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The Moths of the British Isles/Chapter 6

Staudinger in his catalogue of Palæarctic Lepidoptera refers twenty genera comprising sixty-three species to this family. Of these, eleven species belonging to ten genera occur in the British Isles. According to some authorities a twelfth species, Dendrolimus pini, Linn., should be included. This is the Eutricha pini of Stephens (1828) and the "Wild Pine tree Lappet moth" and "Pine tree Lappet" of the more ancient authors. The claim of this species to a place in the British list rests chiefly on a specimen captured in the Norwich Hospital, in July, 1809, by Mr. Sparshall. Wilkes (1773) states that he once found a caterpillar near Richmond Park, but the moth was not reared. For generations the species now classified as Lasiocampidæ have been referred to Bombycidæ, but the silkworm (Bombyx mori) is typical of that family, which has but few genera in it, and none of them occur in Europe. Although some of the moths are of considerable size, most of them are not large. The general colour is some shade of brown. Both sexes have the antennæ bipectinated, but more strongly in the male than the female.

In his treatment of the species here included under Lasiocampidæ, Tutt. ("A Natural History of the British Lepidoptera," vols. i., ii.) separates them into two families, Lachneidæ and Eutrichidæ. The first family is divided into five sub-families and the same number of tribes. The latter family has three sub-families and three tribes. The whole are embraced in a super-family styled Lachneides. Lasiocampidæ disappears as a family name, but the genus Lasiocampa is retained for quercus, L., whilst trifolii, Schiff., is referred to the genus Pachygastria, Hb., and these with Aurivillia, Tutt, not represented in Britain, constitute the Pachygastriidi tribe of the Pachygastriinæ, a sub-family of Lachneidæ. All this will no doubt appear very complicated to the beginner, but he need not worry himself very greatly about the matter at present. When he feels that he has a fair knowledge of the species in the group he will be in a position to grapple with the niceties of classification.

The colour of the male ranges from pale yellow ochre, through pale brown to reddish or dark brown; and in the female from pale brown to reddish brown; two cross lines are generally present on the fore wings; the space between the lines is usually darker in the female, and sometimes in the male also, forming a dark central band. All these colour forms were reared from some caterpillars taken by myself at Byfleet, Surrey, in 1901. Another year a few caterpillars taken at Esher produced ochreous coloured males and pale brown females only; the bands of the latter were narrower than usual and much contracted below the middle. As the females last mentioned are somewhat under the normal size I am inclined to think that the caterpillars from which they were reared had been on short commons during their last stage. Two males and a female are shown on Plate 48.

The greyish brown eggs are laid during July and August in a ring cluster around a twig as shown on Plate 49, and so they remain exposed to all weathers during the winter. In April the caterpillars hatch out, and as they live in company throughout the greater part of their larval existence, the first business is to construct a silken tent-like web (Fig. 22). The exterior of the tent affords a suitable surface upon which they can lie when they take a sun bath, which they seem fond of doing whenever the opportunity offers. It is also used, as well as the interior, for the process of skin-changing.

The full-grown caterpillar is slaty blue above; along the middle of the back is a bluish white line, bordered on each side by a reddish-orange-lined black stripe; towards the lower limit of the slaty blue colour is a black edged reddish-orange line, and below this again the ground colour is flecked with orange, sometimes forming a line in the region of the spiracles; there are two velvety black spots on the back of the ring nearest the head, and a smaller black spot on each side of the next two rings; the hairs are brownish, rather more numerous on the sides than on the back. Head slaty-blue with two black eye-like spots. It feeds from April to June on hawthorn, sloe, and various fruit trees in orchards and gardens; also on birch, elm, oak, sallow, willow, etc.

Chrysalis blackish, rather downy enclosed in a double oval-shaped cocoon; the inner compartment is of rather closer woven silk, and is thickly covered with a yellowish substance, which is ejected by the caterpillar as a fluid, and afterwards drying forms a sulphur-like powder on the cocoon, and in a lesser degree on the chrysalis also. The moth is on the wing in July and August, but it is rarely seen in the daytime, and not often at night, except when attracted by light into the house, or to the gas or electric lamps. It is exceedingly easy to rear, either from eggs or from collected caterpillars; the latter are often abundant.

Generally distributed throughout England, but becoming scarcer from the Midlands to Lancashire and Yorkshire, and not often occurring further north than the last named county. In Ireland it is unknown in the north, but occurs in many parts of the south and south-west.

This also is a variable species. Most frequently the fore wings of the male are pale buff, cross lined, and more or less clouded with brown; hind wings brown. The female has all the wings reddish brown, the front pair being crossed by two pale buff lines. The fringes are pale buff, chequered with brown in both sexes. Colour and marking are, however, subject to considerable variation. Sometimes all the wings are pale buff (male), or reddish brown (both sexes), and the fore wings without marking. The cross lines on fore wings of the female may be either very slender or very broad; occasionally almost the whole of the basal area up to, and including, the first cross line is buff. Two examples of each sex are shown on Plate 48.

The eggs are laid in a similar manner to those of the last species, around stems of wild carrot, sea wormwood, and other plants that flourish in the insects' favourite haunts, which, in this country, are the salt marshes along the estuaries of the Thames and Medway.

The caterpillar is black, inclining to bluish between the rings; along the back are four much broken reddish orange lines and a central bluish line; a bluish stripe followed by a reddish one along the sides, and below this the colour is bluish, speckled with black; the hairs are golden brown. Head blackish grey, without black spots (Plate 49, Fig. 3).

The chrysalis and its cocoon are similar to those of the Lackey, and spun up among herbage.

The moth emerges in July and August and, although it may be occasionally attracted by light, is rarely seen in the open. The caterpillars are to be found, most years, in plenty from May to July. They feed on almost every kind of plant growing on the salterns, and as they are fond of sunning themselves on sea wormwood, sea plantain, etc., are easily seen at such times. In dull weather they retire to their webs, which are generally rather low down in the herbage. In confinement they will do very well if supplied with fresh sprays or leaves of almost any fruit tree, or of birch, whitethorn, etc. The receptacle containing them should be constructed and placed so that the caterpillars get plenty of air and sunshine. It is considered desirable to sprinkle both food and caterpillars with water now and then; some rearers deem it necessary to put a tiny pinch of salt in the water used for sprinkling; and in my own experience I have found that better results were obtained when the food was thus treated than when the salt was omitted.

On the continent this species occurs in woods, and on heaths, etc., but in Britain it is seemingly confined to salt marshes. Although it has been recorded from the Suffolk coast, and other places, the best localities for it are probably the salterns, from Gravesend to the Isle of Sheppey, and at Southend and Shoeburyness.

Malacosoma hybr. schaufussi, Standf.—In 1884 Dr. Standfuss made some experiments in crossing three species of Malacosoma, and one of these was the pairing of M. neustria ♂ with M. castrensis ♀; the offspring he christened as above. Since that time others have succeeded in crossing the two species with varying results.

On August 13, 1906, Mr. Percy Richards sent me a small batch of eggs (Plate 49, Fig. 2a) laid by a female, M. castrensis, that emerged in a breeding cage, and had paired with a captured male, M. neustria, he introduced. The larvæ hatched out one or two at a time, from April 7 over a period of more than a fortnight. Few of the caterpillars would commence to feed, and of those that took to the plum and sallow with which they were supplied, only four reached maturity. Three of these pupated during late June and early July, and three moths, all females, have emerged up to date, one on July 28, another on August 6, and a third on August 13. The second specimen was very much crippled, probably owing to the cocoon having been accidentally injured. One caterpillar was still feeding on August 14, but died about the 26th.

The mature larva (Plate 49, Fig. 2) has the head and markings thereon like neustria, also the black spots on the first thoracic segment, but they are rather large and inclined to unite. The bluish line along the sides is dotted and freckled with black rather more thickly than in castrensis; the dorsal line is very thin, but bluish as in castrensis, and the red lines on each side of it are broad.

In colour the three moths are deeper brown than any form of either parent species that I have seen, but the transverse lines, and especially the outer, are most like those of neustria.

It should be mentioned that much information on Hybridism in the Lackey moths and other species will be found in Tutt's "British Lepidoptera," vol. ii.

In its typical form the male of this species (Plate 50, Figs. 1, 2) is ashy grey, with a darker central band on the fore wings; and the female is dusky greyish-brown, also with a darker band. The colour of the male varies in shade from almost whitish (var. pallida, Tutt), to blackish grey; in the paler forms the central band of the fore wings is often of a purplish tint, and in the darkest forms the band is almost black. The female var. pallida, is pale buff.

The eggs, which are brownish, inclining to reddish on the micropylar area, are covered with dark grey hairs from the body of the female and laid side by side in a chain-like arrangement on a twig of hawthorn or sloe (those figured on Plate 51 were deposited in a box, and not securely attached). From eight to twelve is said to be the usual number in a batch, and each female will deposit an average of 160 eggs.

The caterpillars do not hatch out all at the same time, but by ones and twos, at intervals spreading over a period of two, or perhaps three, weeks. Several forms of the caterpillar have been described, but the ground colour is generally more or less black above and greyish on the sides; the ornamentation comprises interrupted white or whitish stripes, streaked or clouded with reddish, and reddish warts; the hairs are reddish brown. The example figured on Plate 51 was from eggs laid by a female moth in Selkirk, South Scotland. From the age of three weeks until it became full grown it was black marked with yellow on the back and orange on the sides; hairs pale greyish mixed with black ones, especially on the back towards the black, glossy, and somewhat hairy head. It hatched on April 26, was reared on plum, pupated early in June, and the moth, a darkish grey female, emerged on July 31. Another caterpillar that hatched on May 1, and two others from still later hatchings, were then in chrysalis.

The caterpillar may be found from April to June on hawthorn and sloe, and it is said also on birch, oak, sallow, apple, bramble, etc. Those that I have found resting by day on shoots of hawthorn, apparently enjoying the sunshine, have almost invariably been "ichneumoned"; but others that came up after sunset to feed on the shoots were generally healthy. Usually the caterpillar feeds up and pupates the same year, but on the moors in Aberdeenshire and some other parts of Scotland it is said to hibernate and to complete its life cycle the following summer and autumn. Furthermore, the moths from these winter larvæ are much darker than normal, and have been doubtfully referred to var. ariæ, Hübn., a form found in the Alps, Scandinavia, and Finland.

The moth is out in August and September, and occurs in wooded districts throughout the southern half of England, but northwards from the Midlands it is uncommon; it is found in several parts of Scotland to Inverness. In Ireland it is reported (Birchall) to have occurred in Killarney, and Kane mentions that "a blackish form was taken at Magilligan, near Derry, by W. Salvage. Its larvæ were feeding on blackthorn." The range abroad extends through Europe to Armenia and Asia Minor.

This is a rather thinly scaled moth; the general coloration is sooty brown; the wings are suffused more or less with greyish; there are two pale ochreous cross lines on the fore wings, the first enclosing a reddish brown basal patch; hind wings rather paler with a diffuse whitish central band; fringes brown chequered with pale ochreous. Head brown, collar brownish, tipped with pale ochreous in the male. The female is rather larger than the male. The moth is figured on Plate 50, and the eggs and caterpillar on Plate 53.

The eggs, which are laid on the bark of trees, are whitish grey, variegated or mottled with darker grey.

The caterpillar hatches out in April, and when nearly full grown is ochreous, but so thickly dotted and freckled with black as to appear of a dark brown coloration; the back is clothed with dark short hairs, and the sides with long paler hairs; on the back of the first ring is a reddish brown mark divided by a white line; a double row of whitish dots along the back, most distinct on rings two and three, where they are placed on a velvety black bar; on each side of the white dots is a reddish brown interrupted line. Head ochreous brown, thickly dotted with black and clothed with pale hairs. Underparts ochreous, spotted and lined with blackish. Feeds on the foliage of most trees, and is said to eat lettuce. April to June.

Chrysalis glossy red brown, in a cocoon spun up among dead leaves, etc., under loose bark, or on the ground.

The moth does not emerge until October, and in that month, but more frequently in November and December, the males may be seen around gas lamps quite late at night.

Although found chiefly in woods it is not essentially a woodland species, as it occurs in districts where there are no woods but plenty of trees growing in parks, fields, or even hedgerows. It is fairly common generally throughout England and Wales, but becoming rather more local northwards to Cumberland. It occurs through Scotland to Sutherland, but is nowhere common. In Ireland it is widely distributed, and not uncommon near Dublin, and at Favour Royal, Tyrone. Abroad it ranges through Northern and Central Europe.

Also a brownish insect with somewhat thinly-scaled wings. The fore wings are light reddish brown with a whitish patch at the base, a white spot about the centre, and a whitish transverse line beyond; the hind wings are smoky brown and have a pale central band. The female, which is larger than the male, has a conspicuous greyish anal tuft, the hairs from which she uses to cover over her pale oily green eggs when they are deposited in clusters on twigs of hawthorn or sloe in February or March. Plate 50, Figs. 5, 6; Plate 53, Figs. 2, 2a.

The caterpillar is black or greyish black, with reddish brown hairs, and a series of black-edged yellowish brown, or reddish brown blotches on each side of the back; these blotches are outlined in pale yellowish and occasionally connected by a line of the same colour. From the time they are hatched until nearly mature the caterpillars live in companies on a closely woven web of silk on a branch of hawthorn or sloe, only leaving their habitation to feed. These webs may often be seen on hedgerows from May to July. The brown chrysalis is enclosed in a solid-looking oval cocoon of a pale ochreous or whitish colour. Not all the moths emerge the following year: some will remain in the chrysalis over two or three winters, and occasionally they have been known to emerge seven years after pupation. The moth is said to be fully formed within the chrysalis all the time, but for some reason will not emerge, although if extracted from its shell, the moth has been known to expand its wings in the ordinary way. Barrett states that in the middle of February, after a moth had emerged, he "put a large number of cocoons upon a warm mantelpiece and obtained scores of moths within a few hours."

Generally distributed over the southern half of England; plentiful in some years in the Southern and Eastern Counties. Northwards and in Scotland it is local and less frequent. Kane states that in Ireland it is very locally abundant. The range abroad is through Central and Northern Europe to Southern Lapland, and eastward to Siberia and Amurland.

The three moths, one male and two females, shown on Plate 52, were reared from caterpillars obtained in Kent, and they represent the more or less ordinary South English forms of the species. Sometimes the ground colour of the male is more distinctly reddish, or rust tinted, and the yellowish bands narrower on all the wings. Or the bands may be much broader than in the male figured, and the widening is effected by extension in the form of rays towards the outer margins of the wings. A form that has been referred to, in error, as var. roboris, Shrank (= marginata, Tutt), has the outer margins of all the wings broadly yellow. I have not seen an English example of this form, but I have a reddish specimen in which the yellow band on the fore wings is broader than usual, and the whole of the outer third of the hind wings yellow, with a slight brownish shade on the external margin; this is semimarginata, Tutt, and is also identical with var. roboris of other British authors. The white spot usually present on the fore wings varies somewhat in size and shape; it is often seen on the under as well as the upper surface of the wings, except in the lighter coloured forms.

Var. callunæ (The Northern Eggar), is shown on Plate 54. The chief features of this form are the generally darker coloration in both sexes, the yellow patch at the base of the fore wings of the male, and the outward turn of the lower ends of the yellow bands. All these characters are subject to modification; the yellow bands may be very narrow at one extreme, or greatly widened at the other, and the hind wings may occasionally be bandless; the basal patch is often of large size, but in some examples it is entirely absent. Sometimes the bands are greenish in colour (var. olivaceo-fasciata, Cockerell), and more rarely, perhaps, the greenish tinge extends over the whole of the wings (ab. olivacea, Tutt). It should be noted here that the var. olivaceo-fasciata has occurred once or twice in South England, but this phase of aberration seems to be more connected with callunæ than with quercus.

Callunæ was not recognized as British until the year 1847, when it was introduced as a species distinct from quercus. The late Richard Weaver, who gave it the English name of the "Scotch Eggar," took specimens of the moth at Rannoch in 1845, and he found caterpillars in that year, as well as in 1844 and 1846. It is now well known to occur not only in Scotland, including the Hebrides and Orkneys, but also on the moors of Northern England, and in Ireland and Wales. In North Devonshire it is found not uncommonly in the Exmoor district, and it has been recorded from various parts of the New Forest in Hants.

The egg of callunæ is figured on Plate 55. It appears rather polished, and in colour is pale brown mottled with darker brown. The eggs are stated to be deposited whilst the female is on the wing, and consequently they fall to the ground or are arrested in their descent by the herbage over which they are scattered.

The full-grown caterpillar of quercus, beneath the brownish fur with which the body is clothed, is dark brown on the back and rather violet brown on the sides; the ring divisions are velvety black; there is a white stripe along each side and below the stripe some reddish marks; the ring nearest the head is edged with reddish, and the next two rings each have two reddish centred white spots. The dull purplish brown chrysalis is enclosed in a hard oval-shaped cocoon which is spun up on or near the ground in a flimsy web among herbage, dead leaves, etc. Sometimes it is placed among the twigs of the food plant.

In Southern England the caterpillars hatch from the egg in August and usually hibernate when quite small. They feed up during the following spring and early summer, perhaps in June or July, and the moth appears in July or August. Occasionally, however, a few individuals depart from the general habit and complete their growth the same year, hibernate in the pupal stage, and produce moths the next year, possibly earlier than hibernating caterpillars. On the other hand, perhaps owing to adverse weather conditions, feeding after hibernation may be continued well on into the autumn, when the caterpillars pupate, but emergence of the moth is postponed until the following year, the second after hatching from the egg.

In the case of callunæ, at least as regards its normal habit in Scotland and southwards to the moorland districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, the young caterpillar hibernates the first winter, feeds through the following summer, and passes the second winter as a chrysalis, the moth emerging in the following May or June.

Generally speaking, then, it may be stated that quercus has a twelve-month life cycle, whilst that of callunæ extends almost or quite to twenty-four months, of which at least twelve months are passed as a caterpillar. However, as has been noted, quercus sometimes passes one winter as a caterpillar, and another as a chrysalis, thus assuming the callunæ habit; whilst callunæ occasionally attains the perfect state during the summer following that in which the caterpillar left the egg.

The food plants comprise bramble, dogwood, hawthorn, heather (Calluna), and various low plants; it is even content with ivy.

Newman, in the Entomologist for 1845, gives a life history of the Northern Eggar (callunæ), and from this the following details are extracted. The male flies rapidly over the heather by day at the latter end of May or beginning of June; its flight is jerking or zigzag, and its object is evidently to find the female, who rarely moves until impregnation has taken place. Subsequently the female flies over the heather, dropping her eggs at random as she flies, and the eggs, having no glutinous covering, do not adhere to any object which they may accidentally touch in falling. On emergence from the egg the young caterpillar is dark ash-coloured, the divisions between the rings of the body being indicated by two minute orange streaks, each of which is accompanied by a small black spot. After the first moult the ground colour becomes more smoky, the divisions velvety black, and on each ring a triangular orange spot appears; these markings become more conspicuous later on, and by the end of October, when it hibernates, they are very distinct. It rests in a straight position, and, if disturbed, falls off its food plant, and rolls in a ring with its head slightly on one side.

The habits of the Oak Eggar moths (quercus) are pretty much the same as those of the Northern form, except that the moths fly in July and August, and frequent hedgerows, the borders of woods, heathy commons, and cliffs and sand dunes at the seaside.

A bred female of either form will attract numerous males, and even the receptacle in which a newly emerged female has been placed is almost as effective as the lady herself. When staying at a cottage on the edge of a moor near Lynton, North Devon, some years ago, I had some pupæ of the Oak Eggar. One day, late in July, quite a number of males entered the cottage and made their way to the cage in which the pupæ were, and I had no difficulty in boxing several of them. The next day I put the female moth, which had emerged the previous day, into a roomy chip box, and carried it in a satchel to the moor, where it was placed on the ground, the males began to arrive soon afterwards and some fine examples were secured. Although the female was taken on the moor only on the one occasion, that satchel continued to be an object of interest to the male Eggars for several days afterwards.

Generally distributed, and often common in some localities, throughout the British Isles. Abroad, its range extends over Europe into Asia Minor, Armenia, and Siberia.

This moth is usually brown in colour. The fore wings are inclined to dark reddish brown, and have a pale ochreous brown curved band or ring at the base, a slightly curved line or band of the same colour beyond the middle of the wing; central spot white, finely margined in black. Except that the female is generally larger, and the cross lines usually less distinct, the sexes are much alike. This brown form occurs most frequently in Britain, but in parts of the Kentish and Sussex coast, and especially the Romney Marsh district, a yellowish form is obtained. In such specimens the cross lines are darker. In both forms one or both cross markings may be faint or quite absent, and even the white central dot, which varies in size and shape, may be missing. Sometimes the outer band is distinctly broad and outwardly diffuse (Plate 56).

The eggs, which appear to be laid loosely, are pale whitish brown, roughened with darker brown, and the micropylar area is purplish brown. Some that I received on March 2, 1907, appeared to be on the point of hatching on the 5th of that month, but no larva came out, although one of the eggs was chipped at one end. It has been frequently stated that the caterpillars hatch out in the autumn and hibernate, but as has been pointed out by Tutt ("Nat. Hist. Brit. Lep.," ii. 20), the eggs of this species probably do not hatch until some time during February or March, although when kept indoors the caterpillar has emerged from the egg in January.

The full-grown caterpillar is black, velvety between the rings, covered with golden brown hair on the back and greyer hair on the sides, among which are some black ones; three interrupted whitish lines on the back; some of the hairs along the middle of the back stand erect and form a ridge, looked at from either end. Head lightish brown in colour, lined with black. Feeds in the spring months and up to June chiefly on various kinds of grass. Among many of the plants that it has been known to eat are trefoils, bird's-foot (Ornithopus), sea thrift (Statice), heather, sallow, hawthorn, sloe, plum, bramble, etc. With regard to the food, it is interesting to note that although one rearer will find that sallow is excellent for the caterpillars, another considers that sallow or hawthorn are but poor substitutes for kidney-vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) upon which the caterpillars were feeding when found (Plate 57).

The brownish chrysalis is enclosed in a hard but somewhat brittle, brown, oval cocoon, and when spun upon the surface of the ground, protected by an outside covering of loose silk webbing. In August and early September the moths appear. Emergence from the chrysalis usually takes place soon after midday; the males are early on the wing, and when reared in captivity they should be secured as soon as the wings are dry, or they may spoil themselves in their efforts to escape. Reared females are apt to be deformed, but for "assembling" they may probably be as useful as more perfect examples if the rearer happens to be able to exhibit the attraction in a locality for the species. Both sexes have been taken at electric light.

The best known localities for the species in England are, besides those already mentioned, the sand hills on the Cheshire and Lancashire coast. It is, or has been, found also on the coast of Cumberland; Lyndhurst and Ringwood, in Hampshire; Isle of Purbeck, Poole, Swanage, and Bloxworth, in Dorsetshire; Devonport, Bolt Head, and Salcombe, in Devonshire; and Penzance and the Scilly Isles. Its range extends through Central and Southern Europe to Asia Minor and North Africa.

The male is reddish brown, and the female generally greyish brown, but sometimes is of a reddish grey coloration; the fore wings in both sexes are crossed by two pale ochreous lines on the central area (Plate 59).

The ground colour in the male ranges in tone from foxy red to dullish red brown or to greyish red brown. The cross lines in either sex may be widely apart, near together, or even united throughout their length, forming a band (var. fasciata, Tutt); sometimes one of the lines (var. unilinea, Tutt), or both lines, are absent from the fore wings, or from one of them.

The brown clouded greyish eggs are laid in batches, during June, on stems and stalks of plants, or on heather; sometimes they have been found on a fence, a rock, or a stone. The caterpillars hatch out at the end of June and through July. At first they are black, including the glossy head, and covered with long hairs which are black with some white ones amongst them; the ring divisions are pale yellow; later on they are more chocolate brown with yellow bands which, however, do not encircle the body entirely.

When full grown, in the autumn, the caterpillar is velvety black, and above this colour is most in evidence between the rings; the back is clothed with dense, short, bright reddish brown or tawny hair, and the whole body is covered with brownish hairs, varying in length, but always much longer than the tawny ones; along each side are some whitish hairs. Head blackish covered with brownish hairs. It feeds in August and onwards to October, when it seeks winter quarters, reappearing in the following spring, but not feeding again. After enjoying the sunshine whenever the opportunity offers through the early months of the year, it finally pupates in March or April. The cocoon is a long, more or less tubular, brownish construction of silk and larval hairs. It is spun up, usually somewhat upright, low down among the food plant, or at the roots of grass, etc.; sometimes among moss, when the rounded head end can just be seen above the moss (Plate 58).

In certain localities and seasons the caterpillars have been seen in enormous numbers, but such profusion only happens now and then. In some districts they may be abundant one year, and then scarce or quite absent for several years.

When handling the larvæ it will often be noted that the tips of one's fingers are thickly felted with the tawny hairs from the creature's back; if these hairs get transferred to the face or neck considerable irritation may be the result.

The late Mr. Robson used to collect the caterpillars on fine days in early spring, put each caterpillar into a separate paper box about two inches square, and keep them on a shelf over the kitchen fire, where they would duly pupate. Various methods for keeping these caterpillars through the winter have been described, and all appear to have been fairly successful. The most simple would seem to be the following: Bore a number of holes in the bottom of a roomy box, and fasten wire gauze on a close fitting frame to serve as a top. Cut a tuft or two of heather to cover the floor space of the box. Caterpillars collected in the autumn may be put into this receptacle and supplied with food, such as bramble or sallow, as long as they seem inclined to feed. Do not crowd too many into the box, and let it stand out in the garden, preferably on the soil.

The moths emerge in May or June. The males are very active on the wing in the afternoon sunshine, and later on, and may often be seen in numbers dashing hither and thither in an apparently erratic flight over heaths and open spaces, in search of the females. The latter do not fly till night, and occasionally they are attracted to a bright light.

Except that it has not been noted in the Shetlands, the species occurs throughout the British Isles. Abroad its range extends over Europe, and it is found in Amurland.

The male is reddish brown, more or less clouded on the forewings with ochreous; and the female is yellow, or whitish ochreous. Sometimes this colour distinction of the sexes is reversed, and the males are pale whilst the females are dark. In the fens of Cambridgeshire notably, pale or yellowish males are not altogether uncommon. Such specimens would seem to accord better with the Linnean type than the more usual form indicated above. Barrett mentions, among other aberrations, male specimens from South Wales with the whole of the fore and hind wings deep rich glossy purplish chocolate.

There is variation in the two whitish or silvery marks on the fore wings, the upper one is often very small, sometimes quite absent, and the lower one reduced to a crescent. The chocolate brown cross lines, of which there are usually two on the fore wings, are sometimes faint or entirely missing. Tutt has recently named nine forms, chiefly colour aberrations, and two others were previously named. (The moth is figured on Plate 61, and the early stages on Plate 60.)

The eggs, which are white with bluish grey markings, are laid in clusters on grass stems, etc.

The caterpillar is slaty grey inclining to blackish; the lines on the back are formed of yellowish dots and dashes; two rows of tufts of short black hairs on the back, with longer brown hairs between; low down on the sides are shaggy tufts of white and yellowish hairs and longer brown hairs; an erect pointed tuft of brown hair on second ring, and a similar one on ring eleven but the latter inclines backward. Head greyish, striped and lined with brown and yellowish brown, and clothed with brown hair. It feeds on coarse grasses, including the ribbon grass grown in gardens, in August to September or October.

In the latter month it goes into hibernation, being then but little over an inch in length. About April it resumes feeding and becomes full grown in June or thereabouts. The long yellowish or whitish brown cocoon in which it changes to a brown chrysalis is more or less pointed at the lower end, and generally attached to a culm of grass or a reed. A showery season seems to suit these caterpillars better than a hot, dry one. The partiality of the caterpillar for a drop of dew, mountain or otherwise, has frequently been noted. The old English name of The Drinker Caterpillar (1682) is therefore not only an appropriate one but shows that this larval habit was observed even at that early date. The specific name potatoria given to the moth by Linné is of similar significance.

The moth emerges in July. It seems most addicted to damp grassy lanes, ditch-sides, fens, marshes, moorlands, and sandhills; and is not really uncommon in very many suitable districts throughout the United Kingdom. Abroad, it is common over the greater part of Europe and its range extends to Amurland and Japan.

This exceedingly local and rare British moth has the fore wings pale reddish-brown, suffused on the outer marginal area with grey; about the centre of the wings there is a short black line preceded by a whitish mark; beyond is a blackish, indistinct, wavy line; the greyish outer area is limited by a brown line, and this is inwardly edged with whitish: hind wings purplish brown with the central area whitish and crossed by a blackish line. Fringes whitish, marked with brown at the ends of the veins (Plate 63).

Kirby states that the caterpillar is rust coloured, with a black stripe on the back, on which stand white dots; and with reddish-yellow transverse spots on the second and third rings. Another form is grey, and the back white, with a broad black central stripe interrupted by rust-coloured spots dotted with black.

The following brief description is taken from an inflated skin of an immature caterpillar received from Dresden: brownish inclining to reddish, paler between the rings; clothed with short greyish hair, and longer hairs from and above the fleshy tubercles low down along the sides; there is a hair-clothed eminence on ring eleven. The only conspicuous markings are on rings two and three; each of these has two orange spots separated and narrowly edged externally with velvety black; there are two small black spots on the back of each of the other rings, and indications of reddish circles around some of these. Head blackish, covered with greyish hairs (Plate 62).

In this country the caterpillar feeds on bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), but on the Continent it is said to eat the foliage of sallows and willows, also of birch.

The cocoon is spun up among the leaves of the food plant. That figured on Plate 62, of foreign origin, was on a shoot of bilberry; a moth emerged from it on April 5, 1907. The first detailed account of this species in Britain is that in the Zoologist for 1852, in which Mr. Atkinson records that he took a specimen in May, 1851, at Cannock Chase in Staffordshire. A year earlier two larvæ were found by Mr. Green on a moor near Sheffield, and one of these attained the moth state in April, 1851. After this moths and caterpillars seem to have been taken in varying numbers down to 1896, when a specimen was captured by Dr. R. Freer of Rugby. Tutt, quoting from a letter received from Dr. Freer, states that two moths were reared from three caterpillars found at Cannock in 1898. The only other known British locality is in the neighbourhood of Lynton, North Devon, where a caterpillar, which, from the description, must have been this species, was found in 1864. It was taken on August 3 in a wood abounding with bilberry.

The species ranges over Central Europe, but seems to be generally rare; it also occurs in Amurland and Japan.

Warm reddish brown is the prevailing colour of this fine moth. The wings are more or less suffused with purplish grey, and crossed by blackish lines—three on the fore wings and two on the hind wings. Except in the reddish tinge, which may be bright or dull approaching chocolate, this species is pretty constant in its coloration. Barrett mentions a specimen of a light brown colour, and another of a pale buff. The first of these forms seems to approach the var. meridionalis, Staudinger (Tutt), and the other to var. ulmifolia, Heuäcker, which are well known on the Continent. In certain favourable seasons a second generation of the moth has been obtained, chiefly perhaps, in confinement, and on the Continent; although in Britain a caterpillar or two will sometimes feed up and attain the perfect state the same year they hatch from the egg. These examples, which are much smaller, but do not otherwise differ from normal specimens, are referable to var. hoegei, Heuäcker.

The moth is figured on Plate 63, and the eggs and caterpillar on Plate 62.

The eggs, which are whitish in colour with greyish markings, are laid, in July or early August, in twos, threes, or more, on twigs or the undersides of leaves of sloe, apple, sallow, hawthorn, etc. A single female moth has been known to lay over a thousand eggs, but this is perhaps exceptional, and somewhere about half that number is possibly near the average. Even the latter would take the moth some time to distribute here and there in small batches.

The caterpillars hatch out in about a fortnight, feed for a few weeks, and in the autumn, when about three-quarters to one inch in length, take up their winter quarters low down on the stems of the food plant, but, in confinement, often on a withered leaf.

Caterpillar dark grey, so thickly sprinkled with minute black dots as to appear almost black; the whole body is clothed with fine and rather short blackish hair; low down on the side there is a fringe of brownish hair, and this covers the fleshy lappets (the older writers named this larva the "Caterpillar with the Lappets"); two white marks edged in front with black on the third ring, and a hairy prominence on the eleventh, are the most conspicuous features of this caterpillar. When the front rings are extended, the divisions between them are seen to be deep blue. Head grey, with darker stripe and paler lines. Occasionally several white marks appear on the back, and this is stated by Professor Poulton to occur more especially in the caterpillars when the twigs and stems of the food plant upon which they have grown up are covered with grey lichen. Sometimes the caterpillar has been reported as destructive in orchards; two or three large ones feeding on a small apple tree would certainly afford evidence of their presence in the shape of denuded twigs, but it is doubtful if they ever occur in sufficient numbers to cause any very serious damage to fruit trees.

The chrysalis is dark brown, inclining to blackish, and covered with a whitish powder, which does not shake off. It is enclosed in a long, grey-brown, tight-fitting cocoon of silk and hairs of the caterpillar, which is generally spun up among the lower twigs, or to the stem of the food plant.

The moth emerges in June or July, and is on the wing at night, when it may be sometimes netted as it flies along or over hedgerows. When caught in this way it dashes about so wildly in the net that it is rarely of much value for the collection. The same may be said of examples taken by light, which at times attracts the moths freely. When resting in the daytime, it very closely resembles a withered bramble-leaf or bunch of leaves. The fore wings are folded down, roof-like, over the hind wings, which are flattened out and their edges project beyond the margins of the fore wings. It is, however, very rarely seen in the open at such times.

The species does not seem to have been recorded from Ireland or from Scotland, but it has a wide distribution in England, although much less frequently met with in the north than in the south. In the Cambridge fens it is perhaps more plentiful than elsewhere, but it is not uncommon in some parts of Berkshire, Huntingdonshire, and Kent. The range abroad extends through Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, to Armenia, Tartary, Siberia, and Amurland; it is also represented in China, Corea, and Japan.


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 * ADalencé, melting butter to 10 = 86 F.; medium 0 = 59 F.
 * BVan Swinden gives blood heat = 58.3; F.P. = 52; zero = 49.2
 * CVan Swinden gives blood heat = 83.1; F.P. = 31.8; zero = 9.25
 * DZero R.S. = 88 Fahr. Authorities differ greatly.
 * EZero Fowler = 52 Fahr.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Author:James Charles Philip

Works

 * The Romance of Modern Chemistry. (1910)
 * Physical Chemistry; Its Bearing on Biology and Medicine. (1910)

title: Author:James Charles Philip


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 advance on the baro-thermoscopes that had preceded them, but their graduation left much to be desired; those of different lengths had degrees of unequal value, and individual instruments of the same pattern gave results only approximately similar. Their agreement depended on the skill of the workmen, who sought to get comparable thermometers by taking care to get tubes and bulbs equal in size, but they had no standard of graduation.

Florentine thermometers, made by skilful workmen, became famous throughout Europe; together with Torricelli's barometer and Ferdinand II's hygrometer, they were used at meteorological stations established by the Grand Duke, and conducted in Florence by Raineri, in Pisa by Borelli, as well as in Bologna, Parma, Milan, Warsaw, and Innsbruck; the instruments were observed several times daily and records were kept with great fidelity. One of the Italian day-books containing sixteen years' observations was examined by Libri in 1830, and he obtained evidence that the climate of Tuscany had not materially changed.

The meteorological observations made in Florence from December 15, 1654, to March 31, 1670, were published entire in the


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42 This is merely a piece of material 13 inches wide top and bottom, the back being cut on the crease, this is drawn in to 1½ inches a side at the top, and so reduced to the size of the waist, but to counteract the hollowing tendency of this drawing in, a little round must be added to the top.

As these garments are somewhat out of the ordinary run, we will give a few extra instructions, so that the inexperienced may know how to proceed

The materials mostly used for foundations are linen, Italian cloth, silk, &c. The best of these is linen, as it combines all the advantages of silk, while it wears better and it is far less expensive.

The foundation is seamed up with the seams to come outside, and a facing is put all round the bottom some 5 or 6 inches deep, so that the bottom is bound with this facing; on the top of this a narrow kilt is put also about 4 or 5 inches deep; this is done more with the view of keeping the skirt out round the bottom than for it to show, though as we write there is a decided tendency for them to be seen, and in some cases are put on the top of the drapery. An opening is left at the right sideseam for the pocket to go in, about 5½ inches long, the top about 5 inches from the waist: on the left side an opening is left quite 10 inches long to allow the wearer to put it on or off. This should be well stayed at the bottom, and a facing put on so as to hide its existence in wear. The waist-band is best of? section, that is, the top part is single and the bottom part double, and allows the foundation to be sewn to the one part and then the drapery to be slipped under the top one, and the whole firmly fastened together. Putting on the waist-band is a very important detail; the front or front and sidepieces should take up 3 inches less than the entire waist measure, and the back gathered or pleated in to 1½ inches aside; that is, the foundation of back measuring 26 inches right across, is drawn in to 3 inches. In arranging the V's of the foundation at the side, we always prefer pleating them over and not cutting them out, as by that means they adjust themselves to the shape of the figure at the hips automatically. In dealing with very stout ladies it will be found a very good plan to take out a horizontal V from the bottom of the second V forward, in the same way as tailors usually treat big men's vests; by this means a receptacle is formed for the prominence, and the skirt is kept well in at the bottom—a result always aimed at, though of course care must be taken not to overdo this feature, as it is certainly preferable to have a little excess of drapery, than to outline the stomach too closely. We will now pass on to that most important phase of ladies' skirt making,

To drape a skirt well is undoubtedly a work of art; and inasmuch as each figure requires certain adaptations to make it the most suitable, it will at once be understood that any rules we may lay down are to be applied in a general sense, leaving the special application to the figure to the draper's judgment.

The material has a considerable effect on the drapery; heavy, thick material needs far less to form a fold than thin. The warp or lengthways of the material should always run down the figure, and if not wide enough to produce the desired effect, join on some on either side; always avoid a seam down the centre of front. Drapery consists of an artistic arrangement of folds and hangings, and there can be no doubt that the best means of becoming proficient in this art is by experiment. The foundation skirt may be likened to the walls of a house, the drapery to the paper and pictures and other ornamentation hung upon them. With the view of illustrating the principal methods of draping we have prepared a series of figures.

Illustrates a deep kilt. The artistic effect of this adds height to the figure, and is generally a favourite style, either as illustrated or in a modified form. It is produced at the sacrifice of width, thus: suppose your foundation skirt was 40 long and 2¼ yards round, your material would then be cut off in lengths of say 42 to 44, the extra 2 inches allowed for hem at bottom, the longer lengths allowing for the extra length of back; these would then be seamed up till it was from 4½ to 6¾ yards round. The smallest quantity a kilt can be arranged from to look at all passable is double quantity, whilst for thin materials treble quantity will be needed. The seams should always be hidden under the folds, which should also be nicely graded in at the waist. If the kilt is very deep it will be necessary to keep it in place by means of tape put about 14 inches apart; thus a kilt right up to the waist would have two tapes, one 14 inches from the bottom and the other about 28.

To produce these, extra length is required, the points below the folds would be exactly the same as the foundation; each fold would consume about 4 inches of length in a fairly good substance cloth. The best method of arranging these satisfactorily—in the absence of draping it direct on the figure—is to get a dummy and make it up, by wrapping cloth, &c., to as near as you can judge the size and shape of the figure. The best ladies' tailors keep dummies so made up of all their best customers. Take the foundation, and having


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 "Archivio Meteorologico Centrale Italiano," Firenze, 1858, introduction.

The thermometers were introduced into France by the way of Poland; the Grand Duke Ferdinand presented some philosophical apparatus to the Envoy of the Queen of Poland, and her secretary sent one of the thermometers to the astronomer Ismael Boulliau in Paris, with the statement that Ferdinand always carried in his pocket a small one about four inches long.

Meteorological observations were carried on in Paris from 1670 with an instrument made for De la Hire by Hubin. The scale was arbitrary, but the thermometer was preserved until those with reliable scales were manufactured, and its values determined by comparison, thus permitting the records to be adjusted.

Florentine thermometers continued to be manufactured for general use in the eighteenth century; G. Reyger records that Hanow, in his observations of the weather in Danzig made in 1741, reported temperatures in degrees of the "usual Florentine scale, the 0 being in the middle of the tube, indicating temperate air, or 45 Fahrenheit." A. Momber also states that many thermometers made in Danzig as


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Rh put it into the waist band, &c., arrange your folds of drapery on this till the desired effect is produced. There is no golden rule for this; nothing but practice and experiment can teach you how to drape artistically for all your customers, inasmuch as every figure has its peculiar feature, its points of beauty to bring out, its points of ugliness to tone down; in addition to which materials vary considerably in the way they form folds, or, in other words, drape; so that what might be a good rale for one material or one figure, would not apply at all for another. The artistic effect of folds across the figure as illustrated on figure 50, is to make it appear wider and shorter.

These are produced at the expense of both length and width, and are the most difficult to arrange for in any other way than by draping the figure or the dummy as already described; but if it is desired to form some idea of the shape the material required for this drapery, take the foundation pattern, mark where the folds are desired, and cut it across at each part so marked, and allow 4 inches (or more) space between the parts; but this will only give a general idea, and must be corrected by actual draping on the figure or dummy. Diagonal folds have a very graceful appearance, as they neither produce length at the expense of width, nor width at the expense of length; there is a grace about the curve which take away all hardness of outline, and makes it generally a favourite. It should be remembered that whenever a fold is introduced, the artistic effect is the same as if a line was placed on the figure, which makes it appear longer in the direction it is running. In arranging drapery it is always advisable to keep the straight thread of the material straight down the front; as if it is twisted more to the one side than the other, the bias would be greater on the one side than the other, and would consequently cause the folds to hang differently; in referring to this we are not ignoring the fact that draperies are often arranged on the bias, but the same rule applies. If it is to be arranged on the bias, see that the centre of front forms the true bias, when the folds (if diagonal) will come on the straight of the material in the same way as if the warp was placed down the centre of front, the folds would be on the bias. We will not dwell on this subject of folds, &c., longer, as any variety that may be introduced must come under one of the three heads: horizontal, vertical, or diagonal; and the same principles which govern them at one place must be applied to produce them in another in order to get similar effects. A most effective method of skirt making is arranged by the combination of material as illustrated on

One of its especial features is its giving consonance to the costume, a rule of ornamentation that should never be lost sight of; thus, suppose the bodice has a vest in it, the skirt should have a panel of the same material as the vest at some part. If for a stout lady it could not be better than up the centre of front, as illustrated on figure 53. By such means the figure is made to appear narrower; the introduction of a front panel gives vertical lines, which divides the width and adds apparently to the length, which effect may still further be emphasized if the panels are slightly draped or of a striped material. A panel always appears to best advantage when it is of richer material than the skirt itself.

Illustrates another method of using a combination of materials, which at different times has become very popular, especially when polonaises are in vogue. The same remarks we have just made as regards the repetition of idea from the bodice, applies to this; but there is one remark we must not omit, and that is: never arrange the darkest material to come at the bottom, as at a little distance the length of the figure terminates with the light part, and if this is arranged to be the apron, the figure would be very much stunted. A reference to figure 50 will illustrate this, the length of the skirt apparently ending just below the braid. Figure 52 illustrates how it should be arranged, the light material being at the bottom. Figure 50 shows how it ought not to be done. If it is desired to get the dark part at the bottom, this defect may be avoided by the introduction of a flounce or crossway band along the bottom of the drapery, and so attracting the eye to notice it. These are little points, but it is in the attention paid to such trifles that ladies' tailoring becomes a fine art.

Checks have two serious drawbacks when used on any but the finest figures. First, they make the figure appear wider without adding to the height, and, secondly, they cut the figure up into squares, which at once enables the slightest difference in the sides of the wearer to be detected; indeed, when the checks are not true, as they more often are not, they give the wearer a decidedly one-sided appearance. The best method of avoiding this is to arrange the material on the bias, which course avoids the hard set square, and instead of crossing the figure on the true horizontal and vertical, they ran diagonally, and then have a tendency rather to add to the height than the width. This same


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44 method is used very frequently for the bodice, but the more general way is to arrange the bodice with the pattern running in the same way as diagram 22, and the skirt on the bias. Much might be written on the varieties of checks, but our readers know their varieties and the many beautiful blends in which they are made and which makes them so attractive; so we will pass on to

The artistic effect of these is undoubtedly to create width at the expense of length. In the case of the former style, it is merely a series of flounces arranged one above the other on the foundation; with the later style the skirt

Figure 55.—Flounces or Tucks.Fig 56.—Braided Skirts.would be cut very much longer than was needed. For example: for every 3 inch tuck desired, the skirt must be cut 6 inches longer, so that our readers can soon calculate the necessary quantity required in accordance with the number of tucks desired. This style of skirt would most probably be made up without a foundation. In a modified style this is a very popular skirt for young ladies who are still growing, the one great recommendation being, the flounces can be let down as they grow taller: but as the ladies' tailor does not do much for this class we will pass on to deal with

Braid is always a favourite style of ornamentation with the high-class ladies' tailor; and, when nicely done and the braid of good quality, it needs nothing else to stamp the garment as a high-class production. Braid is generally arranged on symmetrical designs, that is, the one side is an exact repetition of the other, only in reverse. When the ladies' tailor has to braid a skirt, he either has to get a ready prepared design that can be transferred to the material with a hot iron, or has to design one himself, which, if he has any idea of drawing, is a very easy operation. Let him take a daisy and a few leaves, or any other flower, and then blend them together, and he will soon get a very pretty design. Having got this he folds his paper over and pricks it through with a good sized pin; this gives him the other half of his design of the same pattern as his original drawing, but reversed. He then places this pricked design on his cloth, in the position he desires the braiding to be, and sprinkles some white powder over it—finely scraped pipeclay will do, but it is rather coarse, and French chalk is preferable. Having carefully gone over every pin-hole with this, he removes the paper design, and then proceeds to fill in his design in a more substantial way. Take some flake white and mix it with a little gum and water, and mark round the design indicated by the spots with a quill pen, any part that may not be quite distinct being easily obtained by a reference to the design. Having got the outline distinct, the putting on of the braid is a very simple process, always trying to arrange the stitches so as not to show. If possible, a strand of the braid should be used for sewing. Use care, be patient, and the result will reward you. The braid mostly used is a narrow Russia, though some very artistic results are got by using different kinds of braid, some of which are of a very ornamental character, and show up a decided contrast to the narrow Russia, and in this way are useful in working in designs of leaves and flowers. Very much more might be written on this subject of skirts and skirt drapery, but we have already extended our remarks somewhat, this being a subject that is not so well understood as other branches of the tailoring trade, but a little practice and a little experiment on the lines we have suggested will soon simplify what may appear a difficult matter, and pave the way for success. We will now conclude this section by a few hints on


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Rh As worn at present. This is simply a full width of 54 inch material gathered or box pleated into the waist-band at the back. Sometimes it is arranged with one large box pleat, at others two, but the principle is the same. "When steels and bustles were worn, an extra round was needed at the top to go over them, but as these are now out of date, there is only the smallest amount of round necessary. The back is generally made with plenty of material in its drapery, but the same principles apply to it as with the front drapery as regards folds, &c., so that it will be unnecessary for us to repeat.

In reviewing the previous sections to see what garments have not been treated of, we especially noticed those which form the subject of this section.

Amongst the many special garments the tailor who caters for the fair sex is called upon to make, the shirt and blouse are perhaps the garments that are mostly worn, being suitable for all kinds of outdoor exercise, be it boating, lawn tennis, or the latest development for ladies' cricket: but probably the larger share of the orders the tailor receives will be for boating costumes in flannel or similar materials.

These are of course mostly made from cambric, and got up in the same way as a gent's shirt, the front being inserted of a different width stripe, or the front may be the only part striped, the body part being white. If our readers look at a gent's shirt, and see how that is made, they will have a capital guide for making these. There is, however, one important difference, they are left open all down the front, and only extend to about 5 inches below the waist. That part is generally worn under the skirt, a fancy waist belt being worn over the waist band of the skirt. A tape is placed at the waist, and a drawing tape run through it, thus enabling the fulness to be equally distributed all round the waist, or as may lie deemed the most effective. This garment is very popular amongst the frequenters of the Thames Valley in the Summer time, as well as at those fashionable seaside resorts, such as Brighton, Hastings, &c.

Square lines V 21, V F: from V to F is one-sixth of the neck, as also is the bottom of the gorge, in fact the gorge is swept by point V: from V to 2 is one-eighth of the natural waist; to 8¼ is ¾ inch less than one-fourth of the breast: to 15½ is the natural waist length, below which it is continued to taste; from 2 to D is one-fourth breast, from which a line is squared down as shown, and a line drawn from F to D, which finds the slope of the shoulder: from 8 to W is 2 inches more than a fourth breast; the scye may now be drawn, hollowing ½ inch in front of line D; the side is drawn at right angles from W, and the waist hollowed h inch or more; a button stand is left on down the front of about 1 inch, and the front is complete.

We now take the front to cut the back, and lay it down as per dotted line of diagram 2: fill in the back scye 1 inch, as in diagram: draw a line straight across from D, and add 1 inch beyond the extreme edge of front, so that there will he about 2 inches to full on or pleat into the yoke on either side.

Is cut also by the forepart, which is represented by the dotted line, the shoulder seam is cut the same: but to find the back seam, come up half way between the bottom of gorge and V, give a little extra width below D, and shape the remainder to taste. This style is very popular. We now pass on to

From O to 2 is 2 inches, or whatever is allowed over the fourth of the breast when drafting the forepart from 8½to W; continue on to 17½, the length of sleeve desired: make from 2 to 8½ the half size of scye, plus any allowance that may lie desired for pleating on the shoulder, and make the width to taste. The bottom of the sleeve is put into a cuff, the outline of which is illustrated on diagram 93.

Diagram 92 shows one of the many styles of collars worn on these garments, and which it is unnecessary for us to describe further, as the only variation necessary to introduce is the length.

This is probably one of the simplest garments it is possible to cut, as it is really only the outline of a bodice, minus any waist suppressions. They may be worn in a similar way to the shirt described above, and the fulness arranged above the skirt at the waist. The doi and dash line across the front and hack illustrate


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46 the plan adopted when a yoke is desired, the lower part being often fulled on this line, in which case about 2 or 3 inches must be added on beyond the outline of both back and front, according to the degree of fulness desired.

These are often worn with blouses, sometimes separate, sometimes fastened to them; being generally of a contrasting colour, they add much to the effect. They are very simple to cut, the system being as follows:—Take a forepart and back of the size breast desired, and place the shoulder seams together, mark down the back seam for the centre of the collar, and then round the back neck and down the front as low as desired; the length and width being quite a matter of taste, we can only refer our readers to the diagram as a guide, which is but an example to be varied from as desired.

Either the sleeve shown on Diagram 91, or an ordinary sleeve, are suitable to be worn with the blouse, but whichever style is adopted, looseness must be a marked feature, otherwise it will not be in harmony with the body part; for that reason, perhaps, Diagram 91 style of sleeve would be the most suitable.

This garment has become very popular during the past few years, and is used for many kinds of athletic exercises, under short-kilted skirts, whilst in addition to this they are largely used for ordinary wear: so that no work on ladies' garments would be complete without it. They are made in so many different ways and from so many different materials, that we shall have to leave our readers to arrange these details, so at once proceed to describe

Draw line A N; A to C is one-eighth natural waist; A E one-fourth breast; A H natural waist plus ½ an inch; H J one-fourth seat plus 1 inch; J N length of leg desired. A to B one-sixth neck; C to D one-fourth breast; E to F 1 inch less than one-fourth breast to find front of scye; E to G one-fourth breast plus 2 to 2½: H to I one-fourth breast; J to K one-fourth seat: K P drawn at right angles to J K, or parallel to J N; P to width of leg desired; J M half J K, or one-eighth seat; L is midway between M and J. Take a fish out of forepart to make it fit close at waist, as per dotted line. If intended to fasten down the front, add on a button stand of about 1 inch, and the forepart is complete.

Take the cut-out forepart and place as per dotted lines, from H to T is 1 inch; F to S is 1 inch; A to R is ¾ inch; all the other points are as for the fore-part. It is customary to arrange them to fasten at the waist behind, when an extra inch should be left at bottom of back, to allow of the undersides overlapping.

Illustrates the underpart of the lower portion, the dotted lines illustrate the forepart, H to is 3 inches. Draw line from M through U, measure up seat, and generally allow 3 inches beyond seat measure (if desired very easy allow more), and draw sideseam straight through from P X to W; draw line H I across to W, and so get the length of side; place the square on the seat seam Y U V, and square across to W. The uudersides may be cut all in one with the top, by merely letting the undersides overlap ½ inch at P and X.

Is the sleeve. 1 to 2 is 2 inches, 2 to 3 is the length of forearm desired, 4 to 5 is the same, 2 to 4 is half size of scye, and 3 to 5 is the width of sleeve desired. These combinations are frequently cut low at the neck, but our readers will readily be able to do this, as it only needs cutting as much as is desired from E B of back, and C B of forepart.

The system as here laid down can be used for Knickers or Drawers; cutting the topsides, as illustrated by dotted line from Q to I, which is got by arranging the square one arm on H L and the other resting on I. These garments are almost invariably made without sideseams, which can be arranged as before described for combinations. The waist is reduced to size when putting them into a waistband.


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The collar forms such an important part of every garment, that it would on no account do to omit it from any work that aimed at completeness; and as we anticipate this volume going into the hands of many novices, we shall treat of them rather fully; and if perchance Ave go into the smaller details too much for the more experienced, we crave their indulgence on behalf of the novices.

This is the simplest form of collar possible to put on any garment, it is illustrated on Figs. 23 and 24, Plate 12. A little examination of the neck will show it must be longer round the sewing on edge than at the top, this is provided for by cutting a round sewing on edge; and it may be as well to state that the rounder the sewing to edge the shorter it will be on the top, and consequently fit the closer. The system for producing these is as follows:—Draw line W D F, and make W to F the half size of the neck; come up from F to V 1 inch as a standard (more if a very close fit round the top edge is desired). D is midway between F and W. Draw curve from V to D, and continue on to W. V to 2 ° is drawn at right angles to V D, the height also to taste. W 2 is at right angles to W D, the height also to taste; W 2 may be cut on the crease or not, as fancy may dictate. In making, it is interlined with a good stiff buckram, and in putting this in it should be put in rather shorter than the outside, as the position it occupies on the wearer being a decided circle, renders it imperative for the outside to be the longer. "We will not describe the putting on of this collar, as it is done in the same way as is described below, when dealing of Diagram 110, so we pass on to deal of

This is illustrated on Fig. 21), and may be best described as a double stand collar, as it is cut exactly the same as described above, with a second collar cut deeper, as illustrated by dotted line below W D F. In making, the stand collar is put on first, and then the other is sewn to its top edge by its lining; the outside being arranged to come about ½ inch over the top: the lining of the stand collar coming over the top of this is neatly felled in the ordinary way This is a very popular collar, and has a much smarter appearance than the plain stand collar, which it resembles so much. It is worn on almost all garments: Blouses, Bodices, Jackets, and Ulsters, all have this style of finish at the neck occasionally.

Is really only a variety of the Panteen, the fall half being cut much narrower behind, and with a long point in the front. It is mostly used on Blouses, &c., in place of that illustrated on Diagram 92.

This is illlustrated on Figs. 13, 41, 42, 43, and others; and, as our readers are well aware, it is, at the time we write, the most popular finish for all garments at the neck. It is really a stand collar cut with a hollow sewing to edge, and consequently; a very full or long top edge: indeed, just such an effect as would be produced by taking an ordinary stand collar and inserting V's all along the top. The excessive size on the top edge allows it to be worn much deeper than it could be in any other way, and consequently this commends it to those who are exposed to inclement weather; indeed it has been called the storm collar. The system for producing this is as follows:—W D F at right angles, W D the height of collar desired. W to $1 1⁄2$ $1 1⁄2$ inches, D to F half neck measure minus ¾ inch, F to V 3 inches. Draw D V with a gradual curve, and outline the top part to taste; and as these may be finished square, pointed, or curved, there is considerable scope for the designer. The system, as here laid down, will produce a good average style; if more fulness is desired round the top, increase the quantities from F to V and W to 1½. In making, it is of course interlined with buckram; and, as the inside of these show, the lining is generally of silk or some bright material, but whatever is used in this way it should be nicely and neatly finished.

This is not so much worn now as it was at one time, but in order to describe all kinds of collars, we give it a place. The system is as follows:—W D half neck, D F, 1 inch, draw curve of sewing on edge from W to F, W to V and F to ½ is the stand, below which, as from V to I, is the fall. In making, the sewing to edge must be well stretched in the hollow. In style this much resembles the Panteen Collar, but is not so deep in the stand at front, and is cut all in one piece, though it is nothing unusual to find the under collar arranged with the stand and fall cut separate. Especially when it is made of very thick material, as it frequently is for Box Coats and Driving Capes, such as ladies are now wearing for driving, &c.


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48 This is illustrated on many of the Figures, perhaps Figures 19 and 20 are as good specimens as any. Figure 19 illustrates the S. B. turn, and Figure 20 the D. B. style. This collar is perhaps the most difficult of all to the novice; but as it is a very important one, we will endeavour to describe all about it in detail, and begin with the system. Begin by taking the forepart of the garment it is intended to go on, decide where you wish it to turn, as at A, Diagram 105; mark up from B to C a trifle less than the depth of stand desired: having previously decided that the depth of the stand or the upcome on the neck above the collar seam should be 1¼ inches, and the fall 1¾ inches: the fall is that part which turns over from the crease. Both these quantities are fair average quantities. For such a collar come up from B to C 1 inch, and draw a line from A through C to D. Get the length of the collar by measuring from G to F the width of the back neck, as from 1 to 2 of Diagram 110, allowing about ½inch extra length. Now come down from D to E the difference between the stand 1¼ and the fall 1¾ viz., ½ an inch. The object of this is to give more relative length from H to I as the fall gets deeper, a very necessary arrangement. Draw line from E to C slightly curved—this is the crease edge on the part where the collar folds over; from E to F measure down the depth of stand desired, in this case 1¼ inches, and connect F to B, and continue on to J, heating the collar overlap at J about ¼ inch. E to H is the fall behind, and J to I the same in front; and as this is to a large extent a matter of taste, no more definite rules than we have laid down can be given. "With regard to back of collar from F E to H, it maybe as well to illustrate, as a want of proper attention at that part frequently results in a collar standing away behind.

Illustrates how this should be arranged. Place the collar on the back neck, as shown at F G, when F to E should form a continuation of the back seam, and above this it should be sprung out, so that when it is turned over at the crease row E it will have sufficient spring to go over F. This completes the cutting as far as the system is concerned, and what we now give is more of

We will assume the pattern of the collar has been cut out in paper, and we now proceed to cut out the inside collar, as that is really the collar that produces all the fit and style. This is sometimes made from different material to the garment, especially when the cloth is very thick, in such cases a thin Melton of as nearly the same colour as possible is used, the advantage being that it is thinner, and more easily worked up; but we do not advise this except when the cloth used for the garment is very thick and unyielding. In cutting the inside collar from the material, cut it on the bias; and on no account cut it from the lengthways of the material; it is far preferable to join it in order to get it on the bias, as the joins are out of sight. It is well understood that cloth on the bias is very easily stretched or shrunk, and consequently is more easily manipulated. If there is any face or way of the wool to the material, it should run from H E to F, Diagram 106. Now join the collar at the back, either by taking a small seam or, if the material will stand it, by stoating; this done, the next step is to arrange the collar canvas.

Shows how it should be put in: the cross marks representing the threads of the canvas. The canvas should be shrunk by being well wetted and dried without the use of the iron before cutting, and in cutting it out sufficient should be left for working in. It should always be cut in two halves, otherwise it is impossible to get both ends alike; the one end having the threads running in an altogether different direction to the other when cut whole, and consequently the effects are seen in the collar when made up. If cut as illustrated on Diagram 107, the straight thread will run from 1 to 2. Join it by letting the two ends slightly overlap each other, and we next baste the collar lining and canvas together. The fall of the collar should lie flat on the canvas, and then a row of basting put along the crease row, and then the stand part of the canvas being on the bias, can be easily stretched to fit the stand of the collar lining. The first step in the stitching and padding of a collar is to stitch along the crease as from 1 to 2.

And in doing this the hand should be pulled fairly tight, so as to draw in that part in accordance with your customer's requirements; a stooping figure with head forward requires it drawn in more than the normal, whilst the erect or head backward type require less. The stitching of the stand comes next, and the object of this is to make that part of the collar firm and stiff, to stand up; this is usually done about four rows to the inch, and may be either done by hand or machine. If by hand, it should be a short fore stitch, so that the collar lining would represent the appearance of Diagram 108, as from 1, 2, 3. For the fall padding stitch is required: the object of padding the


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Rh fall is to get it to curl in well, which effect is produced by curling the canvas over the finger, and so getting it on longer than the collar lining. But as most of our readers will understand all this, we will not describe it in further detail, but pass on to

Which illustrates the pressing process. The object of pressing is to mould the collar into the required shape, as well as to press the sewing that has been put into the collar. This is best accomplished by the aid of a thoroughly hot iron, and the collar pressed until it is quite dry. The shape when this operation is finished should be somewhat after the outline of Diagram 109, the stand being represented as turned over: whilst the effect of the padding will now be seen by the curling of the fall. Now smooth over the outside collar on the double, as cloth always shrinks more on the double than the single. By smoothing we do not mean stretch it, but merely smooth it, though it is no detriment for the stand portion to be slightly stretched. Next fit the collar to the neck, to see the collar ends harmonise with the turn, as well as to see that it breaks at the right point. Having corrected the collar in any detail that is necessary, we proceed to cover it. Let us suppose the edges of our garment is to be bound. Lay the fall of the outside collar quite flat on the sleeve board, and on this place the fall of the collar lining, and put a basting thread along the crease row, and then the fall is basted from the outside, the collar being slightly bent to allow of the outside being a trifle the longer, then turn the collar over and put in a row of stitching about ⅜ of an inch from the crease, this keeps the stand in its place The collar is then bound and sewn on. To illustrate this latter process we give

Across the back from 1 to 2 it should go fair, or of the two very slightly tight, from 2 to 3 the collars should be fulled on about ½ an inch, and from 3 to 4 commence by putting it on tight up to the break, and beyond that fair or plain. Now press open the seam, and serge the neck, and in front of the break of the collar canvas and the forepart canvas should be drawn together edge to edge over the collar seam. It only remains now to turn in the collar and facing, and draw the collar seam; the turn in should be as small as possible, and exactly on the top of the collar seam, as by these means it gives a much cleaner and flat appearance to the front. The only remaining touch is the pressing off, and our collar is complete. We will now pass on to deal with

These are collars laid on the garment, and are cut by the shoulder seams of back and forepart, being placed together as per dotted lines, when the outline of the lapel desired is marked; 3 is the bottom termination of it, and the sewing to point is marked from 1 by 2 to 3, beyond which a seam is left as illustrated by dot and dash line; this is made up independently of the garment, and then sewn in the position desired from the back, and turned over, with the result of the shaded part of 111. Diagram 111 is the S. B. style of turn, and is often used for ladies' bodices, when the part outlined by 3, 4, 5 would have the appearance of a vest. Our Diagram represents this lapel of velvet, from which material these are often made.

Illustrates the D. B. style of lapel with silk facing. This may be produced as a Cape collar, as previously described, though it would more likely be used for Jackets. There should only be the smallest possible space between the top of the lapel to the collar end. The silk facing is brought to the ends of the holes, and carried over where the drawing seam of the collar would be, or even higher; the aim should be to give the collar the appearance of being the same width all the way round as far as possible. The silk mostly used for this is a bright satin faced fine twill; and when used on some of the dull or rough materials now so popular, has a very stylish appearance. Before quitting this diagram it may be as well to state that the holes in the turn should run with the top of the lapel, and in like manner the silk should follow the outline of the side of the lapel. Great care should be exercised in putting on this silk, as being used for ornament only, the effect would be spoilt if it was not put on artistically. Every possible effort should be used to get both sides alike—a result which is not so easy to achieve as may appear at first sight.

Illustrates a roll collar laid on; this is cut exactly as previously described, with the exception of the outline of the roll, which must of course be run to taste. Fur collars of this kind are frequently put on Winter Jackets, and undoubtedly give them a very stylish appearance. In cutting fur it should be done with a knife, and the pile or nap arranged to run the wrong way, which remark also applies to velvet, as it then presents a much richer appearance. In ordinary collars, the velvet is always cut on the bias, as that is the


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50 only way by which anything like a satisfactory result can be obtained, but with these cape collars, a rather wider sweep of material is required than ordinarily, and as very little working up is needed, it is not of so much importance.

This we think exhausts the subject of collars, and if we have gone into detail rather too minutely for some of our more advanced readers, we can only plead the importance of the subject, and the general ignorance that prevails on this topic.

Although this is really outside the scope originally intended for this work, yet we have little doubt a few hints on the various defects generally met with, will prove of service. Let us take first the defects that arise from

Too long a front shoulder produces a fold or series of folds all across the front, as from E to H: the remedy is shown by dot and dash line 7, 8 9. Too long a back balance produces folds all across back, as from A to B, showing more especially at B. Remedy as per dotted line 1 2 3. These are good illustrations of too much length producing horizontal folds.

The reverse of these defects, viz., a too short back balance, would produce the garment too low at back neck owing to its fitting close at waist, and thus being dragged down: whilst, if it was worn unbuttoned, it would hang away from the waist behind. The easiest way to remedy is to either pass the back up on the sidebody, and re-adjust the scye; or if there is plenty of length about the waist of the garment, shorten the front shoulder and deepen the scye, producing extra relative length of back. A too short front shoulder produces tightness of scye, fulness at top of sideseam, creases down front shoulder, &c. If you have an inlay on shoulder, let it down; if not reverse the suggested alteration to the back, viz., deepen the scye and shorten the back.

As illustrated from to 1), are caused by a too straight sideseam or insufficient receptacle for the blades. The remedy is illustrated by dotted lines 4, 5, 6.

As from K to L, are produced by too much being added on the one side below the waist, and not enough on the other, so producing a drag from K to L; the remedy is to let out from 14 to 15, and if necessary to reduce the hips to their original size; take in from K downwards.

As at I, J and G H have two principal causes. 1. Linings put in too short. 2. Too tight over the hips. In either case remedy accordingly. All linings should be put in very long over the waist—See our remarks on making up in previous sections. If it is too tight over the hips the remedy will be to let out as from 10 to 11, and 12 to 13. Each part should be stretched on the outside as at K, I, J, G, H, and shrink in the middle. The bones should also be put in very long.

As at L, M, is produced by a too round front edge, as our readers will have gathered from the preceding pages: the front edge should be straight, or if cut round, every bit of round drawn in and worked back over the breast. If this defect exists in a made up garment, the best way to alter it as per 1, 2, 3, 4, and then draw in the front edge to work the fulness back.

In cutting a fresh garment, the remedy is illustrated by 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.

Is produced by an insufficient provision for the busts. One remedy is to alter as per 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and draw in the front edge, but that is not nearly as good a remedy as illustrated by 6, 7, 8, 9 10, viz., let out under the arms, and take in at the dart, but a reference to diagram 116 will, we think, make this quite clear. If there is any difficulty in pressing away the

Put a trifle of wadding about the size of the finger nail, and then try to press it away. If this is not sufficient, the darts have not been taken high enough. Remedy accordingly.


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Rh These rank amongst the most troublesome defects, and like all others may arise from various causes; such for instance as a shoulder of the wrong shape, a short collar, badly put in linings, or canvas, &c. The most general cause of this defect is an insufficient distance from A to B, and too great a distance from B to C; it arises from what many term a too crooked shoulder. On the diagram we illustrate two ways of remedying, one by the dot and dash line, the other by the dotted line. These alterations apply only when the defect has been caused by a defective form: but if, as often is the case, they arise from faulty manipulation, the remeiy must be found in that direction.

These most frequently arise from the lining being put in tight. The shoulder being hollow requires the linings put in very wide over the shoulder, and in many cases this defect can be remedied by giving more width to the linings, &c. Some we know apply the remedies in a negative way, i.e., they narrow the outside, which practically amounts to the alteration illustrated by the dotted line at neck.

This is a defect frequently met with by cutters who take insufficient measures, &c. Every one will at once agree upon the wide difference there may be in the form of ladies' figures of the same size chest. One lady of say 34 breast will have a well developed chest, and prominent bust; the other will have no figure at all; hence it is evident that to cut the same shape garment for both must end in failure. When this has been done, to remedy is a somewhat difficult matter; indeed, it would require either new foreparts or a vest inserted down the fronts, unless very large inlays had been left all over. The alteration shown on diagram 199 will probably be more useful when cutting a fresh pattern, though of course the variations shown are the alterations required in the made up garment also, viz., a piece taken off sidebody from A to B, and sidepiece from C to D, the front being advanced at E F, and so giving the extra width to the chest needed. Do not give a round front to this figure, as the busts being prominent there is the greater depression between them, and consequently the greater need of shortness down the centre of front.

We have now dealt with the principal defects usually met with in body garments., and we have treated of sleeves in the section devoted to them. In suggesting remedies we have not laid down any quantities, as such must be decided on the merits of each case.

In getting up a work on Ladies' Tailoring, there are many little things which, though very useful in themselves, cannot be properly classified under any of the previous sections, so we purpose dealing with such in this section. We take first

These are very popular at the present time, many of them being made much deeper than our illustration, but, as far as the cutting is concerned, it is the same. The ordinary close-fitting Bodice or Jacket pattern is taken as illustrated by dotted line, and the outline of the belt is then marked as much, above and below the waist as may be desired; care must be taken to avoid getting it too hollow at top and bottom of the various parts, or there will be a peak at the seam. The aim must be to get it to run true when finished, rather than when cut. These belts are made up with bones under the various seams as for a Bodice, which will also necessitate the lining being put in extra long. It will be noticed there is only one dart taken out, which will be found quite sufficient. Figure 58 shows the front laced up, but this is not necessary back and front, so that if desired the front may be cut on the crease, as it is quite straight, though the introduction of a seam frequently adds to the effect. The next detail we will notice is

Dovetail tacks make one of the nicest finishes possible for box pleats, the ends of pockets, &c., though perhaps it is open to the objection that it is rather showy. Very great care is necessary to execute it nicely, one of the chief points being to keep the threads very regular. Another very essential feature is that all three sides shall be exactly equal. See

Commence by chalking on the cloth a triangle of the size you desire the tack to be when finished. This, although a very simple matter, has been a bit of a


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52 puzzle to more than one of the workmen we have seen attempt it: and as it is a very essential point to have this very exact, we will give minute instructions how to draw it. Draw line B C, and make a mark exactly in the centre between these two points, and square up at right angles to it to point A. Having decided on the size you wish it from B to C, measure across from B towards A the same amount, and make a mark where it touches this line, when it will be found C to A will be the same distance, and thus you will have an equilateral triangle, i.e., all the sides are equal. Now proceed to bar these three sides with twist in the same manner as you would for a bar-tack, i.e., about two or three times, but be careful to keep the corners very true; and having thus barred from A to B, B to C, and C to A, you are now in a position to proceed with the tacking proper, which you do by bringing your needle up as near point A as possible at 1, and take twist across and prick needle through at 2 as near point, C as you can bring it back at 3, also as near C as possible, and carry it across to 4 up again at 5, and across to point 6, which will complete the first stitch; and you come to your second in the same manner by coming up at 1 as near the other stitch as you can, across and down at 2, up at 3, across and down at 6, and so on till you have finished it, when it will present the appearance of diagram 2; and we think there are few features which add a more artistic effect to a lady's Ulster or Jacket than this, especially when applied to the top of a box pleat, for which part it seems especially suitable.

This is essentially the dressmakers' method, who makes not the slightest claim to scientific knowledge: but it has also to be resorted to by the best of cutters, so that although extremes meet, yet there is a marked difference in their methods of doing the same things. The former slavishly follows the run of every seam, whilst the cutter merely takes the essentials of fit from the old garment, and then goes to work to infuse as much art as he possibly can, so as to, as far as possible, bring out the points of beauty or tone down those prominent features which would detract from the grace of the garment on the figure. The exact method they each use, however, is as follows:—The dressmaker takes her pattern garment and pins paper on each part, and by placing it over her knee, she is enabled to get the exact shape, and then by allowing seams on all sides, she can thus produce a facsimile garment; and it would be idle for us to say the method is not successful, as we have seen some first-class results produced in this way. Some of them go to the trouble of ripping one side of the old garment, and tracing with a wheel through exactly where the seam was sewn; and having done so, to remake the garment. That, however, is generally the result of a want of experience of the other way, and which is equally good if done carefully. In contrast to this, however, we will show

As adopted by a well-known West End tailor, as follows:—Whenever a garment was ordered which he was unable to measure the lady for, he would send the old garment to a firm of bust makers to have a dummy made to fit the bodice, by which means he would be able to successfully cater for the wants of that particular customer without a try on, even if she were in the Antipodes; as he would, for all practical purposes, have her duplicate to try on as many times as he could wish. This method, of course, entails an extra cost (about 10s. we are informed) on the first order; but the after result certainly justifies the outlay, and as the bust would be always ready for use at any time, the first cost would be the only one, and would be of use for every kind of garment. Having once obtained this, it only remains to follow his usual method; but all tailors cannot fellow this plan on account of the expense, so they usually fit the old bodice on a dummy of figure as near the same size and shape as possible, and pad it up to the bodice wherever the figure is lacking. Another method is to lay down the garment so that each piece lies flat, and take a tracing of it by means of a pricker in a similar manner to the dressmakers' method; but this requires practice to do it successfully.

We now pass on to another method of cutting, viz.,

By this method a pattern which has been found to fit satisfactorily is used as a starting basis, and which may be taken as the shaded pattern in the diagrams. Now draw lines as shown above P, continuing it above also from to Q, and from R (which is level with the bottom of the armhole) through S, and from R to T.

Whilst in the small sizes it will be as well to shorten the waist as at 0, V, U, say ¼ inch for every 2 inches in the total size of the breast. Turning to