text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/487

 here, and a reference to it has been introduced only to complete the sketch of Mr. Darwin's view of the continuity and gradual development of all human faculties from the lower animals up to savages, and from savage up to civilised man. The point to which I wish specially to call attention is, that to prove continuity and the progressive development of the intellectual and moral faculties from animals to man, is not the same as proving that these faculties have been developed by natural selection; and this last is what Mr. Darwin has hardly attempted, although to support his theory it was absolutely essential to prove it. Because man's physical structure has been developed from an animal form by natural selection, it does not necessarily follow that his mental nature, even though developed pari passu with it, has been developed by the same causes only.

To illustrate by a physical analogy. Upheaval and depression of land, combined with sub-aerial denudation by wind and frost, rain and rivers, and marine denudation on coastlines, were long thought to account for all the modelling of the earth's surface not directly due to volcanic action; and in the early editions of Lyell's Principles of Geology these are the sole causes appealed to. But when the action of glaciers was studied and the recent occurrence of a glacial epoch demonstrated as a fact, many phenomena—such as moraines and other gravel deposits, boulder clay, erratic boulders, grooved and rounded rocks, and Alpine lake basins—were seen to be due to this altogether distinct cause. There was no breach of continuity, no sudden catastrophe; the cold period came on and passed away in the most gradual manner, and its effects often passed insensibly into those produced by denudation or upheaval; yet none the less a new agency appeared at a definite time, and new effects were produced which, though continuous with preceding effects, were not due to the same causes. It is not, therefore, to be assumed, without proof or against independent evidence, that the later stages of an apparently continuous development are necessarily due to the same causes only as the earlier stages. Applying this argument to the case of man's intellectual and moral nature, I propose to show that certain definite portions of it could not have been developed by variation and natural selection alone, and that, therefore, some other influence, law, or agency is


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/488

 required to account for them. If this can be clearly shown for any one or more of the special faculties of intellectual man, we shall be justified in assuming that the same unknown cause or power may have had a much wider influence, and may have profoundly influenced the whole course of his development.

We have ample evidence that, in all the lower races of man, what may be termed the mathematical faculty is, either absent, or, if present, quite unexercised. The Bushmen and the Brazilian Wood-Indians are said not to count beyond two. Many Australian tribes only have words for one and two, which are combined to make three, four, five, or six, beyond which they do not count. The Damaras of South Africa only count to three; and Mr. Galton gives a curious description of how one of them was hopelessly puzzled when he had sold two sheep for two sticks of tobacco each, and received four sticks in payment. He could only find out that he was correctly paid by taking two sticks and then giving one sheep, then receiving two sticks more and giving the other sheep. Even the comparatively intellectual Zulus can only count up to ten by using the hands and fingers. The Ahts of North-West America count in nearly the same manner, and most of the tribes of South America are no further advanced. The Kaffirs have great herds of cattle, and if one is lost they miss it immediately, but this is not by counting, but by noticing the absence of one they know; just as in a large family or a school a boy is missed without going through the process of counting. Somewhat higher races, as the Esquimaux, can count up to twenty by using the hands and the feet; and other races get even further than this by saying "one man" for twenty, "two men" for forty, and so on, equivalent to our rural mode of reckoning by scores. From the fact that so many of the existing savage races can only count to four or five, Sir John Lubbock thinks it improbable that our earliest ancestors could have counted as high as ten.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/489

 When we turn to the more civilised races, we find the use of numbers and the art of counting greatly extended. Even the Tongas of the South Sea islands are said to have been able to count as high as 100,000. But mere counting does not imply either the possession or the use of anything that can be really called the mathematical faculty, the exercise of which in any broad sense has only been possible since the introduction of the decimal notation. The Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, the Jews, and the Chinese had all such cumbrous systems, that anything like a science of arithmetic, beyond very simple operations, was impossible; and the Roman system, by which the year 1888 would be written MDCCCLXXXVIII, was that in common use in Europe down to the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, and even much later in some places. Algebra, which was invented by the Hindoos, from whom also came the decimal notation, was not introduced into Europe till the thirteenth century, although the Greeks had some acquaintance with it; and it reached Western Europe from Italy only in the sixteenth century. It was, no doubt, owing to the absence of a sound system of numeration that the mathematical talent of the Greeks was directed chiefly to geometry, in which science Euclid, Archimedes, and others made such brilliant discoveries. It is, however, during the last three centuries only that the civilised world appears to have become conscious of the possession of a marvellous faculty which, when supplied with the necessary tools in the decimal notation, the elements of algebra and geometry, and the power of rapidly communicating discoveries and ideas by the art of printing, has developed to an extent, the full grandeur of which can be appreciated only by those who have devoted some time (even if unsuccessfully) to the study.

The facts now set forth as to the almost total absence of mathematical faculty in savages and its wonderful development in quite recent times, are exceedingly suggestive, and in regard


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/490

 to them we are limited to two possible theories. Either prehistoric and savage man did not possess this faculty at all (or only in its merest rudiments); or they did possess it, but had neither the means nor the incitements for its exercise. In the former case we have to ask by what means has this faculty been so rapidly developed in all civilised races, many of which a few centuries back were, in this respect, almost savages themselves; while in the latter case the difficulty is still greater, for we have to assume the existence of a faculty which had never been used either by the supposed possessors of it or by their ancestors.

Let us take, then, the least difficult supposition—that savages possessed only the mere rudiments of the faculty, such as their ability to count, sometimes up to ten, but with an utter inability to perform the very simplest processes of arithmetic or of geometry—and inquire how this rudimentary faculty became rapidly developed into that of a Newton, a La Place, a Gauss, or a Cayley. We will admit that there is every possible gradation between these extremes, and that there has been perfect continuity in the development of the faculty; but we ask, What motive power caused its development?

It must be remembered we are here dealing solely with the capability of the Darwinian theory to account for the origin of the mind, as well as it accounts for the origin of the body of man, and we must, therefore, recall the essential features of that theory. These are, the preservation of useful variations in the struggle for life; that no creature can be improved beyond its necessities for the time being; that the law acts by life and death, and by the survival of the fittest. We have to ask, therefore, what relation the successive stages of improvement of the mathematical faculty had to the life or death of its possessors; to the struggles of tribe with tribe, or nation with nation; or to the ultimate survival of one race and the extinction of another. If it cannot possibly have had any such effects, then it cannot have been produced by natural selection.

It is evident that in the struggles of savage man with the elements and with wild beasts, or of tribe with tribe, this faculty can have had no influence. It had nothing to do with


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/491

 the early migrations of man, or with the conquest and extermination of weaker by more powerful peoples. The Greeks did not successfully resist the Persian invaders by any aid from their few mathematicians, but by military training, patriotism, and self-sacrifice. The barbarous conquerors of the East, Timurlane and Gengkhis Khan, did not owe their success to any superiority of intellect or of mathematical faculty in themselves or their followers. Even if the great conquests of the Romans were, in part, due to their systematic military organisation, and to their skill in making roads and encampments, which may, perhaps, be imputed to some exercise of the mathematical faculty, that did not prevent them from being conquered in turn by barbarians, in whom it was almost entirely absent. And if we take the most civilised peoples of the ancient world—the Hindoos, the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Romans, all of whom had some amount of mathematical talent—we find that it is not these, but the descendants of the barbarians of those days—the Celts, the Teutons, and the Slavs—who have proved themselves the fittest to survive in the great struggle of races, although we cannot trace their steadily growing success during past centuries either to the possession of any exceptional mathematical faculty or to its exercise. They have indeed proved themselves, to-day, to be possessed of a marvellous endowment of the mathematical faculty; but their success at home and abroad, as colonists or as conquerors, as individuals or as nations, can in no way be traced to this faculty, since they were almost the last who devoted themselves to its exercise. We conclude, then, that the present gigantic development of the mathematical faculty is wholly unexplained by the theory of natural selection, and must be due to some altogether distinct cause.

These distinctively human faculties follow very closely the lines of the mathematical faculty in their progressive development, and serve to enforce the same argument. Among the lower savages music, as we understand it, hardly exists, though they all delight in rude musical sounds, as of drums, tom-toms, or gongs; and they also sing in monotonous chants. Almost exactly as they advance in general intellect, and in the arts


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/492

 of social life, their appreciation of music appears to rise in proportion; and we find among them rude stringed instruments and whistles, till, in Java, we have regular bands of skilled performers probably the successors of Hindoo musicians of the age before the Mahometan conquest. The Egyptians are believed to have been the earliest musicians, and from them the Jews and the Greeks, no doubt, derived their knowledge of the art; but it seems to be admitted that neither the latter nor the Romans knew anything of harmony or of the essential features of modern music. Till the fifteenth century little progress appears to have been made in the science or the practice of music; but since that era it has advanced with marvellous rapidity, its progress being curiously parallel with that of mathematics, inasmuch as great musical geniuses appeared suddenly among different nations, equal in their possession of this special faculty to any that have since arisen.

As with the mathematical, so with the musical faculty, it is impossible to trace any connection between its possession and survival in the struggle for existence. It seems to have arisen as a result of social and intellectual advancement, not as a cause; and there is some evidence that it is latent in the lower races, since under European training native military bands have been formed in many parts of the world, which have been able to perform creditably the best modern music.

The artistic faculty has run a somewhat different course, though analogous to that of the faculties already discussed. Most savages exhibit some rudiments of it, either in drawing or carving human or animal figures; but, almost without exception, these figures are rude and such as would be executed by the ordinary inartistic child. In fact, modern savages are, in this respect hardly equal to those prehistoric men who represented the mammoth and the reindeer on pieces of horn or bone. With any advance in the arts of social life, we have a corresponding advance in artistic skill and taste, rising very high in the art of Japan and India, but culminating in the marvellous sculpture of the best period of Grecian history. In the Middle Ages art was chiefly manifested in


text: Southern Historical Society Papers/Volume 08


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/493

 ecclesiastical architecture and the illumination of manuscripts, but from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries pictorial art revived in Italy and attained to a degree of perfection which has never been surpassed. This revival was followed closely by the schools of Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, France, and England, showing that the true artistic faculty belonged to no one nation, but was fairly distributed among the various European races.

These several developments of the artistic faculty, whether manifested in sculpture, painting, or architecture, are evidently outgrowths of the human intellect which have no immediate influence on the survival of individuals or of tribes, or on the success of nations in their struggles for supremacy or for existence. The glorious art of Greece did not prevent the nation from falling under the sway of the less advanced Roman; while we ourselves, among whom art was the latest to arise, have taken the lead in the colonisation of the world, thus proving our mixed race to be the fittest to survive.

The law of Natural Selection or the survival of the fittest is, as its name implies, a rigid law, which acts by the life or death of the individuals submitted to its action. From its very nature it can act only on useful or hurtful characteristics, eliminating the latter and keeping up the former to a fairly general level of efficiency. Hence it necessarily follows that the characters developed by its means will be present in all the individuals of a species, and, though varying, will not vary very widely from a common standard. The amount of variation we found, in our third chapter, to be about one-fifth or one-sixth of the mean value—that is, if the mean value were taken at 100, the variations would reach from 80 to 120, or somewhat more, if very large numbers were compared. In accordance with this law we find, that all those characters in man which were certainly essential to him during his early stages of development, exist in all savages with some approach to equality. In the speed of running, in bodily strength, in skill with weapons, in acuteness of vision, or in power of


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/494

 following a trail, all are fairly proficient, and the differences of endowment do not probably exceed the limits of variation in animals above referred to. So, in animal instinct or intelligence, we find the same general level of development. Every wren makes a fairly good nest like its fellows; every fox has an average amount of the sagacity of its race; while all the higher birds and mammals have the necessary affections and instincts needful for the protection and bringing-up of their offspring.

But in those specially developed faculties of civilised man which we have been considering, the case is very different. They exist only in a small proportion of individuals, while the difference of capacity between these favoured individuals and the average of mankind is enormous. Taking first the mathematical faculty, probably fewer than one in a hundred really possess it, the great bulk of the population having no natural ability for the study, or feeling the slightest interest in it. And if we attempt to measure the amount of variation in the faculty itself between a first-class mathematician and the ordinary run of people who find any kind of calculation confusing and altogether devoid of interest, it is probable that the former could not be estimated at less than a hundred times the latter, and perhaps a thousand times would more nearly measure the difference between them.

The artistic faculty appears to agree pretty closely with the mathematical in its frequency. The boys and girls who, going beyond the mere conventional designs of children, draw what they see, not what they know to be the shape of things; who naturally sketch in perspective, because it is thus they see objects; who see, and represent in their sketches, the light and shade as well as the mere outlines of objects; and who can draw recognisable sketches of every one they know, are certainly very few compared with those who are totally


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/495

 of anything of the kind. From some inquiries I have made in schools, and from my own observation, I believe that those who are endowed with this natural artistic talent do not exceed, even if they come up to, one per cent of the whole population.

The variations in the amount of artistic faculty are certainly very great, even if we do not take the extremes. The gradations of power between the ordinary man or woman "who does not draw," and whose attempts at representing any object, animate or inanimate, would be laughable, and the average good artist who, with a few bold strokes, can produce a recognisable and even effective sketch of a landscape, a street, or an animal, are very numerous; and we can hardly measure the difference between them at less than fifty or a hundred fold.

The musical faculty is undoubtedly, in its lower forms, less uncommon than either of the preceding, but it still differs essentially from the necessary or useful faculties in that it is almost entirely wanting in one-half even of civilised men. For every person who draws, as it were instinctively, there are probably five or ten who sing or play without having been taught and from mere innate love and perception of melody and harmony. On the other hand, there are probably about as many who seem absolutely deficient in musical perception, who take little pleasure in it, who cannot perceive discords or remember tunes, and who could not learn to sing or play with any amount of study. The gradations, too, are here quite as great as in mathematics or pictorial art, and the special faculty of the great musical composer must be reckoned many hundreds or perhaps thousands of times greater than that of the ordinary "unmusical" person above referred to.

It appears then, that, both on account of the limited number of persons gifted with the mathematical, the artistic, or the musical faculty, as well as from the enormous variations in its development, these mental powers differ widely from those which are essential to man, and are, for the most part, common to him and the lower animals; and that they could


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/496

 not, therefore, possibly have been developed in him by means of the law of natural selection.

We have thus shown, by two distinct lines of argument, that faculties are developed in civilised man which, both in their mode of origin, their function, and their variations, are altogether distinct from those other characters and faculties which are essential to him, and which have been brought to their actual state of efficiency by the necessities of his existence. And besides the three which have been specially referred to, there are others which evidently belong to the same class. Such is the metaphysical faculty, which enables us to form abstract conceptions of a kind the most remote from all practical applications, to discuss the ultimate causes of things, the nature and qualities of matter, motion, and force, of space and time, of cause and effect, of will and conscience. Speculations on these abstract and difficult questions are impossible to savages, who seem to have no mental faculty enabling them to grasp the essential ideas or conceptions; yet whenever any race attains to civilisation, and comprises a body of people who, whether as priests or philosophers, are relieved from the necessity of labour or of taking an active part in war or government, the metaphysical faculty appears to spring suddenly into existence, although, like the other faculties we have referred to, it is always confined to a very limited proportion of the population.

In the same class we may place the peculiar faculty of wit and humour, an altogether natural gift whose development appears to be parallel with that of the other exceptional faculties. Like them, it is almost unknown among savages, but appears more or less frequently as civilisation advances and the interests of life become more numerous and more complex. Like them, too, it is altogether removed from utility in the struggle for life, and appears sporadically in a very small percentage of the population; the majority being, as is well known, totally unable to say a witty thing or make a pun even to save their lives.


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/497

The facts now set forth prove the existence of a number of mental faculties which either do not exist at all or exist in a very rudimentary condition in savages, but appear almost suddenly and in perfect development in the higher civilised races. These same faculties are further distinguished by their sporadic character, being well developed only in a very small proportion of the community; and by the enormous amount of variation in their development, the higher manifestations of them being many times—perhaps a hundred or a thousand times—stronger than the lower. Each of these characteristics is totally inconsistent with any action of the law of natural selection in the production of the faculties referred to; and the facts, taken in their entirety, compel us to recognise some origin for them wholly distinct from that which has served to account for the animal characteristics—whether bodily or mental—of man. under the law of natural selection. He says: "It may be objected that, in man, in addition to the instincts inherent in every individual, special individual predispositions are also found, of such a nature that it is impossible they can have arisen by individual variations of the germ-plasm. On the other hand, these predispositions—which we call talents—cannot have arisen through natural selection, because life is in no way dependent on their presence, and there seems to be no way of explaining their origin except by an assumption of the summation of the skill attained by exercise in the course of each single life. In this case, therefore, we seem at first sight to be compelled to accept the transmission of acquired characters." Weismann then goes on to show that the facts do not support this view; that the mathematical, musical, or artistic faculties often appear suddenly in a family whose other members and ancestors were in no way distinguished; and that even when hereditary in families, the talent often appears at its maximum at the commencement or in the middle of the series, not increasing to the end, as it should do if it depended in any way on the transmission of acquired skill. Gauss was not the son of a mathematician, nor Handel of a musician, nor Titian of a painter, and there is no proof of any special talent in the ancestors of these men of genius, who at once developed the most marvellous pre-eminence in their respective talents. And after showing that such great men only appear at certain stages of human development, and that two or more of the special talents are not unfrequently combined in one individual, he concludes thus—

"Upon this subject I only wish to add that, in my opinion, talents do not appear to depend upon the improvement of any special mental quality by continued practice, but they are the expression, and to a certain extent the bye-product, of the human mind, which is so highly developed in all directions."

It will, I think, be admitted that this view hardly accounts for the existence of the highly peculiar human faculties in question.


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/498

 The special faculties we have been discussing clearly point to the existence in man of something which he has not derived from his animal progenitors—something which we may best refer to as being of a spiritual essence or nature, capable of progressive development under favourable conditions. On the hypothesis of this spiritual nature, superadded to the animal nature of man, we are able to understand much that is otherwise mysterious or unintelligible in regard to him, especially the enormous influence of ideas, principles, and beliefs over his whole life and actions. Thus alone we can understand the constancy of the martyr, the unselfishness of the philanthropist, the devotion of the patriot, the enthusiasm of the artist, and the resolute and persevering search of the scientific worker after nature's secrets. Thus we may perceive that the love of truth, the delight in beauty, the passion for justice, and the thrill of exultation with which we hear of any act of courageous self-sacrifice, are the workings within us of a higher nature which has not been developed by means of the struggle for material existence.

It will, no doubt, be urged that the admitted continuity of man's progress from the brute does not admit of the introduction of new causes, and that we have no evidence of the sudden change of nature which such introduction would bring about. The fallacy as to new causes involving any breach of continuity, or any sudden or abrupt change, in the effects, has already been shown; but we will further point out that there are at least three stages in the development of the organic world when some new cause or power must necessarily have come into action.

The first stage is the change from inorganic to organic, when the earliest vegetable cell, or the living protoplasm out of which it arose, first appeared. This is often imputed to a mere increase of complexity of chemical compounds; but increase of complexity, with consequent instability, even if we admit that it may have produced protoplasm as a chemical compound, could certainly not have produced living protoplasm—protoplasm which has the power of growth and of reproduction, and of that continuous process of development which has resulted in the marvellous variety and complex organisation of the whole vegetable kingdom. There is in all this something


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/499

 quite beyond and apart from chemical changes, however complex; and it has been well said that the first vegetable cell was a new thing in the world, possessing altogether new powers—that of extracting and fixing carbon from the carbon-dioxide of the atmosphere, that of indefinite reproduction, and, still more marvellous, the power of variation and of reproducing those variations till endless complications of structure and varieties of form have been the result. Here, then, we have indications of a new power at work, which we may term vitality, since it gives to certain forms of matter all those characters and properties which constitute Life.

The next stage is still more marvellous, still more completely beyond all possibility of explanation by matter, its laws and forces. It is the introduction of sensation or consciousness, constituting the fundamental distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Here all idea of mere complication of structure producing the result is out of the question. We feel it to be altogether preposterous to assume that at a certain stage of complexity of atomic constitution, and as a necessary result of that complexity alone, an ego should start into existence, a thing that feels, that is conscious of its own existence. Here we have the certainty that something new has arisen, a being whose nascent consciousness has gone on increasing in power and definiteness till it has culminated in the higher animals. No verbal explanation or attempt at explanation—such as the statement that life is the result of the molecular forces of the protoplasm, or that the whole existing organic universe from the amaeba up to man was latent in the fire-mist from which the solar system was developed—can afford any mental satisfaction, or help us in any way to a solution of the mystery.

The third stage is, as we have seen, the existence in man of a number of his most characteristic and noblest faculties, those which raise him furthest above the brutes and open up possibilities of almost indefinite advancement. These faculties could not possibly have been developed by means of the same laws which have determined the progressive development of the organic world in general, and also of man's physical organism.


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/500

 These three distinct stages of progress from the inorganic world of matter and motion up to man, point clearly to an unseen universe—to a world of spirit, to which the world of matter is altogether subordinate. To this spiritual world we may refer the marvellously complex forces which we know as gravitation, cohesion, chemical force, radiant force, and electricity, without which the material universe could not exist for a moment in its present form, and perhaps not at all, since without these forces, and perhaps others which may be termed atomic, it is doubtful whether matter itself could have any existence. And still more surely can we refer to it those progressive manifestations of Life in the vegetable, the animal, and man—which we may classify as unconscious, conscious, and intellectual life,—and which probably depend upon different degrees of spiritual influx. I have already shown that this involves no necessary infraction of the law of continuity in physical or mental evolution; whence it follows that any difficulty we may find in discriminating the inorganic from the organic, the lower vegetable from the lower animal organisms, or the higher animals from the lowest types of man, has no bearing at all upon the question. This is to be decided by showing that a change in essential nature (due, probably, to causes of a higher order than those of the material universe) took place at the several stages of progress which I have indicated; a change which may be none the less real because absolutely imperceptible at its point of origin, as is the change that takes place in the curve in which a body is moving when the application of some new force causes the curve to be slightly altered.

Those who admit my interpretation of the evidence now adduced—strictly scientific evidence in its appeal to facts which are clearly what ought not to be on the materialistic theory—will be able to accept the spiritual nature of man, as not in any way inconsistent with the theory of evolution, but as dependent on those fundamental laws and causes which furnish the very materials for evolution to work with. They will also be relieved from the crushing mental burthen imposed upon those who—maintaining that we, in common with the


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/501

 rest of nature, are but products of the blind eternal forces of the universe, and believing also that the time must come when the sun will lose his heat and all life on the earth necessarily cease—have to contemplate a not very distant future in which all this glorious earth—which for untold millions of years has been slowly developing forms of life and beauty to culminate at last in man—shall be as if it had never existed; who are compelled to suppose that all the slow growths of our race struggling towards a higher life, all the agony of martyrs, all the groans of victims, all the evil and misery and undeserved suffering of the ages, all the struggles for freedom, all the efforts towards justice, all the aspirations for virtue and the wellbeing of humanity, shall absolutely vanish, and, "like the baseless fabric of a vision, leave not a wrack behind."

As contrasted with this hopeless and soul-deadening belief, we, who accept the existence of a spiritual world, can look upon the universe as a grand consistent whole adapted in all its parts to the development of spiritual beings capable of indefinite life and perfectibility. To us, the whole purpose, the only raison d'être of the world—with all its complexities of physical structure, with its grand geological progress, the slow evolution of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and the ultimate appearance of man—was the development of the human spirit in association with the human body. From the fact that the spirit of man—the man himself—is so developed, we may well believe that this is the only, or at least the best, way for its development; and we may even see in what is usually termed "evil" on the earth, one of the most efficient means of its growth. For we know that the noblest faculties of man are strengthened and perfected by struggle and effort; it is by unceasing warfare against physical evils and in the midst of difficulty and danger that energy, courage, self-reliance, and industry have become the common qualities of the northern races; it is by the battle with moral evil in all its hydra-headed forms, that the still nobler qualities of justice and mercy and humanity and self-sacrifice have been steadily increasing in the world. Beings thus trained and strengthened by their surroundings, and possessing latent faculties capable of such noble development, are surely destined for a higher and more permanent


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/502

 ; and we may confidently believe with our greatest living poet—

We thus find that the Darwinian theory, even when carried out to its extreme logical conclusion, not only does not oppose, but lends a decided support to, a belief in the spiritual nature of man. It shows us how man's body may have been developed from that of a lower animal form under the law of natural selection; but it also teaches us that we possess intellectual and moral faculties which could not have been so developed, but must have had another origin; and for this origin we can only find an adequate cause in the unseen universe of Spirit.


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry

DREXEL INSTITUTE OF ART, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY. An educational institution founded in 1891 at Philadelphia, Pa., by Anthony J. Drexel. The objects of the Institute are to train young men and women in the increasing number of industries dependent upon applied art and science, and to afford opportunity, through academic and lecture departments, for a broad intellectual culture. The courses of study are open equally to men and women; no degrees are conferred; the requirements for admission are graded in accordance with the course taken, and the tuition fees are very moderate, owing to the endowment fund established by Mr. Drexel. This endowment amounts to $2,000,000, while the total value of the Institute's property, including buildings and equipment, approximates $4,000,000. The main building, given by Mr. Drexel, is an imposing structure in the style of the classic Renaissance; East Hall, a finely appointed building, in the modern French Renaissance style, contains the notable collection of paintings bequeathed by John D. Lankenau. The museum embraces specimens in every department of industrial art. In it are many examples of the decorative arts of Egypt, India, China, and Japan, and there is also an important collection of European and Oriental textiles. The courses offered in the Institute include those in fine and applied arts; mechanic arts; elective engineering; commerce and finance; mechanical drawing and machine construction; domestic science; mathematics, physics, chemistry, and English. In addition to the regular academic instruction, the Institute

evening classes in all departments. These courses are graded, some of them extending over three years. The Institute carries on, furthermore, an important educational work through the means of free public lectures and concerts. The number of students in attendance in the several departments in 1902 was 1200; in the evening courses, 2000. The library, containing 30,000 volumes, is especially strong in works on art, science, and technology. The president of the Institute from its foundation, and to whom its organization and the development of its courses must be largely ascribed, is James MacAlister.


text:
Page:Freud - The interpretation of dreams.djvu/451

Rh unconscious material in her mind. Her nursemaid told her that her mother, who had died young (the patient was then only a year and a half old), had suffered from epileptic or hysterical convulsions, which dated back to a fright caused by her brother (the patient's uncle), who appeared to her disguised as a spectre with a sheet over his head. The vision contains the same elements as the reminiscence, viz. the appearance of the brother, the sheet, the fright, and its effect. These elements, however, are ranged in different relations, and are transferred to other persons. The obvious motive of the vision, which replaces the idea, is her solicitude lest her little son, who bore a striking resemblance to his uncle, should share the latter's fate. Both examples here cited are not entirely unrelated to sleep, and may therefore be unsuitable as proof for my assertion. I may therefore refer to my analysis of an hallucinatory paranoia, and to the results of my hitherto unpublished studies on the psychology of the psychoneuroses in order to emphasize the fact that in these cases of regressive thought transformation one must not overlook the influence of a suppressed or unconscious reminiscence, this being in most cases of an infantile character. This recollection, so to speak, draws into the regression the thought with which it is connected, which is prevented from expression by the censor—that is, into that form of representation in which the recollection itself exists psychically. I may here mention as a result of my studies in hysteria that if we succeed in restoring infantile scenes to consciousness (whether recollections or fancies) they are seen as hallucinations, and are divested of this character only after reproduction. It is also known that the earliest infantile memories retain the character of perceptible vividness until late in life, even in persons who are otherwise not visual in memory.

If, now, we keep in mind what part is played in the dream thoughts by the infantile reminiscences or the phantasies based upon them, how often fragments of these reminiscences emerge in the dream content, and how often they even give origin to dream wishes, we cannot deny the probability that in the dream, too, the transformation of thoughts into visual 2 E


text: Southern Historical Society Papers/Volume 08/January/Explosive or Poisoned Musket or Rifle Balls


text:
Page:London - The People of the Abyss.djvu/27

Rh However, I departed with the address of a detective who lived in the East End, and took my way to the American consul-general. And here, at last, I found a man with whom I could 'do business.' There was no hemming and hawing, no lifted brows, open incredulity, or blank amazement. In one minute I explained myself and my project, which he accepted as a matter of course. In the second minute he asked my age, height, and weight, and looked me over. And in the third minute, as we shook hands at parting, he said: "All right, Jack. I'll remember you and keep track."

I breathed a sigh of relief. Having built my ships behind me, I was now free to plunge into that human wilderness of which nobody seemed to know anything. But at once I encountered a new difficulty in the shape of my cabby, a gray-whiskered and eminently decorous personage, who had imperturbably driven me for several hours about the 'City.'

"Drive me down to the East End," I ordered, taking my seat.

"Where, sir?" he demanded with frank surprise.

"To the East End, anywhere. Go on."

The hansom pursued an aimless way for several minutes, then came to a puzzled stop. The aperture above my head was uncovered, and the cabman peered down perplexedly at me.

"I say," he said, "wot plyce yer wanter go?"


text:
Page:London - The People of the Abyss.djvu/28

6 "East End," I repeated. "Nowhere in particular. Just drive me around, anywhere."

"But wot's the haddress, sir?"

"See here!" I thundered. "Drive me down to the East End, and at once!"

It was evident that he did not understand, but he withdrew his head and grumblingly started his horse.

Nowhere in the streets of London may one escape the sight of abject poverty, while five minutes' walk from almost any point will bring one to a slum; but the region my hansom was now


text:
Page:The Early Kings of Norway.djvu/16

6 queen in all the north. He had after her, in succession, or perhaps even simultaneously in some cases, at least six other wives; and by Gyda herself one daughter and four sons.

Harald was not to be considered a strict-living man, and he had a great deal of trouble, as we shall see, with the tumultuous ambition of his sons; but he managed his government, aided by Jarl Rögnwald and others, in a large, quietly potent, and successful manner; and it lasted in this royal form till his death, after sixty years of it.

These were the times of Norse colonisation; proud Norsemen flying into other lands, to freer scenes,—to Iceland, to the Faröe Islands, which were hitherto quite vacant (tenanted only by some mournful hermit, Irish Christian fakir, or so); still more copiously to the Orkney and Shetland Isles, the Hebrides and other countries where Norse squatters and settlers already were. Settlement of Iceland, we say; settlement of the Faröe Islands, and, by far the notablest of all, settlement of Normandy by Rolf the Ganger (A.D. 876?).

title: Page:The Early Kings of Norway.djvu/16


text:
Page:London - The People of the Abyss.djvu/29

Rh was one unending slum. The streets were filled with a new and different race of people, short of stature, and of wretched or beer-sodden appearance. We rolled along through miles of bricks and squalor, and from each cross street and alley flashed long vistas of bricks and misery. Here and there lurched a drunken man or woman, and the air was obscene with sounds of jangling and squabbling. At a market, tottery old men and women were searching in the garbage thrown in the mud for


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Dreyfus, Alfred

DREYFUS, drắ'fus', (1859—). A French artillery officer, who was brought into prominence as the central figure in one of the most celebrated cases of modern political history. He was born in Mülhausen, Upper Alsace, of Jewish parentage, removed to Paris in 1874, studied at the Chaptal College and at Sainte-Barbe, entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1878, and later attended the Ecole d'Application (School of Applied Gunnery). After serving as second lieutenant in the Thirty-first Regiment of artillery at Le Mans (1882-83), and in the Fourth Mounted Battery at Paris, he was appointed captain in the Twenty-first Regiment of artillery, September 12, 1889. On April 21, 1890, he entered the Ecole de Guerre, where he ranked among the leading ten of his class. Within a year after leaving this institution, he received an appointment on the general staff. On October 15, 1894, Dreyfus was arrested on a charge of having sold military secrets to a foreign Power. The utmost secrecy was observed by the War Office in regard to the whole affair. Dreyfus was isolated in prison, and treated with great harshness. When he was tried, although he was allowed counsel, the court was a secret one, and he was sentenced to military degradation and solitary confinement on the the Ile du Diable, off the coast of French Guiana. On January 4, 1895, he was conducted by a military escort to the courtyard of the Ecole Militaire in Paris, and, in the presence of a great assembly of spectators, the stripes were torn from his uniform, and his sword was broken. On March 10th he was transported to the Ile du Diable, where he was treated with severity, on one occasion being chained to his pallet for two months. He persistently denied his guilt, and this fact, together with the secrecy of the proceedings and the bitterness of the anti-Semitic agitation, led to a growing conviction in the minds of many that the real culprit had been shielded, and that it had been found convenient to put Dreyfus forward as a scapegoat.

The evidence used against Dreyfus was a memorandum, known as the bordereau, and the prosecution simply attempted to show that it was in the Captain's handwriting. It began, “Without news indicating that you wish to see me, I send vou nevertheless, monsieur, some important information.” Then followed a numbered list of documents relating to the frontier forts, artillery instructions to the general staff, etc. Naturally it was never made known how this document was obtained by the War Office, as it would have caused complications with a friendly Power; but it was supposed to have come through an Alsatian porter in the service

of Colonel von Schwarzkoppen, military attaché of the German Embassy. In May, 1896, another paper was brought to the War Office, and fell into the hands of Commandant Picquart. It bore the signature of Major Esterházy, an officer of doubtful character, and the handwriting corresponded exactly with that of the Dreyfus bordereau, while that of Dreyfus did not. Then began a remarkable series of attempts to bring to light and to suppress the truth. The most prominent defenders of Dreyfus were his brother Matthieu Dreyfus, the novelist Emile Zola, and M. Scheurer-Kestner, a member of the French Senate. A large part of the Liberal press also sided with the accused captain, and, during the later phases of the affair, his cause was adopted by the Socialists as a party issue for the time. Arrayed against him were the anti-Semitic elements of France and the powerful Nationalist influence, meaning by the latter all those who regarded the condemnation of Dreyfus as necessary for the vindication of the honor of the army, always dear to the hearts of Frenchmen. The War Office met the attacks of the friends of Dreyfus simply by asserting that the proceedings against him had been regular in every respect. There was a fixed purpose to prevent any discussion of the nature of the evidence or the facts of the case. Commandant Picquart, who showed an honest desire to bring out the truth, was made a lieutenant-colonel, and sent away on special service. Attempts were then made to compromise him by means of false dispatches, and he was finally removed from the active list of the army. On July 7, 1898, the agitation having risen high, a new declaration was made in the Chamber of Deputies by M. Cavaignac, Minister of War. He positively asserted that Dreyfus had been justly found guilty, and referred to certain documents not hitherto mentioned in the case. Colonel Picquart challenged these proofs and declared that of the three documents upon which M. Cavaignac based his belief in the guilt of Dreyfus, two were irrelevant, and the third, the only one in which Dreyfus's name occurred, was a forgery. Six weeks later, Colonel Henry, who had been connected with the intelligence department of the War Office, confessed to having committed this forgery, and committed suicide. This led to a general readjustment in the organization of the general staff. General de Boisdeffre, chief of staff, resigned; Major Esterházy and Colonel Paty du Clam were removed from the active list, but still the War Office proclaimed its belief in the guilt of Captain Dreyfus. Colonel Picquart was imprisoned on a charge of communicating secret documents, late in November. On the 29th of the previous month, however, the Court of Cassation, the highest tribunal in France, had taken up the matter of revision, and, after several mouths' deliberation, ordered (June 3, 1899), a retrial by a court-martial. The proceedings against Picquart were subsequently quashed. The court-martial sat at Rennes from August 7 to September 9, 1899, and rendered a decision that Dreyfus was guilty, with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to imprisonment for ten years, from which the period of his previous confinement was to he deducted. The evidence at the trial was of the flimsiest character, as it had been from the beginning, but the determination to

protect the officers of the army at the expense of Dreyfus was maintained. The members of the court martial united in a recommendation of mercy, and on September 19th the prisoner was pardoned by President Loubet.

The Dreyfus case was far-reaching in its effect upon French affairs. It divided and wrecked the Brisson Ministry of 1898; it seemed for a time likely to furnish a rallying point for monarchist agitation; it exposed a state of gross corruption in the French army; and it presented grave possibilities of trouble with Germany and Italy, which were the countries naturally suspected of the bribery of a French officer. In 1896, both the German and Italian Governments had denied, through diplomatic channels, in the most emphatic manner, having had any dealings with Dreyfus. M. Zola was condemned to a year's imprisonment, July 18, 1898, for his protest against the travesty of justice involved in the whole management of the case, and went into exile to escape imprisonment. Esterházy, after he was dismissed from the service, went to London, and made a confession through the London Chronicle, June 2, 1899, that he wrote the bordereau by order of Colonel Sandherr, assistant chief of the intelligence department. This confession was ascribed by the anti-Dreyfus party to bribery by the friends of Dreyfus. The impression has generally prevailed among unprejudiced persons and in other countries than France, that Dreyfus was unfairly tried, unjustly convicted on manufactured evidence, and that justice was refused him by officers high in authority for personal and political reasons. In December, 1900, in order that the matter might be finally disposed of, an amnesty bill was passed by the Government relieving every one concerned of any further liability to criminal prosecution. This was opposed by the friends of Dreyfus, Picquart, and Zola, who demanded a full vindication. It was declared on behalf of the Government that the army had been so embittered by the affair that no court-martial could be depended on to give an unprejudiced verdict, and that, for the safety of France, all further agitation of the question must cease.

. Contemporary literature contains many discussions of the affair. An excellent review of the case up to that date appeared in the London Times for October 13, 1898. Captain Dreyfus, after his release, published the story of his experiences in a volume which appeared simultaneously in several countries. The English translation was entitled, Five Years of My Life (New York, 1901). He also published letters to his wife, translated by Moreau (London, 1899), and Conseil de guerre de Rennes (Paris, 1901). Consult, in addition: Barlow, History of the Dreyfus Case, from the Arrest of Captain Dreyfus in 1894 to the Flight of Esterházy in 1898 (London, 1898); Conybeare, The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Guyon, The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Zola, The Dreyfus Case (London, 1898); Steevens, The Tragedy of Dreyfus (London, 1899); in French. Marin, Dreyfus: Comptes-rendus officiels (Paris, 1897); Vanex, Dossier de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Brez, Le solécisme du bordereau et les lettres de Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Esterházy, Les dessous de l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Clémenceau, Vers la

(Paris, 1899); id., Contre la justice (Paris, 1900); Cornely, Notes sur l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Guyot, L'innocent et le traitre: Dreyfus et Esterházy (Paris, 1898); Jaurès, Les preuves dans l'affaire Dreyfus (Paris, 1898); Villemar, Dreyfus intime (Paris, 1898). See.


text:
Page:Freud - The interpretation of dreams.djvu/452

434 images may be the result of the attraction exerted by the visually represented reminiscences, striving for reanimation, upon the thoughts severed from consciousness and struggling for expression. Following this conception, we may further describe the dream as a modified substitute for the infantile scene produced by transference to recent material. The infantile cannot enforce its renewal, and must therefore be satisfied to return as a dream.

This reference to the significance of the infantile scenes (or of their phantastic repetitions), as in a manner furnishing the pattern for the dream content, renders superfluous the assumption made by Scherner and his pupils, of an inner source of excitement. Scherner assumes a state of "visual excitation" of internal excitement in the organ of sight when the dreams manifest a particular vividness or a special abundance of visual elements. We need not object to this assumption, but may be satisfied with establishing such state of excitation for the psychic perceptive system of the organs of vision only; we shall, however, assert that this state of excitation is formed through the memory, and is merely a refreshing of the former actual visual excitation. I cannot, from my own experience, give a good example showing such an influence of infantile reminiscence; my own dreams are surely less rich in perceptible elements than I must fancy those of others; but in my most beautiful and most vivid dream of late years I can easily trace the hallucinatory distinctness of the dream contents to the sensuous nature of recently received impressions. On page 368 I mentioned a dream in which the dark blue colour of the water, the brown colour of the smoke issuing from the ship's funnels, and the sombre brown and red of the buildings which I had seen made a profound and lasting impression on my mind. This dream, if any, must be attributed to visual excitation. But what has brought my visual organ into this excitable state? It was a recent impression uniting itself with a series of former ones. The colours I beheld were those of the toy blocks with which my children erected a grand structure for my admiration on the day preceding the dream. The same sombre red colour covered the large blocks and the same blue and brown the small ones. Connected with these were the colour


text:
Page:London - The People of the Abyss.djvu/30

8 rotten potatoes, beans, and vegetables, while little children clustered like flies around a festering mass of fruit, thrusting their arms to the shoulders into the liquid corruption, and drawing forth morsels, but partially decayed, which they devoured on the spot.

Not a hansom did I meet with in all my drive, while mine was like an apparition from another and better world, the way the children ran after it and alongside. And as far as I could see were the solid walls of brick, the slimy pavements, and the screaming streets; and for the first time in my life the fear of the crowd smote me. It was like the fear of the sea; and the miserable multitudes, street upon street, seemed so many waves of a vast and malodorous sea, lapping about me and threatening to well up and over me.

"Stepney, sir; Stepney Station," the cabby called down.

I looked about. It was really a railroad station, and he had driven desperately to it as the one familiar spot he had ever heard of in all that wilderness.

"Well?" I said.

He spluttered unintelligibly, shook his head, and looked very miserable. "I'm a strynger 'ere," he managed to articulate. "An if yer don't want Stepney Station, I'm blessed if I know wotcher do want."


text:
Page:Freud - The interpretation of dreams.djvu/453

Rh impression of my last journey in Italy, the charming blue of the Isonzo and the Lagoon, the brown hue of the Alpine region. The beautiful colours seen in the dream were but a repetition of those seen in the memory.

Let us review what we have learned about this peculiarity which the dream has of transforming its content of ideas into plastic images. We have neither explained this character of the dream-work nor traced it to known laws of psychology, but we have singled it out as pointing to unknown connections, and designated it by the name of the "regredient" character. Wherever this regression has occurred, we have regarded it as an effect of the resistance which opposes the progress of the thought on its normal way to consciousness, as well as a result of the simultaneous attraction exerted upon it by the vivid memories present. Regression is perhaps facilitated in the dream by the cessation of the progressive stream running from the sense organs during the day. For this auxiliary moment there must be compensation in the other forms of regression through a fortifying of the other motives of regression. We must also bear in mind that in pathological cases of regression, as in the dream, the process of transference of energy must be different from that of the regressions of normal psychic life, as it renders possible a full hallucinatory occupation of the perception systems. What we have described in the analysis of the dream-work as "Regard for Dramatic Fitness" may be referred to the selective attraction of visually recollected scenes, touched by the dream thoughts.

It is quite possible that this first part of our psychological utilisation of the dream does not entirely satisfy even us. We must, however, console ourselves with the fact that we are compelled to build in the dark. If we have not altogether strayed from the right path, we shall be sure to reach about the same ground from another starting-point, and thereafter perhaps be better able to see our way.

(c) The Wish-Fulfilment.

The dream of the burning child cited above affords us a welcome opportunity for appreciating the difficulties confronting the theory of wish-fulfilment. That the dream should be nothing but a wish-fulfilment surely seemed strange


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/503

, Dr. C.C., instability of habits of birds, 76

on American water-thrushes (Seiurus), 117

Mr., drawings of caterpillars and their food plants, 203

Accessory plumes, development and display of, 293

Acclimatisation, 94

Achatinellidæ, Gulick on variations in, 147

Acquired characters, non-heredity of, 440

Acræeidæ, mimicry of, 247

Adaptation to conditions at various periods of life, 112

Adolias dirtea, sexual diversity of, 271

Ægeriidæ, mimicry by, 240

Agaristidæ, mimicry of, 246

Agassiz, on species, 5

on North American weeds, 15

Agelæus phœniceus, diagram showing variations of, 56; proportionate numbers which vary, 64

Albatross, courtship of great, 287

Allen, Mr. Grant, on forms of leaves, 133

on degradation of wind-fertilised from insect-fertilised flowers, 325 (note)

on insects and flowers, 332

on production of colour through the agency of the colour sense, 334

Mr. J.A., on the variability of birds, 50

Allen, Mr. J.A., on colour as influenced by climate, 228

Alluring coloration, 210

American school of evolutionists, 420

Anemone nemorosa, variability of, 78

Animal coloration, a theory of, 288

general laws of, 296

intelligence, supposed action of, 425

characteristics of man, 454

Animals, the struggle among, 18

wild, their enjoyment of life, 39

usually die painless deaths, 38

constitutional variation of, 94

uses of colours of, 134

supposed effects of disuse in wild, 415

most allied to man, 450

Antelopes, recognition marks of, 219

Anthrocera filipendula inedible, 235

Apples, variations of, 87

Arctic animals, supposed causes of white colour of, 191

Argyll, Duke of, on goose reared by a golden eagle, 75

Artemia salina and A. milhausenii, 426

Asclepias curassavica, spread of, 28

Asses running wild in Quito, 28

Attractive fruits, 306

Australia, spread of the Cape-weed in, 29

fossil and recent mammals of, 392

Azara, on cause of horses and cattle not running wild in Paraguay, 19

Azores, flora of, supports aerial transmission of seeds, 368


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/504

 B

Mr. J.G., on rarity of spiny plants in Mauritius, 432

Ball, Mr., on cause of late appearance of exogens, 400

Barber, Mrs., on variable colouring of pupae of Papilio nireus, 197

on protective colours of African sun-birds, 200

Barbs, 91

Barriers, importance of, in questions of distribution, 341

Bates, Mr. H.W., on varieties of butterflies, 44

on inedibility of Heliconidæ, 234

on a conspicuous caterpillar, 236

on mimicry, 240, 243, 249

Bathmism or growth-force, Cope on, 421

Beddard, Mr. F.E., variations of earthworms, 67

on plumes of bird of paradise, 292

Beech trees, aggressive in Denmark, 21

Beetle and wasp (figs.), 259

Beetle, fossil in coal measures of Silesia, 404

Beginnings of important organs, 128

Belt, Mr., on leaf-like locust, 203

on birds avoiding Heliconidæ 234

Belt's frog, 266

Birds, rate of increase of, 25

how destroyed, 26

variation among, 49

variation of markings of, 52

variation of wings and tails of, 53

diagram showing variation of tarsus and toes, 60

use of structural peculiarities of, 135

eggs, coloration of, 212

recognition marks of, 222

and butterflies, white in tropical islands, 230

sometimes seize inedible butterflies, 255

mimicry among, 263

Birds, sexual coloration of, 275

cause of dull colour of female, 277

choice of female not known to be determined by colour, etc., 285

decorative plumage of, 285

antics of unornamented, 287

which fertilise flowers, 319

colours of, not dependent on the colours of flowers, 336

no proof of aesthetic tastes in, 336

dispersal of, 355

and insects at sea, 357

of oceanic islands, 358

carrying seeds on their feet, 361

ancestral forms of, 407

Birthplace, probable, of man, 459

Bombyx regia, protective form of larva of, 210

Boyd Dawkins, on development of deer's horns, 389

on origin of man, 456

Brady, Mr. George, on protective colouring of starfishes, 209

Brain development, progressive, 390

Brains of man and apes, 452

Branner, Mr. J.C., on supposed proofs of glaciation in Brazil, 370

Brazil, supposed proof of glaciation in, 370

Brewer, Professor W.H., on want of symmetry in colours of animals, 217

Bromelia, animals inhabiting leaves of, 118

Bronn, Professor, on supposed uselessness of variations of ears and tails, 136

Butler, Mr. A.G., on inedibility of conspicuous caterpillars, 237

Butterflies, varieties of, 44

small, of Isle of Man, 106

special protective colouring of, 206

recognition by, 226

inedibility of some, 234

mimicry among, 240, 249

colour development of, 274

sexual coloration of, 271


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/505

 C

larvæ inhabiting bromelia leaves, 118

Callophis, harmless mimicking poisonous species, 262

Candolle, Alp. de, on variation in oaks, 77

on variability of Papaver bracteatum, 79

Cardinalis virginianus, diagram showing proportionate numbers which vary, 65; variations of, 58

Carpenter, Dr. W.B., on variation in the Foraminifera, 43

Carriers, 91

Caterpillars, resemblance of, to their food plants, 203-205

inedible, 236

Cattle, how they prevent the growth of trees, 18

increase of, in St. Domingo, Mexico, and the pampas, 27

Ceylon, spread of Lantana mixta in, 29

Chaffinch, change of habit of, in New Zealand, 76

Chambers, Robert, on origin of species, 3

Chance rarely determines survival, 123

Change of conditions, utility of, 326

Characters, non-adaptive, 131

transferred from useless to useful class, 132

Charaxes psaphon persecuted by a bird, 235

Chile, numerous red tubular flowers in, 320

Chimpanzee, figure of, 454

Clark, Mr. Edwin, on cause of absence of forests on the pampas, 23

on the struggle for life in the South American valleys, 24

Cleistogamous flowers, 322

Close interbreeding, supposed evil results of, 326

Clover, white, spread of, in New Zealand, 28

Co-adaptation of parts by variation, no real difficulty, 418

Cobra, use of hood of, 262

Coccinella mimicked by grasshopper, (figure), 260

Collingwood, Mr., on butterflies recognising their kind, 226

Coloration, alluring, 210

of birds' eggs, 212

a theory of animal, 288

Colour correlated with sterility, 169

correlated with constitutional peculiarities, 170

in nature, the problem to be solved, 188

constancy, in animals indicates utility, 189

and environment, 190

general theories of animal, 193

animal, supposed causes of, 193

obscure, of many tropical animals, 194

produced by surrounding objects, 195

adaptations, local, 199

for recognition, 217

of wild animals not quite symmetrical, 217 (note)

as influenced by locality or climate, 228

development in butterflies, 274

more variable than habits, 278

and nerve distribution, 290

and tegumentary appendages, 291

of flowers, 308

change of, in flowers when fertilised, 317

in nature, concluding remarks on, 299, 333

of fruits, 304

of flowers growing together contrasted, 318

Complexity of flowers due to alternate adaptation to insect and self-fertilisation, 328

Composite, a, widely dispersed without pappus, 367

Confinement, affecting fertility, 154

Continental and oceanic areas, 346

Continents and oceans cannot have changed places, 345

possible connections between, 349

Continuity does not prove identity of origin, 463


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/506

 Cope, Dr. E.D., on non-adaptive characters, 131

on fundamental laws of growth, 420

on bathmism or growth-force, 421

on use producing structural change, 422

on law of centrifugal growth, 422

on origin of the feet of ungulates, 423

on action of animal intelligence, 425

Correlations in pigeons, horses, etc., 140

Corvus frugilegus, 2

corone, 2

Coursers, figures of secondary quills, 224

Cowslip, two forms of, 157

Crab, sexual diversity of colour of, 269

Cretaceous period, dicotyledons of, 400

Crisp, Dr., on variations of gall bladder and alimentary canal, 69

Crosses, a cause of variation, 99

reciprocal, 155

Cross-fertilisation, modes of securing, 310

difference in, 155

Crossing and changed conditions, parallelism of, 166

Cruciferæ, variations of structure in, 80

Cuckoo, eggs of, 216

Cuckoos mimick hawks, 263

Cultivated plants, origin of useful, 97

Curculionidæ mimicked by various insects (figs.), 260

Curves of variation, 64

D

, Professor, on the permanence of continents, 342

Danaidæ little attacked by mites, 235

mimicry of, 246

Darwin, change of opinion effected by, 8

the Newton of Natural History, 9

his view of his own work, 10

on the enemies of plants, 16

on fir-trees destroyed by cattle, 17

on change of plants and animals caused by planting, 18

on absence of wild cattle in Paraguay, 19

on cats and red clover, 20

on variety of plants in old turf, 35

on the beneficent action of the struggle for existence, 40

on variability of wild geraniums, 79

on variability of common species, 80

his non-recognition of extreme variability of wild species, 82

on races of domestic pigeon, 90

on constitutional variation in plants, 95

on unconscious selection, 96

on a case of divergence, 105

on advantage of diversification of structure in inhabitants of one region, 110

on species of plants in turf, 110

on isolation, 119

on origin of mammary glands, 129

on eyes of flatfish, 129

on origin of the eye, 130

on useless characters, 131

on use of ears and tails, 136

on disappearance of sports, 140

on tendency to vary in one direction, 141

on rare perpetuation of sports, 142

on utility of specific characters, 142 (note)

on importance of biological environment, 148

on variable fertility of plants, 155

on fertile hybrids among plants, 164


text:
Page:Freud - The interpretation of dreams.djvu/454

436 to us all—and that not alone because of the contradictions offered by the anxiety dream.

After learning from the first analytical explanations that the dream conceals sense and psychic validity, we could hardly expect so simple a determination of this sense. According to the correct but concise definition of Aristotle, the dream is a continuation of thinking in sleep (in so far as one sleeps). Considering that during the day our thoughts produce such a diversity of psychic acts—judgments, conclusions, contradictions, expectations, intentions, &c.—why should our sleeping thoughts be forced to confine themselves to the production of wishes? Are there not, on the contrary, many dreams that present a different psychic act in dream form, e.g., a solicitude, and is not the very transparent father's dream mentioned above of just such a nature? From the gleam of light falling into his eyes while asleep the father draws the solicitous conclusion that a candle has been upset and may have set fire to the corpse; he transforms this conclusion into a dream by investing it with a senseful situation enacted in the present tense. What part is played in this dream by the wish-fulfilment, and which are we to suspect—the predominance of the thought continued from the waking state or of the thought incited by the new sensory impression?

All these considerations are just, and force us to enter more deeply into the part played by the wish-fulfilment in the dream, and into the significance of the waking thoughts continued in sleep.

It is in fact the wish-fulfilment that has already induced us to separate dreams into two groups. We have found some dreams that were plainly wish-fulfilments; and others in which wish-fulfilment could not be recognised, and was frequently concealed by every available means. In this latter class of dreams we recognised the influence of the dream censor. The undisguised wish dreams were chiefly found in children, yet fleeting open-hearted wish dreams seemed (I purposely emphasize this word) to occur also in adults.

We may now ask whence the wish fulfilled in the dream originates. But to what opposition or to what diversity do we refer this "whence"? I think it is to the opposition between conscious daily life and a psychic activity remaining


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/507

 Darwin, on correlation of sterility and colour, 169

on selective association, 172 on infertility and natural selection, 174

on cause of infertility of hybrids, 185

on white tail of rabbit, 218

on conspicuous caterpillars, 236

on sexual selection in insects, 274

on decorative plumage of male birds, 285

on development of ocelli, 290

on value of cross-fertilisation, 309

on limits to utility of intercrossing, 326

on flowers due to insects, 332

on oceanic islands, 342

on effects of disuse in domestic animals, 415, 435

on direct action of environment, 419

on unintelligibility of theory of retardation and acceleration, 421 (note)

on origin of man's moral nature, 461

Mr. George, on intermarriages of British aristocracy, 326

Darwinian theory, statement of, 10

not opposed to spiritual nature of man, 478

Dawkins, Professor Boyd, on development of deer's horns, 389

on recent origin of man, 456

Dawson, Sir W., on determination of fossil plants by leaves, 398 (note)

Death of wild animals usually painless, 38

De Candolle, definition of species, 1

on difficulty of naturalising plants, 15

on war between plants, 16

on origin of useful cultivated plants, 97

Deer's horns, development of, 389

Degeneration, 121

Delbœuf's law of variation, 141

Dendræca coronata, variation of wing-feathers of, 51

Denmark, struggle between trees in, 20

Denudation, evidences of, 379

Desert animals, colour of, 192

Deserts, effect of goats and camels in destroying vegetation in, 17

Development and display of accessory plumes, 293

Diadema anomala, 271

misippus, great diversity of sexes in, 271

Diaphora mendica mimics Spilosoma menthrasti, 249

Difficulties in the facts of fertilisation of flowers, 325

Dimorphism and trimorphism, 156

Dippers, probable origin of, 116

Disease and markings, 290

Diseases common to man and animals, 449

Display of decorative plumage, 287

Distribution of organisms should be explained by theory of descent, 338

conditions which have determined the, 341

of marsupials, 350

of tapirs, 352

Disuse, effects of, among wild animals, 415

no proof that the effects of, are inherited, 417

Divergence of character, 105-109

leads to maximum of forms of life in each area, 109

Diversity of fauna and flora with geographical proximity, 339

Dixon, Mr. C, changed habits of chaffinch in New Zealand, 76

Dogs, origin of, 88

varieties of, 89

Dolichonyx oryzivorus, diagram showing variations of, 55

Domestic animals, varieties of, 88

Draba verna, varieties of, 77

Dress of men not determined by female choice, 286

Dust from Krakatoa, size of particles of, 363

E

butterflies, variation of, 45

Eaton, Rev. A.E., on Kerguelen insects, 106


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/508

 Edwards, Mr. W.H., on dark forms of Papilio turnus, 248

Eggs protectively coloured, 214, 215

theory of varied colours of, 216

Elaps mimicked by harmless snakes, 261

Embryonic development of man and other mammalia, 448

Ennis, Mr. John, on willows driving out watercresses from rivers of New Zealand, 24

Entomostraca, in bromelia leaves, 118

Environment never identical for two species, 149

direct action of, 418

direct influence of, 426

as initiator of variations, 436

action of, overpowered by natural selection, 437

Ethical aspect of the struggle for existence, 36

Euchelia jacobeæ inedible, 235

Everett, Mr. A., on a caterpillar resembling moss, 205

Evidence of evolution that may be expected among fossil forms, 380

Evolutionists, American school of, 420

Exogens, possible cause of sudden late appearance of, 400

External differences of man and apes, 453

Extinct animals, number of species of, 376

Extinction of large animals, cause of, 394

Eye, origin of, 130

Eyes, explanation of loss of in cave animals, 416

F

Facts of natural selection, summary of, 122

Falcons illustrating divergence, 108

and butcher birds, hooked and toothed beaks of, 422

Fantails, 91

Female birds, why often dull coloured, 277

Female birds, what their choice of mates is determined by, 286

butterflies, why dull coloured, 272

brighter than male bird, 281

choice a doubtful agent in selection, 283

preference neutralised by natural selection, 294

Fertility of domestic animals, 154

Flatfish, eyes of, 129

Flesh-fly, enormous increase of, 25

Floral structure, great differences of, in allied genera and species, 329

Flowers, variations of, 88

colours of, 308

with sham nectaries, 317

changing colour when fertilised, 317

adapted to bees or to butterflies, 318

contrasted colours of, at same season and locality, 318

fertilisation of, by birds, 319

self-fertilisation of, 321

once insect-fertilised now self-fertile, 323

how the struggle for existence acts among, 328

repeatedly modified during whole Tertiary period, 331

the product of insect agency, 332

Forbes, Mr. H.O., on protective colour of a pigeon, 200

on spider imitating birds' dropping, 211

Fossil shells, complete series of transitional forms of, 381

crocodiles afford evidence of evolution, 383

horses in America, 386

and living animals, local relations of, 391

Fowl, early domestication of, 97

Frill-back, Indian, 93

Frog inhabiting bromelia leaves, 118

Fruits, use of characters of, 133

colours of, 304

edible or attractive, 306

poisonous, 307

Fulica atra, protectively coloured eggs of, 215

Fulmar petrel, abundance of, 30


text: Southern Historical Society Papers/Volume 08/June/McClellan and Lee at Sharpsburg


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/509

G

Gallinaceae, ornamental plumes of, 292

Galton, Mr. F., diagrams of variability used by, 74 on markings of zebra, 220 (note) on regression towards mediocrity, 414 theory of heredity by, 443 (note) on imperfect counting of the Damaras, 464

Gaudry on extinct animals at Pikermi, 377

Gay, Mons. T., on variations of structure in Cruciferae, 80

Gazella soemmerringi (figure), 219

Gazelles, recognition marks of, 218

Geddes, Professor, on variation in plants, 428 objection to theory of, 430

Geikie, Dr. Archibald, on formation of marine stratified rocks, 344

Geoffroy St. Hilaire, on species, 6

Geological evidences of evolution, 376, 381 record, causes of imperfection of, 379 distribution of insects, 403 antiquity of man, 455

Ghost-moth, colours of, 270

Glaciation, no proofs of, in Brazil, 370

Glow-worm, light a warning of inedibility, 287

Gomphia oleaefolia, variability of, 79

Goose eating flesh, 75

Gosse, Mr. P.H., on variation in the sea-anemones, 43 on sea-anemone and bullhead, 265

Gould, Mr., on colours of coast and inland birds, 228

Grant Allen, on forms of leaves, 133 on insects and flowers, 332

Graphite in Laurentian implies abundant plant life, 398

Gray, Dr. Asa, on naturalised plants in the United States, 110 Dr. J.E., on variation of skulls of mammalia, 71

Great fertility not essential to rapid increase, 30

Great powers of increase of animals, 27

Green colour of birds in tropical forests, 192

Grouse, red, recent divergence of, 106

Gulick, Rev. J.T., on variation of land-shells, 43 on isolation and variation, 147, 150 on divergent evolution, 148

H

Habits of animals, variability of, 74

Hairy caterpillars inedible, 237

Hanbury, Mr. Thomas, on a remarkable case of wind conveyance of seed, 373 (note)

Hansten-Blangsted, on succession of trees in Denmark, 21

Harvest mice, prehensile tails of young, 136

Hawkweed, species and varieties of British, 77

Hector, Sir James, use of horns of deer, 137

Heliconidae, warning colours of, 234 mimicry of, 240

Helix nemoralis, varieties of, 43 hortensis, varieties of, 43

Hemsley, Mr., on rarity of spines in oceanic islands, 432

Henslow, Professor G., on vigour of self-fertilised plants, 323 on wind-fertilised as degradations from insect-fertilised flowers, 324 on origin of forms and structures of flowers, 434 (note)

Herbert, Dean, on species, 6 on plant hybrids, 164

Herbivora, recognition marks of, 218

Heredity, 11 Weismann's theory of, 437

Herschel, Sir John, on species, 3

Hooker, Sir Joseph, on attempts at naturalising Australian plants in New Zealand, 16

Home, Mr. C, on inedibility of an Indian locust, 267

Horns of deer, uses of, 136


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/510

 Horse tribe, pedigree of, 384 ancestral forms of, 386

Humming-birds, recognition marks of, 226

Huth, Mr., on close interbreeding, 160

Huxley, Professor on the struggle for existence, 37 on fossil crocodiles, 383 on anatomical peculiarities of the horse tribe, 384 on development of vertebrates, 448 on early man, 456 on brains of man and the gorilla, 457

Hybridity, remarks on facts of, 166 summary on, 184

Hybrids, infertility of, supposed test of distinct species, 152 fertility of, 159 fertile among animals, 162 between sheep and goat, 162 fertile between distinct species of moths, 163 fertile among plants, 163

Hymenopus bicornis, resembling flower, 212

I

Icterus Baltimore, diagram showing proportionate numbers which vary, 63

Imitative resemblances, how produced, 205

Increase of organisms in a geometrical ratio, 25

Inedible fruits rarely coloured, 308

Insect and self-fertilisation, alternation of, in flowers, 328

Insect-fertilisation, facts relating to, 316

Insects, coloured for recognition, 226 warning colours of, 233 sexual coloration of, 269 importance of dull colours to female, 272 visiting one kind of flower at a time, 318 and flowers, the most brilliant not found together, 335

Insects, no proof of love of colour by, 336 and birds at sea, 357 in mid-ocean, 359 at great altitudes, 360 geological distribution of, 403 ancestral in Silurian, 405 fossil support evolution, 405

Instability of useless characters, 138

Instinct, the theory of, 441

Insular organisms illustrate powers of dispersal, 354

Interbreeding, close, injurious effects of, 160 supposed evil results of close, 326

Intercrossing, swamping effects of, 142 not necessarily useful, 325

Intermediate forms, why not found, 380

Islands, all oceanic are volcanic or coralline, 342

Isle of Man, small butterflies of, 106

Isolation, the importance of, 119 to prevent intercrossing, 144 by variations of habits, etc., 145 Rev. J.G. Gulick on, 147 when ineffective, 150

Ituna Ilione and Thyridia megisto, figures of wings of, 251

J

Jacobin, 93

Jenyns, Rev. L., on internal variations of mammalia, 69

Jordan, Mons. A., on varieties of Draba verna, 77

Judd, Professor, on dust fallen at Genoa, 363 on Hungarian fossil lacustrine shells, 381

K

Kerguelen Island, wingless insects of, 106

Kerivoula picta, protective colour of, 201


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/511

 Kerner, Professor, on use of external characters of plants, 133 on seeds found on glaciers, 366

Kingfishers illustrating divergence of character, 109

L

Lacerta muralis, diagram of variation of, 47

Lagopus scoticus, origin of, 107

Lamarck, on origin of species, 3

Land debris deposited near coasts, 343 and ocean, diagram showing comparative height and depth of, 345

Large animals, cause of extinction of, 394

Larvae of moths, variability of, 46

Laughers, Frill-backs, Nuns, Spots, and Swallows, 93

Law of relation of colour and nest, 278, 279

Laws of animal coloration, 296

Lawson Tait, on uses of tails, 136

Leaf-butterflies, 207

Leguminosae, rare in oceanic islands, 368

Lemuria, an unsound hypothesis, 354

Lepidoptera, variation of, 44

Leyden Museum, diagram showing variability of birds in, 61

Life, Weismann on duration of, 437 (note)

Limenitis misippus mimics Danais archippus, 248 ursula mimics Papilio philenor, 248

Linnaeus, on rapid increase of the flesh-fly, 25

Livingstone, his sensations when seized by a lion, 38

Lizards, variation among, 46 diagram of variation of, 48 sexual colours of, 281

Local colour adaptations, 199

Locusts with warning colours inedible, 267

Longicorns mimic Malacoderms, 257

Low, Mr., on effects of close interbreeding, 160

Low, Mr., on fertile crosses between sheep and goat, 162 on selective association, 172

Low forms of life, continued existence of, explained, 114 forms, persistence of, 121 temperature of tropics not needed to explain plant dispersal, 370

Lower types, extinction of, among the higher animals, 114

Lubbock, Sir John, on forms of leaves, 133 on imperfect counting of early man, 464

Lyell, Sir Charles, on variation of species, 4 on the shifting of continents, 342

M

Madagascar and New Zealand, 347

Madeira, wingless beetles of, 105

Maize, origin of, 98

Male rivalry, a real cause of selection, 283

Males of many animals fights together, 282

Malm, on eyes of flatfish, 129

Mammalia, variation of, 65 sexual colours of, 281, 282 afford crucial tests of theories of distribution, 353 early forms of, 407 geological distribution of, 408

Mammary glands, supposed origin of, 129

Man, summary of animal characteristics of, 454 geological antiquity of, 455 early remains of, in California, 456 probably as old as the Miocene, 457 probable birthplace of, 459 origin of moral and intellectual nature of, 461 possesses mental qualities not derived exclusively from his animal progenitors, 474


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/512

 Man's body that of an animal, 444 development similar to that of animals, 449 structure compared with that of the anthropoid apes, 451

Mania typica refused by lizards, 238

Mantidae resembling flowers, 212

Marcgravia nepenthoides fertilised by birds (woodcut), 320

Marine animals, protective resemblance among, 208 with warning colours, 266

Marsh, Mr., on destructiveness to vegetation of goats and camels, 17 Professor O., on the development of the horse tribe, 386 on brain development of Tertiary mammals, 391 on specialised forms dying out, 395

Marsupials, distribution of, 350

Mathematical faculty, the origin of the, 464 how developed, 466 not developed by law of natural selection, 469

Mathematics, late development of, 465

Meldola, Professor R., on variable protective colouring, 196 on mimicry among British moths, 249 (note) on an extension of the theory of mimicry, 255 (note)

Melons, variations of, 87

Methona psidii and Leptalis orise (figs.), 241

Meyer, Dr. A.B., on mimicry of snakes, 262

Milne Edwards, on variation of lizards, 46

Mimicking birds deceive naturalists, 264 butterfly, figure of, 241

Mimicry, 239 how it has been produced, 242 among protected genera, 249 extension of, 255 in various orders of insects, 257 among vertebrata, 261 among birds, 263 objections to theory of, 264

Mineral particles carried by wind, 363

Miocene fossils of North America, 378

Missing links, character of, 380

Mivart, Dr. St. George, on variation of ribs and dorsal vertebrae, 69 on supposed useless characters, 138 (note) on resemblance of man and apes, 451

Modifications for special purposes, 113

Mongrels, sterility of, 165

Monkeys affected by medicines as are men, 450

Monocotyledons degradations from dicotyledons, 325 (note) scarcity of, in Rocky Mountains, 401 scarcity of, in Alpine flora, 401

Moral nature of man, origin of, 461

Morse, Professor E.T., on protective colouring of marine mollusca, 209

Moseley, Professor, on protective resemblance among marine animals, 208 on courtship of Great Albatross, 287

Moths, protected groups of, 235

Mountains, remote, with identical plants, 369

Müller, Dr. Fritz, on inhabitants of bromelia leaves, 118 on butterfly, deceived by its mimic, 245 his explanation of mimicry among protected genera, 252 Dr. Hermann, on variability of Myosurus minimus, 78

Murray, Mr. John, on bulk of land and ocean, 344 on quartz particles on ocean floor, 363 Rev. R.P., variation in the neuration of butterflies' wings, 45

Musical and artistic faculties, origin of, 467

Myosurus minimus, variability of, 78


text:
Page:Darwinism by Alfred Wallace 1889.djvu/513

N

Natural selection with changed and unchanged conditions, 103 and sterility, 173 overpowers effects of use and disuse, 435 the most important agency in modifying species, 444

Naturalist deceived by a mimicking insect, 259 by mimicking birds, 264

Naudin, M., on varieties of melons, 87

Nectarinea amethystina, protective colouring of, 201

Nestor notabilis, variation of habits of, 75

Nests of birds influence the colour of females, 278

New species, conditions favourable to origin of, 115

Newton, Professor A., on fertile hybrid ducks, 162

New Zealand, European plants in, 15 spread of white clover in, 28 effects of introduced plants in, 29 native rat and fly exterminated by European species, 34 many plants of, incapable of self-fertilisation, 321 fauna of, 348 few spiny plants in, 433

Nocturnal animals, colours of, 193

Non-adaptive characters, instability of, 138

Normandy pigs, fleshy appendages to jaws of, 139

North America, Miocene fossils of, 378

Northern plants in southern hemisphere, 368

Nostus Borbonicus, variability of, 80

Number of individuals which vary, 62

Nutmeg, how dispersed, 307

Nuts, not meant to be eaten, 305

O

Oaks, great variability of, 78

Objections to Darwin's theory, 126

Ocean floor, deposits on, 343

Oceanic animals, colours of, 193 and continental areas, 346 islands have no mammals or batrachia, 342

Oceans, the permanence of, 341

Oedicnemus, figures of wings of, 223

Opthalmis lincea and Artaxa simulans (figs.), 247

Orang-utans, variations of skull of, 69

Orchideae, why scarce on oceanic islands, 367

Orchis pyramidalis, mode of fertilisation of, 314 figures illustrating fertilisation of, 315

Organic development, three stages of, involving new cause or power, 474 world, the development of, implies a spiritual world, 476

Organisation, advance of, by natural selection, 120 degradation in, 121

Origin of species, objections, 7 of accessory plumes, 291

Orioles mimicking honey-suckers, 263

Ornamental plumes and vitality, 293

P

Pachyrhynchi subjects of mimicry, 261

Pampas, effects of drought in, 23

Papaver bracteatum, variability of, 79

Papilio, use of forked tentacle of larva of, 210 protected groups of, 235 mimicry of, 247

Paraguay, absence of wild cattle and horses, 19

Parnassia palustris, sham nectaries of, 317

Parrot, change of habits of New Zealand, 75

Parus, species of, illustrate divergence, of character, 107

Passenger-pigeon, account of its breeding-places and numbers, 31


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Elective Courses

ELECTIVE COURSES and ELECTIVE STUDIES. Terms that have come into common use during the last thirty or forty years in American colleges, and to some extent in other educational establishments, to indicate the studies which may be elected or chosen by undergraduate students. In earlier days there was a required curriculum which must be followed by all candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts. At a later period, to meet the special needs or wishes of individuals, certain studies were made ‘optional’ — modern languages, for example, the higher branches of mathematics, botany, surveying, and other scientific or technical branches. The rapid growth of science and the enlarged resources of the colleges were naturally followed by enlargement of the teaching forces, and by provision for instruction in subjects before neglected. Choice became imperative. To a considerable extent this necessity was recognized and satisfied by the foundation of technical or scientific schools, sometimes departments of or annexes to the old colleges, sometimes independent establishments. Gradually the old curriculum, often called the regular college course, yielded to the same influences. A few institutions still adhere, with commendable pride, to the theory of a liberal education based upon the classics and mathematics — antecedent to the time-honored baccalaureate degree. Yet the American colleges generally offer in these days a very considerable freedom in the selection of subjects to which the student may devote his time. There are certain inherent dangers in this freedom. The love of ease may lead to the selection of courses — which are called ‘soft’ in college parlance — exacting but little mental effort; or the ignorance and inexperience of youth may lead to selections which will be regretted in mature life. To obviate such dangers, it is common to lay before the students ‘groups’ of subjects which form a good combination. With more or less emphasis these ‘groups’ are commended to students. As a further guide to the wise selection of subjects, members of a faculty are always ready to give advice, and in some places those teachers who are most interested in pedagogies are officially recognized as ‘advisers’ — a term which seems to have been introduced to supersede that of tutors, who were regarded rather as disciplinarians than as counselors. On the whole, the establishment of elective courses marks a propitious advance in higher education. The system works well wherever due care is exercised by the authorities to secure industry, application, and concentration. The University of Virginia was a pioneer in the provision of electives. Most of the State universities are now thoroughly committed to the principle. The older colleges, led by Harvard, have adopted it to a greater or less extent. The new foundations — Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, and Leland Stanford, Junior — have never felt the fetters of a traditional curriculum.

The exact position of any college can be ascertained only by reference to its latest announcements, for changes frequently occur in the subjects offered and in the technical requirements for degrees. Consult: Butler, Education in the United States (Albany, 1900); Eliot, Educational Reform (New York, 1898); The Educational

(New York, 1891, et seq.). See and the various institutions.


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Electoral College

ELECTORAL COLLEGE. In the political system of the United States, the body of electors in each State who have been chosen to select the President and Vice-President. The expression does not appear in the Constitution or statutes, but is a popular designation of the electors, adopted by analogy to the college of cardinals, to which the choice of the popes is committed. It is sometimes employed of the whole body of electors for President and Vice-President, chosen by all the States. The Constitution prescribes (Art. II.; and Amendments, Art. XII.) the number of electors and the manner in which they shall exercise their high functions, but leaves to the States the mode of appointing them, and to Congress the power to determine a uniform time for choosing them and the day on which they shall give their votes. Accordingly, the members of the electoral college in each and every State are chosen simultaneously by popular vote on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November. Their number is equal to the whole number of Representatives which the State sends to both branches of Congress. They are required to meet at some place designated by the Legislature of their State on the second Monday in January, and then and there to vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, of whom one, at least, shall not be a resident of the same State with themselves. Each electoral college then makes a list of the names of all its candidates for President and Vice-President, with the number of votes for each; the list is signed and certified by every member of the college, is authenticated by the Governor of the State, and transmitted to the President of the Senate of the United States. On the second Wednesday in February the electoral votes are opened and counted in presence of both Houses of Congress, assembled in the chamber of Representatives, and the result is announced by the president of the Senate. The persons who receive the highest number of votes, respectively, for the offices of President and Vice-President are declared elected, provided they have received a majority of all the votes. In case of a tie, the House of Representatives, voting by States, each State having one vote, is to choose between the equal candidates for President, a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice. The Senate has the power to choose in case of a tie in the vote for Vice-President. In the same way, in case there is no tie, but the leading candidates fail to receive a majority of all the votes, the election for President is thrown into the House, and that for Vice-President into the Senate. Under the Constitution as originally framed the electoral colleges did not designate their choice for President or Vice-President, but when the total votes were counted by the President of the Senate, the candidate receiviHg the highest number of votes was declared to be elected President, and his nearest competitor Vice-President. But the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1804, changed the mode of voting for the two officers, the electors being required to vote separately for President and Vice-President.

The present position and functions of the electoral college furnish a striking illustration of the way in which a written and stable

may be undermined and amended by the silent process of customary observanoe. It is obvious that the Constitution contemplates that the electoral college in each State shall be a deliberative body of men, freely exercising an untrammeled choice for the high offices which they are to fill. They are not called upon, nor are they expected, to vote as a unit, still less to meet for the sole purpose of registering a result which has already been reached elsewhere and by others. That this remarkable change in the conception of the constitutional functions of the electoral college has been brought about is due to the course of our political development, and particularly to the national convention system of nominating candidates for the Presidency and Vice-Presidency. These conventions are not recognized by the Constitution, nor have their nominations any legally binding force. But the electors, subsequently nominated and elected for the sole purpose of giving the vote of the State to a certain party candidate, are as securely bound to that course of action by custom and honor as they would be by statute. The people, consequently, elect the President and Vice-President by States, and the college is a cumbrous machine for formally conveying to Washington the wishes of the majority. Since 1801 the vote of an elector has been known with certainty several weeks before it is cast, and several months before it is officially announced. The electoral system has constantly endangered the State, on account of the absence, until recently, of any general law to govern the president of the Senate in his canvass of the votes, and the tendency of Congress to decide every case of doubt or disputed returns arbitrarily as it arose. Nothing was accomplished, however, until 1887, when a law was passed (approved February 3) to cover the contingency of rival electoral colleges and disputed returns. Under the terms of this act, each State is conceded to have the right of determining all controversies or contests regarding the appointment of its own Presidential electors; and in ease of any such contest. Congress is to accept the State's settlement of the same as conclusive, and it cannot reject any electoral vote, duly certified, unless both Houses concurrently decide that that vote has been irregularly given. If more than one return from a State is received, only those votes are to be counted which the State itself has indorsed as regular; but if the State has been unable to settle the question, owing to its having two or more rival sets of authorities, or from any other cause, then the two Houses are to decide the dispute. See ; authorities there referred to.
 * ; and the