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 "Brown's Creek," after a gentleman, a friend of his in Melbourne.

30th. (Camp xxiii.) Our road to-day was rather level, till we came to a sand hill about eight and a half miles from last camp; the country well-grazed, passing on the left two more sand hills also well-grassed, but higher. From the top of one of these there was an extensive view of the surrounding country. To the west of creek a high range running all along it; hills in all directions, some of them well-wooded; these Mr. McKinlay has called the "Hamilton Range." In the distance apparently a mass of heavy ranges running~north, or perhaps a little west of north. This country has been terribly torn and cut up in all directions by recent floods, regularly furrowed, you may say, in many places, but quite firm and good travelling; not so much feed quite the latter part of to-day's journey, the ground being so torn up.

We camped on one of the main channels of the creek, with plenty of feed and water. Each man received to-day three-quarters of a pound of sugar from the fourteen pounds kept for the sick; so that he can eat it with his "adley" as we have come upon lots of it, and it will do us (as it did before) a vast deal of good, and I don't see why we should get sick with a fine climate, plenty of exercise, early to bed and early to rise, and no spirits, so that you cannot undermine your


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 "till noon, and just as I got to camp Bell and Davis returned, haying camped out all night after them, but saw nothing of them—the ground is so hard they leave so little impression on the ground that it is a difficult thing to trace them; however, they have got bells and hobbles on, and will at once be again sent after, with I hope more success. I am exceedingly annoyed at the detention here, more so as the animals don't do so well here as they have done. Hunted still during the afternoon for them, but without success. All spare hands will start out in search in the morning; it will be the sound of the bells or the sight of them only that will recover them, as track them we cannot in this dry country. Promised the party a treat on arriving within the influence of the sea on the north coast, so had baked some flour kept in reserve and each had a liberal allowance served out to him—that with fresh and excellent mutton, and some salt I brought back from the flats, gave all quite a treat. Sent Poole and Middleton theirs on by Hodgkinson and Maitland, which in their present half-starved condition would be a still greater treat. We would all have been in better spirits had the camels not been absent, but will hunt well for them to-morrow, and trust we may recover them.'"

When Bell and I arrived in camp we found Hodgkinson and Maitland away down the river with provisions to where Mr. McKinlay had left Middleton and Poole, and started Hodgkinson and Maitland to them with provisions. Fancy our delight on arrival to have three immense junks of bread put into our hands I Mr. McKinlay promised us a treat when we came within the influence of the sea on the north coast, and he kept his word, and we certainly did like to see the bread; but, strange to say, that I sat down, and

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 with the "ardent" if you wished. Plain food, God knows it is plain, no "provocatives," nothing to hurt us, so how are we likely to get ill? We killed a sheep to-day, and we are to have two a week to vary the food. Verily, in this instance variety is charming, when you can get it.

31st. Came over some nasty swampy ground to-day for eight miles, when we rounded a large table-topped hill, crossed a flat-topped one, and descended again into the swampy country; the main creek passes through a gorge in the hills, and then branches off into innumerable smaller ones. I wish we were out of this low swampy country—looks like fever and ague—a pleasant thing to have clinging to you on the march. The floods must be severe here, I should think, judging from the drift-wood and scrub left in the trunks of tho trees, some twelve to twenty feet from the ground. The hills Mr. McKinlay has called "Hamilton," after G. Hamilton, Esq., inspector of police in Adelaide, and the gorge through which the river passes, "Hunter."

We are to-day some 360 to 370 miles from Peak Downs, due east of us, and about the same distance from the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria. We were all wishing we could make off for the "Downs" to get some flour and tea, and especially tobacco, as we have none, and we all feel the want thereof.


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 so did Bell, and quite forgot the bread till we had nearly finished our roast mutton and soup. The governor had brought us some salt from the salt lagoons, and we should have been as jolly as sand-boys had we only got the camels here with us, as it is a sad damper to us now not having found them.

16th. Mr. McKinlay, Bell, and self off early after the camels, but could see nothing of them. A few bushes were bitten, so we still kept on till we arrived at the old camp, where Bell and self had the al fresco turn in, where we had a little lunch, and turned the horses out, and rested a bit for an hour; then off we started across a large plain, when we saw at the distance of half a mile the old female camel walking very quietly towards the south. We then shaped our course, and stopped her, and then we saw the others marching straight ahead. We soon collared them, and turned them on the way to camp, the governor leading. It was a mere chance we found them, for we could not track them; it was just luck, and nothing else.

17th. Started early for the lagoon, some twenty miles distant, where Middleton and Poole had been left, and where Hodgkinson and Maitland had gone with their grub on the 15th.

All the grass around us is one mass of flame, and what was beautiful grass is now


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 nothing—a black desert. Why the natives set it on fire we don't know. It was very warm travelling through this conflagration. The hawks soaring above in hundreds, ready to pounce down on the poor frightened lizards, mice, or any other little animal that escaped from this fearful monster fire. Plenty of water on our road to-day, keeping the Leichhardt on our right all the way, the fine timber on its banks marking well its course.

18th. (Camp lix.) Everything at camp all right. We were all off together this morning. We shall soon strike the Gulf; at any rate we cannot be far off from the sea, as the tide rises some four or five feet here, and perhaps more. We had rather nasty travelling over plains, not a hill to be seen; look where you will, the grass nearly all burnt off the ground; in places the stumps were rather trying to the camels, they being as sharp as spikes. Passed several lagoons on our way, and any number of cockatoos in the trees on the banks, and very pretty they look. There is a great sameness in the country, down this river at least, as far as we have come (over 100 miles). We passed a fine creek, with plenty of water, with game, ducks, etc. A few miles further on we struck a pretty mangrove creek, and further on crossed lots of little rivulets of salt water, running inland with the tide, which was just making, and we saw it coming up quite fast. There seems to


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 be a heavy mangrove swamp ahead of us. We camped on a small lagoon of fresh water, the water all round us being quite salt. The river too is salt. The tide here where we are, for we are within a stone's throw of the river, rises ten or twelve feet, and a ship of 800 tons could be alongside the bank, and take in or unload her cargo with ease. The river has a very pretty and picturesque reach here, and it is some 400 yards wide. Natives burning in every direction, but they are not to be seen. The water lilies are in bloom. There is also a tree with dark green foliage and beautiful yellow blossoms. We caught a small shark and several flat-heads to-day.

19th. This is our sixtieth camp, and I cut MK on a small tree. Mr. McKinlay, Middleton, Poole, Wylde, and Kirby started very early to get to the seashore, but found it quite impossible, on account of the mangrove swamps and swampy flats, for the horses were quite unable to travel; they got up to their bellies in the swamp; killed one; lost three sheep here, and we start on Wednesday.

20th. Mr. McKinlay said that any of us who liked to try on foot to get to the sea could do so, but none of us did, as we all thought if it had been practicable that he would have done it himself. Hodgkinson and Poole were sent off to the salt flats for salt, so that we shall have some for our homeward trip, to relish our hard fare, for I


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 pose we shall have to live on horses, having only two bullocks left, and they will not last us into Port Denison. Mr. McKinlay says he thinks we are about four or five miles from the sea, and he goes by way of Port Denison home, as it is so much shorter than to return to Adelaide.

Many natives on the northern side of river today. McKinlay, by dint of great perseverance, got three of them over to this side, and they were regaled with sheep's head, and decorated with some old boots, and pieces of tartan on their heads. This constituted their sole attire, save a fish-hook stuck in their hair. These natives seem to be of the same caste as those we saw on the lakes, and during the early part of our journey, except that the language was different, they had not the front teeth knocked out, and were scarred on the face and bodies; they were not circumcised either, like our former friends. After getting all they could, they recrossed, and we saw them no more. The governor could not get any information out of them; they did not seem to be able to take their eyes off us and all the traps about the camp. They were too much engaged with their eyes to talk.

Hodgkinson and Poole came back in the afternoon with about fifty pounds of salt. The camels are getting quite lame from having to cross so much burnt stubble.

21st. Hurrah for civilization, home and beauty,


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 good grub, and bottled ale! "We start to-day for Port Denison, where I hope we shall all arrive in safety, and shortly, or we shall eat all the horses. I dare say they are as good as the bullocks; we shall be able to report to our friends what we think of them. We retrace our steps thirty miles to the falls, where we shall cross over to the east. Just as we were starting this morning, the natives were in numbers on the other side of the river, up in the trees, giving us a farewell shout. This is all splendid country about here, the grass nearly up to our necks, with plenty of excellent water in the lagoons which abound here. I wish we had fifty more sheep, so that we could go back straight to Adelaide, from whence we started; but needs must when you know who drives.


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Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/New York

EW YORK, one of the original thirteen United States of America, is situated between 40° 29' 40" and 45° 0' 2" N. lat. and between 71° 51' and 79° 45' 54".4 W. long. It is bounded N. by Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence river, which separate it from the province of Ontario; E. by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; S. by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; and W. by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the Niagara river.

Topography.—The State of New York has a triangular outline, with a breadth from east to west of 326.46 miles, and from north to south, on the line of the Hudson, of 300 miles. In addition it includes Long Island and Staten Island on the Atlantic coast. Its area is 49,170 square miles,—47,620 square miles, or 30,476,800 acres, being land, and the remainder portions of the great lakes that border it. The surface is more diversified than that of any other State in the Union. The eastern and southern portions are high, and from these the land slopes gently

north and west to Lake Ontario. The mountainous belt of the eastern part is cut through by the great water-gap of the Mohawk valley, which once connected the Ontario basin with the trough of the Hudson below the present ocean-level, and is the most interesting and important feature in the topography of the State.

Mountains.—The mountains of New York form three distinct groups. (1) The Adirondacks, a series of short ranges having a north-north-east and south-south-west direction, form the centre of the elevated region of the north-east section of the State. The highest of these is Mount Marcy, 5344 feet, with several associated summits which reach the altitude of 5000 feet. (2) The Catskill Mountains, with their foothills, occupy about 500 square miles south of the Mohawk valley and west of the Hudson; the highest peaks reach an altitude of 4000 feet. The Helderberg and Shawangunk Mountains are topographically a portion of the Catskills, the first on the north, the second on the south. These all belong to the

Alleghany system, and are connected with the mountains of Pennsylvania by the Delaware Mountains, which have an altitude of from 1600 to 2800 feet. (3) The Highlands of the Hudson, through which the river passes at West Point, are the northern continuation of the Blue Ridge of Pennsylvania, having an altitude of from 1200 to 1800 feet. The so-called mountains of the central and southern counties are portions of a high plateau which connects with the Helderberg and Catskill Mountains on the east. This is cut by eroded valleys in such a way as to leave many elevated points, of which the highest is East Hill in Otsego county, 2300 feet above the sea.

One of the most peculiar and impressive topographical features is formed by the cliffs of the Palisades, which border the Hudson in Rockland county, and are continuous with those of New Jersey.

Geological Map of New York.

Lakes and Rivers.—Two of the chain of great lakes border the State, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, connected by the Niagara river, on which is the most celebrated cataract in the world. Lake Erie gives about 75 miles of coast-line to New York, Lake Ontario over 200. The surface level of the former is 573 feet above the sea, of the latter 245 feet; and this is 606 feet deep. A portion of the eastern border of New York is formed by Lake Champlain, which lies in the trough between the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains. Within the State the number of lakes is very great. The largest is Lake George, famous for its beautiful scenery. Through the central portion a series of peculiar elongated lakes are found which lie with a nearly north-and-south bearing on the slope from southern highlands to the Ontario basin, or the Mohawk valley. The largest of these are Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida, Crooked, Canandaigua, Owasco, and Otsego. These are river valleys once occupied and modified by glaciers and dammed up by moraines. The Adirondack region is famous for its system of lakes, which are favourite places of resort for tourists. Among the rivers of New York the Hudson is the largest and most beautiful. Formerly it ran several hundred feet below its present level, and was the great channel of drainage which led through the Mohawk valley from the interior. Now, by a subsidence of the continent, it is an arm of the sea, and navigable to Troy, 151 miles from its mouth. The Black River, the Mohawk, and the Genesee are all large streams which lie entirely within the State, while the Alleghany, the Susquehanna, and the Delaware rise there, but soon leave it to become the great rivers of Pennsylvania. From the varied topography and the abundant rainfall the number of streams is large, and many of them are marked by

picturesque falls. Besides the great cataract of Niagara, a mile wide and 164 feet high, which New York shares with Canada, there are many other falls worthy of mention, as those of the Genesee at Rochester and Portage, Trenton Falls, the Falls of Ticonderoga, &c. Among the natural features which distinguish the State its mineral springs deserve special mention. Those of Saratoga, Balston, Sharon, Avon, and Richfield are famous throughout the Union. They differ much in chemical composition and medicinal virtues, but all are popular places of resort, and some have gathered round them towns of considerable size.

Climate.—In a general way it may be said that the climate of New York is typical of that of the northern United States, a climate of extremes, hot in summer and cold in winter, and yet healthful, stimulating, and on the whole not disagreeable. The average annual temperature is about 47° Fahr., the average maximum of summer heat 93°, the temperature of 100° being rarely reached, and 102° the highest maximum record. The minimum temperature is about -20° Fahr., never attained in the southern portion, seldom in the central, but often passed by four or five degrees in the most northern counties. The average rainfall is about 40 inches. Frosts begin from September 1st to October 1st, and end from April 1st to May 1st, according to the locality and year. In the Adirondack region the snowfall is heavy, the winter long and severe. In central New York it is not uncommon for snow to accumulate to the depth of 3 or 4 feet, and yet this is not persistent. About New York city and on Long Island the snow rarely exceeds a foot in depth, sleighing is always uncertain, and sometimes the ground will be bare for weeks together. Thus it will be seen that the climate of New York is intermediate in character between that of New England and the Mississippi valley States,—a little milder than the first, severer than the last. The great lakes which border it are never frozen to their centres, and exert an equalizing influence upon the climate of their shores.

In the absence of extensive alluvial plains and marshes, there is little malaria, and the climate is salubrious. About New York city and on Long Island the ocean softens the rigours of winter, and through the influence of the Arctic current, which bathes the coast as far south as Cape Hatteras, renders the summer perceptibly cooler.

The local variation of climate within the limits of the State will be best seen by the following table:—

Fauna.—At the advent of the whites the fauna of New York included all the wild animals which were found in the north-eastern States of the Union or the adjacent

portions of Canada, but by the cutting off of forests, and the occupation of the surface by farms, the range of the native animals has been greatly reduced, and they have been unceasingly destroyed by man. Formerly the elk, the moose, and the caribou were abundant in the northern part of the State, but are now all exterminated, while the Virginia deer in many localities is still quite plentiful. Of the carnivorous animals, the couguar, the black bear, two species of lynx, the red and grey foxes, the wolf, otter, fisher, pine marten, mink, and skunk still remain, but the wolf is on the eve of extermination, and the wolverine, never abundant, has perhaps migrated northward. Among the rodents the beaver and variable hare are found, but in small numbers, while rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, field-mice, &c., are still unpleasantly numerous.

Civilization has made but little difference with the reptiles, birds, and fishes. All the birds indigenous to the eastern portion of the continent may probably at times be found within the State, though their relative numbers are affected by the removal of the forests. Among the reptiles are seventeen species of snakes, three of which, two rattlesnakes and the copperhead, are venomous. The fishes include all the species found in the lower lakes, in the rivers of the temperate portions of the continent, and on the Atlantic coast; and the fisheries constitute an important element in the revenues and subsistence of the people. The streams and lakes of the more elevated portions contain brook trout in abundance; those of the lower levels are well stocked with bass, pickerel, perch, and other game fish. The salmon, which formerly inhabited the Hudson and its tributaries, was long since exterminated; but an effort has been made to restock some of the streams, and, like the German carp recently introduced, it may now be reckoned as an inhabitant of the waters of New York. Some of the interior lakes are stocked with a land-locked salmon, or lake trout, a valuable and interesting fish. The oyster industry of the coast has its chief commercial centre in New York city, and an important fraction of the supply of clams, oysters, lobsters, and sea fish is obtained from the New York coast.

Flora.—Originally the surface of New York was occupied by an almost unbroken forest, and, as a consequence of the general fertility of the soil, its topographical diversity, and the range of latitude and longitude, the flora is rich and varied. About seventy species of trees are known to inhabit the State, and these include all found in the adjacent portions of the Union and Canada. The most abundant are oaks, of which there are fifteen species, but with these mingle five species each of maple, pine, and poplar, four species of hickory, three each of elm, spruce, and ash, two of willow, cherry, magnolia, and pepperidge, and one each of larch, liriodendron, dogwood, arbor vitas, balsam, yew, sycamore, honey locust, sweet gum, locust, butternut, black walnut, chestnut, beech, hornbeam, basswood, sassafras, and mulberry. On the summits of the Adirondacks a true alpine vegetation is found, though consisting of but a small number of plants; several of these exist in no other locality in the United States except the mountain summits of Vermont and New Hampshire. The flowering plants and ferns of New York were studied with much care by the late Dr Torrey, and his report upon them forms two of the series of twenty-three quarto volumes which compose the Report on the Natural History of New York. The flowering plants enumerated by Dr Torrey amount to 1540 species, to which a few additions have since been made. The ferns number fifty-four species—more than are found in any other State; the lower forms of plant life, seaweeds, fungi, lichens, &c., are constantly supplying new material, and many years will yet be required for their complete elaboration.

Geology.—The geological structure of New York is more varied and comprehensive than that of any other State, since it includes, with perhaps the exception of the Jurassic, the entire geological column from the Archaean to the Tertiary. A tabular view of the relations of the rocks of New York may be given as follows:—

The surface exposures of these rocks can be seen at a glance by reference to the accompanying outline map.

The boundaries of the State enclose an area which once formed a part of the eastern declivity of the Archæan continent, of which the Canadian and Adirondack highlands are the most important representatives. These are composed of Laurentian rocks, and are perhaps the oldest portion of the earth's surface. Upon the slope of this old continent the ocean rose and fell in the different geological ages, cutting away the shore by its waves in its advance, and spreading the debris in sheets of sand and gravel—old sea beaches. During long-continued periods of submergence organic sediments, composed of the hard parts of marine animals, accumulated over the sea bottom. In the process of emergence the shallowing and retreating sea

spread over its deep water deposits mixed sediments, the finer wash of the land and organic material, carbonaceous or calcareous. When indurated, these three kinds of deposits became (1) sandstones or conglomerates, (2) limestones, (3) shales or earthy limestones. During the intervals of emergence the surface was more or less eroded, and the elevations gave obliquity to the planes of deposition, so that in each invasion of the sea it deposited its round of sediments unconformably upon the older ones. The repeated submergences which have here left their record did not cover the same area, but overlapped in such a way that the succession of deposits is easily made out,—the different groups which we call geological systems being separable by unconformability along the planes of contact, by lithological characters which are faithful records of conditions of deposition, and by differences exhibited in their fossils, for in the long intervals which separated these inundations the life of sea and land was completely and repeatedly revolutionized.

The processes described above went on through the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages, forming on the south shore of the Laurentian continent the most complete and consecutive record of Palæozoic time of which we have any knowledge. Then the strata along a line passing south-westerly through eastern New York were raised in a series of folds which we call the Alleghany Mountains, and at this time all the interval between the Atlantic and the Mississippi was elevated above the ocean. There it has since remained, the sea rising and falling upon its margin, and leaving its marks, but never submerging the interior. The geological record was continued by minor contributions to the land along the Atlantic coast during the Triassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary ages, and by the grinding and transporting action of glaciers which once covered the entire surface of the State.

Previous to the elevation of the Alleghanies the sheets of Palæozoic rocks formed a littoral plain sloping gently southward from the Archæan continent. But in the formation of this mountain belt the country traversed by the southern line of the State was left with a surface inclination northward, and between the Alleghanies and the Canadian and Adirondack highlands a broad valley was formed which became the channel of drainage for a great interior area. Through this valley flowed a large river which reached the sea at or near New York island. From the Carboniferous age to the Ice period this was the course of the drainage of the interior, and thus was formed the great water-gap between the Helderberg and Adirondack Mountains, the gate of the continent, through which the tide of migration has flowed from the seaboard into the Mississippi valley, and where the canal and railroad lines have been constructed which are the great arteries of commerce.

During portions of the Tertiary age perhaps the whole, but certainly the eastern margin, of the continent stood many hundred feet above its present level. The drainage of the interior flowed freely and rapidly through the channel which has been described, until that part of it which lies within the State was cut below the present sea-level, and the great river, which as a whole has never been named, but of which the Hudson, the Niagara, the Detroit, and the St Mary's are representatives, reached the ocean 80 miles south and east of New York harbour, for its channel may be traced to that point on the sea bottom, and its mouth was 600 feet below its present one. By a subsequent depression of the land or rise in the ocean-level the sea covered much of its old shore, and filled the channels cut by subaerial erosion; the Hudson became an arm of the sea, and the labyrinth of tideways was

formed which are such a marked feature of the coast, and such important auxiliaries to New York harbour. During the Ice period important changes were made in the topography of the State,—by local glaciers in its advent and decline, by the great ice sheet at its climax,—the first perhaps increasing topographical variety, the second producing monotony by grinding down and rounding over asperities, and filling depressions with the debris.

The basins of the great lakes which border New York,—Ontario, Erie, and Champlain,—and of the peculiar elongated lakes of the interior, are largely the work of glaciers, which broadened and perhaps deepened river channels, and dammed them up with moraines. When the glaciers retreated from the area of New York many of the old channels of drainage were left partially or completely filled, and the flow of surface water took in some cases new directions. Among the obstructed channels was that of the Hudson west of Albany, filled by the Ontario glacier. By this cause the great river flowing from the interior was deflected from its ancient course and found a line of lowest levels leading from the north-east instead of that from the south-east corner of the Ontario valley. In this way the St Lawrence was made the outlet of the interior basin, and the Mohawk dwindled to a local draining stream. Long Island Sound and part of Long Island itself should also be classed among the products of glacial action, the Sound having been scooped out by the great glacier when it left the more resistant ledges of crystalline rocks which occupy south-eastern New York and Connecticut, and plunged into the softer Cretaceous and Tertiary beds which formed the littoral plain that bordered the continent,—the hills of the island being covered, and in part composed of loose material transported by the glacier and deposited along its edge.

Minerals.—The mineral resources of New York, though less varied than those of some other States, are still of great importance. The most valuable of these are extensive deposits of iron ore, viz.:—(1) magnetite, found in great abundance in the Adirondack region, and in Putnam, Orange, and Rockland counties; (2) hæmatite, mined in the vicinity of Rossie (St Lawrence county), Clinton (Oneida county), and elsewhere; (3) limonite, largely worked on Staten Island, and at Amenia, Sharon, &c., on the line of the New York and Harlem Railroad; (4) siderite, mined at Hyde Park on the Hudson. The production of ore from these mines in 1879 was 1,239,759 tons, valued at $3,499,132; and New York is surpassed in the quantity of iron produced by Michigan and Pennsylvania only.

The quarries of New York are numerous, and they furnish a great variety of products:—granite in the Adirondacks and along the Hudson; roofing slate in Washington county; white marble in Westchester and St Lawrence counties; red marble at Warwick, Orange county; black marble at Glenn's Falls; verde antique at Moriah and Thurman. Sandstone comes from Potsdam, Medina, and various other localities; shell-limestone from Lockport and Hudson; excellent flagging from Kingston on the Hudson; and paving stone from the trap of the Palisades. In 1880 the quarries of New York numbered two hundred and fifty-one, and the value of their product was $1,261,495. A large amount of hydraulic cement is supplied from the quarries at Rondout (Ulster county), Manlius (Onondaga county), and Akron near Buffalo; also gypsum from the vicinity of Syracuse. The deposits of these substances are very extensive, and their production could be increased indefinitely. Another item of importance among the mineral resources of the State is the salt produced from the salt-wells at Syracuse; these have been worked for

many years, and the present annual product is 10,997,408 bushels, having a value of $1,374,666. In south-western New York gas and oil springs are numerous, and at Fredonia the gas has been used in lighting houses for half a century. Recent discoveries show that the petroleum fields of Pennsylvania extend into New York, and it is probable that petroleum will soon claim a place among the mineral products of the State.

The Amboy clays of New Jersey extend across Staten and Long Islands. With further investigation they may prove valuable in the one State as in the other. (J. S. N.*)

NEW YORK, the principal city of the United States in point of wealth and population, and, next to London, the most important commercial and financial centre in the world, lies mainly on Manhattan Island, which is situated at the upper end of New York Bay, between the Hudson River and East River, on the west and east respectively, and the Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek, small connecting tide-ways which separate it from the mainland on the north-east and north. The legal limits of the municipality also include on the northern side a portion of the mainland which formerly constituted the towns of Morrisania, West Farms, and Kingsbridge, the boundary on the N. being the city of Yonkers and on the E. the Bronx and East Rivers, containing in all 41½ square miles, or 26,500 acres, of which Manhattan Island makes 22 square miles, or 14,000 acres. They also contain the small islands in the East River and New York Bay known as North Brother's, Ward's, Randall's, Blackwell's, Governor's, Bedloe's, Ellis, and the Oyster Islands. The city-hall stands in 40° 42' 43" N. lat. and 74° 0' 3" W. long., and is about 18 miles distant from the ocean, which is reached through the upper and lower bay, together constituting a harbour of the first order. The upper bay has an area of 14 square miles and the lower bay of 88 square miles of safe anchorage. The ship channels have from 21 to 32 feet and from 27 to 39 feet of water according to the state of the tide. The Hudson and East Rivers also afford the city 13¼ square miles of good anchorage. The tide rises and falls on the average 43 inches. Manhattan Island, as well as the adjacent country to the north and east, is composed mainly of rocks, chiefly gneiss and mica schist, with heavy

beds of coarse-grained dolomitic marble and thinner layers of serpentine. These rocks have been usually supposed to be Lower Silurian, but Professor Newberry holds that they have so great a similarity to some portions of the Laurentian range in Canada that it is difficult to resist the conviction that they are of the same period. The deep troughs through which the Hudson and East Rivers now find their way through New York harbour to the ocean are supposed by the same geologist to have been excavated in the late Tertiary period, in which Manhattan Island and the other islands in New York Bay stood much higher than they do now, when Long Island did not exist, and a great sandy plain extended beyond the Jersey coast some 80 miles seaward. Manhattan Island, for half its length from the southern point, slopes on each side from a central ridge. On the upper half of the island the ground rises precipitously from the Hudson River in a narrow line of hill, which again, on the eastern side, sinks rapidly into a plain bordering on the Harlem and East Rivers, and known as Harlem Flats. The surface is throughout rocky, with the exception of this plain, and levelling on a great scale has been necessary in laying out streets. The district beyond the Harlem river, which extends as far north as the city of Yonkers, is traversed by lines of rocky hill running north and south, and still thickly wooded. The original settlement out of which New York has grown was made on the southernmost point of the island, and it has, since the beginning of the 18th century, spread due north and from river to river.

New York in 1695.

The street called Broadway runs for nearly 3 miles along the crest of the island, forming for that distance the central thoroughfare from which streets spread with some regularity to the water on each side. The leading thoroughfares originally followed the line of the shore, along which the earliest buildings were chiefly erected, the central ridge being the last to be occupied, until the city reached what is now known as Wall Street, the site of which was marked by a rampart and stockade extending from river to river across the island. Within this space the streets were laid out either as convenience dictated or as old pathways suggested, without any general design or any attention to symmetry, and were named, for the most part, after prominent settlers. The first regular official survey of the city, tracing the line of the streets, was made in 1656, when Wall Street was its northern limit. In 1807 the present plan of the city was adopted, with its broad longitudinal avenues crossed by side streets at right angles, beginning at a point about two miles from the Battery and running the whole length of the island. The erection of buildings along these streets has led to the levelling of the region below the Central Park, but in the park the varied outline which once characterized the whole island is still retained. The precipitous banks of the Hudson river at the upper end have also compelled a treatment in which the original configuration of the ground is

and the streets and roadways are adapted to it. The city in its growth northward absorbed several suburban villages known as Greenwich, Harlem, Manhattanville, Fort Washington, Morrisania, and Kingsbridge.

General Aspect.—The appearance of New York everywhere but in the leading thoroughfares is usually disappointing to strangers. The pavement of all the streets, except Broadway and Fifth Avenue, is bad, and the street cleaning in all but the principal streets is very defective. The lower part of the city, which is the centre of trade, is generally well kept, and contains a large number of imposing buildings. Wall Street in particular, which is now, after Lombard Street, the most important haunt of moneyed men in the world, has several banks of effective architecture, together with the United States customhouse; while Broad Street, which runs off from it at right angles, besides having the stock exchange, is being rapidly occupied at its upper end by handsome buildings of vast proportions intended for the offices of merchants and bankers. After the city had spread beyond Wall Street, the well-to-do portion of the population and the leading retailers seem to have clung to Broadway as the great line of traffic and trade. For one hundred years the wealthy residents built their houses along it, or, if in the streets running off from it at right angles, as near it as possible; and the shops followed them up closely. As population grew during this period the private dwellings of the better class simply moved up farther on Broadway and the adjacent streets, leaving the old houses to be converted into shops. The farther from Broadway, and the nearer the river on either side, the cheaper land was, and the poorer the class of houses which sprang up on it. This fondness for Broadway in a great degree explains the aspect of the city. About a mile and a half from the Battery, or southernmost point of the island, the cross

streets which up to this line are mostly named after local notables of the colonial period, become designated by numbers, and are separated by equal intervals, known as “blocks,” of which twenty form a mile. Up to Eighth Street, Broadway divides the streets which cross it into east and west. After Eighth Street, Fifth Avenue, which begins at a handsome square, known as the Washington Square, lying a short distance west of Broadway, becomes the dividing line, and continues to be so out to the Harlem River, a distance of 8 miles. Broadway at Fourteenth Street runs into Union Square, which contains statues of Washington (equestrian), La Fayette, and Lincoln, and is surrounded by large shops; it then trends westerly towards the Hudson River, and thus crosses Fifth Avenue (which runs due north) at Twenty-Third Street, where it enters Madison Square, another open space, on the west side of which are clustered several of the largest hotels in the city. Fifth Avenue has played for the last forty years the same part, as the fashionable street, which Broadway played in the preceding period. It was long the ambition of wealthy men to live in it. It is lined from Washington Square to the Central Park, a distance of 3 miles, with costly houses, mostly of brown stone and red brick, without much architectural pretension, and producing from the preponderance of the brown stone a somewhat monotonous effect, but perhaps unequalled anywhere as the indication of private wealth. Fashion has long permitted, and of late has encouraged, resort to the side streets as places of abode, but the rule is nevertheless tolerably rigid that one must not go beyond Fourth Avenue, two blocks on the east side, or Sixth Avenue, one block on the west side, if one wishes to live in a good quarter. Within the district thus bounded the city presents a clean and orderly appearance, but mainly owing to the exertions of the householders themselves.

New York in 1728.

Harbour Defence.—For this the city depends on forts situated at the western entrance to Long Island Sound, at the Narrows (a passage between the upper and lower bays), and in the harbour itself. All these are confessedly powerless against a fleet armed with modern ordnance. The forts at the entrance of the Sound are Fort Schuyler, situated on Throgg's Neck, and a fort on Willett's Point on the opposite shore. The defences at the Narrows consist of Forts Wadsworth and Tompkins and several detached batteries on the Staten Island shore, and of Fort Hamilton and several batteries on the opposite Long Island shore. The forts in the bay are small and weak structures, and comprise Fort Columbus, Castle William, and some batteries, all on Governor's Island, and Fort Gibson on

Ellis Island. Fort La Fayette, made famous during the war of the rebellion as a prison, was destroyed by fire in 1868, and Bedloe's Island, on which stood Fort Wood, is now given up for the reception of Bartholdi's statue of Liberty.

History.—The history of the first Dutch settlements at Manhattan, and of their transference to England, is sketched in the article on. Down to the Revolution the history of the city is to all intents and purposes that of the province at large. The population grew slowly but steadily, and so did the trade of the place,—the Dutch language and influence, however, gradually giving way to the English. During the Revolution the city, while containing a large body of loyalists, shared in the main in the feelings and opinions of the rest of the country, but was cut off from active participation in the struggle by being occupied at a very early period of the war by the British troops, and it was the scene of their final departure from American soil on November 25, 1782. Since the Revolution its history has been principally the record of an enormous material growth, the nature and extent of which are described in other parts of this article. It was the capital of the State of New York from 1784 to 1797, though the legislature met several times during this period at Albany and Poughkeepsie. From 1785 to 1790 it was the seat of the general Government, and there the first inauguration of Washington to the presidency occurred on the 30th of April 1789.

Population.—The population of New York, in spite of the great attractions of the site, increased very slowly for the first century after its settlement. When the Revolution began it amounted to less than 22,000, and the city stood far below Boston and Philadelphia in importance. It was, too, dominated to a degree unknown in the other Northern States by the landowners whose estates lined the Hudson as far up as Albany, and who played the leading part in society and politics. The original constitution of colonial society was thoroughly aristocratic, and it was maintained almost intact until after the Revolution, the large landed estates along the Hudson being still held by the descendants of the original Dutch grantees, and let on tenures which were essentially feudal in their character. In spite of the large influx of settlers from New England and other parts of the country, the Revolution found the Dutch elements in New York society still strong, if not dominant, and the political ascendency of the territorial families on the Hudson on the whole but little diminished. After the Revolution the growth of the city population became more rapid, but it did not reach 100,000 until 1815, nor 160,000 until 1825. From this date it grew by leaps and bounds until it reached, in 1880, 1,206,299, although a large body of persons whose business lies in New York reside in Brooklyn or Jersey City, on the other side of the East and Hudson Rivers respectively, or in the lesser suburbs, and are not included in the census return. At the end of 1883 the population was estimated at 1,337,325. The impetus which the population received in 1825 was due to the opening of the canal connecting the Hudson with Lake Erie, which made New York the commercial entrepot for a vast and fertile region such as lay behind no other port on the eastern coast. The tendency of foreign trade to concentrate at New York, which has since reduced many small but once flourishing ports along the Atlantic coast, and has taken away from Boston and Philadelphia a good

deal of the chief source of their early prosperity, at once began to show itself, and has apparently lost none of its force since the railways came into use to supplement or supersede the canals.

In considering New York as a commercial port, the population of several suburbs within 10 or 15 miles radius should be taken along with it. Including only that of Brooklyn (556,663) and of Jersey City (120,722), the total would be 1,883,684. Of the 1,206,299 forming the population of the municipality of New York proper in 1880, 478,670, or nearly one-third, were of foreign birth. Of these 163,482 were Germans and 198,595 Irish, forming together by far the largest and most important part of the foreign element. Of the total population, 336,137 are males above the voting age, and the females exceed the males by about 25,000. In the native American population, amounting to 727,629, there are 647,399 natives of the State of New York, only 80,330 coming from other States. New Jersey furnishes the largest contingent, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut following next, though every State and Territory in the Union contributes something. There are no means of ascertaining the proportion of the inhabitants born within the city limits; it is probably smaller than even in London or Paris.

The heterogeneous character of the population, however, so largely composed of persons who come from widely different parts of the globe to seek their fortune, while infusing great energy into commercial and industrial operations, has had an unfortunate effect on the municipal life of the place. It has prevented the growth of a healthy local pride among the successful men of business, many of whom labour with the intention of passing their closing years elsewhere, a sentiment particularly strong among the prosperous New Englanders, whose affections are very apt to be fixed on the place of their birth. The result is that, considering the very large fortunes which have been made in the city during the last century, it has profited but little, compared with others in America, by the gifts or endowments of its wealthy men. The same cause has operated to some extent to prevent hearty co-operation in municipal affairs. The inhabitants of the different nationalities live much apart, both in politics and in society. The Germans, whose social life is very active, give but little attention to local politics, although they form, owing to their intelligence, order, and industry, a very valuable element in the population. Germans head a good many of the principal banking and commercial houses. A considerable proportion of those settled in New York are skilled artisans; cabinetmaking and upholstering in particular are largely in their hands. They supply also most of the music of the city, do nearly all its brewing and a considerable portion of its baking, and furnish a very large contingent in the work of all the leading manufactures. They supply comparatively few of the domestics of either sex, or of the manual labourers. Difference of language, combined with the absence of political training at home, keeps the Germans from taking a very active part in politics, except to resist some of the attempts at restrictive legislation directed against their beer drinking and Sunday amusements, which the American temperance advocates frequently make. As a rule it may be said that the prominent Germans in the city, like the Catholic Irish, belong to the Democratic party.

The port of New York is the great gateway for immigrants coming to the United States. Of the 7,892,783 immigrants who have come to the country from the years 1855 to 1882 inclusive, 5,169,765 have landed at New York city. The largest number landed there in one year was 476,086 in 1882. Germany sends the

greatest number, Ireland coming next, England third, and Sweden fourth. From 1847 to 1881 inclusive the German immigrants arriving in New York have numbered 2,498,595; the Irish, 2,171,982; the English, 834,328; and the Swedish, 208,505. The total number of immigrants landed at New York during the years 1858 to 1862 inclusive was 404,918; from 1863 to 1867 it was 1,009,641; from 1868 to 1872, 1,209,011; from 1873 to 1877, 614,219; in 1878 it was 75,347; in 1879, 135,070; in 1880, 327,371; in 1881, 455,681; in 1882, 476,086; and in the first six months of 1883 it was 257,635. The Irish emigrants who settle in New York are to a considerable extent a deposit left by the stream of emigration which enters the country at that port. The more energetic and thoughtful, and those who have any money, push on to the west; the penniless and the shiftless are apt to stay where they land, and furnish the city with most of its unskilled labour, although of late years they have been exposed to considerable competition from Italians, mainly from southern Italy. The resource of a large number of the more pushing is apt to be liquor dealing, which generally brings them influence in ward politics, and secures recognition from the party leaders as a means of communicating with and controlling the rank and file. The great body of the porters and waiters in the hotels and second-class restaurants, of the carters and hackney-coach drivers, a large proportion of the factory workers, and almost the entire body of household servants are Irish also, and for the most part a saving and industrious body.

The social life of New York in the earlier days, and, in fact, down to 1825, took its tone from the landholding aristocracy. Social traditions were, however, principally Dutch, and were characterized by the simplicity and frugality of that people. As the place grew in wealth and population, the ascendency of the old Dutch families was gradually lost. The successful commercial men who came to New York from all parts of the country became the real local magnates, and business prosperity became the chief sign and cause of social distinction. This state of things still exists. There is no other city in the United States in which money gives a man or woman so much social weight, and in which it exercises so much influence on the manners and amusements, and meets with so little competition from literary, artistic, or other eminence. The luxury of domestic life is carried to a degree unequalled in any other city. The entertainments are numerous and costly, and the restaurants, of which Delmonico's is the chief, have achieved a world-wide fame. The number of horses and equipages has greatly increased within twenty years under the stimulus given by the opening of Central Park, the drives of which on fine afternoons in April and May and the early part of June present a scene of great brilliancy. The city is, however, almost completely deserted during the summer months by the wealthy, who fly to country houses along the coast from New Jersey as far up as the province of New Brunswick, or to the mineral springs of Saratoga, or to Europe. Thirty years ago it was the ambition of rich men to own country houses along the Hudson river, the scenery of which possesses great grandeur, but its banks have of late been infested by malaria, and for this and other reasons the tide of fashion has been turned to the seaside, and more particularly to Newport in Rhode Island, which is now a city of marine villas. For people of small means New York is slenderly provided with summer entertainments, except such as are afforded by the beauty of the suburbs and by the many water-side resorts within easy reach on the Hudson, the New Jersey coast, and Long Island Sound, and especially at Coney Island, which is really a continuation of the sandy beach that extends all

along the south side of Long Island. Its western extremity is distant from the Battery about 8½ miles in a straight line, and its extreme length is about 5 miles. Since 1874, when capitalists suddenly woke up to the capabilities of the spot, a number of favourite resorts have sprung up on the island, with monster hotels, in one of which as many as four thousand people can dine at once, conveniences for surf-bathing, and a great variety of amusements. The island is reached by steam and horse cars, by steamboats, and by carriages. The Germans have beer gardens on a grand scale, both on Manhattan Island and elsewhere which they frequent in vast numbers. The Irish organize picnics to groves and woods along the Hudson and East Rivers, which are let for that purpose. Excursions by water down the harbour and up Long Island Sound are very numerous. For this species of amusement there are few cities in the world so well situated.

New York has about thirty places of amusement using scenery, not including a few small variety theatres of little importance; of all these the Metropolitan Opera House is much the largest. Its stage is 96 feet wide, 76 feet deep, and 120 feet high. There are seventeen outside entrances, six of them 10 feet wide; and the whole structure is fire-proof. The chief foyer is 34 feet wide and 82 feet long, with a parlour so connected that the foyer can be used as a lecture-room, the parlour giving place for a stage. The seating capacity of the auditorium is about three thousand. Of the other theatres the largest are Miner's Bowery, Miner's Eighth Avenue, Academy of Music, M‘Kee Rankin's, Niblo's, Fourteen Street Theatre (Haverly's), Thalia, Criterion, London, Harrigan and Hart's, Cosmopolitan, Fifth Avenue, Star, Twenty-third Street, Union Square. Beside the theatres there are two fine concert and lecture-rooms—Steinway Hall and Chickering Hall.

The clubs of New York may be divided into two classes,—the political and social, and the purely social. To the former belong the Manhattan and the Union League; to the latter the Century (1847), Harmonie (1852), Knickerbocker (1871), Lotus (1870), New York, St Nicholas, Union (1836), and University (1865). The Manhattan Club (with some 570 members) is the local club of the Democratic party, founded during the closing years of the civil war, and reorganized in 1877. The Union League Club was founded in 1863, in order to give to the Federal administration during the war the organized support of wealthy and influential men in the city, and it has been ever since the Republican social organization of the city. The Century Club represents literature, art, and the learned professions, and owns a valuable collection of pictures and a well-selected library. All the members of the Harmonie Club speak German. The original plan of the Lotus Club looked to a membership of literary men and artists, and members of the musical and dramatic professions.

Periodicals published in New York City, May 1, 1883.


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 So God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He Him; male and female created He them. Gen. 1, 27.

And God saw everything that he had made: and behold, it was very good. Gen. 1, 31.

And that ye put on the new man, which after God is created in righteousness and true holiness. Eph. 4, 24.

From the fall and disobedience of our first parents, Adam and Eve, in Paradise, whereby our nature became so corrupt, that we are all conceived and born in sin.

Wherefore as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned. Rom. 5, 12.

Behold, I was shapen in iniquity; and in sin did my mother conceive me. Ps. 51, 5.

Gen. 5, 3. John 3, 6. 1 Cor. 8, 46. Gen. 3, 1—24.

Yes; unless we are born again by the Spirit of God.

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Author:John Austin Stevens

Works

 * (ed.) Magazine of American History
 * (section on, with J. S. Newberry)

title: Author:John Austin Stevens


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 April 1st. All fool's day, and 200 and odd days out. Started early to-day, and our journey was entirely through swamps and water holes, with mud up to your neck—a frightful country. The day was fine, however, and we went to all points of the compass—Mr. McKinlay calls it a "zigzag" course—till we camped on a large creek well timbered. The country round and about it is a perfect bog; a man can hardly get out of some places. "We shall have a job to cross this creek. I expect Mr. McKinlay is going out to find a crossing place if he can, and there is not much doubt but he will. Our camp is in a "Dismal Swamp." We passed to the right of us some very peculiar hills on our way to-day, one was exactly like a tent. Mr. McKinlay has just now returned with the news that he has found a crossing place, and describes the country on the other side of the creek as being one network of creeks, with magnificently grassed flats, very different to this.

There is a native weir here, and the fish are very numerous, jumping up at flies and other insects on the water. Had we the proper tackle we could have good sport. The creeks to the east are drying fast.

2nd. We went only about one mile to-day. The crossing of the creek was a long and nasty job; it was as soft as mud could be. One of the


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 camels got into it pretty deep, and it was the devil's own work to extricate him. We saw the same range of hills. They certainly are very curious, and appear as if they had been thrown up by some volcanic irruption. I regret I did not take a sketch of them, but I forgot it. We got to blind hookey, and that was the cause. Mr. McKinlay found us at cards, and we caught it. Why, I don't know, for he likes a game as well as most men I expect. We had to give in till he had turned in, and then we went at it again till 12 o'clock, playing by fire light.

To-day is a memorable day, the last we shall have any bread. The flour is all gone except two bags, which are to be kept for the sick, and to have a jolly big feed when we reach the salt water. It will seem odd to have nothing but meat and water to live on for the next three months perhaps. I suppose we shall get used to it, and not miss the staff of life in a few days. We are drawing so far to the east to avoid a creek that I should not be surprised if, after all, we went for stores before proceeding to the Gulf.

3rd. Started along the creek a mile and a half, then altered course, and passed many boggy creeks. The travelling infamous. The poor little sheep were in such a state of mud they could hardly walk. We had several times to halt while the governor went ahead to reconnoitre, and after


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 several vain attempts to cross one of the boggy creeks, we had to "hark back." We lost a lot of time, but after going back a short distance on a different course we came on a fine lagoon, about one and a half miles long, and three hundred yards wide, with the camel food growing in profusion six feet above the water, and in full bloom it looked very pretty. Here was a native whirlie, and some utensils, stones for pounding the "adoo." From the appearance of the place it had not been visited for some time; very boggy round lagoon, and had to take off our boots to dip water for use. Fine bathing, about twelve feet deep in the centre. Plenty of mussels. Some liked them, I can't say I did, they were so muddy in flavour; and if you, gentle reader, have been "spilt" into a mudhole or dirty ditch out hunting as I have been, you will recollect the peculiar taste I mean.

Here I got a true piece of petrifaction from the bottom of the lake whilst diving for mussels, which with other curiosities I gave to Mr. Harris, the mayor of Port Adelaide, who was very kind to me on my first arriving in the colony, and who, in fact, first introduced me to our worthy leader.

No bread, and don't we growl, that's all. The meat alone is not enough for us, and we are all as hungry as hunters. Perhaps it will do us good to feel a little hollow, at all events it won't do for explorers to be particular in their habits.


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 4th. (Camp xxvii.) Camped in this beautiful flower-garden, for it is nothing else. The governor, Wylde, and Middleton are gone to the hills to the right, to look out for the course of the creek, and see if we could get round it, for we are going much to the east. I hope it will drive us into some place where we can get some grub, and I shall certainly call it "Salvation Creek," and a very fine one it is. Called the "Daly" after our present governor. It is a great pity the native names cannot be obtained.

5th. (Camp xxviii.) Started on a north-east course early, the weather looking rainy, with a strong wind blowing. The flies here lately very troublesome; We crossed a large swamp and to our right appeared another, or else a lagoon. Crossed between two sand hills, with a splendid feed all the way. Altered our course on account of some high sand hills ahead, saw two natives going over a swamp, they did not see us. There is a large creek on our left. We passed also on the same side some myall and sandy country but feed excellent, and the foliage on some of the trees grand. More sand hills and creeks on the left, and camped on a branch of the large creek very hungry, and only jerked meat and water for grub.

6th. (Camp xxix.) Very cold this morning and not a fly to be seen, which is a great relief. The


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 chaps are growling about the jerked meat, which is magotty; it may be an addition, but certainly not an improvement. Had we any bread we should not feel it so much, but when I tell you that there was only twelve pounds of this horrid stuff served out daily to make soup, water bewitched, between ten hungry men, you will say that it was hardly sumptuous or plentiful fare. We used to find some "adley" and other greens occasionally. We came to camp after fifteen miles in some "mallee" scrub, with some fine water-holes. Our way to-day was through scrub and heavy timber. Sheep to be killed to-night thank goodness, for that soup with maggots floating on the top is horrible.

The governor has just returned from some high hills, where he went for a view. He brought a young euro. Pity we killed the sheep to-day. The country to-day was hill and dale; tiers of hills on the right, all along; from six to seven miles distant well-timbered detached pyramidical hills; one seen between us and the main range, Euro (called so because Mr. McKinlay shot the euro there), is about four miles off, composed of sandstone and quartz. Euro meat very good. Hope to see many more soon, to save our sheep for harder times; as it appears not improbable that we may have some such.

7th. The country to-day very much resembles what we passed through yesterday; the ground


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 was covered with small bronzed stones. Distance travelled about seventeen miles, when we struck a very magnificent creek, 250 yards wide; in fact, it might be called a river—the water running about half a mile an hour; very steep sides, and the water so deep that none of us could get to the bottom. Feed and flowers in profusion; here magnificent gum, box, and bean trees lining the banks. Cockatoos in thousands, very wild ducks, cormorants, magpies, pigeons of various kinds, and various other kinds of birds very numerous. There is a small hill visible from our camp, with a large plain between us.

8th. (Campxxxi.) Started at 8·30 Very fine; hardly any wind; dew heavy this morning. Crossed a small boggy tributary not far from the creek, then through stony rising ground well timbered, good feed, and plenty of it. Plenty of bronzed pigeons about. Passed through myall and stony country, showing unmistakable signs of having been flooded. To the right some fine plains, with low myall ridges behind them. Crossed a boggy creek, but the old female camel "Krishna" got fast. She was soon right again. The old beast hates water and boggy places. The others are not so bad. Then over ground covered with stones, limestone, and flint. I wish the large creek did not keep so much to the east, so that we could lay our course nearer for the gulf. Vile travelling,


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 plenty of water in creek, and running fast. Our leader has called this after F. Mueller, Esq., of Melbourne.

We had travelled fifteen miles to camp. On our arrival, Mr. McKinlay took a fresh horse and went to the north-west. On his return he told us that he had seen a creek to the west that he thought would do to travel down. There is also, he says, a large creek from north and east going south, not flowing now, with broad stony bottom, with splendid reservoir of water. A long way to the east is a fine high range running north and south, named also after F. Mueller, Esq. It was rather amusing to hear some of our fellows wishing for something they should like to eat. One, a loaf and one pound of Cheshire cheese; another, loaf and some cheese; another did not care what it was, so long as there was enough of it. We certainly did have something, but it was the "enough" that was wanted.

9th. (Camp xxxii.) A very heavy dew this morning, everything quite wet, fine, though with no wind, and a few fleecy clouds floating about. Started rather early this morning after breakfast on a course 15° west of north. After crossing the creek mentioned yesterday, went over a splendid plain, and crossed another nice creek, which Mr. McKinlay has called the "Manserg." Some spinifex ranges on the right, with good open country and fine


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 soil. A creek to the left about two miles. Went into a low range, with bronze stone to the left, but plenty of food growing between. Saw innumerable traces of kangaroo, but none of the animals. Plenty of emu in the plains, but so wild that one cannot get within 500 yards of them. We shall never cease crossing small creeks to-day. The country is pretty; at least it is diversified with plain, river, and wood, and now and then a nice view—pastoral, decidedly, as I should say. There is plenty of permanent water; pigeons by thousands. Hodgkinson went and shot at some, and that's all, they are so wild. This country differs in that respect from Alexander Selkirk's, for there their tameness "was quite shocking to him;" and here the reverse is the case in every respect, their wildness being excessively disgusting to us. One wild turkey also made his appearance, and he had a shot from a revolver, but also with no effect: he flew away quite coolly. Had we only bagged him, just imagine the breakfast!

We came to a halt while Mr. McKinlay went to the top of a high hill to see the country on the other side. We soon got the "cooey," and off we were again, and soon camped on the creek down which we went a quarter of a mile. The last two miles rather miserable country, spinifex and porcupine grass, with detached conical white clay-slaty hills, timbered however with small white gum.


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 Helped Mr. McKinlay to lay down his course and distance to-day, when we found we were somewhere about 21° 37' south, 142° 17' east.

10th. Started rather late this morning, as the animals had wandered some distance, so went only about twelve miles to-day for the above reason. We made a great deal of westing to-day, for we are nearly or quite 2° east of the Albert River, and the more we make the sooner we shall get to the Gulf. We had a horrid day's journey through a miserable country covered with rough stones, spinifex, myall scrub, and white gum. Obliged to change our course on account of the heavy creek to the left crossing our path, and went a little to the west. Innumerable creeks with plenty of water intersect the country. We camped. The hills run a good way back, and are not such rough ones to look on as yesterday. The large creek Mr. McKinlay has called Cadell Creek, after F. Cadell, Esq., the enterprising navigator of the Murray and Darling.

11th. (Camp xxxiv.) Fine morning again, and we all came along well; caught in a squall from Mr. McKinlay for losing tracks; governor not very amiable lately, and no wonder, he having to go so much out of his course, and devilish little in the grub locker; however, we went a good westing stage of nineteen miles; we had a very light and delicate breakfast, this only consisting of two


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Author:George Herbert Perris

Works

 * Blood and Gold in South Africa: An Answer to Dr. Conan Doyle: Being an examination of his account of the "Causes and Conduct" of the South-African War (1902)
 * The Protectionist Peril: An Examination of Mr. Chamberlain's Proposals (1903)
 * Russia in Revolution (1905)
 * A Short History of War and Peace (1911)
 * Germany and the German Emperor (1912)
 * The War Traders: An Exposure (1914)
 * The campaign of 1914 in France and Belgium (1915)
 * The Battle of the Marne (1920)
 * The Industrial History of Modern England (1920)

title: Author:George Herbert Perris


text: Author:William Humble Ward

title: Author:William Humble Ward


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 table-spoonfuls of flour, with water, made into a sort of pap; I took a little laudanum, as I had a slight touch of diarrhoea, which soon put me all right, Maitland left the handsaw at the last camp, and the skipper rather astonished him; Hodgkinson has to go to-morrow and get it, then catch us at the next camp, and a very nice ride he will have all alone—solitude may be very agreeable sometimes, if you are not hungry, but when combined with short and bad grub it is not exactly the thing. Our course lay through upland plains after crossing the different branches of the large creek, passing a small line of detached hills. Distance to-day eighteen miles, through generally a good country. Numbers of very curiously topped hills, one in particular seems as if it had a coronet on its brow, bearing north by east from camp.

12th. (Camp xxxv.) Started rather early this morning; the country passed through to-day was peculiar, many small hillocks scattered about the large plains, which were all well grassed; we made a short stage on account of the man sent back for the saw; about fourteen miles was the stage, and we camped on another little creek; we shall not be short of water at all events, if the country continues like this; man and saw arrived safely.

Sunday 13th. (Camp xxxvi.) We went through some pretty country to-day, with hills on either


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 side for some distance, and then up a beautiful valley, with fine creek on our right. Valley well wooded with white gums; there is also a small tree, name unknown, from which we obtained large lumps of amber-coloured gum, very pleasant to the taste, and consequently devoured as soon as it was found to be palatable. After we came to camp we found abundance of the native oranges. Why it should be called "orange" I don't know, as it is as much like that fruit as a gooseberry is like a pine-apple. They are not first-rate eating, but still they served to fill up vacant places. We also found a new fruit here, something like the last, it splits open when green, and ripens in that way. It is somewhat larger than the orange, growing on a prickly shrub, which sticks close to any tree in its reach.

Kirby with the sheep is not up to-night, he has lost the tracks and gone up the other side of the western range. We shall stop here if he does not come in early to-morrow. A good fire is being lighted on the highest point of the range, and blue lights are being burnt in case he is in the neighbourhood. Mr. McKinlay is rather uneasy about him, and some of us will have to go and look for him in the morning.

14th. Slept like a top, but up early, as some of the men must go and look after the lost sheep and shepherd. They all came back about 1


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 He says he got bothered among the creeks and lost the tracks. He is all right and so are the sheep. Lots of kangaroo and emu, but very shy. Looking like rain and rather hot. Worked up course and distance with governor, for be it known we have never taken an observation all the way, he having done it all by dead reckoning; he makes it about lat. 21° 5' south, lon. 141° east.

15th. (Camp xxxvii.) We made a very short stage to-day on our course, on account of not finding water; we went about six miles north, and then four miles east, as the appearance of the country did not promise water, and rather late at starting this morning, as some of the nags were absent without leave. We followed right bank of creek, and passed tributaries coming in on both sides; passed a remarkable table-topped hill on the right; the hills on either side. After coming to camp Mr. McKinlay went out to examine. His journal at this date says:—

"'After camping, got a horse and went out over the ranges in a west and north direction, and saw what I suppose will be a course to suit me to-morrow; otherwise it was my intention to have taken one man and a pack-horse, and pushing over the range northward, to see if we are near the north watershed, or to have found a practicable route. Ranges are covered with spinifex and rough stones. Hodgkinson shot an euro, which will help us on, and save a sheep.'"

16th. Started over ranges, and at about seven miles came to a splendid flat, covered with myall


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 for two miles, with reddish table-topped ranges close on our right; passed through them and made for a gum creek that appeared to come from the ranges; no water in it or on the flat, but found some in a side creek where we camped. Saw a native signalizing some distance off. Jolly feed of "euro," small species of kangaroo. Currie, my boy, for supper!

17th. Up by starlight this morning, which was delightfully cool, in fact cold. After breakfast started over a fine flat, well wooded with box, myall, gum, with numbers of small creeks running into it; water in many of them. We went on our course 305° for eleven miles, and crossed a fine creek going to the north; then changed our course five points, and crossed one spinifex ridge on to a splendid open flat with beautiful grass, high ranges to the east, and camped on the first creek, with abundance of water in it. The scenery here is very pretty from the spot where we first struck—the plain from the range, the high hills, the high but undulating country, the timber intersecting the plain, marking the course of the creeks, was really a sight not to be forgotten. What a park it would make should this part of the country be ever inhabited with the Anglo-Saxon!

To-day Kirby and sheep got astray, and Hodgkinson was sent to find him and bring him on our course; but they having to travel through so much


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Rh Fleets of the Islanders could no more penetrate into the Baltic than they could into the Black Sea.

The Heartland, for the purposes of strategical thinking, includes the Baltic Sea, the navigable Middle and Lower Danube, the Black Sea, Asia Minor, Armenia, Persia, Tibet, and Mongolia. Within it, therefore, were Brandenburg-Prussia and Austria-Hungary, as well as Russia—a vast triple base of man-power, which was lacking to the horse-riders of history. The Heartland is the region to which, under modern conditions, sea-power can be refused access, though the western part of it lies without the region of Arctic and Continental drainage. There is one striking physical circumstance which knits it graphically together; the whole of it, even to the brink of the Persian Mountains overlooking torrid Mesopotamia, lies under snow in the winter time. The line indicative of an average freezing temperature for the whole month of January passes from the North Cape of Norway southward, just within the 'Guard' of islands along the Norwegian shore, past Denmark, across Mid-Germany to the Alps, and from the Alps eastward along the Balkan range. The Bay of Odessa and the Sea of Azof are frozen over annually, and also the


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142 greater part of the Baltic Sea. At mid-winter, as seen from the moon, a vast white shield would reveal the Heartland in its largest meaning.

When the Russian Cossacks first policed the steppes at the close of the Middle Ages, a great revolution was effected, for the Tartars, like the Arabs, had lacked the necessary man-power upon which to found a lasting Empire, but behind the Cossacks were the Russian ploughmen, who have to-day grown to be a people of a hundred millions on the fertile plains between the Black and Baltic Seas. During the nineteenth century, the Russian Czardom loomed large within the great Heartland, and seemed to threaten all the marginal lands of Asia and Europe. Towards the end of the century, however, the Germans of Prussia and Austria determined to subdue the Slavs and to exploit them for the occupation of the Heartland, through which run the land-ways into China, India, Arabia, and the African Heartland. The German military colonies of Kiauchau and East Africa were established as termini of the projected overland routes.

To-day armies have at their disposal not only the Trans-Continental Railway but also the Motor-Car. They have, too, the


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Rh, which is of a boomerang nature, a weapon of land-power as against sea-power. Modern artillery, moreover, is very formidable against ships. In short, a great military power in possession of the Heartland and of Arabia could take easy possession of the cross-ways of the world at Suez. Sea-power would have found it very difficult to hold the Canal if a fleet of submarines had been based from the beginning of the war on the Black Sea. We have defeated the danger on this occasion, but the facts of geography remain, and offer ever-increasing strategical opportunities to land-power as against sea-power.

It is evident that the Heartland is as real a physical fact within the World-Island as is the World-Island itself within the Ocean, although its boundaries are not quite so clearly defined. Not until about a hundred years ago, however, was there available a base of man-power sufficient to begin to threaten the liberty of the world from within this citadel of the World-Island. No mere scraps of paper, even though they be the written constitution of a League of Nations, are under the conditions of to-day a sufficient guarantee that the Heartland will not again become the centre of a World- War. Now is the time, when the Nations are fluid, to {hws|con|consider}}


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146 what guarantees, based on Geographical and Economic Realities, can be made available for the future security of Mankind. With this in view, it will be worth our while to see how the storm gathered in the Heartland on the present occasion.


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 spinifex he could not get their tracks at all, and returned to Mr. McKinlay on the march, who started him back again instanter with a flea in his ear. He arrived about 10, without having ever seen the sheep tracks. He went back to our last camp to try and pick them up; was unsuccessful. Old Kirby and sheep won't be here to-night, it is too late; poor fellow, he will be very hungry. Mr. McKinlay says here:—

"'After getting into camp I rode out south, towards the water- shed, but found it further off than I anticipated from this camp. It must be from ten to fifteen miles, and most excellent country. The main range, west, from what I could see of it, is very stony; few trees, and a great abundance of kangaroo and other grasses. Emu and kangaroo in abundance. Range runs to east of north a little, and to south of west a little, and is formidable. Distance travelled seventeen and a half miles.'"

18th. (Camp xxxix.) Up early, and got breakfast over as soon as possible, so that the men could be off after the sheep. Middleton and Palmer started immediately after the meal. It was bitter cold last night, and Kirby must have felt it without his blankets, though I dare say he lighted a good fire, as he would have to watch the sheep all night, there being no fold for them. Mr. McKinlay and Poole started to try and cut his tracks. The horse Jemmie that Ned had to ride gave great trouble, neither whip, nor spur, nor a touch-up with a long pliable stick, administered


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 with no light hand by the governor, had the slightest effect. Middleton then tried him, and after horse and man coming to the ground three times, he "gub" it up, and away they went across the plain, Middleton riding him as if there was a bush fire or a tornado behind him; he stuck to him like a brick, and fairly, by putting plenty of it in, took all the steel out of him. I hope they will be successful, it would throw a gloom over the party should he be lost, to say nothing of the sheep, and that would put us all in a queer state. We have nothing for dinner, and till Mr. McKinlay comes back we cannot get even a little flour. Should they not find him we shall have to kill a bullock, and then "two birds with one stone," viz., jerk him, and keep on looking out for Kirby. Mr. McKinlay adds in his journal: —

"'Middleton and Palmer got on his tracks, and followed them to about dark, when within a very short distance of our tracks here, and more than half the distance to this camp, and thought it not improbable, from the course he was then pursuing, that he had got to our camp, and came home, but the unfortunate had not. Had he been followed the day before by Hodgkinson with the same perseverance, all would have been well, and much anxiety spared to all. If the poor man has kept to the ranges, I'm afraid there is little hope of him — it will be a sad end for the poor fellow; a better man for his occupation could not be found. Just fancy an unfortunate man lost between two and three hundred miles from the coast, in a perfect wild, with twenty-three sheep (and I question if"


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 "he has any matches), left to sink or swim beyond reach of any Christian soul. If he is recovered he may thank God. Will still keep up the search for some days to come, in hopes of recovering him.'"

Some of our fellows who have been successful in the diggings, say that there is every indication of gold being here. I know nothing of the matter myself so cannot venture an opinion. Mr. McKinlay and Poole came in about sundown, and we dined on flour and water (paste). Poole says that there is gold in the ranges. Not a bird to be seen all day, or we might have had something, if only a hawk, to fry, but there is nothing alive at all about here.

19th. Up before daylight. Mr. McKinlay called out to me to give the unwelcome cry, "Turn out, boys." I sleep near him, with the camels' packs, etc., the horses being a little distance off; bitterly cold all night, and this morning worse; but Mr. McKinlay, after he turned in, determined to kill a bullock, so we had to fetch them up and all the other animals, for you see we had nothing to eat but that horrid "paste" ever since Kirby was lost, so up we soon had the said animals, and before the first blush of morn had tinged the sky "Mr. Blackeye" lay a helpless mass of beef, with a revolver bullet through his brain; didn't we all work with a will, McKinlay with one knife, and every one doing something towards getting an early breakfast,


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 which was soon made of some of the late Mr. Bullock's liver, to which we did ample justice; then immediately off went Ned and Middleton, with plenty of it, in search of Kirby; there are only three bullocks remaining. Mr. McKinlay remarks on this:—

"'In the event of Kirby not being found, with the sheep all correct, not very bright prospects for the party to travel to the Gulf and round to Port Denison upon; certainly we have the horses, but I would be loath to kill them, except in extreme need, but I will still hope for the best, but cannot stay beyond a week, whether found or not, as our provisions, beef, will be lessening daily; the flour we still have in a small quantity, reserved in case of sickness, and for the purpose of putting a small quantity daily in our soup, to make it appear more substantial; at present the vegetable the party were all so fond of has disappeared, except some old dry remnants, which all feel the want of much. I hope it may reappear. By noon of same day, on our not coming across his tracks, I started out and skirted the foot of the range where he ought to come out on his course, but was unsuccessful in finding the slightest trace of the unfortunate man. What thoughts must pass in his mind. Not a probability of ever again seeing any one of his own colour. Possibly destroyed by the natives, whose fires are to be seen daily, although they don't make their appearance. Never again to see his home nor his friends'; it must be awful for the poor man! Dusk now setting in; I have better hopes of his recovery, as neither of the three horsemen have made their appearance. Just at dark up rides Middleton with the joyous intelligence that man and sheep are found, Palmer staying behind to push on and overtake Bell and Kirby with the sheep on our track here, and Middleton took a more direct route here to give information of the good news, at which all of us were glad and thankful. About 11, horsemen"


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 "Kirby, and sheep arrived safe, and I was truly grateful for the deliverance. The poor man says he never expected to see us again. Bell fortunately picked him up within three miles of our last camp; he was then, after having been considerably south, and now completely bewildered and thinking he had missed the camp while travelling in the dark, steering a north-west course, and in ten minutes longer would have been on our track for this place. Middleton and Palmer had traced him throughout; and as they found they were drawing near our track, Palmer went to the track to see if anything was to be seen of him there, and called out to Middleton that they were found, and gone towards home on the tracks, when Middleton immediately started with the information, leaving Palmer to follow and overtake and assist them to camp with the sheep. The man Kirby, on arrival, was completely worn out, not for want of food, but with a troubled mind and want of sleep. He had killed a sheep the second night after leaving last camp, and had with him a small portion for his use. How thankful he must have been to see Bell!'"

Were we not all glad to welcome back a comrade that we had all but given up for lost; after the second day we certainly did not expect to see him again; it would have been bad enough to return with a death to report, but such an awful thing as this would have been, indeed, a thousand times worse; thank God he is right, and many a hearty shake of the hand he has had this night of our Lord.

20th. Kirby rather done up this morning; he looks rather pinched up in the face, but otherwise well; he had hardly any sleep since he left us, having stuck to his charge like a Trojan; finished cutting up and jerking to-day. A pity this delay


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 has occurred, as we were going on swimmingly for the gulf; as we are only about 250 miles from the mouth of the "Albert," we ought to do that, say, in thirty days, if we have no more stoppages, as we shall have a good store of jerked beef to take us along, and help out the mutton. "Forward" is Mr. McKinlay's motto; ours semper parati. The creek we are on is to be called "Blackeye," after the bullock, and first-rate beef he made. Doing odd jobs, mending and repairing, etc. etc.

21st. We shall be obliged to remain here another day, as the meat is not quite fit for packing. The ranges Mr. McKinlay has named after different officials and friends, among whom he certainly has not forgotten G. Hamilton, Esq., for here he is again represented by a fine creek running west of south, containing plenty of water. More power to him, for he worked hard enough to my knowledge, before we started, to get everything ready for the trip complete, and took great interest in the expedition. The one flowing south from No. 39 camp he has called Warburton's, after P. E. Warburton, Esq., Commissioner of Police of Adelaide, so the police is well represented in the far north, and I hope it will not be long before the gallant troopers of the mounted police will be pushed forward here to look after the duties that may fall to their lot from the quick occupation


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 of the country in these latitudes. The corps of cavalry police of South Australia are second to none in the Colonies, and are as fine a body of men, both as regards education and esprit de corps, as one would wish to see, and Mr. Hamilton may well be proud of his command. They are few in number, more's the pity; but they are the right sort.

The ranges on the east side of the creek Mr. McKinlay has named after Kirby, to commemorate his providential escape, not but what I fancy it will never require the chart to remind my friend Kirby of those here ranges. Plenty of mussels in a little water here. Strange it is that now we have killed a bullock, we could shoot any quantity of curillas, hawks, etc.

Fine pastoral country, the Government ought to make each of us a present of a bit of it somewhere out here toward the Gulf. We would soon get it stocked, I warrant you, if we go to the Gulf and back to Adelaide all well, under the guidance of John McKinlay, Esq., our worthy old leader. I hope he won't punch my head for calling him "old," for since I wrote this in the "far countree." he has taken unto himself a superior moiety, so I do not mean the word to be taken in its literal sense. Some government or other, I don't care which, ought at all events to give him a tidy slice of all the plum-pudding—stone, etc. etc.—that he has


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 gone over, or, what would perhaps be a more graceful way of doing it, let him select a tract of land for himself, not forgetting the "heirs for ever," and if they like to give us each a slip we won't say nay, Kirby is as sound as a trout. Off to-morrow.


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238 to inspire dead words, and dig out and chisel new thoughts and feelings? Do they feel that irresistible need for physical exercise to restore the overstrained nerve power?

Our young friend found plentiful consideration in the decision as to what handicraft he would devote himself to. He now remembered how often he had stood near the diamond mill, and watched the horses in the lower story as they turned the wheel that set in motion the machinery in the mill above. The polishing and cutting of diamonds was the secret of his co-religionists, an attraction for the boy, as well as the knowledge, freely entrusted to him, that diamonds could only be cut and polished with diamond dust. How often, on his way to the Talmud school, or Magister Nigritius, had he stood in self-forgetfulness at the open doors or windows of the workshops while the men inside pursued their trade. The boy's eyes had been fascinated by this handicraft, and a longing for similar work possessed his mind. Now for the first time the knowledge flashed upon him that what we call a free decision is really only the result of past influences, often generating again its own scarcely perceptible results. He paused but little to consider this fleeting thought, for his imagination dwelt on the numerous workshops wherein the powers of man build up and mould the results of nature into new shapes. Only he who reforms and controls

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Rh the materials of life has received true life. What a thousandfold blessing lies in work itself, as well as in its results. One hand clasps the other, and one thought runs into another in the imagination of its effects. The whole activity of man forms one immense fraternal workshop. Here, too, however, one individual has forcibly separated from another, and as the churches had done in the kingdom of thought and feeling, so had the guilds in the handicrafts of their chosen companies. There was no legal prohibition excluding the Jews from any trade, but custom and convenience made the guild-masters exclusive and reluctant.

Again it was Descartes from whom Spinoza received the decisive impulse towards his object. Spinoza was studying the "Dioptrika" of Descartes, and there learned for the first time the law of refraction, and the first correct explanation of the rainbow. The objection raised by Huyghens, and universally shared, that Descartes had taken the law from the manuscript of Snellius, then widely circulated through Holland, and had learned the explanation of the rainbow from Antonio de Dominis and Kepler, without acknowledging either, all this appeared trivial to our young inquirer; but it disturbed him to think that deception should exist even in the domain of intellect. The otherwise enigmatical saying of the Talmud, "Whoever reveals a word or thought in the name of its author, he

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240 brings salvation to the world," now appeared to him a law of truth.

This proceeding of Descartes, if inexcusable, was still explicable in that he was accustomed as a courtier to find himself with easy adaptability among the strange and objective, and to regard it easily as his own and subjective.

It was with pure enthusiasm that the determination took firm hold of Spinoza to owe his livelihood solely to his own activity; to owe it to no inheritance, and in the same manner to find the truth by his own intellect.

One day Spinoza explained to his father that he wished to learn the art of making optical glasses.

"But that is a trade that barely feeds a man," replied his father; "how can you support a family on it? Or do you intend our honorable name to die out with you?"

Spinoza did not answer this remonstrance immediately; perhaps he hoped and expected to perpetuate the name in another manner. He had touched a painful chord in his father's mind, and while explaining his inclination for independence he remarked that a Rabbi, by his salary as well as by grateful offerings, was but a servant of individuals. Mingled melancholy and pride was on the face of the father at this statement; he nodded assentingly. The old Spaniard recognized in his son the same proud spirit which was not yet dead in himself. If

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Rh a man cannot win from society respect and power, it is as well to avoid it, and in seclusion lose all care for it. So it seemed to the father; and again we see the loosened foundations and singular mixture of circumstances that awoke the powers of Spinoza to their full bloom.

"As far as I am concerned," the father agreed at last, "having thought over all the trades, I can think of none better if one has no great capital."

Father and son went to the skilful and well-known master. Christian Huyghens, an uncle of the mathematical scholar of that name, but who seemed to have neither the poetical genius of his brother, nor that of his nephew.

Spinoza explained to the master, in the course of conversation, that he already knew the laws of optics, and had also considerable acquaintance with mathematics; he then inquired if it were possible to learn the handiwork in half a year. The master, who, till then, had listened quietly to all remarks, sprang up at this so violently that his spectacles dropped from his nose.

"The deuce you can! May I turn Catholic, what maggots the youth of this day have In their heads!" he cried. "I have been seven and forty years in the business, and I may say I understand it, and can teach it to others; but I have people in the workshop who have already been five and seven years at it, and if I lay a microscope down there may I eat

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 The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth. Gen. 8, 21.

Not that we are sufficient of ourselves to think anything as of ourselves; but our sufficiency is of God. 2 Cor. 3, 5.

John 3, 5.

No: for God so made man, that he could perform it; but man, through the instigation of the Devil, by wilful disobedience deprived himself and all his posterity of this power.

And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise; she took of the fruit thereof and did eat; and gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat. Gen. 3, 6.

Ps. 51, 6.

By no means; but He is terribly displeased with our inborn as well as actual sins, and will punish them in just judgment in

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