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 the vessel's course, the position of the ship's wheel or could he, therefore, take steps to correct any error if one existed. The pilot saw the rudder angle indicator pointing hard left despite his hard right order and even pointed to the starboard when he gave the second order to indicate to the helmsman which way to turn. If the pilot had been more attentive to the helmsman's responses to the rudder orders or if he had simply required the helmsman to repeat his orders, bridge confusion on the SEADANIEL and possibly accident may have been avoided. If either the master or third mate had carried out their responsibilities, instead of relying solely on the pilot's actions, again the confusion and the accident may have been avoided.

Position of the Vessels in the Channel

There is conflicting testimony as to the location of each vessel in the channel. While the crew of the TESTBANK and the pilot of the SEADANIEL stated that the TESTBANK was on the proper side (to the right of the channel centerline on the descending side of the MRGO), the master of the SEADANIEL and the operator of the MANDY CENAC stated that the TESTBANK was coming down the upbound side. The master of the SEADANIEL based his statement on his visual observations of the TESTBANK. Since the master did not refer to a chart and was not familiar with two "dog-leg" turns in the area, he had the incorrect impression that the TESTBANK was coming down the wrong side. The TESTBANK was following a channel which, at the time of first sighting and for a period of time thereafter, was coming to the reach that the SEADANIEL was on and may have appeared to be to the right of the channel centerline, but in fact was not. If the master had checked the navigational chart or utilized available radar, he would have been able to recognize the situation. Not only did he not check the chart, the master could not testify as to the movements of the TESTBANK because he "…was not paying attention…" The TESTBANK's aspect with relationship to the SEADANIEL changed as the TESTBANK proceeded downbound, altering course three times to the right. The SEADANIEL's master should have observed the changes but did not, possibly because he was not closely monitoring the TESTBANK's movements. The reason that the SEADANIEL's master did not pay strict attention to the approaching TESTBANK could not be ascertained. The operator of the MANDY CENAC was confused in much of his testimony and therefore his impression of the vessel's position was considered unreliable in view of the other testimony. The Safety Board concluded that the TESTBANK was being navigated on the downbound side of the channel as testified to by the crew and pilot of the TESTBANK and the pilot of the SEADANIEL.

The master and third mate of the SEADANIEL stated that the TESTBANK was in the upbound side of the channel and that their vessel never crossed the channel centerline nor turned left. The pilot of the TESTBANK had estimated the relative collision angle to be 30º to 45º and the SEADANIEL's pilot estimated the angle to be slightly less than 45º. Because of the available space in the channel, if the TESTBANK had been on the upbound side and if the SEADANIEL did not cross the centerline, the SEADANIEL could not have turned at this angle without going severely aground. (See figure 5.) Since there is no indication that grounding of the SEADANIEL occurred, the Safety Board concluded that the SEADANIEL did turn left, its bow crossed the channel centerline, and impacted the TESTBANK. The fact that the SEADANIEL in the channel as testified to by the crew of the TESTBANK and the pilot of the SEADANIEL.

If the testimony of the SEADANIEL's master that the TESTBANK proceeded down the SEADANIEL's side of the channel and into a collision with the SEADANIEL were correct, the Board notes that there is no indication that he, as the vessel's master and that the person ultimately responsible for the safety of the SEADANIEL, ever took any action whatsoever to attempt to prevent the collision, despite his testimony that he observed the TESTBANK closing from about 6 to 7 miles distance. His lack of action


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1896.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 52.
 * An Act to amend and render more effectual an Act passed in the last Session of Parliament, for enabling Spiritual Persons to exchange their Parsonage Houses or Glebe Lands, and for other Purposes therein mentioned.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 55.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words "An Act to amend an Act," and ends with the words "Inland Navigation in Ireland."
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 56.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words "An Act to repeal," and ends with the words " managing the said Duties."
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 87.
 * An Act to regulate Proceedings of Grand Juries in Ireland upon Bills of Indictment.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 96.
 * An Act for establishing an Agreement with the Governor and Company of the Bank of England for advancing the Sum of Three Millions for the Service of the Year One thousand eight hundred and sixteen.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 98.
 * An Act to unite and consolidate into One Fund all the Public Revenues of Great Britain and Ireland, and to provide for the Application thereof to the General Services of the United Kingdom.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 100.
 * An Act for more effectually securing the Liberty of the Subject.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 120.
 * An Act to procure Annual Returns of Persons committed, tried, and convicted for Criminal Offences and Misdemeanors in Ireland.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 125.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words" An Act for the more effectual," and ends with the words " for the Injury sustained."
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 129.
 * An Act to repeal certain Provisions in Local Acts for the Maintenance and Management of the Poor.
 * }
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 98.
 * An Act to unite and consolidate into One Fund all the Public Revenues of Great Britain and Ireland, and to provide for the Application thereof to the General Services of the United Kingdom.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 100.
 * An Act for more effectually securing the Liberty of the Subject.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 120.
 * An Act to procure Annual Returns of Persons committed, tried, and convicted for Criminal Offences and Misdemeanors in Ireland.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 125.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words" An Act for the more effectual," and ends with the words " for the Injury sustained."
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 129.
 * An Act to repeal certain Provisions in Local Acts for the Maintenance and Management of the Poor.
 * }
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 125.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words" An Act for the more effectual," and ends with the words " for the Injury sustained."
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 129.
 * An Act to repeal certain Provisions in Local Acts for the Maintenance and Management of the Poor.
 * }
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 129.
 * An Act to repeal certain Provisions in Local Acts for the Maintenance and Management of the Poor.
 * }
 * }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 to account. But they are chiefly remarkable as illustrations of the contemporary state of mind, when the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge testified to a sudden desire for popularising knowledge, and when the political economists of the school of Malthus, Ricardo, and James Mill were beginning to have an influence upon legislation. A revelation of their doctrine in the shape of fiction instead of dry treatises just met the popular mood. The 'stern Benthamites,' she says, thanked her as a faithful expositor of their doctrines.

The success of the tales was of course profitable to her publisher, who sold about ten thousand copies and made a profit of 2,000l. A misunderstanding arose as to the terms of the original agreement. Fox held that he had a right to publish the whole series at half profits, while she held that he had only a right to twenty-four numbers. The final numbers were therefore published separately as 'Illustrations of Taxation,' Her complaints of injustice, however, appear to be unintentionally unfair to Fox, whose view of the case was supported by his brother, W. J. Fox. The dispute, however, did not interrupt the friendship between W. J. Fox and Miss Martineau. She sensibly refused to live more expensively, and finally invested 1,000l. in the purchase of a deferred annuity, which gave her 100l. a year, to begin in 1850 (ib. iii. 206).

Her health suffered from her labours, and she resolved upon a holiday. At the suggestion of Lord Harley she went to America, sailing on 4 Aug. 1834, and reaching New York after a voyage of forty-two days. She had already written against slavery and did not attempt to conceal her opinions in the States. At that period the antipathy to the abolitionists had reached its highest point, and they were constantly exposed to lynch-law. Miss Martineau made a tour in the south in her first winter, and was everywhere hospitably received. On going to Boston, however, in 1835, she found that meetings of abolitionists were exposed to serious danger. She attended them in spite of remonstrances, and made friends with the leaders, and especially with Mrs. Chapman, although she had previously regarded them as fanatics. She was afterwards treated with coldness by the respectable, and in later journeys received threats of personal injury. She was forced to abandon a journey down the Ohio, and threatened again during a tour to the northern lakes. She naturally came home a determined abolitionist.

She reached Liverpool on 26 Aug. 1836, and at once received liberal offers from publishers for a book upon her travels. She accepted an offer of 900l. from Messrs. Saunders & Otley for a first edition of her 'Society in America,' and they afterwards gave her 600l. for a lighter book of personal experience called ' A Retrospect of Western Society.' The second was more successful than the first, which was intended to be a philosophical discussion by a radical politician of the political and social state of the United States. She wrote for various periodicals and was offered the editorship of a projected 'Economic Magazine,' She declined on the advice of her brother James, and resolved to write a novel. This was finally published as 'Deerbrook' by Moxon in the spring of 1839, after being declined by Murray, and succeeded fairly. She always held it to be her best work. She also formed a connection with Charles Knight, to whom she suggested the publication of his 'Weekly Volumes.' She published her contributions to the 'Guides to Service,' suggested by the poor-law commissioners (ib. iii. 465). She was again overworked, and in the spring of 1839 made a tour abroad. At Venice she became seriously ill and had to be brought home by the quickest route and taken to Newcastle to be under the care of her brother-in-law. After staying six months with him, she moved into lodgings at Tynemouth. She was able to write 'The Hour and the Man,' of which Toussaint L'Ouverture was the hero, in 1840; and afterwards wrote the series of children's stories called 'The Playfellow,' which are among her most popular works. In 1843 she wrote 'Life in the Sick Room,' which has been highly valued, although she came to 'despise' much of it as scarcely sincere at a later period, when her religious views had developed (ib. ii. 73). She now became incapable of any exertion. At the time of her voyage to America Lord Grey had proposed to give her a pension of 300l. a year. The five months' premiership of Peel. suspended the affair, and she meanwhile made up her mind and intimated that she should decline an offer which she could only accept at some risk to her independence. In 1841 Lord Melbourne offered, through Charles Buller, a pension of 150l.—all in his power at the time. She again declined, on the same principle as she afterwards declined a similar offer in 1873 from Mr. Gladstone (ib. iii. 445). Her friends raised a testimonial in 1843, 1,400l. of which was invested for her benefit in the long annuities.

Miss Martineau's illness had been pronounced incurable. She had been advised by some friends, including Bulwer and the Basil Montagus, to try mesmerism. [q. v.] happened to be lectur-


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Martineau upon mesmerism at Newcastle in 1844, and was called in to attend her. She was afterwards regularly mesmerised. She rapidly recovered, and gave an account of her case in 'Letters on Mesmerism,' first published in the 'Athenæum.' Unbelievers were irritated, her eldest sister (who died soon afterwards) and her mother were alienated for the time, and charges of imposture and credulity freely made upon persons concerned. Miss Martineau naturally became a firm believer, and occasionally mesmerised patients herself.

Her experience in mesmerism had brought her the acquaintance of a gentleman interested in the question who was living on Windermere, and in January 1845 she visited him in order to confirm her recovery. Tynemouth had become disagreeable, owing to the quarrels over mesmerism ; her mother was settled with other children at Liverpool, and she took lodgings at Waterhead to look about her and form plans for her life. She finally bought a plot of ground at Clappersgate, Westmoreland, and built a house, called 'The Knoll,' during the winter of 1845-6. In the autumn of 1845 she wrote her 'Forest and Game-Law Tales,' upon evidence supplied by John Bright, which were for the time a failure, partly owing to the excitement about the repeal of the corn laws. After settling in her new house she made many excursions in the Lake district in 1846, and in August was invited by her friends, Mr. and Mrs. R. V. Yates, to accompany them and Mr. J. C. Ewart on a visit to Egypt and Palestine. She returned in July 1847 and began her book upon Eastern life. She had by this time repudiated all theology. In May 1845 she had first seen Henry G. Atkinson, a friend of the Basil Montagus, who had previously through them given her advice upon mesmerism (ib. ii. 214). She consulted him as to the fulness with which she should avow her opinions in the book upon the East, where she proposed to consider the origin of the chief religions. The book was published in 1848, with sufficient success to enable her to acquire full property in her house.

In 1848 she was induced by to undertake a 'History of the Peace,' which he had begun but thrown aside. Her mother died in August 1848, at the age of seventy-five, after an illness which caused her daughter much anxiety. She began her history, however, in August, after previous preparation, finished the first volume by 1 Feb. 1849, and wrote the second in another six months, after a holiday, finishing it in November 1849. It is a remarkable performance, especially considering the time occupied, and written with real power. It generally represents the views of the 'philosophical radicals.' During 1850 she wrote an introductory volume, besides miscellaneous work, including some articles for 'Household Words.' She received 1,000l. for the history and 200l. for the introductory chapter (ib. iii. 336).

In January 1851 she published the 'Letters on the Laws of Man's Social Nature and Development,' They were chiefly written by Atkinson, and were published at her request (ib. ii. 329). Their anti-theological views naturally gave much offence. They were severely reviewed in the 'Prospective Review' by her brother James, who expressed his pain at finding Miss Martineau as the disciple of an avowed atheist. An alienation which followed was, partly at least, due to other causes. Comtes philosophy was beginning to attract notice at this time, and Miss Martineau, after reading the notices of Lewes and Littre, planned a translation as soon as the history and the Atkinson letters were fairly off her hands. She was interrupted for a time by writing the fragment of a novel, which Miss Brontë, recently known to her, undertook to get published anonymously. It showed favour to the Roman catholics, which caused its rejection by a publisher, and she ultimately burnt it. She afterwards gave up writing for 'Household Words' on the ground that it was unfair to Catholicism. Comte probably influenced her in this direction. In 1851 a Norfolk country-gentleman named Lombe sent her 500l. upon hearing from Mr. Chapman that she contemplated a translation of the ' Philosophic Positive,' She decided to accept 200l. as a remuneration for the labour, and to devote the rest to the expenses of publication. The profits were divided between herself, Mr. Chapman, and Comte. She began her work, which is an able condensation of Comte's six volumes into two, in June 1852, and finished it in October 1853. The book was published in the beginning of November. Comte was highly gratified, and placed it, instead of his own, among the books to be read by his disciples. In 1871 one of them, M. Avezac-Lavigne, began a translation of it into French (ib. iii. 809-12).

Before beginning her translation she had been asked to contribute to the 'Daily News,' the editor, [q. v.], having been attracted by her 'History of the Peace.' She wrote three articles a week during her occupation with Comte, and afterwards for a time as many as six. She continued to contribute, under two succeeding editors, until 1866, writing on the whole over sixteen hundred articles (ib. iii. 338-43, 424). A list of the articles in 1861 is given by Mrs.


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 Fenwick Miller (p. 188). Besides this she wrote some articles for the 'Edinburgh Review' after 1859. Her energy was not entirely absorbed by this work; but in 1854 she showed symptoms of disease of the heart, which was pronounced to be fatal in January 1865. In expectation of a speedy death, she wrote her autobiography in 1855. Her life, however, was prolonged, though her strength gradually declined. She took a keen interest in the American war, and afterwards in the agitation against the Contagious Diseases Acts. The loss of her niece, Maria Martineau, daughter of her brother Robert, in 1864 was a great trouble; but she preserved her mental powers to the last, and died at The Knoll 27 June 1876. She was buried beside her mother in the old cemetery at Birmingham.

Besides her varied and industrious literary labours Miss Martineau had been active in her social relations. She was on friendly terms in her first years at the Lakes with the Wordsworths, and the poet had pronounced her purchase of the land there to be 'the wisest step of her life, for the value of the property would be doubled in ten years' (ib. li. 229). He also prudently advised her to entertain her friends to tea, but if they wanted more to say that they must pay for their board (ib. p. 235). He was, however, substantially kindly and generous. Some of the respectable neighbours were frightened by her opinions ; but she had abundance of friends and guests. She gave careful lectures to the workmen during the winter, was very charitable out of a modest income, and started a building society and other benevolent schemes. She started a farm on her little property with the help of a labourer imported from Norfolk, and described his success in a pamphlet. An excellent description of her in her later years is given by Mr. Payn in his 'Literary Recollections,' who speaks warmly of her kindly, 'motherly' ways, ner strong good sense, and her idolatry of Atkinson.

Miss Martineau says of herself, in a short biography written for the 'Daily News' (republished in 'Autobiog.' iii. 459-70), that her power was due to 'earnestness and intellectual clearness within a certain range.' She had 'small imaginative and suggestive powers, and therefore no approach to genius,' but could see clearly and express herself clearly. She 'could popularise, though she could neither discover nor invent,' Her life, she adds, was useful so far as she could do this 'diligently and honestly.' There can be no doubt of her honesty, and her diligence is sufficiently proved by the great quantity of work which she executed in spite of many years of prostrating illness. Her estimate of herself was, if any thing, on the side of modesty, but seems to be substantially correct. Some of her stories perhaps show an approach to genius; but neither her history nor her philosophical writings have the thoroughness of research or the originality of conception which could entitle them to such a name. As an interpreter of a rather rigid and prosaic school of thought, and a compiler of clear compendiums of knowledge, she certainly deserves a high place, and her independence and solidity of character give a value to her more personal utterances. Her portrait by Richmond, taken in 1849, was presented to her, and has been engraved.

Her works are: 'Devotional Exercises, … with a "Guide to the Study of the Scriptures," 1823.  'Traditions of Palestine,' 1830.  'Five Years of Youth, or Sense and Sentiment,' 1831, a story for the young.  'Essential Faith of the Universal Church,' &c, 1831.  'The Faith as unfolded by many Prophets …,' 1832.  'Providence manifested through Israel …,' 1832 (the last three the prize essays published by the Unitarian Society).  'Illustrations of Political Economy,' 9 vols. 1832, 1833, 1834.  'Poor Laws and Paupers Illustrated,' 1833.  'Illustrations of Taxation,' 1834.  'Society in America,' 1837.  'Retrospect of Western Travel,' 1838.  'How to Observe: Morals and Manners,' 1838.  'Addresses, with Prayers and Original Hymns,' 1838.  'Deerbrook, a novel,' 1839. <li> 'The Playfellow, a series of tales,' 1841 ('Settlers at Home,' 'The Peasant and the Prince,' 'Feats on the Fiord,' and 'Crofton Boys'). <li> 'The Hour and the Man, an historical romance,' 1841. <li> 'Life in the Sick Room: Essays by an Invalid,' 1843. <li> 'Letters on Mesmerism,' 1845. <li> 'Forest and Game-Law Tales,' 1845 ('Merdhin' and three other stories). <li> 'Dawn Island, a tale,' 1845 (published for the Anti-Cornlaw League). <li> 'The Billow and the Rock,' 1846 ('Knight's Weekly Volumes'). <li> 'Eastern Life, Past and Present,' 1848. <li> 'History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace,' 1849. <li> 'Household Education,' 1849. <li> 'Introduction to the History of the Peace,' 1851. <li> 'Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development' (with H. G. Atkinson), 1851. <li> 'Merdhin; the Manor and the Eyrie; and Old Landmarks and Old Laws,' 1852. <li> 'The Philosophy of Comte, freely translated and condensed,' 1853 (vols. iii. and iv. of 'Chapman's Quarterly Series'). <li> 'A Complete Guide to the English Lakes,' 1855 </ol>


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 (under Balard, the discoverer of bromine). In 1854 he took his degree of docteur ès sciences with a remarkable thesis on the "Combinaisons de la Glycérine avec les Acides et Réproduction Artificelle des Corps gras neutres."

In 1859 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in L'École de Pharmacie, holding the post for five years. In 1864 a new chair, that of organic chemistry, was created for him at the Collège de France, which he occupied until his death; and here it was that he worked with a determination unequalled by any other chemist. He produced over a thousand memoirs, embracing every department of chemistry. Although Wöhler, in 1828, produced urea artificially, and Kolbe synthetized acetic acid in 1845, Berthelot was undoubtedly the creator or founder of organic synthesis. Monsieur Henri Poincaré says of Berthelot that "c'est non seulement un grand chimiste, mais aussi un grand philosophe. Il possédait un esprit universel. Sa déouverte sur la synthèse des corps organiques suffirait pour immortalizer son nom. Ses travaux sur les corps explosifs ont rendu également au pays d'inappréciables services."

This remarkable man had "many irons in the fire," for he was not only a great chemist, but a politician, philosopher, and author.

The theories and discoveries of Berthelot are grouped round two great ideas—the synthesis of organic


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, and the investigation of the laws of dynamical chemistry. Probably the most important syntheses of his are the production of acetylene from carbon and hydrogen, and methane or marsh gas, by means of the well-known Berthelot's reaction; and of dynamical chemistry, his most important discovery is "the law of maximum work." His scientific labours were immense, and he completely revolutionized chemistry in more departments than one. He transformed agriculture; proved that inorganic and organic bodies obey the same laws; established "la théorie des affinités"; and invented thermo-chemistry.

In 1861 he was awarded the Jecker prize by the Académie des Sciences for his researches on the syntheses of organic compounds. The first half of the nineteenth century was devoted to analytical chemistry—this being due to the great work of Berzelius. The second half, however, was the era of Berthelot or synthetical chemistry. Since his discovery of the synthesis of acetylene, a vast number of organic bodies have been discovered by the aid of synthesis; and there is no limit to these discoveries in organic chemistry. Tartaric acid, citric acid, alcohol, lactic acid, and a host of other compounds, both vegetable and animal, have been synthetized. It is not improbable that even albumen or protoplasm will yield to synthetical methods. It is quite within the bounds of possibility that chemistry


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 some day will discover something that will make the world independent of wheat and meat. Berthelot believed in the possibility of wheat-growing and cattle-raising being superseded by the discovery of artificial substitutes for the necessaries of life. It may seem to the uninitiated a mere dream, but to the chemists this vision of the future is quite within the bounds of possibility. Chemistry in the past sixty years has done more to make mankind independent of Nature than all the other agencies in the world since the beginning of time. This is a big statement, but it is literally true. Chemistry, by its application to agriculture this past half-century, has doubled the world's producing power, has, in fact, put Nature in harness and made her do double work by the stimulation of growth.

It is only within the past sixty years that synthetic chemistry has come to take its proper place in the scientific world: what a powerful instrument of research it has proved; and this is due to the original stimulus given to it by Berthelot. Berthelot's idea of the synthesis of substances that will take the place of wheat and meat is the most audacious flight of fancy that scientific imagination has ever yet taken, but it need not, because of that, be classed among the impossibilities. Berthelot was justified by accomplished facts in stating that applied science has done more for mankind in the last three-quarters of a century than all the progress in


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 by the Phoenicians, and to Italy and southern Gaul from Greece. In the earliest Roman times the vine was very little cultivated in Italy, but gradually Rome and Italy generally became a great wine country. At a later date the republic sought to stimulate its home industry by prohibiting the importation of wine, and by restricting its cultivation in the colonies, thus preserving the latter as a useful market for Italian wines. According to Pliny, Spanish, Gallic and Greek wines were all consumed in Rome during the 1st century of the Christian era, but in Gaul the production of wine appears to have been limited to certain districts on the Rhone and Gironde. The cultivation of the vine in more northern parts (i.e. on the Seine and Moselle) was not commenced until after the death of Probus. Owing no doubt to the difficulties of transportation, wine was, in the middle ages, made in the south of England, and in parts of Germany, where it is now no longer produced (cf. Hehn, Culturpflanzen, &c., and Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, v. 98 et seq.) We know very little of the ancient methods of cultivating the vine, but the Romans—no doubt owing to the luxuriant ease with which the vine grows in Italy—appear to have trained it on trees, trellis work, palisades, &c. The dwarf form of cultivation now common in northern Europe docs not appear to have obtained to any extent. It seems likely that the quality of the wine produced in ancient times was scarcely comparable to that of the modern product, inasmuch as the addition of resin, salts and spices to wine was a common practice. With regard to the actual making of the wine, this does not appear to have differed very much in principle from the methods obtaining at the present day. Plastering appears to have been known at an early date, and when the juice of the grapes was too thin for the production of a good wine, it was occasionally boiled down with a view to concentration. The first wine receptacles were made of skins or hides, treated with oil or resin to make them impervious. Later, earthenware vessels were employed, but the wooden cask—not to mention the glass bottle—was not generally known until a much later period.

Production.—The total wine production of the world, which, of course, fluctuates considerably from year to year, amounts to roughly 3000 million gallons. France and Italy are the chief wine-producing countries, the former generally producing rather more than the latter. During the phylloxera period Italy in some years had the greater output (e.g. 1886–1888 and 1890–1892). The average production of the chief wine-producing countries will be gathered from the following table:—

Wine Production. Average Annual Production in Millions of Gallons for Quinquennial Periods.

The United States produces roughly 50, Bulgaria and Rumania each 40 and Servia 10 million gallons. The United Kingdom produces no wine, but the Cape and the Australian Commonwealth each produce some 5 million gallons.

The variation from year to year in the quantity of wine produced in individual countries is, of course, far greater than that observed in the case of beer or spirits. Thus, owing to purely climatic vagaries, the quantity of wine produced in Germany in 1891 was only 16 million gallons, whereas in 1896 it amounted to 111 millions. Similarly the French production, which was 587 million gallons in 1895, amounted to no less than 1482 millions in 1900. In the same way the Italian production has varied between 583 million gallons (1895) and 793 millions (1901), and the Spanish between 331 million gallons in 1896 and 656 millions in 1892.

Consumption.—It is only natural that the consumption of wine should be greatest in the countries where it is produced on the largest scale, but the discrepancy between the consumption of

different countries is little short of astonishing. Thus, at the present time, the consumption per head in France is practically a hundred times that of the United Kingdom and twenty times that of Germany—the latter, it must be remembered, being itself an important wine-producing area.

The following table will give some idea of the relative consumption of wine in different countries.—

Average Consumption of Wine per Head of Population. ¹Has varied between 1.9 and 3.7.

The whole of the wine consumed in the United Kingdom is imported. On the average somewhat more than one-third of the wine imported is derived from France, and about a quarter from Spain and Portugal respectively.

Wines imported into the United Kingdom in 1906. ¹ The quantity of port received was exceptionally large. The average quantity is rather under 3 million gallons and the value about £850,000.

² A considerable proportion of the German wines come to the United Kingdom via the Netherlands.

Of the wines imported from France, about one-quarter was Champagne and Saumur, the remainder consisting almost entirely of still wines, such as claret and burgundy.

General Considerations.-Although the wine is cultivated in practically every part of the world possessing an appropriate climate and soil, from California in the West to Persia in the East, and from Germany in the North to the Cape of Good Hope and some of the South American republics in the South, yet, as is the case also with the cereal crops and many fruits and vegetables, the wines produced in countries possessing temperate climates are—when the vintage is successful—finer than those made in hot or semi-tropical regions. Although, for instance, the wines of Italy, Greece, the Cape, &c., possess great body and strength, they cannot compare as regards elegance of flavour and bouquet with the wines of France and Germany. On the other hand, of course, the vagaries of the temperate climate of northern Europe frequently lead to a partial or complete failure of the vintage, whereas the wines produced in relatively hot countries, although they undoubtedly vary in quality from year to year, are rarely, if ever, total failures. The character of a wine depends mainly (a) on the nature of the soil; (b) on the general type of the climate; (c) on the variety of vine cultivated. The quality, as distinct from general character, depends almost entirely on

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 (separate guides to Windermere and Keswick also published).  'The Factory Controversy, a Warning against "Meddling Legislation,"' 1855.  'Corporate Traditions and National Rights, Dues on Shipping,' 1857.  'British Rule in India, an historical sketch,' 1857.  'Suggestions towards the Future Government of East India,' 1858.  'England and her Soldiers,' 1859, written to help Miss Nightingale.  'Health, Husbandry, and Handicraft,' 1861, an account of her 'farm of two acres.'  'Biographical Sketches' (from the 'Daily News,' 1869. 'Letters from Ireland' in the same paper were reprinted in 1852).

 MARTINEAU, ROBERT BRAITHWAITE (1826–1869), painter, born in Gailford Street, London, on 19 Jan. 1826, was son of Philip Martineau, taxing-master to the court of chancery,and Elizabeth Frances, his wife, daughter of, M.D. [q. v.] Martineau was educated at University College, London, and, being intended for the legal profession, was articled to a firm of solicitors. He, however, abandoned the law to follow his predilection for art, and became a pupil in the school of [q. v.] In 1848 he was admitted a student at the Royal Academy, where he obtained a silver medal for a drawing from the antique. He then became a pupil of Mr. W. Holman Hunt, in the latter's studio at Chelsea. In 1852 he exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy, sending ‘Kit's Writing Lesson’ (afterwards the property of Mr. C. Mudie), and subsequently ‘Katharine and Petruchio’ (1865), ‘Picciola’ (1856), ‘The Allies’ (1861), ‘The Last Chapter’ (1863), ‘The Knight's Guerdon’ (1864), and other small pictures; but his time was chiefly occupied on a large picture of his own invention, entitled ‘The Last Day in the Old Home,’ which was exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, and was the subject of much comment at the time. Afterwards he began an important picture, ‘Christians and Christians,’ but died of heart disease on 13 Feb. 1869. An exhibition of his pictures and drawings was held in the following summer at the Cosmopolitan Club, Charles Street, Berkeley Square. Martineau married in 1865 Maria, daughter of Henry Wheeler of Bolingbroke House, Wandsworth, by whom he left one son and two daughters.

 MARTYN. [See also, and .]  MARTYN, BENJAMIN (1699–1763), miscellaneous writer, born in 1699, was eldest son of Richard Martyn of Wiltshire, and nephew of Edward Martyn, professor of rhetoric at Gresham College, and of the economist [q. v.] His father was at first in business as a linendraper, but was afterwards made a commissioner of the stamp duties by Lord Godolphin, and died at Buenos Ayres, whither he had gone as agent for the South Sea Company. A ‘Relation’ of his voyage thither and expedition to Potosi was published in 1716 (12mo). Benjamin was educated at the Charterhouse, and became examiner of the out-ports in the custom-house (, Lit. Anecd. vxxx. 719). He also acted as secretary to the Society for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, of which he published an account in 1733.

Martyn became an original member of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, founded in May 1736 (ib. ii. 93). He was the first promoter of the design for erecting a monument to the memory of Shakespeare in Westminster Abbey, and the scheme was carried into effect by him, with the assistance of Dr. Richard Mead, Alexander Pope, and others, on the profits of a performance of Shakespeare's 'Julius Cæsar' at Drury Lane on 28 April 1738,for which he wrote a special prologue (printed in A General Dictionary, 1739, ix. 189). He died unmarried at Eltham, Kent, on 25 Oct. 1763 (Probate Act Book, P. C. C. 1763). and was buried on the 31st in Lewisham churchyard (, Environs, iv. 623, 528). According to his epitaph he was ‘a man of inflexible integrity, and one of the best bred men in England; which, with a happy genius for poetry, procured him the friendship of several noblemen.’ He made frequent tours on the continent, and brought back many additions to his art collections in his loggings in Old Bond Street (will P. C. C. 479, Cæsar).

About 1734 the fourth Earl of Shaftesbury engaged Martyn to compose a life of the first earl from the family papers; but<section end="Martyn, Benjamin" />


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 family which for some generations had held important posts in the Hanoverian civil service. He was educated at the Carolinum, an endowed school at Osnabrück, and studied at the universities of Göttingen and Heidelberg. In 1836 he settled down as an advocate in Osnabrück: his abilities soon procured him a considerable practice, and he was appointed president of the Catholic Consistorium. In 1848 he received an appointment at the supreme court of appeal for the kingdom of Hanover, which sat at Celle. In the next year the revolution opened for him, as for so many of his contemporaries, the way to public life, and he was elected as representative for his native district in the second chamber of the reformed Hanoverian parliament. He belonged to what was called the Great German party, and opposed the project of reconstituting Germany under the leadership of Prussia; he defended the government against the liberal and democratic opposition; at this time he began the struggle against the secularization of schools, which continued throughout his life. In 1851 he was elected president of the chamber, and in the same year minister of justice, being the first Catholic who had held so high an office in Hanover. As minister he carried through an important judicial reform which had been prepared by his predecessor, but had to retire from office because he was opposed to the reactionary measures for restoring the influence and privileges of the nobility. Though he was always an enemy to liberalism, his natural independence of character prevented him from acquiescing in the reactionary measures of the king. In 1862 he again was appointed minister, but with others of his colleagues he resigned when the king refused his assent to a measure for extending the franchise. Windthorst took no part in the critical events of 1866; contrary to the opinion of many of his friends, after the annexation of Hanover by Prussia he accepted the fait accompli, look the oath of allegiance, and was elected a member both of the Prussian parliament and of the North German diet. At Berlin he found a wider field for his abilities. He acted as representative of his exiled king in the negotiations with the Prussian government concerning his private property and opposed the sequestration, thus for the first time being placed in a position of hostility to Bismarck. He was recognized as the leader of the Hanoverians and of all those who opposed the “revolution from above.” He took a leading part in the formation of the party of the Centre in 1870–1871, but he did not become a member of it, fearing that his reputation as a follower of the king of Hanover would injure the party, until he was formally requested to join them by the leaders.

After the death of Hermann von Mallinckrodt (1821–1874) in 1874, Windthorst became leader of the party, and maintained that position till his death. It was chiefly owing to his skill and courage as a parliamentary debater and his tact as a leader that the party held its own and constantly increased in numbers during the great struggle with the Prussian government. He was especially exposed to the attacks of Bismarck, who attempted personally to discredit him and to separate him from the rest of the party. And he was far the ablest and most dangerous critic of Bismarck’s policy. The change of policy in 1879 led to a great alteration in his position: he was reconciled to Bismarck, and even sometimes attended receptions at his house. Never, however, was his position so difficult as during the negotiations which led to a repeal of the May laws. In 1887 Bismarck appealed to the pope to use his authority to order the Centre to support the military proposals of the government. Windthorst took the responsibility of keeping the papal instructions secret from the rest of his party and of disobeying them. In a great meeting at Cologne in March 1887 he defended and justified his action, and claimed for the Centre full independence of action in all purely political questions. In the social reform he supported Bismarck, and as the undisputed leader of the largest party in the Reichstag he was able to exercise influence over the action of the government after Bismarck’s retirement. His relations with the emperor William II. became very cordial, and in 1891 he achieved a great parliamentary triumph by defeating the School bill and compelling Gossler to resign. A

few days afterwards he died, on the 14th of March 1891, at Berlin, He was buried in the Marienkirche in Hanover, which had been erected from the money subscribed as a testimonial to himself. His funeral was a most remarkable display of public esteem, in which nearly all the ruling princes of Germany joined, and was a striking sign of the position to which, after twenty years of incessant struggle, he had raised his party. Windthorst was undoubtedly one of the greatest of German parliamentary leaders: no one equalled him in his readiness as a debater, his defective eyesight compelling him to depend entirely upon his memory. It was his misfortune that nearly all his life was spent in opposition, and he had no opportunity of showing his abilities as an administrator. He enjoyed unbounded popularity and confidence among the German Catholics, but he was in no way an ecclesiastic: he was at first opposed to the Vatican decrees of 1870, but quickly accepted them after they had been proclaimed. He was a very agreeable companion and a thorough man of the world, singularly free from arrogance and pomposity; owing to his small stature, he was often known as “die kleine Excellenz.” He married in 1839. Of his three children, two died before him; his wife survived him only a few months.

Windthorst’s Ausgewählte Reden were published in three volumes (Osnabrück, 1901–1902). See also J. N. Knopp, Ludwig Windthorst: ein Lebensbild (Dresden; 1898); and Hüsgen, Ludwig Windthorst (Cologne, 1907).

 WINDWARD ISLANDS, a group and colony in the West Indies. They consist of the British island of St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, with a chain of small islands, the Grenadines, between the two latter islands. They are not a single colony, but a confederation of three separate colonies with a common governor-in-chief, who resides at St George’s, Grenada. Each island retains its own institutions, and they have neither legislature, laws, revenue nor tariff in common. There is, however, a common court of appeal for the group as well as for Barbados, composed of the chief justices of the respective islands, and there is also a common audit system, while the islands unite in maintaining certain institutions of general utility. The Windward Islands, which, as a geographical division, properly include Barbados, derive their name from the fact that they are the most exposed of the Lesser Antilles to the N.E. Trade, the prevailing wind throughout the West Indies.  WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr.  ), a term which when used in its modern sense without qualification designates the fermented product of grape juice. The fermented juices of other fruits or plants, such as the date, ginger, plum, &c., are also termed wine, but the material from which the wine is derived is in such cases also added in qualification. The present article deals solely with wine derived from the grape (see ).

Historical.—The art of viticulture or wine-making is a very ancient one. In the East it dates back almost as far as we have historical records of any kind. In Egypt and in Greece the introduction of wine was ascribed to gods; in Greece to Dionysus; in Egypt to Osiris. The Hebrews ascribed the art of wine-making to Noah. It is probable that the discovery that an intoxicating and pleasant beverage could be made from grape juice was purely accidental, and that it arose from observations made in connexion with crushed or bruised wild grapes, much as the manufacture of beer, or in its earliest form, mead, may be traced back to the accidental fermentation of wild honey. In ancient times the cultivation of the vine indicated a relatively settled and stable form of civilization, inasmuch as the vine requires a considerable maturation period. It is probable, therefore, that viticulture was introduced subsequent to the raising of cereal crops. The Nabataeans were forbidden to cultivate the vine, the object being to prevent any departure from their traditional nomadic habits. The earliest examples of specific wines of which we have any record are the Chalybon wine, produced near Damascus, in which the Phoenicians traded in the time of Ezekiel (xxvii. 18), and which at a later date was much appreciated by the Persian kings; and the wines from the Greek islands (Chios, Lesbos, Cos). With regard to the introduction of the vine into other parts of Europe, it appears that it was brought to Spain

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 all ages that preceded it. And yet, applied science is only in the first early dawn of its power.

Berthelot was quite sure that physics and chemistry would soon solve the problem of aerial navigation, and he significantly remarked that when they do so "custom-houses will fall of themselves." That would be something like a revolution in the world's institutions, but it would be second to the discovery of artificial wheat and meat.

Although glycerine was discovered by Scheele in 1779, and its formula established by Pelouze in 1836, it was not until 1854 that its true composition was known. This was due to Berthelot, who proved that it is an alcoholic compound capable of interacting with three molecules of such acids as acetic and palmitic.

In 1860 Berthelot's book, Chimie Organique fondée sur la Synthèse, was published. It was the first of its kind, being based entirely on synthesis. His methods were simple and direct. By means of the electric spark, carbon and hydrogen united to form acetylene; or by the action of electricity on a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the same gas is formed; also by the action of the spark on a mixture of hydrogen with carbon disulphide vapour or cyanogen. The conversion of acetylene into ethylene, and the synthesis of alcohol were also important reactions. Acetylene polymerizes, under the influence of the electric spark, into benzene, and


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 many of its derivations were formed by Berthelot. He also formed methane by passing the vapour of carbon disulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen over hot copper; and by the action of carbon monoxide on a hot solution of caustic potash, potassium formate was produced, the formate yielding formic acid on distillation with hydrochloric acid. He formed hydrocyanic acid by the action of the electric spark on a mixture of nitrogen and acetylene.

Such were a few of the numerous syntheses of Berthelot, or the building up of chemical compounds, many of which were only obtained through the instrumentality of life, either animal or vegetable.

His contributions to chemical literature range over practically every department of the science: philosophical, historical, physical, pure, and applied.

In 1864 Berthelot began his great work on thermo-chemistry, and in 1879 he published his Essai de Mécanique Chimique fondée sur la Thermo-chimie. Although Favre, Silbermann, Andrews, Hess, and Thomsen had previously worked on problems bearing on heat and chemical changes, Berthelot is generally looked upon as the founder of thermo-chemistry.

His laws are the following:—(1) The heat disengaged in any reaction is a measure of the chemical and physical work accomplished in the reaction. (2) The total thermal value of a reaction is dependent only on the initial and


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 U. S. Grant and Admiral George Dewey; and Captain John Mason (1600–1672), the friend of Miles Standish, was one of its early citizens. It was the birthplace of Roger Wolcott, of the older Oliver Wolcott (1726–1797), of Oliver Ellsworth (whose home is now a historical museum), and of Edward Rowland Sill. Windsor has been called “The Mother of Towns”; it originally included the territory now constituting the present township, and the townships of East Windsor (1768), Ellington (1786), South Windsor (1845), Simsbury (1670), Granby (1786), East Granby (1858), Bloomfield (1835) and Windsor Locks (1854).

See H. R. Stiles, Ancient Windsor (2 vols., New York, 1891; revised edition).  WINDSOR (properly ), a municipal borough of Berkshire, England, and a parliamentary borough extending into Buckinghamshire. Pop. (1901) 14,130. The town, which is famous for its royal castle, lies on the west (right) bank of the Thames, 21¼ m. W. of London by the Great Western railway, which serves it with a branch line from Slough. It is also the terminus of a branch of the London & South-Western railway. Here the Thames, from an easterly course, sweeps first nearly northward and then south-eastward.

The castle lies at the north-eastern edge of the town, on a slight but commanding eminence, while the massive round tower in the centre, on its artificial mound, is conspicuous

from far over the flat land to the east, north and west. The site of the castle is an irregular parallelogram measuring about 630 yds. by 180. On the west the walls enclosing the “lower ward,” with the Clewer, Garter, Salisbury and Henry III. towers, overlook Thames Street and High Street, from which the “hundred steps” give access to the ward on the north, and the Henry VIII. gateway, opening from Castle Hill, on the south. This ward contains St George's Chapel in the centre, with the Albert Memorial Chapel on the east and the Horseshoe Cloisters on the west. To the north are the deanery and the canon's residences, for the foundation attached to the royal chapel has the privileges of a “royal peculiar,” the dean being exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. To the south are the guard-room and the houses of the military knights, or pensioners. The round tower occupies the “middle ward”; on its flag turret the Union Jack or the Royal Standard is hoisted according as the sovereign is absent or present. The buildings in the “upper ward,” east of this, form three sides of a square; the State apartments on the north, the private apartments on the east and the visitors' apartments on the south. Along the north side of the castle extends the north terrace, commanding, from its position above a steep slope, splendid views across the river to Eton on the Buckinghamshire side, and far over the valley. The east terrace, continuing the north, overlooks the gardens in front of the private apartments, and the south terrace continues farther, as far as the George IV. gateway. The Home Park lies adjacent to the castle on the south, east and north. The Great Park extends south of Windsor, where the land, rising gently, is magnificently timbered with the remnant of the old royal forest. The village of Old Windsor (in distinction from which the name of New Windsor is given to the borough) lies by the river, south of the Home Park. To the west of Windsor itself the village of Clewer has become a suburb of the town.

As early as the time of the Heptarchy a stronghold of some importance existed at Windsor, the great mound, which is moated, circular and about 125 ft. in diameter, being a remnant of this period. William the Conqueror was attracted by the forest as a hunting preserve, and obtained the land by exchange from Westminster Abbey, to which Edward the Confessor had given it. Thereafter the castle became what it remains, the chief residence of the English sovereigns. The Conqueror replaced the primitive wooden enclosure by a stone circuit-wall, and the first complete round tower was built by Henry III. about 1272, but Edward III. wholly reconstructed it on a more massive scale, about 1344, to form a meeting-place for his newly established order of Knights of the Garter. He selected this spot because, according to a legend quoted by the chronicler Froissart, it was on the summit of the mound that King Arthur used to sit

surrounded by his Knights of the Round Table. The bulk of the existing round tower is of Edward's time, but its walls were heightened and the tall flag-turret added by the court architect, Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, in the reign of George IV. In addition to the Round Tower, Henry III. had constructed long lines of circuit-walls, crowned at intervals with smaller towers. He also built a great hall (the present chapter library) and other apartments, together with a chapel, which was afterwards pulled down to make room for the chapel of St George. The beautiful little dean's cloister preserves a portion of Henry's work in the south wall, a contemporary portrait of the king appearing in distemper on one of the arches. Another chapel was built by him and dedicated to his favourite saint, Edward the Confessor. This graceful building, with an eastern apse, is now called the Albert Memorial Chapel, some of Henry III.'s work still exists in the lower part of its walls, but the upper part was rebuilt in 1501–1503 by Henry VII., who intended it as a burial-place for himself and his line, before he began the chapel which bears his name and contains his tomb at Westminster Abbey. Some years later the unfinished chapel was given by Henry VIII. to Cardinal Wolsey, and for long after it was known as “Wolsey's tomb-house.” Wolsey engaged a Florentine sculptor named Benedetto, probably a son or nephew of Benedetto da Maiano (d. 1497), also a Florentine artist, to make him a costly tomb of marble and gilt bronze, with a recumbent effigy at the top, no doubt similar in design to Torrigiano's tomb of Henry VII. at Westminster. The rich bronze work of Wolsey's tomb was torn off and melted by order of the Commonwealth in 1642, and the metal was sold for the then large sum of £600. In 1805 the black marble sarcophagus, stripped of its bronze ornaments, was moved from Windsor and used as a monument over Nelson's grave in the crypt of St Paul's. Though Wolsey's tomb-house was roofed in and used for mass by James II., the stone vaulting was not completed until the whole chapel was fitted by Sir Gilbert Scott as a memorial to Albert, Prince Consort. Its internal walls were then lined with rich marbles, and decorated with reliefs by Baron Triqueti. The cenotaph of the Prince Consort stands before the altar, with the tombs of Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, and the duke of Clarence, the last erected by King Edward VII., who was himself buried here in May 1910. In a vault beneath the chapel George III. and members of his family are buried.

The chapel of St George is one of the finest examples of Perpendicular architecture in England, comparable with two other royal chapels, that of King's College at Cambridge and that of Henry VII. at Westminster, which are a little later in date. The building was begun by Edward IV, who in 1473 pulled down almost the whole of the earlier chapel, which had been completed and filled with stained glass by Edward III. in 1363. The nave of St George's was vaulted about the year 1490, but the choir groining was not finished till 1507; the hanging pendants from the fan vaulting of the choir mark a later development of style, which contrasts strongly with the simpler lines of the earlier nave vault. In 1516 the lantern and the rood-screen were completed, but the stalls and other fittings were not finished till after 1519. The chapel ranks next to Westminster Abbey as a royal mausoleum, though no king was buried there before Edward IV., who left directions in his will that a splendid tomb was to be erected with an effigy of himself in silver. Nothing remains of this except part of the wrought iron grille which surrounded the tomb, one of the most elaborate and skilfully wrought pieces of ironwork in the world, said to be the work of Quintin Matsys. The next sovereign buried here was Henry VIII., who directed that his body should be laid beside that of Jane Seymour, in a magnificent bronze and marble tomb. The tomb was never completed, and what existed of its metal-work was probably melted down by the Commonwealth. No trace of it remains. Charles I. was buried here without service in 1649. Above the dark oak stalls hang the historic insignia of the Knights of the Garter, their swords, helmets and banners. On the stalls themselves appear a remarkable series of enamelled brass plates commemorating knights of the order. Many tombs and memorials are seen in the chantry chapels.

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 final states of the changing system. (3) "The Law of Maximum Work," or "the theorem of the necessity of reactions": every chemical change accomplished without the aid of external energy tends to the formation of a body, or system of bodies, the production of which evolves the maximum amount of heat. This law of Berthelot is of considerable importance, as it will often enable the chemist to decide beforehand whether a contemplated reaction is or is not possible by direct means, and if, because accompanied by absorption of heat, not possible in the direct way, it may enable him to bring it about by making it one of a series of reactions, the total effect of which is an evolution of heat. … This law is the fundamental principle of Berthelot's thermo-chemistry: "The quantity of heat evolved in a reaction measures the sum of the physical and chemical changes which occur in that reaction"—"ce principe fournit la mesure des affinités chimiques."

Berthelot's agricultural station and laboratory were at Meudon, and here experiments on vegetable soils, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in soils by the agency of microbes, the action of electricity on the growth of plants, etc., were conducted. Berthelot states that twenty-five pounds of nitrogen per annum per acre might be fixed by bacteria.

Berthelot's work on the explosive wave, his classical experiments on the union of carbon and hydrogen, and


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Rh Although the employment of tracery continued long after the classic revival, the examples generally are poor in design, and even in those that are more elaborate (as those of the period of Henry II. in the church at Le Grand Andely) the introduction of classic details in the ordinary and rose windows was of too capricious a character to make them worthy of much attention. The early Renaissance architects in France in some cases, and notably in the apsidal chapels of St Pierre at Caen (1520), seemed to feel that the stained glass was too much cut up by the tracery and mullions, and omitted them altogether, trusting to the iron stanchions and cross-bars to carry their glass, so that a return was made to the simple semicircular-headed window of Roman times, retaining only the mouldings of the late Flamboyant period for the jambs and arch-moulds. Windows of this description, however, would be out of place in domestic architecture, so that the mullion window was there retained with two or three transoms, all moulded and with square heads; in the Tudor period cusping was introduced in the upper lights and occasionally in those below, and this custom lingered for a long time in the collegiate buildings of Oxford and Cambridge and in various houses throughout England. In France, square-headed windows were almost always employed, owing to the earlier introduction there of the Renaissance style, when the decoration of the mullions, generally consisting of classic pilasters, required some kind of architrave, frieze and cornice, to render the order complete; eventually the mullion and transom disappear, and in the earlier work of the Louvre the windows are simple rectangular openings, fitted with wooden framework, and, like those in Rome, Milan and Genoa, depend for their architectural effect on the moulded classic jambs, and the lintel, frieze and small cornice over; and in cases where more importance was required, with small semicircular columns or pilasters carrying the usual entablature, with small pediments sometimes angular and sometimes semicircular, repeating in fact an ancient Roman design, of which almost the only examples known are the blank windows and niches which decorated some of the enclosure walls of the Roman thermae. In Florence and Siena the early windows of the Renaissance often had semicircular heads and were coupled together, there being two lights to the window divided by shafts, thus continuing the tradition of those of the earlier Tuscan palaces; the same treatment was followed in Venice, Verona and other towns in the north-east, where the Gothic influence of the palaces in Venice created a transition; thus the mouldings of the windows of the Vendramini and Corner Spinelli palaces follow closely those of the Ducal Palace, but the arches are semicircular instead of being either pointed or ogee in form. Another type peculiar to Venice is a lofty window with semicircular head enclosed in a rectangular panel and crowned with a small entablature and pediment.

The only new combination of the l6th century in Italy, which was largely adopted in England by Inigo Jones and his followers in the 17th and l8th centuries, is the so-called Venetian or Palladian window, the finest example of which is that found in the Sala della Ragione or the basilica at Vicenza; it is true that it was here employed by Palladio to light an open gallery, but the composition was so generally approved that it led to its constant adoption for a window of more importance than the ordinary simple rectangular form. It consists of a central light with semicircular arch over, carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature, under which, and enclosing two other lights, one on each side, are pilasters. In the library at Venice, Sansovino varied the design by substituting columns for the two inner pilasters. The Palladian window was introduced by Inigo Jones in the centre of the garden front at Wilton, by Lord Burlington in the centres of the wings of the Royal Academy, and good examples exist in Holkham House, Norfolk, by Kent, and in Worcester College, Oxford. There do not seem to be any examples in either Germany, France or Spain. Circular and oval windows, lighting a mezzanine or the upper part of a hall, are found in Italy, France and England, sometimes over ordinary rectangular windows when the main front is decorated with semidetached columns as in Hampton Court Palace.

 WINDOW CORNICE, an ornamental framework of wood or composition to which window curtains are attached by rods with rings or hooks. Cornices are often gilded and of elaborate design, but they are less fashionable in the 20th century than before it had been discovered that elaborate draperies harbour dust and microbes. Like other pieces of furniture, they have reflected taste as it passed, and many of the carefully constructed examples of the latter part of the 18th century are still in use in the rooms for which they were made. Chippendale provided a famous series still in situ for the gallery at Harewood House, the valances of which are, like the cornices themselves, of carved and painted wood.  WINDOW SEAT, a miniature sofa without a back, intended to fill the recess of a window. In the latter part of the 18th century, when tall narrow sash windows were almost universal, the window seat was in high favour, and was no doubt in keeping with the

formalism of Georgian interiors. It differed much in decorative detail, but little in form. It stood as high from the floor as a chair; the two ends were identical, with a roll-over curve, more or less pronounced. The seats and ends were usually upholstered in rich fabrics which in many cases have remained intact. The legs followed the fashion in chairs and were square and tapered or, somewhat later, round and reeded. Hepplewhite and the brothers Adam designed many graceful window seats, but they were produced by all the cabinet-makers of the period.  WINDOW TAX, a tax first levied in England in the year 1697 for the purpose of defraying the expenses and making up the deficiency arising from clipped and defaced coin in the recoinage of silver during the reign of William III. It was an assessed tax on the rental value of the house, levied according to the number of windows and openings on houses having more than six windows and worth more than £5 per annum. Owing to the method of assessment the tax fell with peculiar hardship on the middle classes, and to this day traces of the endeavours to lighten its burden may be seen in numerous bricked-up windows.

The revenue derived from the tax in the first year of its levy amounted to £1,200,000. The tax was increased no fewer than six times between 1747 and 1808, but was reduced in 1823. There was a strong agitation in favour of the abolition of the tax during the winter of 1850–1851, and it was accordingly repealed on the 24th of July 1851, and a tax on inhabited houses substituted. The tax contributed £1,856,000 to the imperial revenue the year before its repeal. There were in England in that year about 6000 houses having fifty windows and upwards about 275,000 having ten windows and upwards, and about 725,000 having seven windows or less.

In France there is still a tax on doors and windows, and this forms an appreciable amount of the revenue.  WINDPIPE, the trachea (Gr., sc. , literally, rough artery), the air tube which leads from the larynx to the bronchi and lungs (see ).  WINDSOR, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Ontario, Canada, on the left bank of the Detroit river, opposite the city of Detroit. Pop. (1901) 12,153. It is on the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, Pere Marquette and Michigan Central railways, which connect at this point with the railways of the United States by means of large and powerful car-ferries. It is the centre of an important agricultural and fruit-growing district, in which tobacco is also produced. Salt works, flour mills, canning factories, and the manufacture of type-setting machines are the principal industries. During the season of navigation it is the centre of a large coasting trade on the Great Lakes.  WINDSOR, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Connecticut and Farmington rivers, adjoining the city of Hartford on the N. Pop. (1890) 2954; (1900) 3614, 596 being foreign-born; (1910) 4178. Area about 27 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by electric lines to Hartford and to Springfield, Massachusetts. Among the buildings are the Congregational Church, built in 1794 (the church itself was organized in 1630 in England), the Protestant Episcopal Church (1864) and the Roger Ludlow School. In Windsor are the Campbell School (for girls) and a public library (1888). The Loomis Institute (incorporated 1874 and 1905) for the gratuitous education of persons between 12 and 20 years of age has been heavily endowed by gifts of the Loomis family. Tobacco and market vegetables are raised in Windsor, and among its manufactures are paper, canned goods, knit and woollen goods, cigars and electrical supplies.

In 1633 Captain William Holmes, of the Plymouth Colony, established near the mouth of the Farmington river a trading post, the first settlement by Englishmen in Connecticut; a more important and a permanent settlement (until 1637 called New Dorchester) was made in 1635 by immigrants from Dorchester, Massachusetts, led by the Rev. John Wareham, Roger Ludlow and others. In 1639 representatives from Windsor, with those from Wethersfield and Hartford, organized the Connecticut Colony. Among the original land-holders were Matthew Grant and Thomas Dewey, ancestors respectively of General

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Rh Some data given by Wolff on mills of the American type gave for the same quantity

From some of the data of experiments by Griffiths on mills of the American type used in pumping, the effective work in pumping when the mill was working in the best conditions amounted to from 0.0005v3 to 0.0003v3 ft. ℔ per sec. per sq. ft.

In 1903 trials of wind-pumping engines were carried out at Park Royal by the Royal Agricultural Society (Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. lxiv. 174). The mills were run for two months altogether, pumping against a head of 200 ft. The final results on six of the best mills are given in Table II.

A valuable paper by J. A. Griffiths (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. cxix. 321) contains details of a number of windmills of American type used for pumping and the results of a series of trials. Table III. contains an abstract of the results of his observations on six types of windmills used for pumping:—

I. Toowoomba; conical sail wheel with reefing vane. II. Stover; solid sail wheel with rudder; hand control. III. Perkins; solid wheel, automatic rudder. IV. and V. Althouse; folding sail wheel, rudderless. VI. Carlyle; special type, automatic rudder.

Table IV. gives the horse-power which may be expected, according to Wolff, for an average of 8 hours per day for wheels of the American type.

Further information will be found in Rankine, The Steam Engine and other Prime Movers; Weisbach, The Mechanics of Engineering; and Wolff, The Windmill as a Prime Mover.

 WINDOW (properly “wind eye”), the term applied in architecture (Ital. fenestra, Fr. fenêtre, Span. ventana, Ger. Fenster) to an aperture or opening in a wall for the admission of light and air to the interior of a hall or room.

The earliest windows are those which constituted the clerestory windows of the Great Hall of Columns at Karnak; they were filled with vertical slabs of masonry pierced with narrow slits. Other Egyptian temples were lighted in the same way. In one at Der el Medinet at Thebes the window was divided by miniature columns with lotus capitals. Some of the small ivory carvings found at Nimroud by Layard, now in the British Museum, are evidently of Egyptian workmanship, as they have lotus columns forming a balustrade in the lower part of the window; and such features are shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs as windows in the towers. Dr Arthur Evans's discoveries at Cnossos have revealed, in the eastern portion of the palace, rectangular openings which were certainly windows, with raised sills and stone benches inside, and the representations of the ordinary houses of Cnossos on a series of plaques show that they were in two or three storeys with openings in the upper storeys filled with windows framed in timber with transoms and mullions. It was at one time thought that there were no windows in Greek temples, and those of the west front of the Erechtheum are known now to be later reconstructions of the Roman period, but the remains of two windows place on either side of the

eastern doorway of the Erechtheum, which formed part of the original building of 430, have lately been found; they were rectangular windows with moulded and enriched architrave, resting on a sill and crowned with the cymatium moulding. Of later date, at Ephesus, remains of similar windows have been discovered. Of Roman windows many examples have been found, those of the Tabularium being the oldest known. A coin of Tiberius representing the temple of Concord shows features in the side wings which might be windows, but as statues are shown in them they are possibly only niches. Over the door of the Pantheon is an open bronze grating, which is thought to be the prototype of the windows which lighted the large halls of the Thermae, as it was absolutely necessary that these should be closed so as to retain the heat, the openings in the gratings being filled with glass. In some cases window openings were closed with thin slabs of marble, of which there are examples still existing in the churches of S. Martino and the Quattro Santi Incoronati at Rome. Similar slabs exist in the upper storey of the amphitheatre at Pola; it still remains, however, an open question as to the lighting of some of the temples at Rome, in which were placed all of the magnificent statutes from Greece so as to enable them to be seen properly. The Pantheon was lighted by a circular opening in the dome 30 ft. in diameter; the rain therefore fell in at times, and consequently the pavement had a convex contour, there being also holes under the hypaethral opening in connexion with drains beneath the pavement. There was a window at the south end of the tepidarium of the Forum baths at Pompeii, said to have been filled with a bronze frame with glass in it, half an inch thick. Although no window frames have been found in Pompeii, the openings in the walls show that some of the rooms were lighted by windows; one of them in the house of Diomede takes the form of a bow window with three lights in it.

In the later styles the windows assume much greater importance, and in Gothic cathedrals almost govern the whole design. Already, however, in the earliest Byzantine church, Sta Sophia at Constantinople, the windows constituted one of the chief features of the church; the forty windows round the base of the cupola giving an exceptional lightness to the structure; besides, there are windows in the larger and smaller apses and the north and south walls. The windows in the latter, which are of great size, are subdivided by marble mullions with pierced lattices between of transparent marbles.

In the later Byzantine churches the windows were of smaller dimensions, but always filled with marble screens, sometimes pierced, and the grouping of two or three under a single arch is the prevailing design.

In the Romanesque styles the windows are universally round-headed, with infinite variety of design in the mouldings and their enrichment, greater importance being sometimes given by having two or more rings of arches, the outer ones carried by small columns; this is varied in Norman work by dividing them with a shaft into two or more lights placed in shallow recesses under an arched head. Circular windows occur occasionally, as in the eastern transept of Canterbury, at Iffley church, Oxford, Barfreston and Patricksbourne in Kent. In all these early windows, which are usually small, greater light is obtained by splaying the jambs inside with a scoinson arch over them. The coupling together of two or more windows under a single arch, and the piercing of the tympanum above, led to the development of plate and rib tracery (see ); also to that of the circular or rose windows, which throughout the Romanesque and Gothic periods constituted very important features in the church, being placed high up in the west front over the porch or in the transepts; sometimes, and more particularly in French churches, they occupied the whole of the upper portion of the windows, having vertical lights under them, but the junction was never quite satisfactory.

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 his work on thermo-chemistry have served as the starting-point of numerous investigations by other chemists in various parts of the world. Berthelot's genius and activity are unparalleled in the history of chemistry. In 1862 he published Leçons sur la Principes Sucrés; in 1863, Leçons sur l'Isomérie; and in 1864, Leçons sur les Méthodes Générales de Synthèse en Chimie Organique.

In 1889 he was elected Secrétaire perpétuel de l'Académie des Sciences, and thereby became the most influential man of science in the French capital. On the death of Pasteur, in 1895, he was elected a member of the Académie Française.

A few words about the world-famed Institut de France may not be out of place, as Berthelot was an illustrious member of that body. It was erected in the seventeenth century on the Quai Conti, opposite the Louvre. It is a handsome building, with a façade in the form of a crescent, flanked with wings, and surmounted by a dome. Five different academies (Berthelot belonged to two) have their homes here namely, the Académie Française (devoted to the superintendence of the French language), the Académie des Sciences (devoted to the sciences), the Académie des Belles-Lettres (devoted to the study of the ancient languages), the Académie des Beaux-Arts (for painting, sculpture, and music), and the Académie des


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Rh wheel is kept face to the wind by a rudder in small mills; in large mills a subsidiary fan and gear are used. Fig. 2 shows a large mill of this kind, erected in a similar manner to a tower mill. The tower is a framework of iron, and carries a revolving cap, on which the wind shaft is fixed. Behind is the subsidiary fan with its gearing 2.—Warner's Annular Sail Windmill. acting on a toothed wheel fixed to the cap.

It is important that a wind-mill should control itself so that it works efficiently in moderately strong winds and at the same time runs in very light winds, which are much more prevalent. It should also, by reefing or otherwise, secure safety in storms.

Table I. gives the mean velocity of the wind in miles per hour for an inland station, Kew, and a very exposed station, Scilly, for each month during the period 1890-1899.

The pressure of the wind on a plane normal to its direction, composed partly of an excess front pressure and negative back pressure, is given by the relation

where p is in pounds per square foot and v the velocity of the wind in miles per hour. It varies a little with the form and size of the surface, but for the present purpose this variation may be disregarded. (See experiments by Dr Stanton at the National Physical Laboratory, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 156, p. 78.). For velocities of 5, 10 and 20 m. per hour the pressures on a plane normal to the wind would be about 0.075, 0.3 and per sq. ft. respectively, and these may be taken to be ordinary working velocities for windmills. In storms the pressures are much greater, and must be reckoned with in considering the stability of the mill. A favourable wind velocity for windmills is 15 m. per hour.

Pressure on Surfaces oblique to the Wind.—Let fig. 3 represent a plane at rest on which a wind current impinges in the direction YY, making an angle θ with the normal Oa to the plane. Then the pressure n normal to the plane is given very approximately by Duchemin's rule

where p is the pressure in pounds per square foot on a plane struck normally by the same wind.

In fig. 3 let AB be part of a windmill sail or vane at rest, XX being the plane of rotation and YY the direction of the wind. The angle θ is termed the weather of the sail. This is generally a constant angle for the sail, but in some cases varies from a small angle at the outer end to a larger angle near the axis of rotation. In mills of the European type, θ − 12° to 18°, and the speed of the tips of the sails is 2 to 3 times the velocity of the wind. In mills of the American type, θ = 28° to 40°, and the speed of the tips of the vanes is to 1 time that of the wind. Then if Oa = n be the normal pressure on the sail or vane per square foot, ba = t is the effective component of pressure in the direction of rotation and

When the sail is rotating in a plane at right angles to the wind direction the conditions are more complicated. In fig. 4 let XX be the plane of rotation of the vane and YY the direction of the wind. Let Oa be the normal to the vane, θ being the weather of the vane. Let Ov = v be the velocity of the wind, Ou = u the velocity of the vane. Completing the parallelogram, Ovr=vr is the velocity and direction of the wind relatively to the vane.

and the angle between the relative direction of wind and normal to the vane is θ+φ. It is clear that θ+φ cannot be greater than 90°, or the vane would press on the wind instead of the wind on the vane. Substituting these values in the equations already given, the normal pressure on the oblique moving vane is

The component of this pressure in the direction of motion of the vane is

and the work done in driving the vane is

foot per sq. ft. of vane per sec., where v is taken in miles per hour. For such angles and velocities as are usual in windmills this would give for a square foot of vane, near the tip about 0.003 v2 per sec. But parts of the vane or sail nearer the axis of rotation are less effective, and there are mechanical friction and other causes of inefficiency. An old rule based on experiments by Coulomb on mills of the European type gave for the average effective work in foot per sec. per sq. ft. of sail

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Rh being weighted by means of the foot and body of the performer at first and later by means of weights; the reed organ, consisting of pipes furnished with beating reeds, known also as the reed work when incorporated with the large church organ; the medieval portative and positive organs; the large modern church organ. To this class also belong the accordion and concertina and the numerous instruments of the harmonium type which have free instead of beating reeds, a difference which confers upon them the power of dynamic expression denied to all organs fitted with flue pipes or pipes having beating reeds. The complex instruments known as organized pianos also come within this category.

2. This comprises the bagpipes known as musette, and the Union or Irish and the Border bagpipes having a wind supply fed by bellows instead of by the insufflation pipe proper to the bagpipe; the barrel organ having instead of a keyboard a barrel studded with nails, which lift the valves admitting air to the flue pipes generally hidden within the case.

 WINDISCHGRÄTZ, PRINCE ALFRED (1787-1862), Austrian field-marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1804, participated in all the wars against Napoleon and fought with distinction at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. In the following years of peace he held successive commands in Prague, being appointed head of the army in Bohemia in 1840. Having gained a reputation as a champion of energetic measures against revolution he was called upon to suppress the insurrection of March 1848 in Vienna, but finding himself ill-supported by the ministers he speedily threw up his post. Having returned to Prague he there showed firmness in quelling an armed outbreak of the Czech separatists (June 1848). Upon the recrudescence of revolt in Vienna he was summoned at the head of a large army and reduced the city by a formal siege (Oct. 20-29). Appointed to the chief command against the Hungarian rebels he gained some early successes and reoccupied Budapest (Jan. 1849), but by his slowness in pursuit he allowed the enemy to rally in superior numbers and to prevent an effective concentration of the Austrian forces. In April 1849 he was relieved of his command and henceforth rarely appeared again in public life.

See ''Fürst Windischgrätz. Eine Lebens-Skizze. Aus den Papieren '' eines Zeitgenossen der Sturm-Jahre 1848 und 1849 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1898).  WINDMILL, a term used, in the widest sense, for a machine by which the energy of the wind is applied to useful purposes. 1.—Windmill near Delft. Windmills were certainly used as early as the 12th century and are still largely employed in Holland in draining the polders and grinding trass. They are somewhat extensively used in America for pumping and driving agricultural machinery. In spite of the competition of more powerful and tractable motors, they are serviceable, especially in new countries, where fuel is scarce and where work can be done intermittently. An inquiry was made in India in 1879 as to the possibility of using windmills for irrigation (Professional Papers on Indian Engineering, July 1879), with the result that it was concluded their usefulness would be very limited.

A windmill is not in any case a very powerful or efficient

motor, and its work is variable and intermittent. In favourable positions, it will run on an average for eight hours out of the twenty-four. For pumping on a small scale, the intermittent action is least an objection, because there is generally a tank or storage reservoir regulating the delivery of the water. For driving dynamos windmills are least suitable, on account of the variation of speed, though some attempts to generate electricity by wind power have been made, special arrangements being adopted for automatically regulating the speed.

European Windmills.—In all the older windmills a shaft, called the wind shaft, carried four to six arms or whips on which long rectangular narrow sails were spread. The wind shaft was placed at an inclination of 10° or 15° with the horizontal, to enable the sails to clear the lower part of the mill. The whip carrying the sail was often 30 to 40 ft. in length, so that the tips of the sails described a circle 60 to 80 ft. in diameter. The sails were rectangular, 5 to 6 ft. wide, and occupying five-sixths of the length of the whip. A triangular leading sail was sometimes added. Sometimes the sails consisted of a sail-cloth spread on a framework; at other times narrow boards were used. The oldest mill was no doubt the post mill, the whole structure being carried on a post; to bring the sails to face the wind, the structure was turned round by a long lever. The post mill was succeeded by the lower, smock or frock mill, in which the mill itself consisted of a stationary tower, and the wind shaft and sails were carried in a revolving cap rotating on the top of the tower. Andrew Meikle introduced in 1750 an auxiliary rotating fan at right angles to the principal sails, which came into action whenever the wind was oblique to the axis of the sails, automatically veering the sails or placing them normal to the wind. For safety, the sails must be reefed in high winds. In 1807, Sir W. Cubitt introduced automatic reefing arrangements. The sails were made of thin boards held up to the wind by weights. If the force of the wind exceeded a certain value the boards were pressed back and exposed little surface.

American Windmills.—These generally have the sails, 18 or more in number, arranged in an annulus or disk. The sails consist of narrow boards or slats arranged radially, each board having a constant or variable inclination to the wind's direction. An American mill presents a larger surface for a given length of sail than the older type, and consequently the construction is lighter. To turn the mill face to the wind a rudder is sometimes used projecting backward in a plane at right angles to the plane of rotation of the sails. Various arrangements are adopted for reefing the sails automatically. (a) In some an action equivalent to reefing is obtained by turning the sail disk oblique to the wind. The pressure on a side vane in the plane of rotation, controlled by a weight, turns the sail disk edgeways to the wind if the pressure exceeds a safe amount. (b) In centrifugal governor mills the slats forming the sails are connected in sets of six or eight, each set being fixed to a bar at the middle of its length. By rotating this bar the slats are brought end on to the wind, the action being analogous to shutting an umbrella. The slats are held up to the wind by a weight. A centrifugal governor lifts the weight if the speed becomes excessive and the sails are partially or completely furled. Many of the veering and reefing arrangements are very ingenious and too complicated to be described without detailed drawings. A description of some of these arrangements will be found in a paper by J. A. Griffiths (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 119, p. 321) and in a “Report on Trials of Wind Pumping Engines at Park Royal in 1903” (Journ. Roy. Agric, Soc., 64, p. 174).

Warner's Annular Sail Windmill.—Messrs Warner of London make a windmill somewhat similar to American mills. The shutters or vanes consist of a frame covered with canvas, and these are pivoted between two angle-iron rings so as to form an annular sail. The vanes are connected with spiral springs, which keep them up to the best angle of weather for light winds. If the strength of the wind increases, the vanes give to the wind, forcing back the springs, and thus the area on which the wind acts diminishes. In addition, there are a striking lever and tackle for setting the vanes edgeways to the wind when the mill is stopped or a storm is expected. The

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