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66 into a regular caudal fin. Detaching one, it rolled itself up in a manner similar to the Woodlouse (Oniscus), and they both belong to the same order, (Isopoda—equal footed). Large as many of the Jelly Fishes are, the quantity of solid matter which they contain is wonderfully insignificant, and they rapidly become deliquescent on exposure to atmospheric influences, so that we can only liken the chances of good fare which parasites on them entertain, to the Chinamen, who were observed by a friend somewhere in the Chinese Seas, making most persevering efforts to fry these creatures, and evidently sorely puzzled to find how utterly without success their endeavours were. An Octopus was also placed in the same tub with the Jelly Fish, but although the sides were high, and before the water could be reached, several feet of the platform had to be traversed, it managed to effect its escape and regain its native element. Many of its habits displayed a vast amount of apparent cunning, as if it was perfectly aware that we were watching it. Darwin mentions the amusement afforded him by the various arts to escape detection used by an individual to which his attention was directed. "Remaining for a time motionless, it would then stealthily advance an inch or two like a cat after a mouse, sometimes changing its colour: it thus proceeded, till having gained a deeper part, it darted away, leaving a dusky train of ink to hide the hole into which it had crawled."

Those who are geologically inclined, may spend many a pleasant day in examining the soft argillaceous


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 them in 1769 in the name of the British sovereign. Numerous whaling stations were first established along the coast by enterprising Sydney merchants, and a permanent settlement was eventually effected on the site of Wellington, in the extreme south of the North Island. Wellington is now the official and political capital of the colony, having superseded its more northerly rival, Auckland, which nevertheless continues to be the larger and more populous city of the two. In 1848 a Scotch settlement was founded at the southern extremity of the Middle Island, now known as the province of Otago, whose chief city is Dunedin, the largest, most populous, and most commercial city in the group. Almost contemporaneously, the province of Canterbury, on the eastern coast of the same island, was colonised under the auspices of the Church of England, a fact sufficiently denoted by its name and that of its capital, Christchurch, one of the finest and wealthiest of the New Zealand cities.

The history of New Zealand presents a violent and startling contrast to that of the other antipodean states. In the work of colonising the mainland of Australia, no opposition worth mentioning was manifested by the natives to the coming of the whites. The aborigines retired before the new-comers without striking one combined blow. As time passed on, the white man's brandy-bottle did its silent work of destruction and extermination so effectually that now, with the exception of the remote districts of the interior, scarcely a solitary pure black is to be met with on the continent of Australia. Not so in New Zealand. There the whites found a warlike, active, intelligent, and high-spirited people in possession. The Maories declined to surrender their lands at the bidding of the invaders; a bad

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67 mud, of which the cliffs on Corio Bay are composed: it is full of fossil specimens of Dentalium or Tooth Shells, curved tubes open at the extremities, and either smooth or striated longitudinally; splendid Terebratulæ (Waldheimia probably,) are also there in abundance, some Pectenideæ, &c. The Terebratulce are the shells commonly called "Lamp Shells," from the aperture through which the pedicle, whereby the animal attaches itself to submarine objects, passes, having some similarity to the hole which in a lamp admits the wick. A species is figured at page 60, in company with the Spatangus from Portland Bay. Microscopists will find a beautiful object in the shell of the Waldheimia, and many other Brachiopoda.

But we have yet to speak of the Marine Algæ, and the Aquarium, so that our Sea-side chattings must for a while cease; in all our ramblings in search of the many wonders of Nature we have been forcibly impressed by a vigorous sentence in one of Emerson's Essays, wherein he suggests the advantage which a country life possesses for a powerful mind, over the artificial and curtailed life of cities. He says:—" We know more from Nature than we can at will communicate. Its light flows into the mind evermore, and we forget its presence. The poet, the orator, bred in the woods, whose senses have been nourished by their fair and appeasing changes, year after year, without design, and without heed, shall not lose their lesson altogether, in the roar of cities or the broil of politics. Long hereafter, amidst agitation and terror in National Councils,—in the hour of revolution,—the solemn images shall re-appear in their morning lustre, as fit


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68 symbols and words of the thoughts which the passing events shall awaken. At the call of a noble sentiment, again the woods wave, the pines murmur, the river rolls and shines, and the cattle low upon the mountains as he saw and heard them in infancy."

May the Sea-side rambles we have enjoyed together be the means of lightening our hearts here and hereafter,—truly the oftener we wander on the shores of our vast seas, the more diversified our investigations, shall we have reason indeed to own that—


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 feeling was thus at the outset engendered between the two races, and boat-loads of the early immigrants were surprised and massacred as they stepped on the beach. Reprisals ensued, and, for a series of years, the northern island was the scene of some of the most sanguinary native wars that stain the annals of colonisation. These were in a great measure provoked by the stupidity and arbitrary conduct of the colonial authorities. On one occasion 200 Maories were seized as suspected persons, and without trial, evidence, or any form of law, banished to a penal settlement on a neighbouring small group, called the Chatham islands. Amongst them was Te Kooti, a young, brave, and daring man, whose name was in after-years a name of terror to the New Zealand settlers. Lieutenant Gudgeon, the historian of the New Zealand wars, candidly declares it as his conviction" that all the after atrocities committed by Te Kooti or by his orders were dictated by a spirit of revenge and retribution against those who had caused his deportation." Te Kooti, by his innate military genius and natural force of character, soon became the leader of the Maori exiles. By a well-planned and skilfully-executed scheme, a Government vessel that had brought provisions for the prisoners, was captured by Te Kooti and his confederates on the morning of July 4th, 1868. He immediately released his fellow-prisoners and placed them on board the vessel. The white men that constituted the crew, were allowed by Te Kooti to take their choice between two alternatives—instant death or the navigation of the vessel to Poverty Bay, the place from

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U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM NEARLY COMPLETE CARAPACE OF AMYDA VIRGINIANA (CLARK)


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69 CHAPTER IX.

THE AQUARIUM.

is something highly satisfactory to the Naturalist in the reflection that science has taken rapid strides within but a few years, and in no department more so than in Marine Zoology,—here, where but a brief period back all was little better than conjectural, there is now ocular demonstration, not only of the many creatures inhabiting the ocean, the one dependent on the other, but also of their habits, minute structure, and mode of living. From our childhood up we had been accustomed to see and have Gold and Silver Fishes in globular glass bowls, but the pleasure was in almost every case a temporary one, the inhabitants dying from the exhaustion of that free oxygen which had existed in the water, but which had all been absorbed, and its place taken by carbon, — before a fresh supply could be given by renewing the water. Collectors have long had their glass bottles wherein to convey to their study such creatures as they desired more nearly to cultivate the acquaintance of, but here too the duration of life was but brief, and soon they had to be transferred to a bottle of Goadby if their preservation was an object. No wonder then that it became a matter of such importance to obtain the means of preserving in health and brilliancy of colour such creatures as we wished to cultivate, and with whose economy we were almost entirely unacquainted. How


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 which the Maories had been so illegally and unjustifiably transported. Naturally they chose the latter, and worked the vessel in safety to Poverty Bay. Te Kooti landed, and immediately commenced his terrible career of fanatical butchery and indiscriminate slaughter. Having defeated the colonial forces that were sent against him, his ranks were joined by other Maori tribes hostile to the British. Thus recruited, Te Kooti, one night in November, 1868, descended like an avalanche of fire on the unfortunate settlers in the district of Poverty Bay. So well was the murderous secret kept, that not the slightest precautions had been taken to guard against a Maori surprise. With the stealthy step of the tiger, Te Kooti and his bloodthirsty band surrounded house after house, shooting down the men without an instant's warning, and despatching the women and children with bayonets and tomahawks. Whole families, refusing to come out when called upon by Te Kooti, perished miserably in the flames of their burning houses. And not only the white settlers, but a number of friendly natives, who had accepted the inevitable, and had settled down to live, as they hoped, in peace with the conquerors, were surprised and slaughtered without mercy. Indeed, throughout his campaign, Te Kooti evinced an undying hatred towards those tribes of his countrymen that had become friendly to the British, and he never spared any of them when taken prisoners. The morning after the Poverty Bay massacres dawned on a desolated country. Where on the previous day there had been smiling homesteads and fertile farms, the pleasant surroundings of rustic toil and the cheerful prattle of innocent children, blackened ruins and mutilated corpses now told their silent tale of savage frenzy and ruthless

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70 this could be achieved, was a matter for long and untiring experiments and trials and repeated failures. But Chemistry was at last applied to the case, and instead of the troublesome operation of perpetually changing the water, ever in dread that a case similar to that we have quoted above might occur, the long sought end was attained; by what is called compensation, animals may be kept alive for an indefinite period,—viz.: by thoroughly understanding the relations between animal and vegetable life on the principles of Priestley, followed up by Ingenhouss, and "finally adapted to the present purpose by Mr. Ward, the inventor of the glass cases which bear his name, Johnston, the learned author of Histories of the "British Zoophytes," "Sponges," &c, Warrington and Gosse. It was Mr. Bowerbank, however, who gave the hint to the Secretary of the Regent's Park Gardens, from which arose the beautiful tanks which are now in full operation there. We have often before had this process of respiratory interchange explained, but who has brought it so vividly before us, as our often quoted friend and companion (his charming writings have made him so,) Mr. Lewes. "Let us stand apart," he says, "and contemplate this marvel no longer as an animal function, but rather as a planetary phenomenon; let us endeavour to picture to ourselves the silent creative activity everywhere dependent on this interchange. The forests, the prairies, the meadows, the cornfields, and gardens,—the mighty expanse of plant-life covering mountain and valley—these subsist on the carbonic acid which is exhaled from the lungs and bodies of animals.


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71 Plants take up this carbonic acid from the atmosphere, mould the carbon into their own substance, and set free the oxygen, once more returning it to the atmosphere. Animals reverse the process, taking up the oxygen, and giving out carbonic acid for the nourishment of plants," and so as Keats beautifully says,—

It is to the want of an acquaintance with these first principles that so many of the failures in attempting to form Aquaria may be attributed; the mere filling them with animals will not suffice,—and secondly to an abominable system of overstocking,—specimen after specimen dying from an insufficiency of those gasses which are essential to life.

How this necessary balance may be attained, we shall endeavour to show as we progress,—meanwhile we can go in detail through the various matters required for the establishment of an Aquarium. Its form must depend very much on the taste or caprice of the owner; the square one with glass sides is perhaps the most common, but we question whether it is the most desirable, for Mr. Warrington has discovered that it is absolutely necessary the sun's light should fall directly from the surface—on those Algae, which have been removed from the deeper recesses of the ocean, where they were but partially exposed to light, to ornament the tank and afford sustenance to its inhabitants. The tank used by this gentleman is four-sided,—the back and sides being composed of slate,—the back gradually sloping upwards from the


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 destruction. As Lieutenant Gudgeon truly remarks in his history of the war, the narrow escapes of that dreadful night would fill a volume. One Irishwoman, whose husband happened to be away from home, whilst lying awake in bed, fancied she heard the firing of guns. Her suspicions being aroused, she immediately got up, and one glance at the horizon, glowing with the reflection of the incendiary fires, was sufficient to convince her of the imminent danger in which she stood. Hastily collecting her children, she slipped over the steep bank of an adjacent river, and literally crawled for miles under the shadow of the precipitous cliffs until she arrived with her children in safety at the nearest town, where she was the first to give the alarm. Many other anecdotes of that terrible time might be narrated from contemporary evidence. This massacre, it is needless to say, sent a thrill of horror through the community. Operations directed by English military officers, and supported by the colonial militia, were commenced against Te Kooti, who, during several engagements, displayed a surprising natural knowledge of military science. He understood thoroughly the advantages to be gained by rapid movement and sudden surprise, and it was on this principle that he invariably acted. No part of the northern island felt safe from a sudden attack, and every settlement was required to look to its defences. But, however successful Te Kooti might be in prosecuting this guerrilla sort of warfare, he was occasionally brought face to face with the British trained soldiers, and compelled to fight a pitched battle. Though manifesting the same stubborn and fanatical courage, he was on most of these occasions under the necessity of retreating before the steady battalions of disciplined men arrayed against him. In these engagements

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72 bottom at an angle of 50 degrees. By this plan not only does the light fall directly from the top, but the water more freely absorbs atmospheric air. This object is also attained by staining a portion of the glass placed next the light of a sea-green,—a plan adopted successfully by many practical keepers of Aquaria in England.

Were we to decide, we should prefer the form suggested by Mr. Shirley Hibberd, in his very concise little Work on the "Aquarium," viz., that of the double cube, the length of the tank being just double its width and depth, so that if cut into two equal parts two cubes would be formed. The glass should be set in grooves in the slate, and bound outside with tastefully turned pillars of wood, or any other substance which can easily be obtained or may suit the whim. White lead putty may be used for cementing, but to prevent the water being in any way poisoned by the lead, a coating of shell-lac dissolved in naptha, and made into a paste with whiting, must be laid over it.

The formers of Aquaria are generally in too great a hurry to set their tanks going, but much trouble and very considerable disappointment, not to say expense, (where the party lives away from the seashore, and may have to depend for supplies of stock on some zealous friends, or those, if there are any such, making it a means of livelihood,) would be saved, by allowing water to remain in the tank for several days at a time, changing it occasionally, so as to sweeten the tank before commencing operations,—and even then go gradually to work. First, then, there should be a bottom of good sea-sand (not too finely disintegrated)


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 he lost many of his finest warriors, and, as the conflict proceeded, his little army gradually melted away, whilst the ranks of his enemies received regular accessions. Still he continued to prosecute with success his favourite Napoleonic plan of swift and sudden attack; but eventually his losses in the field reduced his devoted followers to little more than the strength of a body-guard. With this trusty few, he commenced his retreat to the Waikato, the military and a large body of friendly natives following with all possible rapidity, in the hope and almost certainty of effecting the capture of the redoubtable Maori leader, for whose body, dead or alive, the Government had offered a reward of £5,000. At this critical stage of his career, Te Kooti seemed to possess a charmed life. There were times when his camp was completely surrounded by his enemies, when he himself was recognised sitting in front of his tent, and yet, when the volley was fired, and soldiers rushed from every side, and the camp was taken by assault, Te Kooti was never amongst the slain or captured. He had escaped, no one knew how or whither. Several of the minor rebel chiefs were caught and executed, but the arch-rebel himself—the perpetrator of the Poverty Bay massacre—was never taken. Hunted over mountain and glen, with the bloodhounds ever at his heels, this extraordinary savage, after enduring every privation and escaping every peril, succeeded at length in reaching the iron fastnesses of the Waikato, where he has ever since remained, secure under the protection of the Maori King.

This latter remark demands a little explanation. New Zealand is classed as a British colony, but there is a portion of it over which neither the Queen of Great Britain nor her representative, the local governor, can be said to exercise

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Author:James Shirley Hibberd

Works

 * Brambles and bay leaves; essays on the homely and the beautiful (1855)
 * The Town Garden
 * The Book of the Aquarium (1856)
 * Rustic Adornments for homes of taste (1870)
 * The amateur's flower garden: a handy guide to the formation and management of the flower garden and the cultivation of garden flowers (1875)
 * The amateur's kitchen garden, frame-ground and forcing pit: A handy guide to the formation and management of the kitchen garden and the cultivation of useful vegetables and fruits (1877)
 * The fern garden: how to make, keep, and enjoy it; or, Fern culture made easy (1894)
 * The fern garden: how to make, keep, and enjoy it; or, Fern culture made easy (1894)

title: Author:James Shirley Hibberd


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 any actual jurisdiction. This district is situated in the centre of the North Island, and is known as the Waikato, or "King Country." After a long and brave, but unsuccessful, resistance against the encroachments of the whites, a number of the leading Maori Chiefs met, and with a view to the erection of a last barrier against the invaders of their soil, resolved to proclaim the mountainous Waikato country as their sacred territory, to elect a king of their own, and to make all necessary laws for themselves. The agitation was sedulously promoted by the more turbulent and warlike chiefs, and the result was the election and proclamation of a Maori King, who took up his residence at the Waikato. The colonial authorities at first did not know how to regard this unexpected movement on the part of the Maories, and the mischief was all done before they had recovered their wits. They then saw that a fatal mistake had been committed in tacitly consenting to this assumption of independent power within the confines of the colony. Ever since, this portion of New Zealand has been a sort of refugium peccatorum for Maori offenders. The present Maori King—Tawhiao—has dwelt there for years in sullen seclusion, surrounded by the surviving veteran war chiefs. Here To Kooti is somewhere concealed from the vengeance of the colonists. As long as he remains within the charmed circle of the King Country he is perfectly safe; but once he steps outside, is recognised and captured, a swift and summary penalty will be exacted in atonement for the lengthy and diabolical catalogue of crime attached to his name. It is characteristic of the dare-devil disposition of the man that, with a full knowledge of the fate in store for him, he has occasionally ventured out into the settled districts, and regained his retreat before a pursuit could be organised.

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73 and pebbles laid on thickly, as many fishes, Crustaceans, Molluscs, and other creatures love to burrow in it, and besides, it contains a host of minute atoms which will afford sustenance to some one or the other of our pets;—this layer having well settled down, now comes a matter involving much taste,—the formation of rockwork,—not such fantastical grottoes as we have observed in some Cockney Aquaria, but certain nooks and crannies wherein those which delight in seclusion may ensconce themselves. The shore at Geelong affords abundant material in densely clustered masses of Serpulæ adhering to the stones, fragments of which may easily be detached with a good hammer such as we have already described,—this, while ornamental, adds thousands of interesting and graceful inhabitants, whose elegantly fringed cilias will be protruded the moment they feel the water, and about St. Kilda and similar places along the coast, scarcely a stone can be taken up that is not covered with the lovely Lepralia or Sea-scurf, minute eggs, &c., so it will only require prudent arrangement, without crowding, which in a tank of small dimensions is undesirable, as not only does it render the detection of dead or dying animals a matter of difficulty, but by displacing a certain portion of water, the animals are to some extent robbed of the means by which they should be supported.

When the tank is covered by one of the elegant domed lids which we have occasionally seen, and which we recommend to exclude dust, and to preclude the escape of such creatures as, like ourselves, are given to roaming, the rock-work as we may term it,


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 (SI7) (Numb 336) PHILOSOPHICAL L.; _ L.; » _ 1: 5, T % * n K A.f1\l`_S.A\C,.T 1 o N s Hr me l’ll’¢»nI1; vfOC§4Qher,Novcmbnn, and Dccnmbcn, 1 7x1 2. \: nn~rh¢<:oN*r;,NTs. ' [, Um: Remarks up# tb: Diffwjiion nf ybe Pawn, and Mzbrnjiopiral Oéféfira- Mr. Anthony van Lccuwenhoek! FAQ S. ll. Oljiwllfiour o fb/ Fnlfp/2° nf' :he Moon, on un, 12. 1111-IQT Br fha IQWJ- F I >`\ Mr. Wm. Dsrham, PLQS, In 4 Lmer ra Rich, Wallrf E/~15R-5. Sem \{lI. Som: fmlser Dbpnuariogu v:l11i'!{ to tb: Anriquiric: and Naruml Hzjioq \\aflre!Anll. Jn 4 Ifcnm-fjfam :kr Im: Mr. Edw. Lhwyd, Kwpfr of :be Afh- lnelenn Mul`=um`i» Ox md, m Dr, Tnmred Rvbinfm, L 155: _ lV. An Fxzmf! of 4 Lever f;0l?1fY’}£1.dff Mr. Edw Lhwyd to Dr. Tancrcd Robinfon \ giving an Arwmr of jbmc uafvmman Plmaxs growing about Pen- fam and St. Ives ul Comwnl. ~ V. A Rflannn nf :bf E‘0}H.v of a Sturm of T`l1unl:r and Lgbrni/xg at Samp. fnrll-Cnurmcy in Dcwnlhire, wx Ofhber :bc 7If.‘ 171 1. L`ovmnuni~ml 5, I-hn Chamberlayue ELI; F. R: $. VL San" /tlicrojlnpiml (IAQ:-uaziorxf upon Mu0'I¢:, and the mann" af sb.-if Pfalnllian. lnlx LL-mr jhzm Mr, Annlxouy vnu Lecuwcnhnek, R_'Q_S`. VII. /In Annum qf mhz! nppmrcli mropmivqg tb: Rod] of -___ Sr. Iuhns Eflf, 11-b/14yuioj fm Ahhma, july rhe 1.1, l7O§. Aged 72 71-arf. By :be law Mr. William Cov/per, Surgeon, FL‘,R.S_ Cammunimzsd by 'Dr. Hans Sluantt, _SUM Sur.  VIII- A Lmer from Mr. Ralph Tho `by, F. IQS, fa Dr. Hans Sloane, IQS. Sur. Cancmning Ing: Smner wil ` per Urethmm. ~- IX. run 0/ a Lum from Mr Brcmk Tay\0l', E R. SZ so Dr. Hans Sloane, IQ; S. Snr. Cannming fb: Qljlfm of IVaz:h bemrm uw 614% Plans. X. A/:_ Accvunpqf an l€xparim¢-rnvtDurbin_gi;!>¢ A'/ken: of Wnxzr brlfvecn two gf”/I Plunrr, in .m H;y;frlJo!1J: Iigwc. \ B; Mr. Finncis Hnuksbcl, ' &: Av-, \` Xl.   Drfripfim of :be ji-vum!_Strata of E¢n\{7, Spam, Cul, &c_ jbgmliq n £0.11-Pu az :br IV.;/I End nf Dudley in Stllmlrdfllirc; B; Mr. Fun- Place ncllcrg, I; FQ s. 'Ib wbilb If .mlm Mum of mf SPL-fgml Gm “V '7f "fb 5"5m‘“ ’ 57 Mv‘.'I‘l'. Hlulcsbtc, Yr. S. Comnrzmzlluzd lf- DV. H3113 §lu.\Yl'1‘, R. Sl bfrr. `», `~ i. ‘mmf
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 015. ~ » "(`m") ' i _ L (Numb. gp.) PHIAL,,,QSQEHI'CAL ?r17ri`A Ntis A ci T I~6tN`S.f 1 , Fnrtba Mant/1: vf“O&ober,Noveniber, and Dscembér, 1 71 I. , A The CONTENTS. I. A Relation of a New Qlam1,,11zLi;l1 may ra%d up from tbe Bottom of the Sea, on the z;tl # May 1707. in the Bay of Santorini, in the Archié pclago. Written by Farber Goree (a ?`qfuit)' an Eye-witn¢~. i ll. An Arcomtt of divers Rare Wants, lately obl- ferved- in jevernl Curiou; Gardens about tqg¢tber. By ‘Mn Francis Hauksbec'


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74 may project above the surface of the water, to allow such animals as desire it the means of gratifying' themselves. The author of "Ocean Gardens" suggests a kind of double Aquarium, and a contrivance by means of which a large portion of water should flow gradually from one tank to the other at fixed periods, in imitation of the ebb and flow of the tide. Many interesting phenomena he anticipates would thus be exhibited, such as the closing of the Sea Anemones (Actiniæ) as the water receded, and their expansion on its return;—this change too might be found highly advantageous to the health and development of those animals whose natural habitat lies between high and low water mark, and whose constitution is therefore framed to require entire or partial exposure to the air at certain intervals of time. A pretty idea, which we trust some of our readers may carry out.

Well now, these preliminaries being settled, we may add more water to the tank,—obtained wherever it is possible fresh from the sea, and if at all dirty, filtered through charcoal before being used. Densely populated as seawater is with minute animal life, it must necessarily be more conducive to the success of an Aquarium than that artificially made. Mr. Hibberd argues the question in this way, that in the latter, the very absence of organic matter is advantageous, since the water is less likely to get out of condition than the seawater, where the germs may decay and putrefy, spreading destruction in all directions,—nevertheless, give us seawater with life in as many of its infinitesimal germs as possible. We can by care guard against


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 However, Te Kooti has now eluded justice for so many years that, unless some radical change should come over New Zealand affairs, the murderer of so many innocent men, women and children will in all probability never expiate his crimes on the gallows.

The "native difficulty" in New Zealand is by no means permanently settled. It has a disagreeable habit of forcing its way to the front when least expected; still, there is very little probability of actual war again arising between the Maories and the whites. The former are now too diminished to endanger the public peace. Settlers in New Zealand are now to all intents and purposes as free from peril as those who have chosen homes for themselves and their families in Victoria, New South Wales, or South Australia—colonies in which the "native difficulty" has never been experienced. Since the cessation of hostilities between the two races, New Zealand has made rapid strides in material progress. Railways and public works have been prosecuted on a very extensive scale. Indeed, in proportion to population, this active and enterprising colony has a greater mileage of railways than any other of the antipodean states. There are lines of well-appointed steamers maintaining regular communication with the ports of all the islands, as well as with Melbourne and Sydney. The exports and imports amount to £15,000,000, and the population of the three islands now exceeds 600,000. In addition to large droves of cattle and horses, there are 12 millions of sheep in the colony. Official statistics go to show that the average production of wheat is no less than 27 bushels to the acre. In mineral resources New Zealand has been specially favoured. Three provinces—Otago, Westland, and Nelson—have yielded large quantities of gold, the soil of Otago in particular being wonderfully

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Author:Henry Noel Humphreys

Works

 * Rome, and Its Surrounding Scenery, texts accompanying engravings (1840)
 * British Butterflies and their Transformations (1841)
 * British Moths and Their Transformations, (1843-45)
 * Parables of Our Lord (1846)
 * The Miracles of Our Lord (1848)
 *  Maxims and Precepts of the Saviour (1849)
 * The Art of Illumination and Missal-Painting: A Guide to Modern Illuminators (1849)
 * The Coins of England: A Sketch of the Progress of the English Coinage, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (1848)
 * The Gold, Silver, and Copper Coins of England, Exhibited in a Series of Fac-Similes of the Most Interesting Coins of Each Successive Period (1849)
 * The Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages (1849)
 * Ancient Coins: Being a Concise Account of the Origin of the Art of Coining, Its Early Progress, Highest Development, and Its Gradual Decay with the Decline of the Roman Empire (1850)
 * Ten Centuries of Art: Its Progress in Europe from the IXth to the XIXth Century (1852)
 * The Coin Collector's Manual: or, Guide to the Numismatic Student in the Formation of a Cabinet of Coins (1853)
 * The Origin and Progress of the Art of Writing (1853)
 * The Coinage of the British Empire: An Outline of the Progress of the Coinage in Great Britain and Her Dependencies, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (1854)
 * Stories by an Archæologist and His Friends (1856)
 * Ocean Gardens: The History of the Marine Aquarium (1857)
 * River Gardens: Being an Account of the Best Methods of Cultivating Fresh-Water Plants in Aquaria (1857)
 * The Butterfly Vivarium; or, Insect Home: Being an Account of a New Method of Observing the Curious Metamorphoses of Some of the Most Beautiful of Our Native Insects (1858)
 * The Genera and Species of British Butterflies (1860)
 * The Genera of British Moths (1860)
 * Goethe in Strassbourg: A Dramatic Nouvelette (1860)
 * A History of the Art of Printing from Its Invention to Its Wide-Spread Development in the Middle of the Sixteenth Century (1867)
 * Rembrandt's Etchings Illustrated by a Selection of Specimens Reproduced in Facsimile: Accompanied by a Life of Rembrandt, and a Brief Criticism of His Works as a Painter and Engraver (1871)
 * A History of the Art of Printing from Its Invention to Its Wide-Spread Development in the Middle of the Sixteenth Century (1867)
 * Rembrandt's Etchings Illustrated by a Selection of Specimens Reproduced in Facsimile: Accompanied by a Life of Rembrandt, and a Brief Criticism of His Works as a Painter and Engraver (1871)
 * A History of the Art of Printing from Its Invention to Its Wide-Spread Development in the Middle of the Sixteenth Century (1867)
 * Rembrandt's Etchings Illustrated by a Selection of Specimens Reproduced in Facsimile: Accompanied by a Life of Rembrandt, and a Brief Criticism of His Works as a Painter and Engraver (1871)
 * Rembrandt's Etchings Illustrated by a Selection of Specimens Reproduced in Facsimile: Accompanied by a Life of Rembrandt, and a Brief Criticism of His Works as a Painter and Engraver (1871)

title: Author:Henry Noel Humphreys


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British Butterflies

 * British Butterflies, a book by William Stephen Coleman
 * British Butterflies and their Transformations, a book by John Obadiah Westwood, illustrated by Henry Noel Humphreys

title: British Butterflies


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75 casualties, but we cannot always obtain specimens. Yet after all there are many who must resort to this artificial water, and so we give Mr. Gosse's receipt for it; giving some little hope in the experience of Mr. Hibberd, that it serves all the purposes admirably, there being no diminution of vigour or beauty in the plants, or of gambolling playfulness in the animals. Strange, however, if such was his opinion in the book from which we have quoted, that only a brief time after in his "Book of the Aquarium," page 59, he states, how quite unsuited for animal life of any kind is this artificial seawater, until it has been brought into condition by means of growing weeds for eight or ten days, and for Crustaceans, Starfishes, and Fishes proper, it is not suitable till it has been in use for many months, and even then some species lose their health in it, and at last perish. These, however, are the constituents of the artificial seawater:—

or, according to Mr. Hibberd:— This should be tested by the hydrometer until it reaches a specific gravity of 1·028, being that of seawater.


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76 And now we may enliven the appearance of the Aquarium, by adding some seaweeds preparatory to stocking it with such animals as may be most desirable,—nor is this portion of our operations lightly to be passed over, for on its proper regulation depends almost entirely success or failure. The collection of materials will afford much pleasure and healthy exercise, and when they are flourishing and spreading out their delicate fronds in the waters of our tank, we can recall with delight the rambles we had in search of them.

The green Seaweeds are the most desirable, not only as Dr. Badham remarks on account of their great beauty, but because they do not, like the red or brown kinds, render the water turbid by decomposition, and what a glorious selection we have on these shores!!—the feathery Bryopsis, looking under a microscope like spun glass, the ribbony Ulva, the green bullion-shaped tassels of Codium tomentosum, fringing the sides of the rock-pools— you will have to bare your arms to reach them,—the many varieties of Caulerpa, Enteromorpha,—the lovely Apjohnia lætevirens, which extends along the whole Southern coast,—the glassy Cladophora, with a host of others. In the use of Red Algæ, the experimenter must take his chance,—any way he must have many failures; but there is one, the Griffithsia, which Dr. Harvey recommends, and there is nothing to compare with it for beauty. The pools about Queenscliff, St. Kilda, Warrnambool, Armstrong's Bay near Port Fairy, Portland, and other of our Sea coasts, will afford abundance of specimens in addition to those already enumerated, which are the best to


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 rich in deposits of the precious metal. There was what is colonially known as a "rush" when the news of the Otago discoveries was circulated. Crowds of Victorian miners filled the steamers en route to New Zealand, and, in the excitement of the moment, hundreds of educated men threw up good remunerative situations and joined in the exodus. Many of them afterwards had reason to regret their unthinking impulsiveness in preferring the pick and shovel to the pen, but most of the experienced miners did remarkably well and settled down as permanent residents. In addition to gold, almost every known variety of iron ore has been found in New Zealand, and there are also numerous coal measures continuously and profitably worked. The New Zealand Government has ever pursued a wise and liberal policy in regard to immigration, and, thanks to the commendable facilities that have been afforded, a large number of Irish families have been enabled to found new homes in the South Pacific. All honour to the men who received with open arms and words of welcome the victims of landlord oppression on the other side of the Equator, who raised no objection on the score of country or creed, but took the honest new-comers by the hand, placed them securely on the land, and formed them into happy, industrious, land contented colonists.

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77 commence with, but in no case must they be used unless adhering to the rocks or other substances on which they may be growing, as otherwise they would rapidly decompose and render the water quite unfit for animal life. Some taste too may be used in this matter, for glass bottles, old boots, and sheep's skulls, not unfrequently form the basis of attachment. Olive seaweeds cannot be recommended, although in an Aquarium, which we very lately had the pleasure of inspecting, the necklace shaped Hormosira Banksii, was the special delight of a dozen or more young and old Hippocampi or Sea horses (p. 37), which twisted their tails around its chain-like vesicles, evidently quite at home.

The best test by far of the tank being in a fit state for the introduction of stock is, when small crystal globules of oxygen appear on the plants. This happy condition being arrived at, we may proceed,—and yet on second thoughts it is as well to know something of the mode of respiration of the aquatic animals, since that will be of sure service in making a selection for the tank. The lower animals should be the first chosen, for one very good reason, that their respiration is far less active than in those of a higher organisation, and this applies pretty generally to all creatures inhabiting the watery element; in them respiration is performed by branchiæ or gills, varying much in form, and by the air with which the water is impregnated; thus in the Fishes we observe the mouth frequently opened to admit the water, which passing out through the gills serves to oxygenate their blood; a fish on


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 CHAPTER XI.

THE CHURCH IN THE COLONIES.

as in other distant parts of the world, the light of the Gospel has been principally spread and preserved throughout the Australian colonies by the apostolic zeal and energy of Irish priests. True sons of St. Patrick, they triumphed over the grievous official persecution of the early days, they overcame the prejudices of race and creed, and they established themselves in the land by the main force of personal merit, generous self-sacrifice, and unceasing labours for the moral and spiritual welfare of their Catholic countrymen. The governmental policy at the period of the colonisation of Australia, and for a generation afterwards, was openly and

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78 dry land does not die from any want of oxygen, but from being asphyxiated in consequence of the absence of that element on which the gills are dependent for a due performance of their functions; but this is not the same in all fishes, for in some (the shark for example) there are simple openings, varying in number to allow of the exit of the water, whilst in some where the operculum or covering of the gills is but narrowly cloven, a certain quantity of water is retained, by which they can continue out of their natural element for some considerable time, and even perform migrations overland, from one place to the other, and the Climbing Perch (Perca scandens), "quits the water and ascends the roots and branches of the Mangrove trees, an effort it accomplishes by using its ventral fins as feet."

Of course we must to a certain extent be dependent on the part of the coast to which we may be near;—some neighbourhoods are poor in comparison with others, but there are hone so barren as not to afford abundance of live stock. We have already mentioned the lovely Terebellæ and Serpulæ, the Sea Cucumbers (Holothuriæ), the centipedal Nereis, the ribbony Planaricæ, pop them all in, and for Fishes, the tiny Hippocampus or Sea horse, the slender Pipe fish (Syngnathus), if there is room, are the most desirable; by all means have a Hermit Crab for his comical ways, and there are many others which may be experimented on, such as our Seaweedwearing friend mentioned previously in these pages,


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 avowedly to refuse to recognise the Catholic religion at all, and to regard everybody in the settlement as belonging to the Church of England, whether he liked it or not. It was in pursuance of this shameful policy that the request of Father Walsh, of the Diocese of Ossory, Ireland, to be permitted to accompany the "first fleet" to Australia a century ago was churlishly refused by the reigning powers. Nothing but blind bigotry could have suggested such a refusal, for the request was an eminently reasonable one in the circumstances, and should have been conceded, not so much as a favour, but as a matter of strict right, and a plain duty towards the Catholic members of that pioneer band of exiles, going forth to found a new nation in an unsettled land 12,000 miles away. It was not until 1799, twelve years afterwards, that the Catholic population of the infant settlement were gratified with the sight of three ordained clergymen of their church. But it was not as clergymen that the home government had sent them out, but as convicted prisoners. Father Dixon, Father O'Neil, and Father Harold, along with the Reverend Mr. Fulton, a Protestant minister, were transported for their alleged complicity in the Irish rebellion of 1798. It has since been proved, beyond the shadow of a doubt, that these three pioneer priests of Australia were unjustly convicted, and compelled to submit to the indignity of transportation. Father Dixon was a Wexford priest and had a brother who did engage in the rebellion, but he himself exercised all his influence to keep his people within the limits of the law. Nevertheless, he had a rebel brother, and that was sufficient to condemn him in those dark days of unchecked martial law. The case of Father O'Neil was harder still. His treatment throws a lurid light on the unprincipled and unscrupulous measures that found favour

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79 but there are some species which on account of their voracity must not be admitted; a few of the smaller Starfishes must go in, since they will quickly get rid of any decomposing substances: [they flock to the slaughter-houses on the Bay at Geelong, to feed on the debris there.] Agassiz has observed that the eggs of the Starfish, after they are laid, are taken up by the parent animal, and kept between its tubes below the mouth. The Starfish bends itself round them, surrounds the eggs with its suckers, and moves about with them. When the eggs have been removed to some distance, it has been noticed to go towards them, take them up again, and move off with them, showing that these animals so low in structure, and apparently deprived of all instinct, (if any animal can be supposed to be without it,) really watch over their young. A Sea-egg or two will be great pets. Of shells we should select specimens of the Fwus or Spindle shell, their bright red feet rendering them very attractive, as they crawl up the sides of the tank; the less rare Murex; Top shells or Turbo; Trochi or Hoop shells to keep down the confervoid growths which otherwise would dim the glass sides of the Aquarium, small Haliotideæ or Ear-shells; some of the Bonnet Limpets, the lovely gaudily-colored Aviculas; (Geelong), Chitons, and others which we cannot mention here.

With a small pocket lens, or with the Portable Microscope which Mr. Warrington has invented for the easier examination of living objects contained in glass bottles or Aquaria, not a day or an hour will pass without something new being discovered, fresh beauties coming to light, which will amply repay any labour


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 in Irish governing circles towards the close of the last century. A soldier happened to be murdered in the neighbourhood of Youghal, and, as the actual culprit could not be discovered, the authorities resolved that some one must suffer for the deed, and accordingly made an indiscriminate arrest. They seized an idle, worthless scamp, and threatened him with a flogging if he did not give information as to the perpetrator of the murder. Under the influence of this threat, he promised to disclose everything, and he actually had the sacrilegious audacity to name the parish priest of Youghal, Father O'Neil, as the murderer. On the strength of this reckless assertion, and with nothing more substantial to go upon. Father O'Neil was arrested, and, horrible to relate, was cruelly flogged in the vain hope of compelling him to confess the crime or give information concerning it. After being kept in prison for a time, Father O'Neil was sent away in a felon-ship to the new convict settlement at the antipodes, but in less than a month after his departure from Ireland, his innocence was completely demonstrated. He was at once liberated by order of the Crown, brought back from Australia, and re-appointed in his old parish of Youghal, but no recompense or apology did he receive from the government for the harsh, unjust, and scandalous treatment to which he had been subjected. The impious scoundrel who bore false witness against him was subsequently convicted of heinous crimes and executed in Cork.

The case of Father Harold, though not so painful, was equally unjust. He was a hard-working priest in the parish of Dublin, and, because some of his people joined the rebels in '98, he was arrested and transported on the mere gratuitous supposition that they had taken that course

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80 or expense which may have been incurred, and we shall at once own the truth of the Poet's saying, that—

Before proceeding to treat of the Freshwater Aquarium, we may briefly mention a few matters—which, though apparently trifling, are yet essential to the success of the Marine tank, as also the well being of the inhabitants of it.

It has already been stated that it is quite unnecessary to change the water, but it may be well occasionally to aerate it by dipping up a small quantity and pouring it rapidly back into the tank, but even this is opposed to the true principles of "compensation," and need only be resorted to where the animals become sluggish, and the fishes find their way to the surface to obtain there what they should find in their own element. A small syphon of gutta percha or tin will be handy, should it be necessary to draw off or replace the water. The short end must be placed below the surface of the water in the tank, and the mouth applied to it until the water flows, which it will continue to do without further trouble so long as the short end remains under water.

It may so happen, (it is but human nature) that certain species do not dwell amicably with their mates, and others from some cause or the other (not at once apparent) may sicken,—in such a case, remove them without delay to small glass vases where they may be treated as circumstances require. The readiest mode of removing them to and fro is, by means of a small


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 with his knowledge and by his advice. After Father O'Neil's departure from the penal settlement in Sydney, his brothers in misfortune—Fathers Dixon and Harold—remained there as prisoners until April 19th, 1803, on which date the Governor of the colony, Captain P. G. King, of the Royal Navy, was pleased to issue a proclamation granting "unto the Reverend James Dixon a conditional emancipation to enable him to exercise his clerical functions as a Roman Catholic priest, which he has qualified himself for by the regular and exemplary conduct he has manifested since his residence in the colony." Father Dixon of course availed himself of this permission to resume his sacred functions in a place where they were so sadly needed the more especially as he had received faculties from his ecclesiastical superiors at home to officiate at the antipodes as soon as he was allowed to do so. At about the same time. Father Harold's clerical status was recognised by the government, and he was placed in charge of the Catholic prisoners at Norfolk Island, a delightful spot a thousand miles away in the Pacific, which had been profaned and degraded by being perverted into a prison for the worst and most irreclaimable of convicts. Fathers Dixon and Harold were thus the first duly-appointed Roman Catholic clergymen in the Australian colonies. The former labourer devotedly for several years amongst the Catholic population of Sydney and its vicinity, but, as an historian of the era has truly remarked, "the hatred, bigotry, and jealousy with which he was surrounded, soon found a pretext to depriving him of the power of doing good." This pretext was found in certain malicious and groundless reports that reached the ears of the authorities, to the effect that Father Dixon's congregations at Mass on Sundays were in reality meeting

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 and an alacrity that showed pretty plainly how the wind was blowing in high quarters. Father Harold, hearing of the sad turn affairs had taken on the continent, left his little island prison in the Pacific, in the hope of being allowed to minister to the spiritual wants of the larger Catholic population around Sydney; but, immediately on his arrival, he was suppressed and interdicted like his predecessor; and like him, too, he refused to remain in a place where his hands were tied, his mouth closed, and his eyes bandaged by order of an autocratic governor. With Father Harold's departure for Ireland, the Australian continent was left without a solitary Catholic priest, and it continued in that hapless condition of spiritual destitution for no less than nine miserable years. During the whole of this terrible time, the country was compulsorily Protestant, that is to say, prisoners of every religious belief were obliged to attend the service of the Church of England. The penalty for refusal was a flogging of twenty-five lashes. A second refusal was visited with fifty lashes, and a third would have to be expiated in the chain-gang or in the solitude of the prison cell. In these latter days, Australian Anglicans have frequently laboured hard to whitewash this foul page of their history by contending that the foregoing penalties were never actually enforced, and they have been considerably aided in this contention by the care and completeness with which the compromising records in relation to this unpleasant business have been committed to the flames J5ut the first quarter of our century is not so remote from our day as to preclude the possibility of reliable evidence on the point being forthcoming; and whenever the allegation has been made in the press or on the platform that the penalties for staying away from the Church of England service

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 of rebels and traitors, and that the peace of the settlement would be endangered by their continuance. Without holding any inquiry into these spiteful allegations, the Governor jumped to the conclusion that they must be correct, and, by an order in the Government Gazette, he suppressed the public celebration of the Mass throughout the colony. There was not a shadow of justification for this high-handed proceeding, which was only possible under a system of military despotism such as then prevailed in New South Wales. It is quite true that a convict outbreak had to be suppressed soon afterwards, but the disturbance had no connection whatever with the meetings of the Roman Catholics for public worship. Indeed, Father Dixon accompanied the commanding officer and exercised all his influence on the side of order and humanity. Nevertheless, the story that this was an attempted repetition under southern skies of the Irish insurrection of '98 received the stamp of official approval, and has been accepted as gospel by several historians who did not care to inquire too closely into the facts. But nobody believes that silly story now, for direct appeals to contemporary evidence have shown conclusively that the "Colonial Vinegar Hill," as it was long the fashion to call this convict outbreak, was not traceable either to race or creed, but was the immediate and natural result of the tyranny and the brutality of heartless overseers towards the prisoners in their charge. Father Dixon tried every possible means to obtain the removal of the governmental interdict, but without the slightest success. He was forbidden to offer up the Holy Sacrifice, to preach, to baptise, or to visit the sick. The good priest soon found his position to be intolerable, and he applied for leave to return to Ireland—a permission which was granted with a

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81 muslin or fine netted bag, attached to a long handle, (the small utensil used for poaching eggs will explain what we mean). We have grieved to see many fine specimens destroyed on removal, and this makes us give a few words of caution on the subject.

And now having a family about us, we must needs feed them, or we may have to appear before the Bench for maintenance;—"an unfortunate Hippocampus and fourteen little ones," or "a poor old crippled Starfish, (rendered blind by disputative authorities) and a family of orphans" would settle the matter unfavourably for us very speedily, in which event we should decidedly have to sue for a divorce a mensâ, to say the least of it; but most of the inhabitants find ample sustenance in the water, and for those which desire something more nourishing, a small portion of raw meat may be lowered by a string into the tank daily, so as to be withdrawn at will, and thus decomposition be prevented.

To remove or secure any small objects, a small glass tube of a diameter of about a quarter of an inch will be of service; to use it, the forefinger should be placed on the top, and the tube placed over the object, which, on the forefinger being withdrawn, will rise into it, and the finger being again applied, it may be removed in safety.

The formation of the Freshwater Aquarium will vary but little from that already described: a few inches of sand wherein the plants may root, and a few stones laid on it is desirable, but rock work is not necessary, in fact to our taste, decidedly objectionable and unsightly. Good well water, the experience of many writers has proved to be as well adapted to the


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rothermere, Harold Sidney Harmsworth, 1st Visct.

ROTHERMERE, HAROLD SIDNEY HARMSWORTH, (1868-), British newspaper proprietor and financier, was the second son of Alfred Harmsworth, and brother of Visct. Northcliffe (see ). He was born April 26 1868 at Hampstead, London, was created a baronet in 1910, Baron Rothermere in 1914, and Visct. Rothermere of Hemsted after his services as Air Minister, in 1918. He married in 1893 Mary Lilian, daughter of George Wade Share. At the age of 21 he entered the publishing firm in which his brother Alfred (afterwards Lord Northcliffe) was then the principal, soon after the date when Answers was launched. He assisted in developing the business on sound and economic lines, and for the next 20 years he was the close associate of his brother in all his great undertakings and shared in his triumphs. His administrative and financial skill admirably seconded Lord Northcliffe in working out his original schemes. He took an important part in the reorganization of the London Evening News, when his business talent helped to make that once insolvent newspaper a large profit-yielder. He was one of the three principals in the establishment of the Daily Mail (1896), for many years controlled the finance of that newspaper, and was largely responsible for developing its methods of distribution. He was equally active at the Amalgamated Press, the gigantic periodical publishing

business which his brother had founded after the success of Answers. He founded the Glasgow Daily Record, bought the Leeds Mercury, and shared in the purchase of The Times (1908). He became known also as a most generous benefactor of charities. By the gift of a large sum he enabled the Union Jack Club to provide worthy accommodation for sailors and soldiers in London; and he gave £10,000 to the Territorial Force County of London Association. In 1910 he founded the King Edward chair of English literature at Cambridge, and in the same year he ceased his connexion with The Times, Daily Mail, and Evening News. In 1914 he acquired the Daily Mirror from Lord Northcliffe, and this henceforth became his special organ. In 1915 he founded the Sunday Pictorial, the first fully illustrated Sunday newspaper in London.

In the World War, Mr. Lloyd George, while Secretary for War, appointed Lord Rothermere in 1916 Director-General of the Royal Army Clothing Department. In the following year he accepted the office of Air Minister, under Mr. Lloyd George as Premier. He at once declared himself “whole-heartedly in favour of reprisals,” which were the best means of carrying the war into Germany and protecting British towns against air attacks. Suffering from precarious health and his bereavements in the war, he resigned on April 25 1918, after he had carried out the fusion of the Royal Naval Air Force and Royal Flying Corps. “My second tragic loss in the war, ten weeks since,” he wrote to the Prime Minister, “caused me great distress of mind and body. . . I was suffering from ill-health and insomnia.” Immediately after the war he began a most energetic campaign, against extravagance in national and local finance, himself contributing numerous articles to his newspapers.

The tragic losses to which he referred were those of his two sons, Capt. Harold Alfred Vyvyan St. George Harmsworth, M.C. (b. Aug. 2 1894) and Lieut. Vere Sidney Tudor Harmsworth (b. Sept. 25 1895), both of whom, after showing exceptional promise in civil fields, served with extreme gallantry in battle and fell in the national cause. Harold, in the Irish Guards, was twice severely wounded in 1915, and was then given a staff appointment in England. This he insisted on resigning and returned to his battalion at the front. There in Bourlon Wood, on Nov. 27 1917, he received mortal wounds of which he died on Feb. 12 1918. In recording the grant of the M.C. for his conduct on that occasion the London Gazette stated: “He led his company forward under heavy fire and himself put out of action two enemy machine-guns. It was entirely due to his splendid example that his company reached their objective.” In his memory Lord Rothermere founded and endowed the Harold Vyvyan chair of American history at Oxford University in June 1920. Vere, educated for the navy which he had to leave owing to gun-deafness, joined the Royal Naval Division immediately after the outbreak of war, took part in the expedition to Antwerp, and, when his battalion was driven across the frontier into Holland, made his escape from Dutch internment. He was in the terrific fighting at Gallipoli and in the battle of the Somme, having refused a staff appointment, like his brother, because he was determined to share the fortunes of his men. Twice wounded in the storming of Beaucourt on Nov. 13 1916, but still advancing and setting an example which, as his commander wrote, “thrilled with pride the men of his battalion,” he was struck a third time by a shell and killed. In memory of him Lord Rothermere in 1919 established and endowed the chair of naval history at Cambridge which bears his name.

Lord Rothermere's third and only surviving son, Esmond Cecil (b. May 26 1898), who had served during the last part of the war in the Royal Marine Artillery, was in 1919 elected “anti-waste” M.P. for Thanet, and was then the youngest member of the House of Commons and the fifth of his family in Parliament. (H. W. W.)


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 CHAPTER XIII.

started from Timaru on a bright sunny day, and passed first through a magnificent farming district. Ploughing was being actively pursued, and myriads of friendly gulls were following the plough, and finding fat delicacies in the upturned furrows. My eye follows the old track, along which I have galloped "many a time and oft," astride "the old chestnut," in the golden days of my youth. At that time there were only two houses between "the head station" and the town. Now, villages, hamlets, and farms stud the countryside as thick as blackberries. The fight was just beginning then, "Sheep v. Settlers," and sheep have lost the day. Settlement here is most complete, and the evidences of rural wealth are everywhere abundant.

At Makikiki, for instance, I find a snug village. A steam threshing-machine is at work in a field close to the railway station, and as far as the eye

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rothschild, Nathaniel Mayer, 1st Baron

ROTHSCHILD, NATHANIEL MAYER, (1840-1915), Jewish financier, was born in London Nov. 8 1840, the son of Lionel Nathan de Rothschild, Austrian baron, head of the English branch of the famous financial family (see ). He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1879

succeeded his father as Austrian baron. He sat in the House of Commons from 1865 to 1885 when he was created a peer by Mr. Gladstone, the first of his race and religion to be raised to the House of Lords. He was well known as an agriculturist as well as a financier, and he was renowned for his charities. He died in London March 31 1915.

His brother, (1845-1917), who had been throughout associated with him in the management of the financial house, succeeded him as its head and also took over most of his public offices, besides interesting himself especially in the Jewish community and becoming president of the United Synagogue. He was an art collector and owner of race-horses. He died at Ascott, Leighton Buzzard, May 29 1917.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von

MOSHEIM, Johann Lorenz von, yō'hän lō'rĕnts fōn mōs'hīm, German Protestant theologian: b. Lübeck, 9 Oct. 1694; d. Göttingen, 9 Sept. 1755. He studied and taught at Kiel; became professor of theology at Helmstedt in 1723, abbot of Marienthal in 1726 and professor (1747) and university chancellor (1755) at Göttingen; was a notable preacher and an erudite theologian and church historian of liberal leanings; and wrote ‘Institutiones Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ ’ (1755, translated into English by Maclaine); ‘Institutiones Historiæ Christianæ’ (1763); ‘Attempt at an Impartial and Thorough History of Heresies’ (1748-50); ‘Morals of the Holy Writ’ (1770-78); etc.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Mosher, Eliza Maria

MOSHER, mō'zhėr, Eliza Maria, American physician: b. Cayuga County, N. Y., 1846. She was graduated from the University of Michigan in 1875, and studied at the School of Medicine in Paris from 1879-80. She was resident physician at the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women in 1880-81 and director of the institution in 1881-83. In 1883 she went to Vassar College as professor of physiology and resident physician; from 1886-96, she was engaged in general medical practice in Brooklyn, N. Y., and then became professor of hygiene in the department of literature, science and arts, and women's dean at the University of Michigan. Holding this position till 1902 when she returned to her practice in Brooklyn. She has been lecturer at the Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Education since 1888. She is the author of ‘Health and Happiness’ (1911).


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 THE ROAMER

", the kindest helper of the soul,

Who, when night comes, dost draw more nigh than night,

And when thou goest, bringest back the day!

O first, sweet silence 'twixt the solemn prayers

Of eve and morn, how many peaceful hours

My hands in thine were folded, when a child!

And thou wast dearer with each heavy year,

And tenderer for the sorrow come, more soft

My head didst pillow, gavest my soul release!"

So rose the Roamer's morning orison;

And never more refreshed from thee he turned

To greet the golden East in summers gone,

Than when, dim Sleep, thou gavest his spirit back

To the dark border; trembling he awoke,

And dews of gratitude o'erflowed his eyes

For Sleep, the helper—kindest helper, thou!

Thou bearest half the weight of all men's lives;

The load thy hand unloosens at the end;

Not without thee was that far journey made. 74


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Moskva

MOSKVA, mŏsk-vä, Russia, an affluent of the Oka, a tributary of the Volga, which rises in a marsh in the east of Smolensk, flows east to the city of Moscow and thence 112 miles

southeast to the Oka, which it joins near Kolomna after a total course of 305 miles. It is connected with the Volga by the Moskva Canal. It is navigable from its mouth to Moscow except between November and April when it is frozen. The battle of Borodino or Moskva, between the French under Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusoff, was fought on its banks (7 Sept. 1812.)


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 THE ROAMER

" young face," a voice began aloof

When, dark, the Roamer woke, "how few there be

That pass this limit with such lips as thine,

An-hungered and athirst!" and nigh him rose

An old man's form against the doubtful sky.

Flowers of the desert held he in his hand,

Slight, grass-like spears that bore a bloom minute,

Whereof he seemed to proffer flower and stem.

"Take, eat," he said, "the food the waste provides."

The wondering Roamer pressed them to his lips,

And, scarce the leaf withdrawn, it seemed from thence

The very bloom and odor of the grape

Moved, flower and fragrance, in his racing blood,

And bore his soul aloft on vital tides.

"What faëry herb, what bright immortal root

Distils, like sap within the virgin bark,

Its rich elixir in this humble plant?

What desert realm? What hermitage?" He gazed 108


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Moslem

MOSLEM, or MUSLIM. See .


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82 purpose as river water, but the same caution that we recommended in stocking the Marine Aquarium should be observed here. Our readers will have frequently noticed the floating feathery green scum in our rivers attached to stones and pieces of wood, or the bottoms of boats,—this under the microscope displays forms as lovely as they are various, of what are scientifically called Freshwater Algæ; have some, by all means,—a small plant of the Damasonium—

will be a prize, and its large lobed leaves will form a delightful shelter for many of the creatures we shall select for our tank,—the slender Crowfoot (Ranunculus inundatus) of our Melbourne lagoons and marshes, the pretty Myriophyllum of all the lagoons and sluggish rivers; small "pond weeds " Potamogiton, with the lovely floating Azollarubra or pinnata, soft as velvet, their tiny hair-like roots pendent in the water, are all desirable.

As for stock, it is scarcely necessary to give instructions, since almost everything we can lay hold of, at all compatible with the dimensions of the Aquarium, will be likely to thrive;—those who will accompany us in our "Rambles by Rivers," may glean some information on the subject which it is unnecessary to repeat here.

There are many minor details as to the management of Aquaria, for success in which our readers must use their own discretion;—patience, we have already said, will have to be exercised, but above all things avoid overstocking, and never allow the water to become tepid.'


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Mosler, Henry

MOSLER, mōz'lėr, Henry, American artist: b. New York, 6 June 1841. A diligent student of wood-engraving, he was draughtsman on a Cincinnati comic weekly (1855), studied with James H. Beard (1859-61), and was art correspondent for Harper's Weekly with the Army of the West 1862-63. Realizirig the need of study he followed art at Düsseldorf and Paris (1863-66), returning to Europe in 1874. He resided for many years in France, was appointed a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1892 and has been a successful exhibitor and prize winner at many exhibitions at home and abroad. His specialties are portraits, figure paintings and groups of figures.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Mosque

MOSQUE, mŏsk (Arabic mesjid, Italian moschea), a Mohammedan house of prayer. The form of the oldest mosque was that of the Christian basilica, which however became modified in the progress of Mohammedan architecture. Mohammedans borrowed or adapted their ideas of architecture from the nations on whom they imposed their faith; the famous mosques of Turkey resemble the Byzantine architecture of Constantinople, and certain of those in India the temples of the Jains. Domes and minarets in course of time became emblematic of the more characteristic and ornate examples of Moresque or Saracenic art; but these are non-essentials, for in poor communities a bare whitewashed room may suffice for the public worship of the faithful. The mosques of the Arabs often include, in a quadrangular area, an immense number of columns ranged in files, the multiplicity and extent of which impress the mind of the beholder with surprise and admiration. These columns are, in numerous instances, the rich spoils of antique monuments. Mosque architecture possesses no fixed rules, deeming lightness and elegance alone to be the fundamental laws of architecture. In these Mohammedan churches we find neither altars, nor paintings, nor images, but a great quantity of lamps of various kinds, which form the principal interior ornament, and some sentences from the Koran written on the white walls. The buildings are often quadrangular in plan, and have an open interior court, where are fountains for ablutions. In the southeast of the building there is a pulpit for the imám; in the direction in which Mecca lies (the Kibléh) there is a niche toward which the faithful look when they engage in prayer. Opposite the pulpit there is a platform surrounded by a parapet, with a desk on which is placed the Koran for the purpose of reading to the congregation. On Fridays the five daily prayers, obligatory on the faithful every day, are recited in the mosque by the whole congregation, together with additional prayers. It is not customary for women to enter the mosques, and when they do they are placed

separately from the males. The chief officer of the mosque is the nadir, under whom are two imáms, muezzins who call the people to prayer, etc. These in addition to their religious vocation generally pursue secular callings. It is usual to cover the floor of the mosque with carpets, but there are no seats. On entering a mosque, the faithful remove their shoes. The building is never closed; and while nothing could exceed the devotion of the congregation gathered together in worship, at other times the mosques serve as convenient meeting-places, and in which wayfarers may accommodate themselves. They also serve as schools and seats of learning. Thousands of students are regularly in attendance at the most famous of these, the Azhar Mosque in Cairo. The mosques are maintained for the most part by endowments in land. The finest of the mosques of Constantinople and of the world is that of Saint Sophia, at one time a Christian church. In addition to schools, the imperial mosques have frequently hospitals and kitchens for cooking food for the poor.


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Rh Self (gîva âtmâ), and let me then reveal (develop) names and forms.

3. 'Then that Being having said, Let me make each of these three tripartite (so that fire, water, and earth should each have itself for its principal ingredient, besides an admixture of the other two) entered into those three beings (devatâ) with this living self only, and revealed names and forms.

4. 'He made each of these tripartite; and how these three beings become each of them tripartite, that learn from me now, my friend!

1. 'The red colour of burning fire (agni) is the colour of fire, the white colour of fire is the colour of water, the black colour of fire the colour of earth. Thus vanishes what we call fire, as a mere variety, being a name, arising from speech. What is true (satya) are the three colours (or forms).

2. 'The red colour of the sun (âditya) is the colour of fire, the white of water, the black of earth. Thus vanishes what we call the sun, as a mere variety, being a name, arising from speech. What is true are the three colours.

3. 'The red colour of the moon is the colour of fire, the white of water, the black of earth. Thus vanishes what we call the moon, as a mere variety, being a name, arising from speech. What is true are the three colours.

4. 'The red colour of the lightning is the colour of fire, the white of water, the black of earth. Thus


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 CHAPTER XIV

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL GROUPS ACCORDING TO THEIR CULTURES

have now passed in review the traits that are usually taken as constituting culture. The anthropological conception of the term is that it is the trait-complex manifested by a separate social unit of mankind. Some anthropologists take the position that the only correct view of the data of our subject is that which regards the social unit solely and that all such discussions as we have so far made are wrong in principle, because each trait has a peculiar relation to the complex practised by the group. This belief seems to arise in a kind of functional view in which the only problem of importance is to describe the manner in which a given social unit works out its culture. But it is now clear that no social group in the New World can be reckoned guilty of entire cultural independence, and that certain traits have spread over very large parts of both continents, whence the problem of a single social unit becomes of relatively little importance, because until we take in the whole sweep of the phenomenon no true account of it can be given.

As we have stated before this, the number of social groups in the New World is so large that no one can hope to hold in mind more than a small portion of them. Hence, even if we accept the extreme view that our subject should be limited to observing the separate functioning of these social units, some mode of classifying these many groups would still be imperative; for only in this way could the number of groups be reduced to the level of human comprehension. In the preceding chapters we saw that the natives of the New World could be grouped according to single culture traits, giving us food areas, textile areas, ceramic areas, etc. If, however, we take all traits into simultaneous consideration and shift our

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206 point of view to the social, or tribal units, we are able to form fairly definite groups. This will give us culture areas, or a classification of social groups according to their culture traits. The historical development of our subject gives us two kinds of culture data and so commits us to two rather distinct classifications—historic culture areas and archæological areas, respectively.

In the initial chapter, we defined nine economic areas, giving us a kind of culture classification which the subsequent discussions proved to have some general validity for culture as a whole. Yet, we have from time to time brought to notice differentiations in the trait-complexes for different parts of these economic areas, suggesting that a close examination of a large series of traits will result in a somewhat different grouping. A perusal of the literature of our subject shows it to be customary to divide the two continents into fifteen culture areas, each conceived to be the home of a distinct type of culture. These areas are, in a sense, generalizations, but the method we have followed here is highly empirical, since for each social group we have checked out the several culture traits and compared them in detail.

1. The Plains Area. For example, in the great western plains of the United States, we have thirty-one tribal groups, of which eleven may be considered as manifesting the typical culture of the area: viz., the Assiniboin, Arapaho, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Kiowa-Apache, Sarsi, and Teton-Dakota. The chief traits of this culture are the dependence upon the buffalo or bison, and the very limited use of roots and berries; absence of fishing; lack of agriculture; the tipi as a movable dwelling; transportation by land only, with the dog and the travois (in historic times with the horse); want of basketry and pottery; no true weaving; clothing of buffalo and deerskins; a special bead technique; high development of work in skins; special rawhide

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The Flag (Woodberry)

 * Woodberry, George E. (1917), "The Flag" in Fifes and Drums (1917).
 * Woodberry, George E. (1920), "The Flag" in The roamer and other poems (1920).

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Pathet Lao and Free Khmer. Throughout the month of May, the DRV had demanded that representatives of these movements be invited to the Conference to sit, like the Viet Minh, as belligerents wielding governmental power. These demands were consistently rejected by the non-Communist side, which argued that the Pathet Lao and Free Khmer were creatures of the Viet Minh, guilty of aggression against the Cambodian and Laotian governments (in contrast to the "civil war" in Vietnam), and not deserving status which they had in no way earned. When Molotov, on 17 May, recommended that "military matters" should be considered first, the question of seating the Pathet Lao and Khmer delegations was dropped.

Nevertheless, the Viet Minh persisted in their position on an all-Indochina political settlement when the significant bargaining was reduced to "underground" military talks between them and the French beginning in early June. The first compromise of the Viet Minh's position came on 20 May when Chou En-lai, in the same conversation with Eden at which the chief Chinese delegate also agreed to separate military from political matters, admitted that political settlements might be different for the three Indochinese states. Chou thus moved a step closer to the Western position, which held that the Laotian and Cambodian cases were substantially different from that in Vietnam. Not surprisingly, the Viet Minh, at a secret meeting with the French on 10 June, suddenly indicated their preference for concentrating on Vietnam rather than demanding the inclusion of Laotian and Cambodian problems in the bilateral discussions.

 * g.

The Viet Minh's major concern, as indicated on 16 June, was that they at least obtain absolute control of the Tonkin Delta, including Hanoi and Haiphong. Neither Chou nor the Viet Minh, however, went so far as to dismiss the existence of legitimate resistance movements in Laos and Cambodia. But in ongoing talks with the British, Chou proved far more willing than the Viet Minh to push aside Pathet Lao–Free Khmer interests. On 17 June, at a time when four rounds of secret Franco–Viet Minh military talks had failed to make headway, Chou told Eden that it "would not be difficult" to gain Viet Minh agreement on withdrawing their "volunteers" from Cambodia and Laos. Eden, moreover, got the impression from his meeting with Chou that the latter earnestly wanted a settlement and was greatly concerned over the possible break up of the conference. Cambodian resistance forces were small, making a political settlement with the Royal Government "easily" obtainable. In Laos, where those forces were larger, regroupment areas along the border with Vietnam and China (Sam Neua and Phong Saly Provinces) would be required. Asked by Eden whether there might not be difficulty in gaining Viet Minh agreement to the withdrawal of their forces from the two countries, Chou replied it would "not be difficult" in the context of a withdrawal of all foreign forces.

The Chinese, almost certainly with Soviet support, had made a major breakthrough in the negotiations by implicitly adopting the Western view that the Pathet Lao and Free Khmer forces did not represent Rh

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Siberia (Woodberry)

 * Woodberry, George E. (1917), as "The Return of the Exiles" in Fifes and Drums (1917).
 * Woodberry, George E. (1920), "Siberia: the Return of the Exiles" in The roamer and other poems (1920).

title: Siberia (Woodberry)


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