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Rh village street and heard the whisper following him, "He belonged to the Army of Italy." "Soldiers, from the summit of these pyramids forty centuries look down upon you," he cried in Egypt. The splendid phrase voiced the awe of the army in the shadow of the mysterious monuments, and they charged their dark-faced foes as if in the presence of all the heroes of the past.

The perfect clearness and directness of the addresses is their most striking literary quality. The classic pose affected by writers in Napoleon's day he entirely ignored. He wished those whom he addressed to understand his meaning. If he spoke to the soldier it was to convince him that certain facts were true and to persuade him to adopt certain theories. To do this he put what he wished believed and repeated in so clear a fashion that it could not be mistaken. If both bombast and bathos sometimes characterized his addresses to the army, it was never at the expense of his meaning.

The same lucidity marked all his instructions to the Council of State when it was

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text:
Author:Georges Benjamin Clemenceau

Works

 * South America To-Day (1911)
 * M. Clemenceau Writes of His Trip to South America, 1911
 * Czechoslovak Army in France, 16 December 1917 (French government decree, together with Raymond Poincaré and Stephen Jean-Marie Pichon)
 * France facing Germany, 1919
 * The strongest (Les plus fort) (1919)
 * The surprises of life (1920)
 * The veil of happiness: a play, 1920
 * At the foot of Sinai (1922)
 * In the evening of my thought, 1929
 * Grandeur and misery of victory, 1930
 * Georges Clemenceau, 1930

Speeches

 * "In the Debate on Socialism with Jaurès" (1906) in The World's Famous Orations.

Works about Clemenceau

 * Clemenceau (1918) by Georges Charles Lecomte
 * Georges Clemenceau, the Tiger of France (1919) by Donald Clive Stuart
 * Clemenceau, the man and his time (1919) by Henry Mayers Hyndman

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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xii preparing the Code of Laws. He would not discuss the laws proposed, in technical and equivocal language, but insisted on translating them into the plainest, most evident terms. When it came to wording the laws, he still declared that they should be kept clear of all obscurities and ambiguities of meaning, so that the most illiterate of the people could comprehend them.

While all of Napoleon's addresses to the army and to the people are imbued with a spirit of comradeship, those to generals, ambassadors, counselors of State, even to the members of his family, are imperious and inflexible in tone. The first impression they produce is that the author knows his own mind and is convinced of his ability to carry out his own plans, that he has no superstitious regard for titles, formalities, even for ties of blood, that he is superior to traditions, and will recognize the authority of no man who does not prove himself the stronger. From the beginning of his career, the audacity of this presumption, this confidence in himself, checked and often stifled opposition. There was, in the high tone of his communications, something

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Rh which compelled obedience, just as there was something in his bearing which silenced those who met him face to face. Augereau went in to his first interview with Napoleon sneering contemptuously at the idea of an untried commander being sent to the Army of Italy, but he backed out from his presence, pale with dismay. "His first glance crushed me," he cried. In a similar way a first address from Napoleon bewildered and silenced critics and opponents. They were baffled by his apparent candor, by the serious way in which he took himself, and by the complete mastery he had of all the elements in a situation. There seemed to be no fact which had escaped him, no contingency he had not considered. A reading of the addresses shows that much of the impression of strength they produce is due to the fact that the writer has full knowledge of the business in hand. One sees from the way in which he criticizes, asks questions, and advises that he understands his subject. Of course, it is in military matters that it is particularly conspicuous. Here he knows everything, the quality of cloth which ought to be used in

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xiv a soldier's uniform, the way to make a cannon, the kind of food which the horses should receive. Not only did he know what should be done, but he knew if it was done. His communications to officers are bewildering to a lay reader, because of the intimate knowledge they show of each man's actions, and the attention they give to what seems unimportant details. It is not difficult to understand and to share, in reading them, the superstitious feeling that many of Napoleon's associates had that he was "not as other men," that he had superhuman insight and faculties, else how could he know all, foresee all, do all.

Napoleon's attitude towards his family was as imperious as that towards officers and statesmen. Unquestionably he had a warm affection for his mother and brothers and sisters, and even when a mere boy he always thought of them; yet when money and power came to him he would do nothing for them save on condition that they obey absolutely his will; when he became Emperor this determination was firmer than ever. His refusal to acknowledge Jerome Bonaparte's marriage with Miss Paterson

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Rh is a familiar example of this. His letters to Louis, as King of Holland, to Joseph, as King of Spain, to Jerome, as King of Westphalia, are marked by an amazing absolutism. "All feelings of State yield to State reasons," he sent word to Joseph. "I recognize as relatives only those who serve me. My fortune is not attached to the name of Bonaparte, but to that of Napoleon." As a rule, however, his letters to his family are as conspicuous for their common sense as for their despotism.

When he reached the point in his career where first as consul and then as Emperor he must direct the framing of a new code of laws for France, must organize schools, beautify the capitol, revive industries, his addresses to the councils and officials charged with the duties, show the same knowledge of the principles involved and the same attention to details which distinguish his military writings.

All of the extraordinary stories of Napoleon's capacity for work, of his teeming brain, his incessant invention, which one finds in the memoirs of his secretaries and associates, are fully justified by his

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arendal

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arendal


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xvi. Take one of the days when he was at the height of his power and note the marvellous range over which his thoughts run. He gives direction for the mobilization of troops and the fortification of a town; inquires of Cambacérès or Portalis the meaning of a law they have under consideration for the new Code, asks them why such a law is necessary, if it existed under Louis XIV., why it should not be worded in this way instead of that; he remembers a general who is compromising himself in a love affair, and counsels him at least to be discreet; he scolds Josephine for extravagance; orders a monument to the last general killed on the field of battle; selects the names to be given to certain new streets and bridges of Paris.

To the end of his career his addresses show the same vigor and range. Even those sent to the inhabitants and authorities of Elbe are as fertile in schemes for improving the island as those addressed to the French people; they show, too, the same attention to detail. At Elbe he even dictated, with ceremonious regard for the forms which become the ruler of a

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Rh, the kind of bread to be fed his hunting-dogs.

A study of these addresses shows that he never lost his exuberance of imagination. However tragic his losses, he rebounded at once, and on the very day that he dictated his last address to the French army, June 25, 1815, he wrote his librarian to send him all the books on the United States which were to be obtained. He wanted to study up the country which he had already chosen for his future home.

Even at St. Helena, sick and irritated as he was, his mind was never quiet. He dictated in the five and a half years he lived on the island most of the matter in the journals of O'Meara, Las Cases, and Montholon, his essays on Cæsar, Turenne, and Frederick, his commentaries and several less important works,—a respectable literary output, certainly, for five and a half years, and an excellent reply to the old charge that the fallen Emperor passed his imprisonment sulking.

It is because the addresses of Napoleon are so characteristic of the man, because they reveal so clearly his ambitions, his

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xviii methods, his genius and his faults, that this selection from them is offered to the public. It is a sketch of Napoleon by himself; an incomplete sketch, to be sure, but one in which every bold, sharp line is by his own hand.

IDA M. TARBELL.

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arenig Group


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92 affirming in strong terms the right and justice of retaliation, continued as follows: —

 * The question of policy is all that remains; and in this view I should think all such modifications as go to lighten the burden imposed upon neutrals, and as are obviously intended for that purpose, more advisable than any direct reservations for our own interest and advantage. For this reason I would rather confine the measure to a part of the countries in the occupation of the enemy (a large part to be sure,—France and Holland, for instance), and apply it in all its rigor to that part, than extend it to the whole and relax it generally by complicated exceptions and regulations.  And I would keep out of sight the exceptions in favor of ships going from this country, the benefit of which might be equally obtained by licenses; but the publication of that exception would give to the measure the air of a commercial rather than a political transaction."

By the end of October all the Cabinet opinions were in Perceval's hands, and he began the task of drafting the proposed orders. His original draft contained an elaborate preamble, asserting that Napoleon's decrees violated the laws of nations, which Perceval broadly maintained were binding on one belligerent only when the obligation was reciprocally acknowledged by the other; that neutrals had not resented and resisted the outrage, "nor interposed with effect for obtaining the revocation of those orders, but on the


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was born at Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15, 1769, the fourth child of Charles Bonaparte and Lætitia Romolino. He was educated in France at the Royal Military Schools of Brienne and of Paris, and when sixteen years old was appointed second lieutenant in a French artillery regiment. From November, 1785, to May, 1792, he was alternately with his regiment and on leaves of absence in Corsica. Sympathizing with the French Revolution, he attempted to aid the Revolutionary party in Corsica against the party of the Corsican patriot, Paoli, but was defeated, and obliged with his family to fly to France. In October, 1793, he was given command of the artillery at the siege of Toulon, and distinguished himself in the capture of the town. After a year and a half of military service in the south, he returned to Paris, and on the 13th Vendémiaire (October 5), 1795, he commanded the troops of the Convention against the sections. This led to his being appointed, in 1796, commander-in-chief of the Army of Italy. He went to his

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xxiv post in March, 1796, and after a series of successful battles drove the Austrians into Mantua. Four attempts to relieve the city were made by the enemy, but failed, and in February, 1797, Wurmser, the Austrian general, surrendered. Bonaparte then drove the rest of the Austrian force from Italy, and in October, 1797, signed the treaty of Campo Formio.

In May, 1798, he undertook the conquest of Egypt. He succeeded in entering the country and taking possession of Cairo and Alexandria, but on August 1, at the Battle of the Nile, the French fleet was destroyed by the English under Nelson. A disastrous expedition into Syria occupied the spring of 1799. On returning to Egypt, Bonaparte received news of political disturbances in France, and leaving the army under Kléber he went to Paris, where, by the coup d' état of the 18th and 19th Brumaire (November 9 and 10) he became First Consul. During Bonaparte's absence in Egypt, war had again broken out between France and Austria, and the First Consul hurried against the enemy. The Battle of Marengo on June 14, 1800, again drove the Austrians from Italy, and February, 1801, peace was concluded. A treaty with England followed in March, 1802.

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Rh Napoleon now took hold of the reorganization of France with great energy, but in May, 1803, war again broke out between France and England, and the First Consul made elaborate preparations to invade England. While preparing for invasion he was crowned Emperor of the French on December 2, 1804. Before the plan against England could be carried out, Russia and Austria began hostilities, but the alliance was broken by the victory won by Napoleon at Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, and peace was signed at Presburg. The next year, 1806, there was war with Prussia and Russia. Napoleon won the Battle of Jena, October 14, entered Berlin, October 25, and issued the Berlin Decrees declaring a continental blockade against England on November 21. On February 8, 1807, he fought with the Russians the doubtful Battle of Eylau, and on June 14, the decisive Battle of Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit followed, on July 7. In 1808 Napoleon attempted to take possession of Spain, but before the conquest was complete Austria declared war. The campaign of Wagram in the spring and summer of 1809 subdued the Austrians. In December of 1809, Napoleon divorced Josephine, by whom he had ceased to hope to have an heir to the throne, and in April, 1810, he married the

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xxvi Austrian Princess, Marie Louise. The next year a son, the King of Rome, was born to them. The alliance between France and Russia was broken in 1812, and Napoleon invaded Russia. The campaign ended in a frightful retreat, the army being practically destroyed. Napoleon hastened to Paris, and by the spring of 1813 had a new force in the field. After successful battles at Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden, he was routed completely at Leipsic in October. The allies invaded France in January, 1814, and a three months' campaign compelled Paris to capitulate, and Napoleon to abdicate. The treaty with the allies gave the Emperor the island of Elbe for life, and hither he went at once, but in February, 1815, he left the island for France, and was greeted joyfully by the French army and nation. Louis XVIII. was obliged to fly from the country, and Napoleon was restored to the throne. The allies immediately attacked him, and at Waterloo, on June 18, 1815, he was defeated. He again resigned the throne, and on July 15 surrendered to the English, who sent him a captive to St. Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821. Napoleon was buried on the island, but in 1840 his remains were removed to France, and placed in the Invalides.

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"Soldiers, you are naked and ill-fed! Government owes you much and can give you nothing. The patience and courage you have shown in the midst of these rocks are admirable; but they gain you no renown; no glory results to you from your endurance. It is my design to lead you into the most fertile plains of the world. Rich provinces and great cities will be in your power; there you will find honor, glory, and wealth. Soldiers of Italy! will you be wanting in courage or perseverance?"

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202

mere-strengo, st. f., [-

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Rh Maxillary and intermaxillary elements are not developed, but, perhaps, represented in Ceratodus by some inconstant mdimentary labial cartilages situated behind the posterior nasal opening. Facial cartilages and an infraorbital ring are developed at least in Ceratodus. The presence of a pair of small teeth in front indicates the vomerine portion (v) which remains cartilage, whilst the posterior pair of teeth are implanted in a pterygo-palatine ossification (l), which sometimes is paired, sometimes continuous. The base of the skull is constantly covered by a large basal ossification (o).

The hyoid is well developed, sometimes reduced to a pair of ceratohyals, sometimes with a basihyal and glossyhyal. The skeleton of the branchial apparatus approaches the Teleosteous type, less so in Lepidosiren than in Ceratodus, in which five branchial arches are developed, but with the lateral and mesial pieces reduced in number.

A large operculum, and a smaller sub- or inter-operculum are present.

The scapular arch consists of a single median transverse cartilage, and a pair of lateral cartilages which bear the articular condyle for the pectoral limb. The latter cartilages form the base of a large membrane-bone, and the whole arch is suspended from the skull by means of an osseous supraclavicle.

The fore-limb of the Dipnoi (Fig. 36) differs externally greatly from the pectoral fin of other Ganoid fishes. It is covered with small scales along the middle, from the root


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74 to its extremity, and surrounded by a rayed fringe similar to the vertical fin. A muscle split into numerous fascicles extends all the length of the fin, which is flexible in every part and in every direction. The cartilaginous framework supporting it is joined to the scapular arch by an oblong cartilage, followed by a broad basal cartilage (a), generally single, sometimes showing traces of a triple division. Along the middle of the fin runs a jointed axis (b), the joints gradually becoming smaller and thinner towards the extremity; each joint bears on each side a three, two, or one-jointed branch (c, d). This axial arrangement of the pectoral skeleton, which evidently represents one of its first and lowest conditions, has been termed Archipterygium by Gegenbaur. It is found in Ceratodus and other genera, but in Lepidosiren the jointed axis only has been preserved, with the addition of rudimentary rays in Protopterus.

The pubic consists of a single flattened subquadrangular cartilage, produced into a long single anterior process. Posteriorly it terminates on each side in a condyle, to which the basal cartilage of the ventral paddle is joined. The endoskeleton of the paddle is almost identical with that of the pectoral.

The Ganoid fishes with persistent notochord, but with a hyostylic skull (that is, a skull with a separate suspensorium) consist of the sub-order Chondrostei, of which the existing representatives are the Sturgeons (Acipenser, Scaphirhynchus,


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Rh Polyodon), and the extinct the [sic] Chondrosteidæ, Palæoniscidæ, and (according to Traquair) Platysomidæ.

Their spinal column does not differ essentially from that of the Dipnoi. Segmentation is represented only as far as the neural and hæmal elements are concerned. All are eminently heterocercal. Ribs are present in most, but replaced by ligaments in Polyodon.

The primordial cranium of the Sturgeons consists of persistent cartilage without ossifications in its substance, but superficial bones are still more developed and specialised than in the Dipnoi; so it is, at least, in the true Sturgeons, but less so in Polyodon (Fig. 37). The upper and lateral parts of the skull are covered by well-developed membrane bones, which,

from this sub-order, upwards in the series, will be found to exist throughout the remaining forms of fishes. They are bones, the origin of which is not in cartilage but in membranous connective tissue. The lower surface of the skull is covered by an extremely large basal bone, which extends from the vomerine region on to the anterior part of the spinal column. The nasal excavation in the skull is rather lateral than inferior. The ethmoidal region is generally much produced, forming


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76 the base of the long projecting snout. The suspensorium is movably attached to the side of the skull, and consists of two pieces, a hyomandibular and a symplectic, which now appears for the first time as a separate piece, and to which the hyoid is attached. The palato-maxillary apparatus is more complex than in the Sharks and Dipnoi; a palato-pterygoid consists of two mesially-connected rami in Polyodon, and of a complex cartilaginous disk in Acipenser, being articulated in both to the Meckelian cartilage. In addition, the Sturgeons possess one or two pairs of osseous rods, which, in Polyodon at least, represent the maxillary, and therefore must be the representatives of the labial cartilages of the Sharks. The Meckelian cartilage is more or less covered by tegumentary bones.

In the gill-cover, besides the operculum, a sub- and inter-operculum may be distinguished in Acipenser.

The hyoid consists of three pieces, of which the posterior bears a broad branchiostegal in Polyodon.

In the scapulary arch the primordial cartilaginous elements scarcely differ from those of the Dipnoi. The membrane-bones are much expanded, and offer a continuous series suspended from the skull. Their division in the median ventral line is complete.

The pectoral is supported by a cartilaginous framework (Fig. 38) similar to that of Ceratodus, but much more shortened and reduced in its periphery, the branches being absent altogether on one side of the axis. This modification of the fin is analogous to the heterocercal condition of the end of the spinous column. To the inner


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manning, Henry Edward


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xx

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Rh

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Rh corner of a basal cartilage (a) a short axis (b) is joined, which on its outer side bears a few branches (d) only, the remaining branches (c) being fixed to the basal cartilage. The dermal fin-rays are opposed to the extremities of the branches, as in the Dipnoi.

The pubic consists of a paired cartilage, to which tarsal pieces supporting the fin-rays are attached.

The other living Ganoid fishes have the spinous column entirely or nearly entirely ossified, and have been comprised under the common name Holostei. However, they form three very distinct types; several attempts have been made to coordinate with them the fossil forms, but this task is beset with extreme difficulties, and its solution hitherto has not proved to be satisfactory.

The Polypteroidei have their spinous column formed by distinct osseous amphicœlous vertebræ, that is, vertebræ with concave anterior and posterior surfaces. It is nearly diphycercal; a slight degree of heterocercy obtains, inasmuch as the last vertebra is succeeded by a very thin cartilaginous filament which penetrates between the halves of one of the middle rays of the terminal fin. The rays above this cartilaginous filament are articulated to interneurals, those below lack interhæmals, and are attached either to the hæmals or vertebral centres. The neural arches, though ossified, do not coalesce with the centrum, and form one canal only, for the myelon. There are no intermediate elements between the neural spines. Interneurals developed, but simple, articulating with the dermoneurals. The abdominal vertebræ have parapophyses developed with epipleural spines. Only the caudal vertebræ have hæmal spines, which, like the interhæmals, agree in every essential respect with the opposite neurals. Ribs are inserted, not on the parapophyses, but on the centre, immediately below the parapophyses.

The skull of Polypterus (Fig. 39) shows a great advance


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xxii

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78 towards the Teleosteous type, the number of separable bones

An, Angular; ao, anteorbital; Ar, articulary; B, basal; D, dentary; E,


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Rh ethmoid; F, frontal; Ma, mastoid; Mp, metapterygoid; Mx, maxillary; N, nasal; O, operculum; Oc, occipital; Pa, parietal; Pl, palatine; Pmx, præmaxillary; po, postorbital; Prf, prefrontal; Pt, post-temporals; Ptf, postfrontal; Ptr, pterygoid; Q, quadrate; S, suspensorium; So, suboperculum; Sp, sphenoid; Spl, splenial; St, supratemporals; T, tympanic lamina; Tu, turbinal; v, vomer; x x, small ossicles; x' x' , spiraculars.

being greatly increased. They are arranged much in the same fashion as in Teleostei. But a great portion of the primordial cranium remains cartilaginous. The membrane-bones which cover the upper and lower surfaces of the brain-case are so much developed as to cause the underlying cartilage to disappear, so that a large vacuity or fontanelle exists in the substance of the upper as well as lower cartilaginous wall. Of ossifications belonging to the primordial skull must be noticed the single occipital with a mastoid on each side. They are separated by persistent cartilage from the sphenoids and postfrontals; the former, which are the largest ossification of the primordial cranium, enclose the anterior half of the brain cavity. Finally, the nasal portion contains a median ethmoid and a pair of præfrontal bones.

Only a very small portion of the bones described are visible externally, nearly the whole of the primordial cranium being covered by the membrane-bones. Of these are seen on the upper surface a pair of parietals, frontals, "nasals," and turbinals; on the lower surface a large cross-shaped basal, anteriorly bordered on each side by a pterygoid, parallel to a palatine which forms a suture with the double vomer. The suspensorium has in front a metapterygoid and quadrate bone, and an operculum and suboperculum are attached to it behind.

Præmaxillaries and maxillaries are now fully developed, but immovably attached to the skull. The lower jaw is ossified, and consists of an articulary, angular, dentary, and splenial. Of labial cartilages a rudiment at the angle of the mouth has remained persistent.


text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Gorham, John


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80 The side of the skull, in front of the operculum, is covered by a large irregularly-shaped bone (T) (corresponding to the "tympanic lamina" of Ceratodus, Fig. 35, q), held by some to be the præoperculum; along its upper circumference lies a series of small ossicles, of which two may be distinguished as spiraculars, as they form a valve for the protection of the spiracular orifice of these fishes. An infraorbital ring is represented by a præ- and post-orbital only.

Each hyoid consists of three pieces, none of which bear branchiostegals, the single median piece being osseous in front and cartilaginous behind. Four branchial arches are developed, the foremost consisting of three, the second and third of two, and the last of a single piece. There is no lower pharyngeal. Between the rami of the lower jaw the throat is protected by a pair of large osseous laminæ (gular plates), which have been considered to represent the urohyal of osseous fishes.

The scapulary arch is almost entirely formed by the well-developed membrane-bones, which in the ventral line are suturally united. The pectoral fin is supported by three bones, pro-, meso-, and metapterygium, of which the dilated middle one alone bears rays, and is excluded from the articulation with the shoulder-girdle.

The pubic consists of paired bone, to which tarsal bones supporting the fin-rays are attached.

In the Lepidosteoidei the vertebræ are completely ossified, and opisthocœlous, having a convexity in front and a concavity behind, as in some Amphibians. Though the end of the body externally appears nearly diphycercal, the termination of the vertebral column is, in fact, distinctly heterocercal (Fig. 40). Its extremity remains cartilaginous, is turned upwards, and lies immediately below the scutes which cover the upper margin of the caudal fin. It is preceded by a few rudimentary vertebræ which gradually pass into the fully developed normal vertebræ. The caudal fin is suspended from hæmapophyses


text: Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction/Chapter 8


text: Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction/Chapter 9


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 Areois were also a social force. They aimed at communism in all things. The women members were common property; the period of cohabitation was limited to three days, and the female Areois were bound by oath at initiation to strangle at birth any child born to them. If, however, the infant was allowed to survive half an hour only, it was spared; but to have the right of keeping it the mother must find a male Areoi willing to adopt it. The Areois travelled about, devoting their whole time to feasting, dancing (the chief dance of the women being the grossly indecent Timorodee mentioned by Captain Cook), and debauchery, varied by elaborate realistic stage presentments of the lives and loves of gods and legendary heroes. AREOPAGUS ( ), a bare, rocky hill, 370 ft. high, immediately west of the northern rim of the acropolis of Athens. The ancients interpreted the name as “Hill of Ares.” Though accepted by some modern scholars, this derivation of the word is rendered improbable by the fact that Ares was not worshipped on the Areopagus. A more reasonable explanation connects the name with Arae, “Curses,” commonly known as Semnae, “Awful Goddesses,” whose shrine was a cave at the foot of the hill, of which they were the guardian deities (Aeschyl. Eumen. 417, 804; Schol. on Lucian, vol. iii. p. 68, ed. Jacobitz; Paus. i. 28. 6).

The Boulē, or Council, of the Areopagus ( ), named after the hill, is to be compared in origin and fundamental character with the council of chiefs or elders which we find among the earliest Germans, Celts, Romans, and other primitive peoples. Under the kings of Athens it must have closely resembled the Boulē of elders described by Homer; and there can be no doubt that it was the chief factor in the work of transforming the kingship into an aristocracy, in which it was to be supreme. It was composed of ex-archons. Aristotle attributes to it for the period of aristocracy the appointment to all offices (Ath. Pol. viii. 2), the chief work of administration, and the right to fine or otherwise punish in cases, not only of violation of laws, but also of immorality (ibid. iii. 6; cf. Isoc. vii. 46; Androtion and Philochorus, in Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec. i. 387. 17, 394 60). This evidence is corroborated by the remnants of political power left to it in later time, after its importance had been greatly curtailed, and by the designation Boulē, which in itself indicates that the body so termed was once a state council. In a passage bearing incidentally upon the early constitution of Athens, Thucydides (i. 126. 8) informs us that at the time of the Cylonian insurrection the Athenians, we may suppose in their assembly ( ), commissioned the archons with absolute power to deal with the trouble at their discretion. From this passage, if we accept the Aristotelian view as to the early supremacy of the Areopagitic council, we must infer that a modification of the aristocracy in a popular direction had at that time already taken place.

In addition to its political functions, the council from the time of Draco, if not earlier, exercised jurisdiction in certain cases of homicide (see below, ad fin.). The assumption that in their criminal jurisdiction the Areopagites were called Ephetae till after the legislation of Draco (cf. Philoch. 58, in Müller, ibid. 394) would explain the otherwise obscure circumstances that, according to Plutarch (Sol. 19), (q.v.) in his laws mentioned only the Ephetae, and that Pollux (viii. 125) included the Areopagus among the localities in which sat the Ephetae. The same assumption would supply a reason for the notion entertained by many writers of later time that the Areopagitic council was instituted by (q.v.)—a notion partly explained also by the desire of political thinkers to ascribe to Solon the making of a complete constitution. Conformably with the view here presented we may suppose that the name “Boulē of the Areopagus” developed from the simple term “Boulē” in order to distinguish it from the new (q.v.), or Council of Four Hundred. The popular reforms of Solon (594 ), so far as they were carried into effect, tended practically to limit the Council of the Areopagus, though constitutionally it retained all its earlier powers and functions, augmented by the right to try persons accused of conspiracy against the state (Arist. Ath. Pol. viii. 4). In the exercise of its duty as the protector of the laws it must have had power to inhibit in the Four Hundred, or in the Ecclesia, a measure which it judged unconstitutional or in any way prejudicial to the state, and in the levy of fines for violation of law or moral usage it remained irresponsible. As censor of the conduct of citizens it inquired into every man’s source of income and punished the idle (Plut. Sol. 22).

The tyrants (560–510 ) left to the council its cognizance of murder cases (Demosth. xxiii. 66; Arist. Ath. Pol. xvi. 8) and probably the nominal enjoyment of all its prerogatives; but their method of filling the archonship with their own kinsmen and creatures gradually converted the Areopagites into willing supporters of tyranny. Though hostile, therefore, to the policy of Cleisthenes, their council seems to have suffered no direct abridgment of power from his reforms. After his legislation it gradually changed character and political sentiment by the annual admission of ex-archons who had held office under a popular constitution. In 487, however, the introduction of the lot as a part of the process of filling the archonship (see ) began to undermine its ability. This deterioration was necessarily slow; it could not have advanced far in 480, when on the eve of the battle of Salamis, as we are informed (Arist. Polit. viii. 4, p. 1304a, 17; Ath. Pol. xxiii. 25; Plut. Them. 10; Cic. Off. i. 22, 75), the council of the Areopagus succeeded in manning the fleet by providing pay for the seamen, thereby regaining the confidence and respect of the people. The patriotic action of the council and its attendant popularity enabled it to recover considerable administrative control, which it continued to exercise for the next eighteen years, although its deterioration in ability, becoming every year more noticeable, as well as the rapid rise of democratic ideas, prevented it from fully re-establishing the supremacy which Aristotle, with some exaggeration, attributes to it for this period. Its prestige was seriously undermined by the conduct of individual members, whose corrupt use of power was exposed and punished by Ephialtes, the democratic leader. Following up this advantage, Ephialtes (462 ), and less prominently Archestratus and (q.v.), proposed and carried measures for the transfer of most of its functions to the Council of Five Hundred, the Ecclesia, and the popular courts of law (Arist. Ath. Pol. xxv. 2, xxvii. 1, xxxv. 2; Plut. Per. 9). Among these functions were probably jurisdiction in cases of impiety, the supervision of magistrates and the censorship of the morals of citizens, the inhibition of illegal and unconstitutional resolutions in the Five Hundred and the Ecclesia, the examination into the fitness of candidates for office, and the collection of rents from the sacred property (cf. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Arist. u. Ath. ii. 186-197; Busolt, Griech. Gesch. (2nd ed.) iii. 269-294; G. Gilbert, Const. Antiq. of Sparta and Athens, Eng. trans., 154 f.). It retained

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/490


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Areoi

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Areoi


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text: Page:Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, volume 12.djvu/684


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text: Page:Treatise on Political Economy (De Tracy).djvu/72


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text: Page:The poems of Edgar Allan Poe (Robinson).djvu/267


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text: Page:The poetical works of James Thomson (1895), Volume 1.djvu/3


text: Page:The poetical works of William Blake; a new and verbatim text from the manuscript engraved and letterpress originals (1905).djvu/308


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text: Page:The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 Volume 3.djvu/654


text: Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 5.djvu/28


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 5.djvu/165

 The Lion of St. Mark.


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text: Page:The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, v1.djvu/339


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Page:The Jungle Book (1910).djvu/287

 "A CAMEL HAD BLUNDERED INTO MY TENT."

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Page:Ruffhead - The Statutes at Large - vol 8.djvu/686

652 den, on Delivery of the said sopie-s. 15s passing Recepit for the same

thereof, binding the Registers and Abstracts in a Book to remain as a Depositary of the same, printing the General Abstract, distributing the Copies thereof, With other contingent Expences re- lating to the same, each Parish shall, by the Hands of the Vestry Clerk or Churchwarden, pay into the Hands of the Clerk or other Person appointed by the said Master, Wardens, and Court of Assisstants of the said Company of Parish Clerks, the Sum of fifteen Shillings at the Time the said Copies of Registers are delivered to him, he paissing a Receipt for the same.

Churchwardens an and other neglecting their Duty in the Premisses, forfeit to the Informer 40s. for every offence; to be recovered by Distress and Sale, by Warrant of a Justice.

XVII. And be it further enacted by the Authority aforesaid, That if any Churchwarden, Over- seer of the Poor, Vestryman, Clerk of the Vestry, Master of the Workhouse, Master or Warden of such Company of Parish Clerks, or any Clerk of such Company, or any other Person or Per- sons, shall neglect his Duty as directed in and by this Act, such Churchwarden, Overseer of the Poor, Clerk of the Vestry, or Mailer of the Workhouse, Master or Warden of such Company of Parish Clerks, or such Clerk of such Company, Person or Persons, shall, for every Offence, forfeit to be recovered by and pay to the Informer the Sum of forty Shillings; to be recovered before any one of his Majesty's Juistices of the Peace, and to be levied by Distress and Sale of the Goods and Chattels of the Offender, by virtue of a Warrant under the Hand and Seal of such Justice before whom the same shall be reco- vered, directed to any Constable or other Peace Officer. ANNUAL


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text: Page:Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Volume 76.djvu/341


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text: Page:Malot - Nobodys Boy, Crewe-Jones, 1916.djvu/5


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text: Page:Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1914.djvu/401


text: Page:New land mollusks from Madagascar and Mexico.djvu/13


text: Page:Natural History of the Ground Squirrels of California.djvu/107


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text: Page:Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind Volume 1.djvu/544


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AURORA AND METEOR OF OCTOBER 13, 1860.


text: Page:The White Stone.djvu/7

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text: Page:Journal of Georgia Secession Convention.djvu/8


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text: Page:History of New South Wales from the records, Volume 2.djvu/374


text: Page:Idealism and the Theory of Knowledge.djvu/2


text: Page:Instead of a Book, Tucker.djvu/538

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text: Page:International Library of Technology, Volume 13.djvu/737


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text: Page:Executive Orders 6690-6935.djvu/82

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text: Page:Experimental researches in chemistry and.djvu/523


text: Page:England & Russia in Central Asia, Vol-2.djvu/1


text: Page:Famous Living Americans, with Portraits.djvu/346


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Page:Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae Volume 3.djvu/270

 of erection, dated 4th Aug. 1541 He died or resigned soon after his admission to this dignity.

Henry Man, S.T.P,, was presented to this dignity 8tli Oct. 3541. In 1546 he was made bishop of the Isle of Man.

William Clyff, LL.D., was presented 30th May 1547. He died possessed of this dignity about 7th Dec. 1558.

Richard Walker, A.M., succeeded in this dignity in 1558. He died in 1567. His will, dated 4th Sept., was proved nth Nov. 3567.

John Piers was presented to this dignity 4th Oct. 1567, vice Richard Walker. In 1570—1 he was made dean of Christ Church, Oxon.

Richard Langworth, S.T.P., was presented to this dignity 28th Feb. 1572—3, on the resignation of Piers. His will, seemingly nuncupative, is dated 19th April 1579, and was proved 8th July following.

Robert Dorset, S.T.P., was presented 17th Aug. 1579, and installed by proxy 10th Sept.: void by the death of Langworth. Dorset died at Ewelme, in Oxfordshire, 29th May 1580, and was buried in the church there.

Thomas Madesley or Modesley was presented 12th Aug. 1580. He died in June 1589.

John Nutter was presented 4th July 1589. He died 30th March 1602, and was buried 18th April following at Sefton.

William Barlowe, S.T.P., was installed 12th June 1602. In 1605 ho was made bishop of Rochester.

Henry Parry, S.T.P., was installed 1st Aug. 1605. In 1607 he was made bishop of Gloucester.

Thomas Mallory, archdeacon of Richmond, was installed 25th July 1607. He died possessed of this dignity 3rd April 1644.


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Page:Great Men and Famous Women Volume 4.djvu/371

 MEISSONIER'S ATELIER


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text: Page:Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography volume 5.djvu/736


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text: Page:General History of Europe 1921.djvu/125


text: Page:General Zoology vol. 1 pt. 2.djvu/299


text: Page:General Zoology vol. 1 pt. 2.djvu/397


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text: Page:Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings, 1887, vol 1.djvu/546


text: Page:Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings, 1887, vol 4.djvu/7


text: Page:Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire vol 4 (1897).djvu/614


text: Page:Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography Volume I Part 1.djvu/16


text: Page:Dio's Roman History, tr. Cary - Volume 3.djvu/3


text: Page:Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission.djvu/72


title: Page:Dissertationonma00livi.djvu/5


text:
Twenty Years After/Chapter 2

In ten minutes Mazarin and his party were traversing the street "Les Bons Enfants" behind the theatre built by Richelieu expressly for the play of "Mirame," and in which Mazarin, who was an amateur of music, but not of literature, had introduced into France the first opera that was ever acted in that country.

The appearance of the town denoted the greatest agitation. Numberless groups paraded the streets and, whatever D'Artagnan might think of it, it was obvious that the citizens had for the night laid aside their usual forbearance, in order to assume a warlike aspect. From time to time noises came in the direction of the public markets. The report of firearms was heard near the Rue Saint Denis and occasionally church bells began to ring indiscriminately and at the caprice of the populace. D'Artagnan, meantime, pursued his way with the indifference of a man upon whom such acts of folly made no impression. When he approached a group in the middle of the street he urged his horse upon it without a word of warning; and the members of the group, whether rebels or not, as if they knew with what sort of a man they had to deal, at once gave place to the patrol. The cardinal envied that composure, which he attributed to the habit of meeting danger; but none the less he conceived for the officer under whose orders he had for the moment placed himself, that consideration which even prudence pays to careless courage. On approaching an outpost near the Barriere des Sergens, the sentinel cried out, "Who's there?" and D'Artagnan answered -- having first asked the word of the cardinal -- "Louis and Rocroy." After which he inquired if Lieutenant Comminges were not the commanding officer at the outpost. The soldier replied by pointing out to him an officer who was conversing, on foot, his hand upon the neck of a horse on which the individual to whom he was talking sat. Here was the officer D'Artagnan was seeking.

"Here is Monsieur Comminges," said D'Artagnan, returning to the cardinal. He instantly retired, from a feeling of respectful delicacy; it was, however, evident that the cardinal was recognized by both Comminges and the other officers on horseback.

"Well done, Guitant," cried the cardinal to the equestrian; "I see plainly that, notwithstanding the sixty-four years that have passed over your head, you are still the same man, active and zealous. What were you saying to this youngster?"

"My lord," replied Guitant, "I was observing that we live in troublous times and that to-day's events are very like those in the days of the Ligue, of which I heard so much in my youth. Are you aware that the mob have even suggested throwing up barricades in the Rue Saint Denis and the Rue Saint Antoine?"

"And what was Comminges saying to you in reply, my good Guitant?"

"My lord," said Comminges, "I answered that to compose a Ligue only one ingredient was wanting -- in my opinion an essential one -- a Duc de Guise; moreover, no generation ever does the same thing twice."

"No, but they mean to make a Fronde, as they call it," said Guitant.

"And what is a Fronde?" inquired Mazarin.

"My lord, Fronde is the name the discontented give to their party."

"And what is the origin of this name?"

"It seems that some days since Councillor Bachaumont remarked at the palace that rebels and agitators reminded him of schoolboys slinging -- qui frondent -- stones from the moats round Paris, young urchins who run off the moment the constable appears, only to return to their diversion the instant his back is turned. So they have picked up the word and the insurrectionists are called `Frondeurs,' and yesterday every article sold was `a la Fronde;' bread `a la Fronde,' hats `a la Fronde,' to say nothing of gloves, pocket-handkerchiefs, and fans; but listen "

At that moment a window opened and a man began to sing:

 * "A tempest from the Fronde

 * Did blow to-day:

 * I think 'twill blow

 * Sieur Mazarin away."

"Insolent wretch!" cried Guitant.

"My lord," said Comminges, who, irritated by his wounds, wished for revenge and longed to give back blow for blow, "shall I fire off a ball to punish that jester, and to warn him not to sing so much out of tune in the future?"

And as he spoke he put his hand on the holster of his uncle's saddle-bow.

"Certainly not! certainly not," exclaimed Mazarin. "Diavolo! my dear friend, you are going to spoil everything -- everything is going on famously. I know the French as well as if I had made them myself. They sing -- let them pay the piper. During the Ligue, about which Guitant was speaking just now, the people chanted nothing except the mass, so everything went to destruction. Come, Guitant, come along, and let's see if they keep watch at the Quinze-Vingts as at the Barriere des Sergens."

And waving his hand to Comminges he rejoined D'Artagnan, who instantly put himself at the head of his troop, followed by the cardinal, Guitant and the rest of the escort.

"Just so," muttered Comminges, looking after Mazarin. "True, I forgot; provided he can get money out of the people, that is all he wants."

The street of Saint Honore, when the cardinal and his party passed through it, was crowded by an assemblage who, standing in groups, discussed the edicts of that memorable day. They pitied the young king, who was unconsciously ruining his country, and threw all the odium of his proceedings on Mazarin. Addresses to the Duke of Orleans and to Conde were suggested. Blancmesnil and Broussel seemed in the highest favor.

D'Artagnan passed through the very midst of this discontented mob just as if his horse and he had been made of iron. Mazarin and Guitant conversed together in whispers. The musketeers, who had already discovered who Mazarin was, followed in profound silence. In the street of Saint Thomas-du-Louvre they stopped at the barrier distinguished by the name of Quinze-Vingts. Here Guitant spoke to one of the subalterns, asking how matters were progressing.

"Ah, captain!" said the officer, "everything is quiet hereabout -- if I did not know that something is going on in yonder house!"

And he pointed to a magnificent hotel situated on the very spot whereon the Vaudeville now stands.

"In that hotel? it is the Hotel Rambouillet," cried Guitant.

"I really don't know what hotel it is; all I do know is that I observed some suspicious looking people go in there "

"Nonsense!" exclaimed Guitant, with a burst of laughter; "those men must be poets."

"Come, Guitant, speak, if you please, respectfully of these gentlemen," said Mazarin; "don't you know that I was in my youth a poet? I wrote verses in the style of Benserade "

"You, my lord?"

"Yes, I; shall I repeat to you some of my verses?"

"Just as you please, my lord. I do not understand Italian."

"Yes, but you understand French," and Mazarin laid his hand upon Guitant's shoulder. "My good, my brave Guitant, whatsoever command I may give you in that language -- in French -- whatever I may order you to do, will you not perform it?"

"Certainly. I have already answered that question in the affirmative; but that command must come from the queen herself."

"Yes! ah yes!" Mazarin bit his lips as he spoke; "I know your devotion to her majesty."

"I have been a captain in the queen's guards for twenty years," was the reply.

"En route, Monsieur d'Artagnan," said the cardinal; "all goes well in this direction."

D'Artagnan, in the meantime, had taken the head of his detachment without a word and with that ready and profound obedience which marks the character of an old soldier.

He led the way toward the hill of Saint Roche. The Rue Richelieu and the Rue Villedot were then, owing to their vicinity to the ramparts, less frequented than any others in that direction, for the town was thinly inhabited thereabout.

"Who is in command here?" asked the cardinal.

"Villequier," said Guitant.

"Diavolo! Speak to him yourself, for ever since you were deputed by me to arrest the Duc de Beaufort, this officer and I have been on bad terms. He laid claim to that honor as captain of the royal guards."

"I am aware of that, and I have told him a hundred times that he was wrong. The king could not give that order, since at that time he was hardly four years old."

"Yes, but I could give him the order -- I, Guitant -- and I preferred to give it to you."

Guitant, without reply, rode forward and desired the sentinel to call Monsieur de Villequier.

"Ah! so you are here!" cried the officer, in the tone of ill-humor habitual to him; "what the devil are you doing here?"

"I wish to know -- can you tell me, pray -- is anything fresh occurring in this part of the town?"

"What do you mean? People cry out, `Long live the king! down with Mazarin!' That's nothing new; no, we've been used to those acclamations for some time."

"And you sing chorus," replied Guitant, laughing.

"Faith, I've half a mind to do it. In my opinion the people are right; and cheerfully would I give up five years of my pay -- which I am never paid, by the way -- to make the king five years older."

"Really! And pray what would come to pass, supposing the king were five years older than he is?"

"As soon as ever the king comes of age he will issue his commands himself, and 'tis far pleasanter to obey the grandson of Henry IV. than the son of Peter Mazarin. 'Sdeath! I would die willingly for the king, but supposing I happened to be killed on account of Mazarin, as your nephew came near being to-day, there could be nothing in Paradise, however well placed I might be there, that could console me for it."

"Well, well, Monsieur de Villequier," Mazarin interposed, "I shall make it my care the king hears of your loyalty. Come, gentlemen," addressing the troop, "let us return."

"Stop," exclaimed Villequier, "so Mazarin was here! so much the better. I have been waiting for a long time to tell him what I think of him. I am obliged to you Guitant, although your intention was perhaps not very favorable to me, for such an opportunity."

He turned away and went off to his post, whistling a tune then popular among the party called the "Fronde," whilst Mazarin returned, in a pensive mood, toward the Palais Royal. All that he had heard from these three different men, Comminges, Guitant and Villequier, confirmed him in his conviction that in case of serious tumults there would be no one on his side except the queen; and then Anne of Austria had so often deserted her friends that her support seemed most precarious. During the whole of this nocturnal ride, during the whole time that he was endeavoring to understand the various characters of Comminges, Guitant and Villequier, Mazarin was, in truth, studying more especially one man. This man, who had remained immovable as bronze when menaced by the mob -- not a muscle of whose face was stirred, either at Mazarin's witticisms or by the jests of the multitude -- seemed to the cardinal a peculiar being, who, having participated in past events similar to those now occurring, was calculated to cope with those now on the eve of taking place.

The name of D'Artagnan was not altogether new to Mazarin, who, although he did not arrive in France before the year 1634 or 1635, that is to say, about eight or nine years after the events which we have related in a preceding narrative, fancied he had heard it pronounced as that of one who was said to be a model of courage, address and loyalty.

Possessed by this idea, the cardinal resolved to know all about D'Artagnan immediately; of course he could not inquire from D'Artagnan himself who he was and what had been his career; he remarked, however, in the course of conversation that the lieutenant of musketeers spoke with a Gascon accent. Now the Italians and the Gascons are too much alike and know each other too well ever to trust what any one of them may say of himself; so in reaching the walls which surrounded the Palais Royal, the cardinal knocked at a little door, and after thanking D'Artagnan and requesting him to wait in the court of the Palais Royal, he made a sign to Guitant to follow him.

They both dismounted, consigned their horses to the lackey who had opened the door, and disappeared in the garden.

"My dear friend," said the cardinal, leaning, as they walked through the garden, on his friend's arm, "you told me just now that you had been twenty years in the queen's service."

"Yes, it's true. I have," returned Guitant.

"Now, my dear Guitant, I have often remarked that in addition to your courage, which is indisputable, and your fidelity, which is invincible, you possess an admirable memory."

"You have found that out, have you, my lord? Deuce take it -- all the worse for me!"

"How?"

"There is no doubt but that one of the chief accomplishments of a courtier is to know when to forget."

"But you, Guitant, are not a courtier. You are a brave soldier, one of the few remaining veterans of the days of Henry IV. Alas! how few to-day exist!"

"Plague on't, my lord, have you brought me here to get my horoscope out of me?"

"No; I only brought you here to ask you," returned Mazarin, smiling, "if you have taken any particular notice of our lieutenant of musketeers?"

"Monsieur d'Artagnan? I have had no occasion to notice him particularly; he's an old acquaintance. He's a Gascon. De Treville knows him and esteems him very highly, and De Treville, as you know, is one of the queen's greatest friends. As a soldier the man ranks well; he did his whole duty and even more, at the siege of Rochelle -- as at Suze and Perpignan."

"But you know, Guitant, we poor ministers often want men with other qualities besides courage; we want men of talent. Pray, was not Monsieur d'Artagnan, in the time of the cardinal, mixed up in some intrigue from which he came out, according to report, quite cleverly?"

"My lord, as to the report you allude to" -- Guitant perceived that the cardinal wished to make him speak out -- "I know nothing but what the public knows. I never meddle in intrigues, and if I occasionally become a confidant of the intrigues of others I am sure your eminence will approve of my keeping them secret."

Mazarin shook his head.

"Ah!" he said; "some ministers are fortunate and find out all that they wish to know."

"My lord," replied Guitant, "such ministers do not weigh men in the same balance; they get their information on war from warriors; on intrigues, from intriguers. Consult some politician of the period of which you speak, and if you pay well for it you will certainly get to know all you want."

"Eh, pardieu!" said Mazarin, with a grimace which he always made when spoken to about money. "They will be paid, if there is no way of getting out of it."

"Does my lord seriously wish me to name any one who was mixed up in the cabals of that day?"

"By Bacchus!" rejoined Mazarin, impatiently, "it's about an hour since I asked you for that very thing, wooden-head that you are."

"There is one man for whom I can answer, if he will speak out."

"That's my concern; I will make him speak."

"Ah, my lord, 'tis not easy to make people say what they don't wish to let out."

"Pooh! with patience one must succeed. Well, this man. Who is he?"

"The Comte de Rochefort."

"The Comte de Rochefort!"

"Unfortunately he has disappeared these four or five years and I don't know where he is."

"I know, Guitant," said Mazarin.

"Well, then, how is it that your eminence complained just now of want of information?"

"You think," resumed Mazarin, "that Rochefort "

"He was Cardinal Richelieu's creature, my lord. I warn you, however, his services will cost you something. The cardinal was lavish to his underlings."

"Yes, yes, Guitant," said Mazarin; "Richelieu was a great man, a very great man, but he had that defect. Thanks, Guitant; I shall benefit by your advice this very evening."

Here they separated and bidding adieu to Guitant in the court of the Palais Royal, Mazarin approached an officer who was walking up and down within that inclosure.

It was D'Artagnan, who was waiting for him.

"Come hither," said Mazarin in his softest voice; "I have an order to give you."

D'Artagnan bent low and following the cardinal up the secret staircase, soon found himself in the study whence they had first set out.

The cardinal seated himself before his bureau and taking a sheet of paper wrote some lines upon it, whilst D'Artagnan stood imperturbable, without showing either impatience or curiosity. He was like a soldierly automaton, or rather, like a magnificent marionette.

The cardinal folded and sealed his letter.

"Monsieur d'Artagnan," he said, "you are to take this dispatch to the Bastile and bring back here the person it concerns. You must take a carriage and an escort, and guard the prisoner with the greatest care."

D'Artagnan took the letter, touched his hat with his hand, turned round upon his heel like a drill-sergeant, and a moment afterward was heard, in his dry and monotonous tone, commanding "Four men and an escort, a carriage and a horse." Five minutes afterward the wheels of the carriage and the horses' shoes were heard resounding on the pavement of the courtyard.

title: Twenty Years After/Chapter 2


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IRST impressions of a country and its people are, generally speaking, pleasurable; but the feelings of the traveller who sets foot on Dutch soil for the first time are also those of surprise and wonderment. Like a flash does it come through his mind that he is in a land unlike all others he has visited; that he is treading soil which has been wrested from an angry sea and overflowing rivers


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 by a race which has for centuries fought and mastered, and which will to its dying day strive to keep under control, that devouring and all-powerful element—water. “God made the sea; we made the shore,” is the Hollanders' not overweening boast. They are, so to speak, living over a water-volcano all the time—ay, and dancing right merrily on it; but at the same time they remain on the look-out, mindful that their ever-present and relentless enemy shall not take them unawares.

Phlegmatic the Hollander may appear, but the sea never finds him napping. His army of engineers is always on the alert, while the polderjongens, or labourers, are continually engaged on active service, a-damming and diking. Under the Orientally impassible mask of Dutch features there lurks, however, a spirit easily roused, as the cruel Spaniard discovered to his


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Author:Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte

Works

 * History of Julius Caesar (1865)

Works about Napoleon

 * Chapter XIII of The Innocents Abroad by Mark Twain (1869)
 * Chapter XIII of The Innocents Abroad by Mark Twain (1869)
 * Chapter XIII of The Innocents Abroad by Mark Twain (1869)

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 discomfiture. “Peuple frondeur,” Louis Napoleon aptly characterized the nation over which he ruled for a few brief years. But, for all that, his reign was a popular one; he proved an acceptable ruler to his subjects, whose descendants cherish his memory to the present day. A great national peril might kindle the embers slumbering in the Dutch bosom, and arouse in it the spirit which defied the Duke of Alva and Louis XIV.

Truly a wonderful nation, which for eighty years struggled with all-powerful Spain, which was run over under Napoleon, accomplishing the while marvellous triumphs in drainage and land reclamation, producing the foremost scholars in Europe, a body of almost unparalleled painters, revealing remarkable colonizing and commercial aptitude, and the founders of the United States to a far greater extent


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 than the Pilgrim Fathers. To-day this little nation pursues the even tenor of its way, keeping up its glorious traditions, while its population is smaller than that of Greater London. According to the latest census—that of 1905—the figures are 5,509,659 souls, of whom 60 per cent. are Protestants, 35 per cent. Roman Catholics, and about 100,000 Jews.

After a brief period of sight-seeing in one of the larger towns—Amsterdam, Rotterdam, or The Hague—the new arrival will map out his tour, which will take him by thriving towns, dainty little villages and hamlets; along endless canals, as quiet as if corpses of dead rivers; past verdant and luxuriant meadows, studded with flowerets, trodden by black-and-white kine with sleek and glossy coats, and akin in appearance to the famed Holsteiners.

As one journeys along the endless


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 of canals which make of the land one huge checker-board, there is but one drawback to the enjoyment of the landscape with which the paintings of Ruisdael, Cuyp, Ostade, and Paul Potter of days gone by, and those of the gifted Marises, Israels, Mauve, Willem Witsen, and others of the present time, have made us familiar. A fly lurks in the amber of those toy villages, amid the alleys of limes and poplars. It is the malodorous smell of the grey-green, muddy, stagnant canals. In many places the natives may be seen converting these water-ducts into main sewers while simultaneously rinsing out their coffee-pots and other articles of domestic use, with the utmost indifference to any sanitary regulations.

It is no consolation to the visitor expressing surprise, not to say disgust, at these practices, and remarking that this


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 deliberate cultivation of a nursery for enteric must be fraught with considerable danger, to be told by the grimly humorous Dutchwoman that the water is so foul that it is fatal to animal life, and that no germs, whether bacteria or microbes, can possibly thrive therein. “Besides,” to quote one buxom dame, “if our water contained all these little beasts, the ducks would eat them!” It may be left to the followers of Pasteur to say whether the “little beasts” are or are not found in ducks; but it is only fair to add that Dutch hotel-keepers are careful to inform you that these canal ducks, whose “farms” line the sides of many a canal and sloot (ditch separating polders), are never served—nay, not even their eggs—at table d'hôte. The eggs are shipped to England, so they say, and are bought by bakers and pastry-cooks. But what becomes of the


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 ducks? On that point they are silent.

If the scene is a peaceful one, some of its prominent landmarks—the huge windmills, standing out against the sky—are seldom at rest; but on such rare occasions they present the appearance of great cobwebs hanging from the clouds. They are more often at work, and, as they revolve slowly against the line of the horizon, they are plodding along industriously, extracting oil from seeds, thrashing hemp, sawing wood, pulverizing gravel, and last, but not least, doing their utmost to prevent the polders (lands rescued from the water's sway, and devoted to agricultural production) from being inundated. They are unceasingly engaged in carrying water from the smaller canals to the larger ones, communicating by the same means with canals higher up, which in their turn carry the water to the sea.


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1807. the same have been recently reinforced;" that Lord Howick's retaliatory order had served only to encourage Napoleon's attempts; that his Majesty had a right to declare all the dominions of France and her allies in a state of blockade; but "not forgetting the interests of neutral nations, and still desirous of retaliating upon the commerce of his enemies with as little prejudice to those interests" as was consistent with his purpose, he would for the present prohibit only trade which neutrals might be disposed to pursue in submission to the French decrees, and require that such trade should pass to or from some British port.

Then followed the order, which prohibited all neutral trade with the whole European sea-coast from Copenhagen to Trieste, leaving only the Baltic open. No American vessel should be allowed to enter any port in Europe from which British vessels were excluded, unless the American should clear from some British port under regulations to be prescribed at a future time.

This draft was completed in the first days of November, and was sent to Lord Bathurst, President of the Board of Trade, who mercilessly criticised the preamble, and treated his colleague's law with as little respect as though Bathurst were an American.

 * "I wish the principle of retaliation," wrote Lord Bathurst, "not to be unqualifiedly advanced, for which I think there is no necessity. May it not be said that in a contest with an unprincipled enemy the doctrine of


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 OF

(BEING THE SECOND EDITION OF "TO-MORROW: A PEACEFUL PATH TO REAL REFORM")


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 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Duke University Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/gardencitiesoftoOOhowa


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Author:Laura Maria Roberts

Works

 * The Women Artists of Bologna. (1907)
 * Things Seen in Venice. (1912, with Canon Lonsdale Ragg)

title: Author:Laura Maria Roberts


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Author:Lonsdale Ragg

Works

 * Dante and his Italy. (1907)
 * Things Seen in Venice. (1912, with Laura Marie Ragg)

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Population,—Its Characteristics,—Public Morals,—Police,—Political Offences,—Prison,—Lawsuits,—Education,—Schools, &c.

population of the city, according to a census taken in the year 1795, consisted of 24,434 persons; but as a considerable increase has taken place since that time, it may be fairly estimated at 35,000, including European Spaniards, white Creoles, Mulattoes and Indians. The offspring of negroes and Indians, of whites and Indians, as well as the descendants of African negroes, are included under the term mulattoes, by which they are generally known; sometimes, however, they are called mestizoes, or ladinos.

Each of these classes possess not only distinct, but widely different characteristics. The Europeans, proud of their Castilian blood, look with the most ineffable contempt upon the natives, whom they consider their inferiors, both in knowledge, industry, and in the exercise of the domestic virtues. The Americans, frankly acknowledging themselves deficient in information,


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Rh and especially in knowledge of the world, bitterly accuse the Spanish nation as the cause of their misfortunes, and console themselves with the imaginary possession of a “viveza,” or aptitude, which, properly cultivated, would have produced master-spirits, capable of wielding with credit the rod of empire in the new world. The Europeans, chiefly composed of men, who, in their younger days have left the mother country, and by dint of honourable exertion, have arrived at the possession of wealth, are distinguished by habits of economy, caution and prudence in their engagements. The leading Americans, descendants of the Spaniards, who, at an earlier period, acquired extensive fortunes by the monopolies they enjoyed, and the despotism they exercised, have been brought up in those habits of indolence which seem inseparable from the climate, are dilatory and negligent in business, and too frequently dissipate their mental ennui at the gaming-table. Under the influence of these degrading habits, they frequently descend to little meannesses, from which national pride defends the Spanish merchant; are doomed to see obscure Europeans acquiring wealth as rapidly as they are losing it, and find themselves in the possession of power and influence, without that steadiness of character, or those habits of business,


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Rh which might in some measure, have supplied the deficiency of education and native talent.

But here it should be remarked, that the Americans themselves are divided into two parties, differing as widely both in feeling and sentiment. The liberals, composed of the few individuals who have carefully gathered up some of the scattered rays of knowledge, which, in spite of the vigilance of Spain, have for some years penetrated into the heart of the new continent, are possessed of a higher degree of intellect, and a greater energy, than the moderate party; but unhappily, in casting off the slavish yoke of Rome, and effecting their mental independence, they have imbibed the worst doctrines of the French revolutionary school, and strikingly exhibit in the fury of their hatred, the unhappy principles which prevailed at that melancholy period of European history. The serviles, consisting of the most influential families, who, before the revolution, arrogated to themselves the title of noblesse, and ruled the country with a despotic hand, through the medium of the viceroys, whom they caressed and flattered, now fill the different offices of government, act upon Spanish principles, are hated and despised by all parties, yet maintain their posts through the influence of the church and the resident Spaniards, who support


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Rh their measures from fear of the excesses of the liberals. These with the Europeans, from a dislike to every change, and a feverish dread of innovation, steadily oppose whatever tends to lessen the influence of the Romish church, or to introduce a liberal system of commercial policy. The liberals on the other hand, abruptly freed from a thraldom which they had borne for ages, and in some of the provinces suddenly advanced to power and place, seize on every new thing with avidity, plunge into schemes of which they understand nothing, and in their zeal to overthrow all existing institutions, forget to separate the good from the bad, the wheat from the tares. The latter are as incautious as the former are fearful. The one holds wretched theories, but lessens the evil by mild and moderate practice. The other disgraces better principles, by a miserable exemplification of them. In politics the one is ultra republican, the other, ultra aristocratical. In religion the former inclines to superstition; the latter to scepticism. To foreigners both parties are courteous and obliging, and never suffer local prejudices to interfere with the rites of hospitality.

Into these two classes the white population may be pretty equally divided. Difference of sentiment and of character, both mental and moral, unite in making them determined enemies, and ce


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Rh their clashing opinions, feelings, and interests, have, as might naturally have been expected, involved the country in all the horrors of a civil war,

This confusion of elements gives to Guatimala a character of its own, differing considerably from that of the sister republics. Liberated from the yoke of Spain, not less by uncontrollable circumstances, than by the force of moral feeling; it achieved its independence without an effort, and silently exchanged the rule of a despotic monarch, for the factious struggles of opposing parties. Each has appealed to arms, excited the passions, and called out the energies of a dangerous ally in the coloured population. Happy will it be for the disputants on either side, if these dissensions shall have subsided, before this third party, powerful enough to extirpate both, wash out their differences in mingled blood!

Nor are such apprehensions altogether without foundation. The Mulatto, or mixed race, form in point of fact, the physical force of the nation. To a considerable degree of cunning, they unite an energy to which the simple Indian is altogether a stranger, are less subject to the restraints of a superstitious creed, and more abandoned to the grosser vices of drunkenness and revenge. That such a population, armed and disciplined, inflated with new ideas of liberty and citizenship, and at the same time shut out, both by colour and


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Rh, from the counsels and society of the whites, must be dangerous to the state, it does not require great penetration to foresee. Perhaps the greatest security from such a contingency may be found in the hatred borne to them by the fourth class of inhabitants, the aboriginal Indians. Still these are negative, rather than positive friends. Their indolence and perhaps their interest, would lead them, in such a crisis, rather to conceal themselves in the woods and mountains, than to act as partizans.

Such is the existing state both of the city and republic of Guatimala. Composed of these combustible materials, its physical and political situation may be regarded as similar. Containing within its bosom an active internal fire under the influence of which it trembles and is convulsed; it is in hourly danger of eruptions more calculated to desolate than to enlighten, to destroy than to improve.

This gloomy prospect for the lovers of true freedom, becomes still darker to the eye of the philanthropist and the Christian, when viewed in connexion with the state of public morals. If a republic be strong in proportion to the mass of virtue concentrated in its population, and if it be in vain to look for political integrity, in the absence of private honour, then is the situation of Guatimala truly lamentable. With a lazzaroni


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Rh in rags and filth, a coloured population drunken and revengeful, her females licentious and her males shameless, she ranks as a true child of that accursed city which still remains as a living monument of the fulfilment of prophecy and the forbearance of God, “the hold of every foul spirit, the cage of every unclean and hateful bird.”

To this sweeping censure there are certainly many exceptions, but they are not sufficiently numerous to render such a description as a whole, unjust. The pure and simple sweets of domestic life, with its thousand tendernesses, and its gentle affections, are here exchanged for the feverish joys of a dissipated hour; and the peaceful home of love is converted into a theatre of mutual accusations and recriminations.

Among the lower orders this loose and vicious life leads to excesses, which, unrestrained by a vigilant police, produce the most melancholy consequences. The men generally carry a large knife stuck in the belt against the back, and the women a similar one, fastened in the garter of the stocking. These on every trifling occasion, they draw, and the result is often fatal. Not a day passes in which some one or other does not stain his hands in the blood of his fellow creature. On feast days and on Sundays, the average number killed is from four to five. From the number admitted into the hospital of St. Juan


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Rh de Dios, it appears that in the year 1827, near 1500 were stabbed in drunken quarrels, of whom from 3 to 400 died. Of these, probably fifty or sixty were assassinated secretly, without having any opportunity of defence.

The police, if such a thing can be said to exist, takes no notice of these events, and it would seem fabulous to relate, were it not confirmed by the most respectable testimony, that there is at liberty in Guatimala, at the present moment, more than one, of whom it is known that they have murdered several individuals. The respectable inhabitants defend themselves by carrying swords or pocket pistols in the evening, and are rarely molested; while the lower orders revenge the death of their relatives by taking away the life of the murderer the first convenient opportunity.

A circumstance of this kind occurred while I was residing in Guatimala, very near to the house in which I lived. About four o'clock in the afternoon a poor man was observed lying dead in the street, who had evidently been murdered. For some time no notice was taken of him; at length he was carried by some passers-by to the hospital, and it was immediately known that he had been killed by a shoemaker who resided near, and whose brother had fallen some months ago, by the hand of the deceased. This man had now