. Mus. (1895), N.F. i. 348-356; Wachsmuth and Thalheim, s.v. “Areios pagos” in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencycl. d. kl. Altertumswiss''. (Stuttgart, 1896), ii. 627-633; G. de Sanctis, , Storia delta Repubblica Ateniese (Rome, 1898); L. Ziehen, “Drakontische Gesetzgebung,” in ''Rhein. Mus.'' (1899), N.F. liv. 321-344. See also ; and.

AREQUIPA, a coast department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, E. by Puno and Moquegua, S. and W. by Moquegua and the Pacific. It is divided into seven provinces. Area, 21,947 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 229,007. It is traversed by an important railway line from Mollendo (Islay) to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, 325 m. long, with extensions to Santa Rosa, Peru and La Paz, Bolivia. The highest point reached by this line is 14,660 ft. The department includes an arid, sand-covered region on the coast traversed by deep gorges formed by river courses, and a partly barren, mountainous region inland composed of the high Cordillera and its spurs toward the coast, between which are numerous highly fertile valleys watered by streams from the snow-clad peaks. These produce cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, coffee, Indian corn, barley, potatoes and fruit. The mountainous region is rich in minerals, and there is a valuable deposit of borax near the capital, Arequipa. AREQUIPA, a city of southern Peru, capital of the department of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. by N. of its seaport Mollendo (107 m. by rail), and near the south-west foot of the volcano Misti which rises to a height of 19,029 ft. above sea-level. The population was estimated at 35,000 in 1896. The city is provided with a tram line, and is connected with the coast at Mollendo (Islay) by a railway 107 m. long, and with Puno, on Lake Titicaca, by an extension of the same line 218 m. long. The city occupies a green, fertile valley of the Rio Chile, 7753 ft. above the sea, surrounded by an arid, barren desert. It is built on the usual rectangular plan and the streets are wide and well paved. The edifices in general are low, and are massively built with thick walls and domed ceilings to resist earthquakes, and lessen the danger from falling masonry. The material used is a soft, porous magnesian limestone, which is well adapted to the purpose in view. Arequipa is the seat of a bishopric created in 1609–1612, and possesses a comparatively modern cathedral, its predecessor having been destroyed by fire in 1849. It has several large churches, and formerly possessed five monasteries and three nunneries, which have been closed and their edifices devoted to educational and other public purposes. The religious element has always been a dominating factor in the life of the city. A university, founded in 1825, three colleges, one of them dating from colonial times, a medical school, and a public library, founded in 1821, are distinguishing features of the city, which has always taken high rank in Peru for its learning and liberalism, as well as for its political restlessness. The city’s water-supply is derived from the Chile river and is considered dangerous to new arrivals because of the quantity of saline and organic matter contained. The climate is temperate and healthy, and the fertile valley (10 m. long by 5 m. wide) surrounding the city produces an abundance of cereals, fruits and vegetables common to both hot and temperate regions. Pears and strawberries grow side by side with oranges and granadillas, and are noted for their size and flavour. The trade of the city is principally in Bolivian products—mineral ores, alpaca wool, &c.—but it also receives and exports the products of the neighbouring

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fisher

FISHER, a carnivorous digitigrade mammal, belonging to the family mustelidæ, subfamily martinæ, and genus mustela (Linn.); this animal (called also Pennant's marten, black cat, and pekan) and the pine marten are the only two species of the genus found in North America. The fisher (M. Pennantii, Erxl.) is the largest known species, the length of the body being over 2 ft., and the tail 1¼ ft. The dental formula is: incisors $3⁄3$$3⁄3$, canines $1⁄1$$1⁄1$, premolars $4⁄4$$4⁄4$, molars, $1⁄2$$1⁄2$ = $18⁄20$, 38 in all; the lower carnivorous tooth has a rounded lobe

on the inner side, indicating a less sanguinary disposition than that of the weasels. The general appearance is fox-like; the head is long and muzzle rather pointed; the ears short, rounded, and wide; the eyes large; body slender; tail long and bushy at the base; feet short, stout, and armed with strong sharp claws, five on each foot; no anal pouch, but a small gland which secretes a musky fluid. The fur is of two kinds, the outer long and coarse, the inner fine and soft. The general color is blackish, with a grayish tinge on the head and shoulders; some specimens are brownish, and a few with light tints; there is sometimes a white spot on the throat. Specimens vary so much in size and coloration that it has been supposed that two species are confounded under the name. A specimen measuring 23 in. in length of body, with the tail 14 in., would weigh about 8½ lbs. Occasionally seen in Pennsylvania and New York, and even as far south as North Carolina, it is common in Canada and in the Lake Superior mineral region; it is found as far north as lat. 63°, and across the continent to the Pacific. It is eminently an arboreal species, very agile, though less so than the squirrel, which it is fond of pursuing; it is generally nocturnal in its habits; it preys upon hares, raccoons, squirrels, grouse, mice, and any small bird or quadruped which it can seize. Though called fisher, there is no certain evidence that it catches fish, but it is fond of the fish with which the hunter baits his traps for the pine marten; in this respect the fisher is a great nuisance, as it breaks into the traps from behind, sometimes robbing every one in a line of miles, escaping itself and preventing the capture of the more valuable pine marten. Fishers have been often kept in confinement, where they become docile if taken when young; but the temper is very changeable, and they quickly become angry without apparent cause. From their agility, strength, and ferocity, they are difficult to obtain unless severely wounded. Like the other fur-bearing animals, the fisher's pelage is finest in winter and in high latitudes; a skin is worth about $1 50, while that of the smaller pine marten is worth $2 50; their fur is not much used in the United States, but is generally sent to Europe, where it is used for linings of more costly furs, for trimmings, and for robes. It brings forth its young once a year toward the end of spring, from two to four at a birth, depositing them in hollows in trees at a considerable height above the ground. This animal is called by Schreber M. Canadensis.

title: The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fisher


text:
The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fisher, Alvan

FISHER, Alvan, an American artist, born in Needham, Mass., Aug. 9, 1792, died in Dedham, Mass., Feb. 16, 1863. He began the study of painting at the age of 18, with an ornamental painter of merit named Pennyman. In 1814 he commenced his professional career as a portrait painter, and soon after undertook barnyard scenes, winter pieces, portraits of animals, and in general scenes belonging to

rural life in which cattle are prominently introduced. He subsequently returned to portrait painting, which he practised for many years in Boston.


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fisher, George Park

FISHER, George Park, an American scholar, born in Wrentham, Mass., Aug. 10, 1827. He graduated at Brown university in 1847, and studied theology in the divinity school of Yale college and in that at Andover, Mass. In 1853 he visited Germany, where he continued his theological studies. He was appointed professor of divinity in Yale college on his return from Europe, and, in connection with his professorship, he was ordained as pastor of the college church, Oct. 24, 1854. After a period of seven years he resigned his office, and in 1861 was elected professor of ecclesiastical history in Yale divinity school. The degree of D. D. was conferred upon him by Brown university in 1866. He has been a frequent contributor to the “New Englander,” of which quarterly he has since 1866 been one of the editors. In 1865 he published a volume entitled “Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special reference to the Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tübingen School” (enlarged ed., 1871). He delivered in 1871 a course of lectures at the Lowell institute, Boston, on the reformation, and from these resulted a volume on the “History of the Reformation” (1873).


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 Peruvian provinces, and the output of the borax deposits in the neighbourhood. Arequipa was founded by Pizarro in 1540, and has been the scene of many events of importance in the history of Peru. It was greatly damaged in the earthquakes of 1582, 1609, 1784 and 1868, particularly in the last. It was captured by the Chileans in 1883, near the close of the war between Chile and Peru. ARES, in ancient Greek mythology, the god of war, or rather of battle, son of Zeus and Hera. (For the Roman god, identified with Ares, see .) As contrasted with Athena, who added to her other attributes that of being the goddess of well-conducted military operations, he personifies brute strength and the wild rage of conflict. His delight is in war and bloodshed; he loves fighting for fighting’s sake, and takes the side of the one or the other combatant indifferently, regardless of the justice of the cause. His quarrelsomeness was regarded as inherited from his mother, and it may have been only as an illustration of the perpetual strife between Zeus and Hera that Ares was accounted their son. According to a later tradition, he was the son of Hera (Juno) alone, who became pregnant by touching a certain flower (Ovid, Fasti, v. 255). All the gods, even Zeus, hate him, but his bitterest enemy is Athena, who fells him to the ground with a huge stone. Splendidly armed, he goes to battle, sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made ready by his sons Deimos and Phobos (Panic and Fear) by whom he is usually accompanied. In his train also are found Enyo, the goddess of war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction of cities; his sister, Eris, goddess of fighting and strife; and the Keres, goddesses of death, whose function it is especially to roam the battle-field, carrying off the dead to Hades. In later accounts (and even in the Odyssey) Ares’ character is somewhat toned down; thus, in the “Homeric” hymn to Ares he is addressed as the assistant of Themis (Justice), the enemy of tyrants, and leader of the just. It is to be noted, however, that in this little poem he is to some extent confounded with the planet named after him (Ares, or Mars).

The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed. He is a god of storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian god, one of the deities of the subterranean world, who could bring prosperity as well as ruin upon men, although in time his destructive qualities obscured the others. In this last aspect he was one of the chief gods of the Thracians, amongst whom his home was placed even in the time of Homer. In Scythia an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier times (as apparently also at Sparta) human victims, selected from prisoners of war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into the god of war, in which character he made his way into Greece. This theory may have been nothing more than an instance of the Greek tendency to assign a northern or “hyperborean” home to deities in whose character something analogous to the stormy elements of nature was found. But it appears that the Thracians and Scythians in historical times (Herodotus i. 59) worshipped chiefly a war god, and that certain Thracian settlements, formed in Greece in prehistoric times, left behind them traces of the worship of a god whom the Greeks called Ares. The story of his imprisonment for thirteen months by the Aloïdae (Iliad, v. 385) points to the conquest of this chthonian destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, especially agriculture, of which the grain-fed sons of Aloeus (the thresher) are the personification.

In Homer Ares is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus, who catches them together in a net and holds them up to the ridicule of the gods. In what appears to be a very early development of her character, Aphrodite also was a war goddess, known under the name of Areia; and in Thebes, the most important seat of the worship of Ares, she is his wife, and bears him Eros and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, and Harmonia, wife of Cadmus, the founder of the city (Hesiod, Theog. 933). In the legend of Cadmus and his family Ares plays a prominent part. His worship was not so widely spread over Greece as that of other gods, although he was honoured here and there with festivals and sacrifices. Thus, at Sparta, under the name of Theritas, he was offered young dogs and even human beings. The Dioscuri were said to have brought his image from Colchis to Laconia, where it was set up in an old sanctuary on the road from Sparta to Therapnae. At Athens, he had a temple at the foot of the Areopagus, with a statue by Alcamenes. It was here, according to the legend, that he was tried and acquitted by a council of the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, who had violated Alcippe, the daughter of Ares by Agraulos. The figure of Ares appears in various stories of ancient mythology. Thus, he engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to avenge the death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter he is severely wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena; maddened by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which slew Adonis, the favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war between the Lapithae and Centaurs. His attributes were the spear and the burning torch, symbolical of the devastation caused by war (in ancient times the hurling of a torch was the signal for the commencement of hostilities). The animals sacred to him were the dog and the vulture.

The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than that of the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small; those of Ares-Mars, among the Romans, are more frequent. Previous to the 5th century he was represented as full-bearded, grim-featured and in full armour. From that time, apparently under the influence of Athenian sculptors, he was conceived as the ideal of a youthful warrior, and was for a time associated with Aphrodite and Eros. He then appears as a vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head and stalwart shoulders, with helmet and chlamys. In the Villa Ludovisi statue (after the style of Lysippus) he appears seated, in an attitude of thought; his arms are laid aside, and Eros peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese Ares (also taken for Achilles) he is standing, his only armour being the helmet on his head. He also appears in many other groups, with Aphrodite, in marble and on engraved gems of Roman times. But before this grouping had recommended itself to the Romans, with their legend of Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again become under Macedonian influence a bearded, armed and powerful god.

ARETAEUS, of Cappadocia, a Greek physician, who lived at Rome in the second half of the 2nd century We possess two treatises by him, each in four books, in the Ionic dialect: On the Causes and Indications of Acute and Chronic Diseases, and On their Treatment. His work was founded on that of Archigenes; like him, he belonged to the eclectic school, but did not ignore the theories of the “Pneumatics,” who made the heart the seat of life and of the soul.

ARETAS (Arab. Hāritha), the Greek form of a name borne by kings of the Nabataeans resident at Petra in Arabia, (1) A king in the time of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (2 Macc. v. 8). (2) The father-in-law of Herod Antipas (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 1, 3), In 2 Cor. xi. 32 he is described as ruler of (q.v.) at the time of Paul’s conversion. Herod Antipas had married a daughter of Aretas, but afterwards discarded her in favour of Herodias. This led to a war with Aretas in which Antipas was defeated.

An Aretas is mentioned in 1 Macc. xv. 22, but the true reading is probably Ariarathes (king of Cappadocia). See. ARÊTE (O. Fr. areste, Lat. arista, ear of corn, fish-bone or spine), a ridge or sharp edge; a French term used in Switzerland

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fisher, John

FISHER, John, an English prelate, a zealous opponent of the reformation, born in Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1459, beheaded June 22, 1535. Having become the confessor of Margaret, countess of Richmond, he induced that lady to found St. John's and Christ's colleges at Cambridge. In 1501 he became chancellor of that university, and in 1504 bishop of Rochester. He has been supposed to have written the treatise Assertio septem Sacramentorum, for which Henry VIII. obtained the title of “Defender of the Faith.” Though long favored by the king, Fisher fell under his displeasure by his opposition to the divorce of Catharine of Aragon. On the question of the king's spiritual supremacy being broached in 1531, the bishop firmly refused to acknowledge it. He further fell into disfavor, and was arraigned for misprision of treason, for concealing certain prophecies of Elizabeth Barton, called the holy maid of Kent, respecting the king's death. For this offence he was condemned to imprisonment during the king's pleasure, but was released on paying a fine of £300. Refusing to take the oath of allegiance in 1534, he was committed to the tower, attainted, and his bishopric declared vacant. Pope Paul III. took the opportunity to create him a cardinal; but Henry having sent Cromwell to interrogate him with regard to the appointment, and being informed that he would accept the cardinal's hat, exclaimed: “Mother of God! he shall wear it on his shoulders then, for I will leave him never a head to set it on!” The aged bishop was at once condemned on the

charge of denying the king's supremacy, and was beheaded. He wrote a commentary on the seven penitential psalms, sermons, and controversial and devotional treatises. His life has been written by the Rev. J. Lewis (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1854-'5).


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60 William, the two English princes, Alfred and Edward, who found no longer any countenance or protection in that country, gladly embraced the opportunity of paying a visit, with a numerous retinue, to their mother Emma, who seemed to be placed in a state of so much power and splendour at Winchester. But the face of affairs soon wore a melancholy aspect: Earl Godwin had been gained by the arts of Harold, who promised to espouse the daughter of that nobleman; and while the treaty was yet a secret, these two tyrants laid a plan for the destruction of the English princes.

Alfred was invited to London by Harold, with many professions of friendship; but when he had reached Guildford, he was set on by Godwin's vassals, nearly six hundred of his train were murdered in the most cruel manner, and himself was taken prisoner; his eyes were put out, and he was conducted to the monastery of Ely, where he died soon after. Edward and Emma, apprised of the fate which was awaiting them, fled beyond sea, the former into Normandy, the latter into Flanders; at Bruges she was received by Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and Adela, his wife; while Harold, triumphing in his bloody policy, took possession, without resistance, of all the dominions assigned to his brother.

This is the only memorable action performed, during a reign of three years, by this prince, who gave so bad a specimen of his character, and whose bodily accomplishments alone are known to us by his appellation of Harefoot, which he acquired from his agility in running and walking. He died on the 14th of April, 1038, little regretted or esteemed by his subjects, leaving the crown to his half-brother, Hardicanute.


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Hertha

HERTHA, Ærtha, or Nerthus, the goddess of earth (Anglo-Saxon, eorthe, Ger. Erde), anciently worshipped by the Æstii, Lombards, Angles, and many other Teutonic tribes established near the lower Elbe, and in the regions of the Baltic. The Scandinavians called her Jord; according to them she was daughter of Annar and Night, sister of Dagur or Day by the mother's side, wife of Odin (thus identical with Frigga), and mother of Thor. This identification of the female principle, or of generation and fertility, with the earth, is found in all religions. The earth being the all-nourishing mother, it was naturally believed that Hertha sympathized with mankind, and the myth of the revival of spring gradually became for the vulgar a faith that she visited them in person at stated times. These visits took place, according to Tacitus, on a sacred island in the Baltic, where the chariot of Hertha was kept. When the goddess had descended from the throne of Odin, she was believed to take her seat in the chariot. Heifers were then harnessed to it, and she was drawn amid festivity over the land. During this procession all feuds were suspended. Finally the goddess, or rather her wagon, on returning to the holy grove, was washed in the sea by slaves, who immediately after were drowned. This appearance of Hertha was also practised in another form among certain German tribes, with whom it was usual on occasions of drought to send the most beautiful maiden of the village, entirely naked, at the head of a female procession over the fields.

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Hertz, Hendrik

HERTZ, Hendrik, a Danish poet, born in Copenhagen, Aug. 25, 1798. He is of Jewish parentage, but joined the Protestant church, and studied law. In 1826 he published anonymously his first comedy, Herr Burckhard og hans Familie, which was rapidly followed by others. Gjenganger-Brevene, a polemical poem (1830), attracted much attention on account of its severe criticism of the literature of the day. His tragedy Svend Dyrings Huus (1837) added greatly to his popularity by its patriotic character, and a lyrical drama entitled “King Rene's Daughter” carried his fame into Germany, France, and England, where his works have since been translated as soon as they appeared. Among his novels, Stemninger og Tilstande (1839), Johannes Johnson (1858), and Eventyr og Fortällinger (1862) are specially noteworthy.


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Osgith Osgar was present at the expulsion of secular canons from Winchester, and made a speech on that occasion. In a letter from Fleury, written partly in cipher, apparently by a friend of Dunstan, or on behalf of Abbo, abbot of Fleury, an abbot is blamed for not returning a copy of Florus's commentary on St. Paul's Epistles ; the name Oscarus will be found to nt the cipher (, Dunstan. p. 376), and the borrower is no doubt identical with the abbot of Abingdon. He purchased and obtained large tracts of land for his convent, and his name is appended to 43 genuine charters of the years 967-974, and to thirteen marked by Kemble as spurious. He died in 984, having finished the buildings begun by his master Æthelwold at Abingdon.  OSGITH or OSYTH (fl. 7th cent.) [See OSYTH.]  OSGODBY, ADAM (d. 1316), keeper of the great seal, was a clerk in Edward I's chancery, who derived his name from and was perhaps born at one of the villages called Osgodby in Yorkshire, in which county he afterwards held lands. He first appears on the records in 1286, when he was appointed attorney of Stephen de Mauley, going to Paris for the purpose of study (Cal. Patent Rolls, 1282-92, p. 261). Between that year and 1290 he also acted as attorney for William de Aeon, Walter de Percehaye, and again in 1291 for Stephen de Mauley, now archdeacon of Clevelana, and going to the court of Rome (ib. pp. 289, 292, 335, 413). On 1 Oct. 1295 he was appointed keeper of the rolls of chancery, from which date until his death his name constantly appears in records as an active minister of the crown. He is generally described as 'king's clerk,' and is regarded by Foss as having been the chief of that order. Though never for any length of time entrusted with the permanent custody of the great seal, Adam was repeatedly commissioned to hold it temporarily, sometimes alone, more often in conjunction with others. This generally happened during the absence of the chancellor, or during the vacancy of the chancellorship. On three occasions Adam thus held the seal under Edward I. Again, at Easter 1310, he held the seal between the resignation of John Langton [q. v.], bishop of Chichester, and the appointment of Walter Reynolds [q.v.], bishop of Worcester, to succeed him as chancellor (Ann. Paulini in Chron. of Edw. I and Edw. II, i. 268-9). In August 1311 again, on chancellor Reynolds setting out to the general council, Osgodby received custody of the great seal, to be kept by him under the seals of two other chancery clerks, Robert of Bardelby [q. v.] and William of Ayermine (Cal. Close Rolls, 1307-1313, p. 435). On 30 Dec. in the same year Edward II formally delivered the seal to Adam and his two colleagues at York, and ordered them to go daily to the church at St. Mary outside the castle, and there execute what related to the office of chancellor, as they had been wont to do (ib. p. 448, cf. however p. 393). When the great seal was not in use it was safeguarded by the seals of the three keepers, as, for example, during Edward II's flight from Tynemouth to Scarborough, after which it was restored to the keeper at York on the Wednesday in Whitsun week, 1312 (ib. pp. 459-60). On 6 Oct. the retransierence of the seal to Walter Reynolds ended Osgodby's keepership (ib. p. 553). But even after this — as, for example, in May 1310, when Reynolds went on pilgrimage to Canterbury, and again so late as April 1314— the great seal was still secured by the seals of the same three clerks (ib. p. 581, 1313-18 p. 96). The last instances of such custody are in June and November 1315 (ib. 1313-18, pp. 233, 314). In his later career Adam was a member of the king's council (ib. p. 206).

Adam seems to have driven a considerable money-lending business, to judge by the numerous examples of deeds enrolled in chancery and in the Close Rolls. He was litigious, like his age and class, winning in 1311 a suit in the ecclesiastical courts against the abbot and convent of Selby, and using his influence at high quarters to declare the appeal of the monks to Rome informal (ib. 1307-13, p. 350). He held numerous offices. In 1304 he was parson of the church of Gargrave (Calendarium Genealogicum, ii. 672). On 7 Nov. 1307 Edward II added to his custody of the rolls the office of warden of the Domus Conversorum in Fetter Lane, an office afterwards invariably conjoined with that of the mastership of the rolls. He was a canon of York Cathedral, a prebendary of Newbiggin in the collegiate church of Lanphester in the diocese of Durham, and prebendary of Burford in Shropshire (Cal. Close Rolls, 1307-1313 pp. 98, 350, 433, 1313-18 pp. 230, 305). He acted as proctor for the canons of York in the Carlisle parliament of 1307 (Rot. Pari. i. 190). He died in August 1316, leaving sixty-eight acres of land, a house, a windmill, and rents valued at six marks and ten shillings — all in Yorkshire — to which Walter de Osgodby, his brother or nephew, succeeded (Cal. Inq. post mortem, i. 279). One of his executors


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Osgod Clapa was Henry de Cliffe. His niece Isabella was granted a maintenance for life at the expense of the prior and convent of Coventry, in consideration of Adam's services to the king.

 OSGOD CLAPA (d. 1054), a thegn in the service of Cnut, was no doubt a Dane by birth. He first appears as witness to a charter in 1026, when he is styled 'Osgod minister' (Codex Diplomaticus, iv. 748). His name occurs frequently witnessing charters down to 1046, generally under the title of 'minister,' but sometimes as 'miles,' In 1033 he is mentioned in conjunction with Tofig Pruda (ib. iv. 749). It was on the occasion of the wedding feast of Osgod's daughter, Gytha, and Tofig, on 8 June 1042, that Harthacnut died while drinking in Osgod's house at Lambeth. Freeman suggests that Osgod opposed the accession of Edward the Confessor, and that his subsequent exile was due to this. However, Osgod witnesses a number of royal charters in 1044 and 1045, and one in 1046 (ib. iv. 768-83). The last shows that the 'Abingdon Chronicle ' is correct in stating that it was in 1046, before midwinter, that Osgod was outlawed, and not in 1044, 1045, or 1047, as elsewhere stated. Osgod apparently went to Denmark, and took service with Swegen Estrithson. In 1049 there came news that he was at Ulp, on the coast of Flanders, with thirty-nine ships. Edward sent ships to watch him; but Osgod, having fetched his wife from Bruges, went back to Denmark with six ships, while the remainder harried the coast of Essex. In 1054 Osgod died suddenly in his bed (English Chron.) He had, as it would seem, come back to England, but 'we have no account of the time or circumstances of his return' (Norman Conquest, ii. 373). Heremann and Abbot Samson, in their narratives on the 'Miracles of St. Edmund,' relate how Osgod was miraculously punished for his pride in entering the abbey church armed with his battle-axe, when he once happened to be at Bury St. Edmunds with King Edward. Before this Osgod had been an enemy to the saint and his abbey, but afterwards he reformed his life and ways. Samson says he was of such power and repute as to be held second only to the king. Heremann calls him 'Major domus,' which is no doubt the equivalent of 'staller,' by which title he is once referred to in the 'English Chronicle' (Monuments Historica Britannica, p. 436). Osgod was a benefactor of Tofig's foundation of Waltham Abbey.

Clapham, Surrey, is said to owe its name to Osgod's house there.

 OSGOODE, WILLIAM (1754–1824), Canadian jurist, son of William Osgoode of St. Martin's, London, was born in England in 1754. According to the French Canadian writer Garneau, who does not state any authority, he was a natural son of George II. Osgoode matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1768, graduated B.A. in 1772, and M.A. in 1777. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn in 1773, and was called to the bar in 1779. In the same yearhe published 'Remarks on the Laws of Descent,' criticising the views of Mr. Justice Blackstone on this subject. In 1791, after the Canada Bill, Osgoode was appointed chief justice of Upper Canada. He sailed thither in April 1792, accompanied by General Simcoe, the lieutenant-governor of the Upper Province. In 1794 Osgoode was made chief justice of the province of Lower Canada, and settled at the capital, Quebec. Besides the chief-justiceship, he was given the office of president of the committee for the management of the public lands. He excited great dissatisfaction among the French Canadians by the partiality with which he assigned the largest grants to English settlers. The French settlers complained of Osgoode to General Prescott, who became lieutenant-governor of the Lower Province in 1797. The latter promptly took up their side, and a bitter dispute ensued between him and the chief justice. The executive council, which at that time held the supremacy in the colonial government, was closely allied with Osgoode. General Prescott was thus isolated, and his attempts to reform the management of the public lands proved a failure. Both parties eventually appealed to the Duke of Portland, home minister for the colonies, and, after a long correspondence, General Prescott was recalled in 1800. In 1801 Osgoode resigned his office of chief justice of Lower Canada, and returned home. He received a large pension, and lived for the rest of his life in London. He was a strong tory in politics, and on good terms with the chiefs of the government; but he took no part in law or politics beyond twice sitting on royal commissions on the courts of law. He died at his chambers in the Albany on 17 Jan. 1824.


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 the British Museum, and in August 1863 was promoted to an assistantship in the zoological department. This transfer gave great offence to naturalists, and was condemned by a resolution passed at a meeting of the Zoological Society. O'Shaughnessy's acquaintance with natural history must indeed have been exceedingly limited at the time; but, by devoting himself with perseverance to the single branch of herpetology, he came to be so good an authority upon this department of zoology as to be entrusted with the preparation of the portion of the annual zoological record devoted to it, and his death was deplored as a loss to science by Dr. Gunther, the head of the museum department to which O'Shaughnessy belonged. His attention, nevertheless, had been even more decidedly given to poetry and general literature. In 1870, without having afforded much preliminary evidence of his gifts, he astonished the readers of poetry by his 'Epic of Women and other Poems,' illustrated with designs by his friend Mr. J. T. Nettleship. This volume deservedly attracted great admiration by the spontaneous melody of its lyrical verse, as well as by the dramatic force and passion of some of the more elaborate pieces. The expectations thus created were not fulfilled by his 'Lays of France' (1872), chiefly adapted from the poems of Marie de France; and although 'Music and Moonlight' (1874) would have commanded attention if it had been his first work, it resembled a weaker repetition of 'An Epic of Women,' except for traces of a new vein in 'Europe' and some other poems charged with political allusions. In 1873 he had married Eleanor, daughter of [q. v.], a lady of considerable literary accomplishments, with whom he wrote a book of tales for children, entitled 'Toyland' (1875). She died in January 1879, and he deplored her death in an elegy of great beauty. On 30 Jan. 1881, just as he was beginning to take an important place in general literature as the English correspondent of 'Le Livre,' and when he was about to contract a second marriage, he succumbed to the effects of a chill contracted on leaving the theatre on a bitterly cold night. His posthumous poems were published in the same year under the title of 'Songs of a Worker.' They do not in general indicate any advance upon his earlier compositions, but include some fine poems on sculpture, a subject to which he had latterly given much attention.

O'Shaughnessy's temperament was that of a genuine poet. His slender frame and spiritual expression recalled Chopin, and his best poetry has the characteristics of Chopin's music—dreamy and sometimes weird, with an original, delicious, and inexhaustible melody. Some pieces, such as 'Palm Flowers,' display, in addition, a remarkable faculty of gorgeous word-painting; others, such as the 'Daughter of Herodias,' possess much dramatic intensity, others fascinate by a semi-sensuous mysticism, and 'Chaitivel' and 'Bisclavaret' are wildly imaginative. All these gifts, however, except that of verbal music, seemed to dwindle as the poet advanced in years, and their decay was not compensated by growth in intellectual power. The range of O'Shaughnessy's ideas and sympathies was narrow, and when the original lyrical impulse had subsided, or degenerated into a merely mechanical fluency, he found himself condemned, for the most part, to sterile repetition. He might not improbably have forsaken poetry for criticism, in which he could have performed an important part. Enthusiastically devoted to modern French belles-lettres, and writing French with the elegance and accuracy of an accomplished native, he possessed unusual qualifications for interpreting the literature of either country to the other, and might have come to exert more influence as a critic than he could have obtained as a poet. His premature death restricts his claims to remembrance mainly to his first volume, which will always hold a place in English literature from its wealth of fancy and melody, and its marked individuality of style.

O'SHAUGHNESSY, WILLIAM (1674–1744), major-general in the French service, son of Roger O'Shaughnessy and his wife Helen, daughter of Conor MacDonogh O'Brien of Ballynee, co. Meath, was born in 1674, and, on the death of his father in July 1690, became the head of the O'Shaughnessys of Gort, co. Galway. The year previous, when a boy of fifteen, he became captain of foot and afterwards acting-colonel in King James's army. He went to France early in 1690 with the regiment of the Irish brigade commanded by Daniel O'Brien, afterwards third Viscount Clare [see, first ], in which he was appointed captain by Louis XIV on 10 July 1691. He served in Italy in 1692; was present at the battle of Marsaglia, in Piedmont, in 1693; and in 1696 witnessed the close of the operations at the back of the Alps by the siege of Valenza, where he became commandant of the third battalion of his regiment, and was


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O'Shaughnessy appointed to the army of the Meuse. When the 2nd and 3rd battalions of Clare were 'reformed' in 1698, he was appointed captain of the grenadiers of the battalion which was kept up from 1 April 1698. With his regiment, one of the most famous of the Irish brigade, he served in Germany in the campaigns of 1701–2; was present at the reduction of Kehl and the first battle of Hochstedt in 1703; and at the great battle there, otherwise known as Blenheim, the year after. In 1705 he served with the army of the Moselle. In 1706 he fought at Ramillies, and became major of Clare on 4 July, upon the death of Major John O Carroll, and lieutenant-colonel on 12 Sept. He was with his regiment in Flanders in 1707; at Oudenarde in 1708; at Malplaquet in 1709; at the defence of the lines of Arleux, Denain, Douay, Bouchain, and Quesnoy in 1710–12. Subsequently he served in the campaigns in Germany, including the sieges of Landau and Freiberg. He became a brigadier-general on 3 April 1721; was employed with the army of the Rhine in 1733, and was present at the siege of Kehl; served with the army of the Rhine in the campaigns of 1734–5, attaining the rank of major-general (marechal-de-camp) 1 Aug. 1734; served with the army in Flanders in 1742; commanded at Cambray during the campaign of 1743; and on 1 Nov. of that year was appointed to the command at Gravelines, where he died, without issue, on 2 Jan. 1744, aged 70, being then the oldest Irish major-general in the French service.

 O'SHAUGHNESSY, WILLIAM BROOKE (1809–1889), afterwards, director-general of telegraphs in India, was the son of Daniel O'Shaughnessy of Limerick, by his wife, whose maiden name was Boswell ; his uncle was dean of Ennis, and his great-uncle Roman catholic bishop of Killaloe. William was born at Limerick in 1809, but educated at Edinburgh University, where he graduated M.D. in 1830. He then entered the East India Company's service, and was appointed assist ant-surgeon in Bengal on 8 Aug. 1833 ( and, Surgeons of India, p. 46). For some time he was physician to Sir Charles Theophilus, afterwards Baron Metcalfe [q. v.], at Agra; he became surgeon in 1848, and surgeon-major in 1861, and was also professor of chemistry in the medical college, Calcutta. While in Bengal he wrote numerous reports and tracts on various medical, chemical, and other subjects, but devoted his attention chiefly to the electric telegraph. Anxious to introduce it in India, he published a pamphlet giving the results of experiments in its working, in 1839, but received little official encouragement until the appointment of Lord Dalhousie in 1847. He was then employed to lay down an experimental line of telegraphs, and report on the result; its success led the directors in 1852 to sanction the immediate construction of telegraphs connecting Calcutta, Agra, Bombay, Peshawar, and Madras. O'Shaughnessy was appointed director-general of telegraphs in India, and was sent to England to collect men and materials. He returned to India and commenced the work in November 1853; such was his energy that the line between Calcutta and Agra, a distance of eight hundred miles, was in full working by March 1854; in February 1855 the telegraph extended 3,050 miles, connecting Calcutta directly with Agra, Bombay, and Madras, and in February 1856 this distance was extended to four thousand miles. O'Shaughnessy triumphed over innumerable difficulties — the lack of trained workmen, absence of bridges across wide rivers, and of roads through dense jungles. The main lines were barely completed before the mutiny broke out, and Lawrence bore emphatic testimony to the value of O'Shaughnessy's work when he stated that 'the telegraph saved India.'

O'Shaughnessy was knighted for his services in 1866, on a visit to England; after five years' further work in India, he retired to England in 1861. He had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 16 March 1843, and in 1861 he assumed by royal license the name Brooke. He died at Southsea on 10 Jan. 1889, having married thrice; his second wife, whom he married in 1835, was Margaret, daughter of Francis O'Shaughnessy of Curragh, co. Clare ; and his third was Julia Greenly, daughter of Captain John Sabine of the 23rd royal Welsh fusiliers.

Besides numerous separately issued tracts and contributions to various periodicals (see Royal Society's Catalogue, and Ronalds, Cat. of Scientific Papers), O'Shaughnessy published: 1. 'Manual of Chemistry,' Calcutta, 1841 ; 2nd ed. 1842. 2. 'The Bengal Dispensatory,' London, 1842, 8vo. 3. 'The Bengal Pharmacopoeia,' Calcutta, 1844, 8vo. He also published in 1831 a translation of Lugol's 'Essay on the Effects of Iodine in Scrofulous Diseases.' [Works in Brit. Mus. Library; Times, 11 Jan. 1889; Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review, 18 Jan. 1889; Electrical Engineer, 18 Jan. 1889; Lists of the Fellows of the Royal Society;


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Oshere Men of the Time, 7th ed.; English Cyclopædia; Laurie's Anglo-Indians, 1st ser. pp. 281-2; Burkes, Fosters, and Dod's Peerages, &c.]

 OSHERE (fl. 680), under-king of the Hwiccii, was perhaps a brother of Osric, who was also king of the Hwiccii [see, d. 729]. Bishop Stubbs, on the other hand, thinks it probable that Oshere was a son of Oswald, the brother of Osric (Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. 160, 164). This theory would, however, seem to put him a generation too late. On the first nypothesis, which is well supported, Oshere was a member of the royal house of Northumbria, and a nephew of the queen of Ethelred, king of the Mercians. Under Ethelred he ruled the Hwiccii, the people of the present Gloucestershire and Worcestershire, then subject to Mercia. In a spurious charter, granting land for a monastery at Ripple in Worcestershire in 680, Oshere is represented as calling himself king, though acting under Ethelred, and he is also described as King among the witnesses to a charter of 793, granting land for a monastery for the abbess Cutswythe. In another deed he appears as under-king and as a follower of Ethelred, and as counselling him to make a grant of land at Withington, in Gloucestershire. A letter from the abbess Egburga or Eadburh, apparently the second abbess of Gloucester and sister of the first abbess Kyneburga and of Osric and Oswald, to Bishop Wynfrith or Boniface, written 716-722, speaks of her brother Oshere as then dead. Oshere had at least two sons, Æthelward and Æthelric, who ruled over the Hwiccii, though they are not, as far as we know, described as kings.

 OSKYTEL (d. 971), archbishop of York, whose name also appears as, was a Dane by birth, and was related to the Danes, Turketyl, abbot of Bedford; Odo [q. v.], arch-bishop of Canterbury; and Oswald (d. 972) [q. v.], his successor in the see of York. In 950 he was consecrated bishop of Dorchester; his first signature occurs 952. In 966 he was translated to the see of York, with the consent of Edward and his council ( s. a.) He journeyed to Rome for the pall with Oswald, who, according to Eadmer, had helped him in the government of his first diocese (Historians of the Church of York, ii. 14). On the death of Odo, arch-bishop of Canterbury, in 968, Oskytel invited Oswald to live with him. He showed him much kindness, and introduced him to Dunstan. From Oswald he learned the new monasticism then being introduced into England from Fleury. In 968 he consecrated Elfsig bishop of Chester. His name occurs among the signatures of many charters, showing that he was often absent from his diocese. He died at Thame, 1 Nov. 971, and his remains were carried to Bedford Abbey, and buried there by Turketyl. He was a man of learning and piety (Anglo-Saxon Chron. sub anno).

 OSLAC (fl. 966), Northumbrian earl, witnessed a charter as dux or earl in 963 (, Codex Dipl. No. 604;, Conquest of England, p. 316 n.) In 966 King Eadgar [q. v.] divided the Northumbrian earldom, over the whole of which Oswulf or Osulf had ruled since 953 or 954, and appointed Oslac earl of the portion described by Symeon of Durham as York and its dependent lands ('fines'), that is, of the ancient kingdom of Deira (Historia Regum ap. Symeonis Opera, ii. 94, 197, 382). The connection between Northumbria and the southern parts of England seems to have been drawn closer during Oslac's term of office. The Danelaw was becoming anglicised, and Oslac appears several times as witnessing charters of Eadgar, though not nearly so often as would have been the case had he held a more southern earldom, and he no doubt had a large measure of independence. Eadgar, indeed, expressly recognised the right of the northern people to their own laws and customs, decreeing that 'secular rights should stand among the Danes with such good laws as they best might choose' (Ancient Laws, i. 273). To his more or less independent position Oslac probably partly owed the reverence with which he was regarded. He is styled the 'great earl' (A.-S. Chronicle) and the 'magnificent earl' ('dux magnifies,' Florence, an. 976). On the death of Eadgar in 975 Oslac was banished from the kingdom — unjustly according to the opinion of the monastic party — and went over sea. His banishment, which is lamented in a song inserted in the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' (an. 975), seems to have been connected with the predominance of Ælfhere, the Mercian earl, the