text:
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 Cohen, Arthur (Joseph), Q C. 1874, M.P., M.A., Magdalen Coll., Camb., 1861, B.A. (fifth wrangler) 1858, matric. London Univ 1848, judge of the Cinque Ports, counsel to the University of Cambridge since 1879, M.P. Southwark since 1880, a student of the Inner Temple 11 Nov., 1853 (then aged 23), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1857, studentship May, 1857, Q.C. 9 Feb., 1874, bencher 11 June, 1875 (3rd son of Benjamin Cohen, of London); born, 1829; married , 1860, Emmeline, dau. of Henry Nicholls, of Manchester.
 * 6, Holland Park, W.; 2, Paper Buildings, Temple E.C.; Reform Club.

Cohen, George Manchester, a member of the South-eastern circuit, a student of the Middle Temple 5 Nov., 1879, common law lecture prize, etc., 1881, called to the bar 21 June, 1882 (only son of Richard Whitaker Cohen, of Hornsey, Middlesex, gent); born,.
 * 3, Essex Court, Temple, E.C.

Cohen, Henry Emanuel, a student of the Middle Temple 29 Oct., 1868, called to the bar 6 June, 1871 (2nd son of Abraham Cohen, of Sydney, New South Wales, hotel keeper); born,.

Cokayne, George Edward, M.A., Exeter Coll., Oxon, 1851, F.S.A., Norroy king of arms since 1882, rouge dragon 1859-70, Lancaster herald 1870-82, attached to the garter mission to Portugal 1865, to Russia 1867, to Italy 1878, to Spain 1881, and to Saxony 1882, assumed in compliance with the testamentary injunction of his mother (the Hon. M. A. Adams) the surname and arms of Cokayne in lieu of those of Adams by royal licence 15 Aug., 1873, a student of Lincoln's Inn 16 Jan., 1850 (then aged 24), called to the bar 30 April, 1853 (4th son of William Adams, LL.D., of Thorpe, Surrey); born 29 April, 1825; married 2 Dec, 1856, Mary Dorothea, 2nd dau. of George Henry Gibbs, Esq., of Aldenham Park, Herts, and of Clifton Hampden, Oxon, etc., and has issue.
 * Rothwell Manor House, Northamptonshire; Ashbourne House, Putney, S.W.; Oxford and Cambridge Club.

Colam, Robert Frederic, a student of the Middle Temple 3 Nov., 1881, called to the bar 25 June, 1884 (3rd son of John Colam, Esq., of Croydon, Surrey, secretary to Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals); born,.

Colchester, Lord (Reginald Charles Edward Abbot), B.A. Christ Church, Oxon, 1st class classics and law and modern history 1863, fellow of All Souls' 1864, M.A. 1865, an Etonian, contested East Sussex 1865 and Devonport 1866, public examiner in jurisprudence and modern history Oxford 1870-1, sometime private secretary to Sir S. Northcote and the late Lord Derby, charity commissioner 1880-3, J.P., D.L. Sussex, a student of Lincoln's Inn 16 April, 1864 (then aged 22), called to the bar 30 April, 1867 (only son of Charles, 2nd Lord Colchester); born 13 Feb., 1842; married 28 Jan., 1869, Hon. Isabella Grace Maude, eldest dau. of Cornwallis, 4th Viscount Hawarden (see Foster's Peerage).
 * Forest Row, East Grinstead; 18, Portland Place, W.; Carlton and New University Clubs.

Cole, Alfred Clayton, M.A. Trin. Coll., Camb., a student of the Inner Temple 11 Oct., 1875 (then aged 20), called to the bar 9 June, 1880 (2nd son of William Henry Cole, Esq., of 64, Portland Place, London); born 1855.
 * 64, Portland Place, W.; 10, Lancaster Place, Strand, W.C.

Cole, Alfred Whaley, Q.C. Cape of Good Hope, of which bar he became a member 1856, a student of the Middle Temple 23 Jan., 1847, called to the bar 25 Jan., 1850 (4th son of William Nicholas Cole, of Havre de Grace, France, gentleman); born, ; married June, 1850, Eliza Hill, only dau. of late William Whitfield, It. R.N.
 * Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

Cole, Christian Frederick, B.A. Univ. Coll., Oxon, a student of the Inner Temple 1 Sept., 1879 (then aged 28), called to the bar 18 April, 1883 (2nd son of late Jacob Cole, of Kissey, Sierra Leone, West Africa, clerk); born, 1851.

Cole, Francis Thorne, practises at the Middlesex sessions and Central Criminal Court, a student of the Middle Temple 10 May, 1866, called to the bar 30 April, 1869 (only son of Francis Cole, Esq., late of Holsworthy, Devon, dec.); born,.
 * 2, Elm Court, Temple, E.C.

Edwin-Cole, James, F.R.H.S., J.P. co. Lincoln (parts of Holland) Dec, 1883, author of The Genealogy of the Family of Cole, a student of the Inner Temple 15 April, 1853 (then aged 18), called to the bar 30 April, 1856 (2nd surviving son of late John Cole, Esq., of Easthorpe Court, near Wigtoft, co. Lincoln); born 27 April, 1835; married 7 Dec, 1880, Mary Barbara, 2nd dau. of late Gent Huddleston, of Lincoln, solicitor.
 * Swineshead Hall, Spalding, co. Lincoln: Constitutional Club, S.W.

Cole, John William, common law tutor to the Inner Temple, a member of the South-eastern circuit, a student of the Inner Temple 31 Oct., 1867 (then aged 20), called to the bar 6 June, 1871 (eldest son of William Robert Cole, Esq., late of the Middle Temple, bar.-at-law, dec); born 2 Aug., 1847.
 * 93, Elgin Road, Harrow Road, W.: 3, Pump Court. Temple, E.C.; Oriental Club.

Cole, Richard Henry, author of The Particulars and Conditions of Sale, a student of the Inner Temple 14 Jan., 1870 (then aged 19), called to the bar 18 Nov., 1872 (2nd son of William Robert Cole, Esq., of the Middle Temple, bar.-at-law); born, 1851; married 28 July, 1875, Alice, dau of Benson Blundell, Esq., of the Middle Temple, bar.-at-law.
 * 12, Sevington Street, Harrow Road, W.; 12, Old Square, W.C.

title: Page:Men-at-the-Bar.djvu/128


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 1

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 1


text: Men-at-the-Bar/Cokayne, George Edward

title: Men-at-the-Bar/Cokayne, George Edward


text:
Page:Vanity Fair 1848.djvu/27

Rh as a young lady not unworthy to occupy a fitting position in their polished and refined circle. Those virtues which characterise the young English gentlewoman, those accomplishments which become her birth and station, will not be found wanting in the amiable Miss Sedley, whose industry and obedience have endeared her to her instructors, and whose delightful sweetness of temper has charmed her aged and her youthful companions.

"In music, in dancing, in orthography, in every variety of embroidery and needle-work, she will be found to have realised her friends' fondest wishes. In geography there is still much to be desired; and a careful and undeviating use of the backboard, for four hours daily during the next three years, is recommended as necessary to the acquirement of that dignified deportment and carriage, so requisite for every young lady of fashion.

"In the principles of religion and morality, Miss Sedley will be found worthy of an establishment which has been honoured by the presence of The Great Lexicographer, and the patronage of the admirable Mrs. Chapone. In leaving the Mall, Miss Amelia carries with her the hearts of her companions, and the affectionate regards of her mistress, who has the honour to subscribe herself, "Madam, "Your most obliged humble servant, "."

"P.S. Miss Sharp accompanies Miss Sedley. It is particularly requested that Miss Sharp's stay in Russell Square may not exceed ten days. The family of distinction with whom she is engaged, desire to avail themselves of her services as soon as possible."

This letter completed, Miss Pinkerton proceeded to write her own name, and Miss Sedley's, in the fly-leaf of a Johnson's Dictionary—the interesting work which she invariably presented to her scholars, on their departure from the Mall. On the cover was inserted a copy of "Lines addressed to a young lady on quitting Miss Pinkerton's school, at the Mall; by the late revered Doctor Samuel Johnson." In fact, the Lexicographer's name was always on the lips of this majestic woman, and a visit he had paid to her was the cause of her reputation and her fortune.

Being commanded by her elder sister to get "the Dictionary" from the cupboard, Miss Jemima had extracted two copies of the book from the receptacle in question. When Miss Pinkerton had finished the inscription in the first, Jemima, with rather a dubious and timid air, handed her the second.

"For whom is this, Miss Jemima?" said Miss Pinkerton, with awful coldness.

"For Becky Sharp," answered Jemima, trembling very much, and blushing over her withered face and neck, as she turned her back on her sister. "For Becky Sharp: she's going too."

"MISS JEMIMA!" exclaimed Miss Pinkerton, in the largest capitals. "Are you in your senses? Replace the Dixonary in the closet, and never venture to take such a liberty in future."

"Well, sister, it's only two-and-ninepence, and poor Becky will be miserable if she don't get one."

title: Page:Vanity Fair 1848.djvu/27


text:
Page:Vanity Fair 1848.djvu/11

 WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS ON STEEL AND WOOD BY THE AUTHOR.

LONDON:

BRADBURY AND EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET.

1848.

title: Page:Vanity Fair 1848.djvu/11


text:
Wikisource talk:Bots/List

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title: Wikisource talk:Bots/List


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 2

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 2


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 3

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 3


text: Evolution of the Thermometer

title: Evolution of the Thermometer


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 4

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 4


text:
Author:Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward

Works

 * The History of Wales’ London [1850–3], 8vo.
 * The Natural History of the Year’ (originally issued in the ‘Teacher's Offering,’ 1851), London, 1852, 12mo; 3rd ed. 1863; revised edit. (so called) 1872.
 * The History of the United States of America (by W. H. Bartlett as far as vol. i. p. 536), New York [1855–6], 3 vols. 8vo.
 * First Lessons on the English Reformation London [1857], 12mo; 2nd edit. 1860.
 * First Lessons in Astronomy (5th edit. rewritten by B. B. Woodward), London [1857], 12mo.
 * First Lessons in the Evidences of Christianity (originally issued in the ‘Teacher's Offering,’ 1858–9), London [1860?], 12mo; 2nd edit. 1865.
 * A General History of Hampshire (as far as p. 317, afterwards carried on by Theodor C. Wilks), London [1859–62], 4to.
 * Encyclopædia of Chronology in conjunction with W. L. R. Cates, who completed it, London, 1872, 8vo.

Editor

 * The History and Antiquities of Norwich Castle by his father, 1847, 4to.
 * Barclay's Complete Dictionary of the English Language’ new edit. 1851, 4to, for which he wrote numerous articles, especially in biography and geography.
 * Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge’ new ed. 1859, for which he wrote a ‘compendious English grammar,’ besides rewriting much of the rest.

Also wrote many articles and reviews for the ‘Eclectic Review,’ Sharpe's ‘London Magazine,’ the ‘Gentleman's Magazine,’ and other periodicals.

title: Author:Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 4/The Blues


text:
Page talk:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/74

The calculation appears to be meant to represent (11,336 - 11,124) / 11,124, in which case the printed form

is wrong, it should be


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 5

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Chapter 5


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Table

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Table


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Epitome

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Epitome


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Authorities


text: Evolution of the Thermometer/Index

title: Evolution of the Thermometer/Index


text: File:Aboriginesofvictoria02.djvu-285.png


text: File:Aboriginesofvictoria02.djvu-286.png


text: File:Aboriginesofvictoria02.djvu-287.png


title: File:Aboriginesofvictoria02.djvu-4.png


text:
The Moths of the British Isles/Chapter 10

Some thirteen or fourteen species occurring in Europe are referred by Staudinger to this family. Only five of these occur in the British Isles. The moths are of rather small size, less, in fact, than some of the so-called "Micros," among which they have been placed. Probably they may, for this reason, be overlooked. They mostly sit head downwards on the trunks, branches, or leaves of trees, sometimes on palings, but the rarer ones hide themselves among the thick, low herbage. The time of flight is after dark, and the moths occasionally visit the sugar patch. The caterpillar has only eight false legs (prolegs), the first pair being the absent ones; the body is clothed with tufts of hair, the hairs of the front and rear tufts longer than the others. When full grown it spins a more or less spindle-shaped, toughish cocoon of silk mixed with the larval hairs, which is usually coated with particles scraped from the surface of twig or stem upon which it is spun up.

The fore wings are whitish or greyish, with a dark, almost black, patch at the base; this patch is marked with whitish, and is limited by the first cross line, which is black and curved; the second line, also black, is wavy and curved inwards towards the front margin; between these lines is a dusky central shade, commencing in a blackish spot on the front margin, and sometimes forming an inward border to the second line; a raised tuft of white, grey-capped scales on the basal patch, and two other tufts beyond it and in a line with the front margin; hind wings dark grey, paler towards the base (Plate 73).

The caterpillar is reddish brown, clothed with short greyish hairs; the spots and central line on the back are whitish. It hatches from the egg early in August, and after feeding for a while, retires to winter quarters, selecting some sheltered cranny, such as a chink in the tree bark, where it spins over itself a few strands of silk. Feeding is resumed in May and June, after hibernation, usually on the upperside of leaves of sloe and whitethorn, and also of fruit trees, such as apple and plum, and sometimes pear (Plate 72).

The moth is out in June and July. It flies at dusk.

Widely distributed and generally common in the south of England; somewhat rare in Scotland—perhaps overlooked. It has been reported from Ireland, but is not mentioned by Kane in his catalogue of Irish Lepidoptera.

Fore wings greyish white, freckled and dusted with grey brown at the base and on the front and outer margins; two black wavy and toothed cross lines; between the base of the wing and the second line are three raised tufts of grey brown tipped whitish scales: hind wings dark grey, paler towards the base (Plate 73).

The caterpillar feeds, probably after hibernation, from April to June, on the undersides of oak leaves. It is pale ochreous in colour, with pale reddish brown warts and star-like tufts of hair; a blackish bar on the back of ring six; head blackish.

The moth emerges from the chrysalis in July. It occurs in oak woods in Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hants, Somerset and Gloucestershire; also in Berks, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, but it is very local and seems to be restricted to a more or less limited area in all its known haunts, among which the most favoured are perhaps the New Forest in Hampshire and Abbots Wood in Sussex. In some years it may be fairly common, or even plentiful, and then becomes quite scarce during several seasons in the same place.

Very similar to the last species, but whiter; the first line is curved towards the second tuft of raised scales, thence gently curved to the inner margin, above which there is a slight inward angle or elbow; the second line is less wavy; hind wings whitish grey with a black central dot, and in the male whiter along the inner area. The head and palpi of this species are white, but strigula has a greyish white head and dark palpi. Again, the antennæ in the male of the present species are ciliated, but in male strigula they are bipectinated (Plate 73).

The caterpillar, which feeds in July and August on the leaves of oak, beech, sloe, and apple, etc., is reddish, inclining to yellow on the back, which is traversed by black lines, the central double and interrupted on rings seven to nine by rusty V-shaped marks.

The moth flies in May and June.

This species appears to have a wider distribution than either of the others. It is the only one known with certainty to occur in Ireland, and it is widely spread in that country. In Scotland it is found in Perthshire and Ayrshire, and probably is present in other parts. In England it is obtained in most counties, except perhaps the northern, although it has been recorded from various parts of Yorkshire.

Fore wings white, largely light brown between the obscure cross lines; outer marginal area clouded, and front margin dotted with light brown; three tufts of raised scales placed as in previous species; hind wings of the male, greyish white, browner on the outer margin; of female, brownish grey. Varies in the amount of light brown, and sometimes this is much reduced; more rarely it disappears entirely (Plate 73).

The caterpillar varies in colour from ochreous with pink tinge to bone white; the warts are set with pale hairs and those along the back and at each extremity are longest; a double greyish line along the middle of the back, and a series of black marks on each side; these marks unite across the back on rings six and ten. After hibernation, it feeds in Spring until June, on the young growth of bramble, raspberry, strawberry, and cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans), and is stated to also eat hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum). The brownish cocoon is constructed on a stem of grass and in appearance looks not unlike a swelling of the stem.

This species was first observed in England in the year 1859, when four specimens were taken in July at Chattenden Roughs, a large hilly wood in North-east Kent. It still occurs, no doubt, in the Kentish locality referred to, but is now very scarce there compared with what it must have been some twenty-five years ago. Barrett notes a specimen from the Isle of Wight. Mr. G. T. Porritt states that he has seen one of two examples captured in South Devon in 1901; and another, a male, has been recorded as taken at light in a house near Weymouth, Dorset, in August, 1904, and from Lewes in 1906.

At the time the first specimens were met with in England the species seems to have been rare, or little known on the Continent. Since then knowledge of its distribution has vastly increased, and it has now been found not only in many parts of Central Europe, but also in Finland, Italy, Dalmatia; Asia Minor, Persia, and extending into Amurland and Japan.

The general colour of this moth is white; the fore wings more or less sprinkled and clouded with brownish grey or dark grey, and crossed by two black lines, the first curved and the second slightly waved, indented and edged inwardly with ochreous brown; the three raised tufts are white, capped with grey (Plate 73).

This is the only really variable species among the five occurring in this country. In some specimens the space between the cross lines is largely filled in with dark grey, and in other specimens the wings are almost entirely white, traces of the cross lines being the only markings.

Mr. Robert Adkin, who has reared this species from the egg, kindly allowed me to select specimens from his fine series to illustrate the range of aberration; these are figured on Plate 73.

Caterpillar brownish inclining to purplish, with an ochreous line along the middle of the back and some brown V-shaped black marks. Head blackish brown. It feeds in May, after hibernation, on various clovers, preferring the blossoms, and bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus).

The moth appears some time between mid-July and mid-August. The late Mr. Tugwell, by keeping some larvæ, reared from the egg, in a warm room induced them to feed up instead of hibernating, and they attained the moth state in December.

This is another exceedingly local species in England. It was first taken at Bembridge in the Isle of Wight in 1858, and one or two specimens have since been obtained in that island. Examples have also occurred on the cliffs near Hastings, and at Folkestone; and one has been recorded as taken in a light trap at Woodbridge in Suffolk, July 21, 1904. The headquarters for the species in this country are the Deal sand-hills, on the Kentish coast, where it was discovered over a quarter of a century ago, and probably occurs still.


text:
The Moths of the British Isles/Chapter 11

Authors are not at all agreed as to the systematic position of this family, and there seems to be some difference of opinion as to the species that properly belong to it. Sir George Hampson has transferred the group to the Noctuidæ and separated S. revayana from the others, placing it in his sub-family Sarrothripinæ, to which also belong certain Indian species.

Only four species occur in our islands. Three of these have green fore wings and pale grey or whitish hind wings. The other species, Sarrothripa revayana, has the fore wings of various shades of grey, brown, or blackish; its boat-shaped cocoon is very like a small edition of that of Hylophila bicolorana, and, although the caterpillar is in some respects not very dissimilar to those of the green-winged species, the moth does not seem quite to be one of their set.

In size, colour of the fore wings, and general appearance this moth might be mistaken for the much more common Green Tortrix (Tortrix viridana). On examination however, it will be seen to have white hind wings, whilst those of the Tortrix are grey. Again, the head, front of thorax, and front edge of the fore wings are white in the present species (Plate 73).

The caterpillar is green, inclining to whitish on the back, the latter lined with brownish, and bearing warts on rings six and eleven. It feeds in July and August on the terminal leaves of osier and willow; these leaves are drawn together with silk, and the solid appearance of the foliage at the end of the twig will afford a clue to the probable whereabouts of the caterpillar when one is searching for it. Chrysalis, brown, darker on the back, paler on the under parts, and on the wing covers; enclosed in a tough boat-shaped cocoon which is often constructed on the bark of a twig or stem of the food plant. As a rule the moth does not emerge until the following year, but in some years a few will appear in the autumn, and others remain in the chrysalis until the following May or June.

This species inhabits damp places where there are osiers, and it is especially common in the fens. It occurs in most of the southern and eastern counties of England, but does not seem to be recorded from other parts of the British Isles.

The bright green fore wings are crossed by two shaded silvery lines, and a narrow silvery band, the latter running from the tip of the wing to the inner margin, and usually there is a whitish shade between the two lines; the fringes are reddish, or pinkish, and the front and inner margins are tinged with the same colour, sometimes strongly so on the inner margin. The hind wings of the male are whitish, tinged with yellowish green; fringes white, more or less tinted with reddish; in the female the hind wings are entirely silky white. Antennæ reddish (Plate 73).

Caterpillar, green, with yellowish dots, lines on the back, and edging to first ring of the body; the anal claspers are marked above with red. It feeds in August and September on the leaves of oak, birch, beech and nut (Plate 72).

The chrysalis is purplish above merging into pale brown beneath; wing-cases ochreous brown; the dorsal surface, especially the ring divisions, are dusted with whitish dots. It is enclosed in a papery cocoon of a pale pinky brown colour; frequently spun up on the back of a leaf, but also in a curled leaf, bark chink, or among herbage and litter on the ground.

The moth flies in June and July, and is not uncommon in woods throughout the greater part of England, it may be beaten from trees, and is often to be seen sitting on bracken and other undergrowth. It is also found in Scotland up to Moray, and seems to be pretty generally distributed in Ireland. The range of this species abroad extends through Northern and Central Europe, South Russia, Siberia, to Japan.

The green colour of the fore wings of this moth is rather paler than of those of the last species; they are crossed by two almost parallel yellowish lines; hind wings white and silky. Antennæ whitish towards the tip and reddish towards the base (Plate 73).

Caterpillar green, sometimes tinged with yellow, a dark line along the middle of the back is edged on each side with whitish.

The chrysalis is pale greenish, with a narrow black stripe from the head along the thorax extending to the fourth abdominal ring; the wing cases reach the sixth ring, which together with the back of the fifth are roughened with fine blackish points.

Cocoon boat-shaped with the keel raised at the head end. When the moth emerges from this end the cocoon closes up tightly again, so that no opening is to be seen; slight pressure on the back will cause the exit slit to open.

This rather local species is perhaps commoner in the eastern counties of England than elsewhere, but it occurs in the oak woods of Berkshire, and southward to Kent and Hampshire. Much scarcer in the west and midlands, and apparently unknown in the north. Barrett gives Galway and Queen's County in Ireland, but adds that it is rare.

Distributed over Central and Southern Europe, and its range extends to South Sweden, and Asia Minor.

This is a most variable species, ranging from greyish white through various shades of brown to blackish; the grey and the brown forms are sometimes tinged with green. In the illustration some of the more usual forms of marking are shown. 1 (more or less typical) and 2 are the most common; 5 (ramosana) is less frequently met with; 4 (ilicanus) has ashy brown fore wings with a black bar at the base, three black dots on the disc, and a series of black dots before the outer margin, the triangular marking on the front margin is reddish; 3 is a modification of the typical form approaching var. dilutana; 6 is of the afzelianus form, with shiny brownish fore wings and black markings.

The caterpillar is green with whiter ring divisions; a few long whitish hairs on each segment; a faintly darker line along the back, and a paler interrupted line along the sides. Head yellowish green marked with brownish and sparsely clothed with whitish hairs. It feeds in June and July on the leaves of oak and sometimes on sallow. It spins a whitish boat-shaped cocoon on the under side of an oak leaf or twig, and therein turns to a pale green chrysalis with a broad purple brown stripe along the back from the head; the blunt last ring is tinged with purplish brown and the edge of the ring immediately before it is fringed with minute hooks (Plate 72, Figs. 4, 4a).

The moth seems to be out from August to April. It may be beaten from trees and bushes throughout the autumn, and during the later months of the year it seems to hide in yews and hollies. Just before dusk it becomes active and may then be netted as it flies; later on it may be seen regaling itself on overripe blackberries, or on the ivy blossom, and it is not an infrequent visitor to the sugar patch.

The species has been found in almost every part of England and Wales wherever there are oak woods. In Scotland it occurs up to Argyllshire and Moray. For Ireland, Kane gives Tyrone, Westmeath, Galway, Kerry, and Limerick.

Distribution abroad: Central and Southern Europe, extending northwards to Scandinavia, and eastwards to Amurland and Japan.


text:
Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/77

 must have contained the two salts in proportions now indeterminable.

According to Boerhaave, Fahrenheit's zero coincides with the greatest natural cold observed in Iceland in the winter of 1709, and this is sometimes stated to have been the origin of the lower fixed point in the scale. Surely that winter was remarkably mild in frozen Iceland, for zero is often exceeded in countries not regarded as arctic; yet Boerhaave remarks that "nature never produced a cold beyond zero." The Meteorological Yearbook for Denmark shows that the temperature fell in March 1888, at Stykkisholm, Iceland, to −8.5° F.

There is another element of uncertainty in Fahrenheit's scale. Both Musschenbroek and Boerhaave state that the bulb of Fahrenheit's thermometer contains 11,124 parts of mercury at zero and that when the bulb is placed in melting ice the metal expands 32 of these parts; but Boerhaave, in another place, says the bulb contains 10,872 parts of mercury, and in still a third passage he gives the number of parts as 11,520, which Dr. Martine apprehends is nearer the truth. These vaguely named "parts" depend upon the figures taken for the expansion of mercury; to show their


text:
Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/78

 derivation we must bear in mind that the ratio between the capacity of the bulb and of the stem is constant for equal increments of heat.

then: 161.7 : 10,000 = 180 : x, and x = 11,124.

(Fahrenheit's figure 161.7 is, however, erroneous, it should be 181.53.)

A number of Fahrenheit's original thermometers are preserved in European institutions; two are in the physical cabinet, Leyden, one 653 mm. long is graduated from −4° to 600°, the other one is 232 mm. long and has a scale from −4 to 100°. Both are filled with mercury. Comparison with a modern standard thermometer shows that the freezing-point of water in the larger one is 34.2°, and in the smaller 34.1°. The Real Gymnasium of St. Peter, in Danzig, treasures one of Fahrenheit's early thermometers; it is filled with alcohol, measures 110 mm. in length, and has attached in a glass tube a paper scale graduated from


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 Réaumur, who next sought to improve the thermometer, was one of the most popular savants in France; his position in the world of science as well as in that of society, was far more conspicuous than that of the humble artisan Fahrenheit, and his aristocratic station is evidenced by his full name: René Antoine Ferchault, Seigneur de Réaumur, des Angles et de la Bermondière. He early became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, and for more than fifty years assiduously cultivated the sciences; his studies embraced the industrial arts, the physical and the natural sciences, and his publications were very numerous. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1731 he published a long paper entitled: "Rules for the Construction of Thermometers with Comparable Scales," which in its verbosity and prolixity contrasts strongly with Fahrenheit's conciseness.

Réaumur, like so many Frenchmen, completely ignored the thermometrical labors of the German, and rejected quicksilver, owing to its small coefficient of expansion; he sought by means of dilute alcohol to arrange a scale so that a definite change in volume would correspond to a definite rise or fall in temperature.


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 He adopted a single fixed point, the freezing-point of water, a constant more difficult to determine accurately than the melting-point of ice; he ascertained that alcohol diluted with one-fifth water expanded from 1000 to 1080 volumes between the freezing- and boiling-points of water, and so he took zero for the lower and 80 for the higher temperature, dividing the intervening space into 80 parts.

Réaumur showed much ingenuity in his experimental work, but in his theoretical conclusions he made serious errors; he believed erroneously that he obtained the temperature of boiling water by immersing the unsealed alcohol tube in boiling water, and he ignored the influence of air-pressure, although Fahrenheit's experiments were generally known. For these and other reasons his thermometers were not satisfactory; with bulbs three to four inches in diameter the instruments were too large for standardizing smaller ones, and attempts to transfer Réaumur's scale to mercury thermometers led to confusion. Lambert, writing in 1779, gives for Réaumur three scales: first, that intended by him, second, the so-called Réaumur scale applied to mercury thermometers, and third, the scale actually obtained by


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 the savant, which did not, however, agree with that proposed by him.

Thermometers made after Réaumur's plans were constructed by the Abbé Nollet (1732), by Tobias Mayer, by Boissier de Sauvages, and by Brisson; the latter proposed quite properly to use the melting-point of ice rather than the freezing-point of water as the lower fixed point, and he took the heat of the human body for a second fixed point making it equal to 32½ degrees Brisson.

The Abbé Soumille constructed a thermometer like that of Réaumur, but in four sections; in the first section the temperature of melting ice was placed at the top of the tube, and the tube was graduated downward to−20 at the bottom; the second section began where the first ended, the temperature of melting ice being at the bottom of the tube and the scale extending to +20; the third section ran from 20 to 40 and the fourth to 60. The spaces between degrees were an inch long admitting of fine subdivision. (Hist. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1770, p. 112.)

Réaumur's methods were severely criticized by De Luc in his researches on the modifications of the atmosphere; on the other hand


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 Lambert makes the caustic remark: "Had De Luc written a work four times as small, he might have said four times as much as he did say."

Shortly after Réaumur's publication Joseph Nicolas de l'Isle, professor of astronomy in St. Petersburg, devised a thermometer on the same principles, but adopted as the point of departure the temperature of boiling water, calling it zero, and adjusting the scale so that the freezing-point of water equaled 150 degrees. This instrument was not much used outside of Russia.

In 1741, Jacques Barthélémi Micheli du Crest, of Switzerland, an army officer, presented many arguments against the scale of Réaumur; he used mercury only for calibrating tubes and rejected it as a thermometrical liquid, owing to the great difficulty of purifying it, preferring alcohol that had stood the gunpowder test. He took as one fixed point the "temperature of the terrestrial globe," as observed in the cellar of the Paris observatory, 84 feet deep, and as the second fixed point the boiling-point of water; the interval he divided into 100 degrees. The degrees in this scale nearly coincide with those of Réaumur. The


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 of Du Crest was commonly used in northern Switzerland, and only a few years ago aged people often cited air-temperatures in Du Crest degrees.

In 1749 Du Crest was condemned for political reasons to lifelong imprisonment, and during the seventeen years that he spent in the fortress at Aargau he published several papers on meteorology; he died in 1766.

Anders Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, proposed in 1742 a scale with zero at the boiling-point of water (the barometer at 25 inches, 3 lines), and with 100 at the temperature of melting ice. Celsius's scale is sometimes confounded with the French centesimal scale now in use, through neglect to remember the inversion. The change to the modern centigrade was made by two scientists independently, Christin, of Lyons, and Märten Strömer, of Upsala. The Lyons savant worked out the same plan as Celsius independently and published his results in the local papers in 1743. He disregarded the barometric pressure but in other respects his thermometer did not differ from the mercury centigrade thermometer of France; Christin's instrument was known as the thermometer of Lyons. 6


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 0° to 100°. Above the scale is the inscription: "Cilinder termometron Ferneid."

Fahrenheit was followed almost immediately by a host of imitators, each devising a scale differing from Fahrenheit's and from one another, none of them possessing any special advantage. In 1712 to 1713, Fahrenheit, being in Berlin, communicated his method of constructing thermometers to his teacher of higher mathematics, Prof. Barnsdorf, and the latter made instruments with a scale of his own, the relation being as follows:

Barnsdorf taught the art to Dr. Lange, professor of mathematics in Halle, and he devised a scale of his own:

Besides these imitators of Fahrenheit there may be named Christian Kirch, professor of astronomy in Berlin, Chr. Friedr. Ludolff,


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 from freezing-point of water to 90° a temperature equal to that of warm water capable of being endured by the hand held still, certainly a very vague standard but perhaps sufficiently accurate for vegetable life.

The proper temperatures for specified plants were as follows, the degrees being those given by Hales. These instruments were used by the eminent botanist, Rev. Stephen Hales, who describes them in his "Vegetable Statics," 1727 (p. 61). Dr. Hales remarks that "64 of these degrees is nearly equal to the heat of the blood of animals," which he determined by placing the "ball of the thermometer in the blood of an expiring ox." The "temperate" point was about 18 of these degrees.


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 Seven years later Strömer, a colleague of Celsius, also inverted the scale and his thermometer was used in meteorological observations at Upsala from 1750.

The centesimal division of the scale between the freezing-point and the boiling-point has been claimed for Linnaeus, the eminent Swedish botanist. In 1844, Arago made a communication to the French Academy of Sciences, quoting a private letter of Linnaeus, who wrote that he was the first to construct a thermometer with the centesimal division of the scale between the freezing-point and the boiling-point of water, for use in a green-house. Unfortunately the date of Linnaeus' letter is not given. (Compte rendu, 18, 1063.)

I have now completed the task undertaken, viz., to sketch impartially the history of the evolution of the thermometer from its first beginnings in Italy, through its crude early forms down to the three standards now commonly used in all civilized lands. It is interesting to note: First, that no nation makes popular use of the thermometer designed by its own citizen. The instrument constructed by the German Fahrenheit in the Netherlands is used almost exclusively in English-speaking lands;


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 * FVan Swinden gives blood heat = 54.
 * GVan Swinden gives zero = 1.29.
 * HZero at F.P. of mercury.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willard, Daniel

WILLARD, DANIEL (1861-), American railway official, was born at North Hartland, Vt., Jan. 28 1861. He graduated from the Windsor (Vt.) high school in 1878, studied for a year at the Mass. Agricultural College, Amherst, and in 1879 began his railway career as track labourer in Vermont. He rose to fireman, then to engineer, and for twenty years held various positions on several roads, including the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie in its early days. In 1899 he was made assistant manager of the Baltimore and Ohio R.R., and two years later assistant to the president of the Erie R.R., of which he soon became first vice-president and general manager. From 1904 to 1910 he was second vice-president of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy R.R., and after 1909 was also president of the Colorado Midland and vice-president of the Colorado and Southern. In 1910 he was elected president of the Baltimore and Ohio. In Oct. 1916 he was appointed a member of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense, and the following March chairman of the commission. After

America's entrance into the World War, he was appointed in July 1917 a member of the special committee of the Council of National Defense to secure mediation in case of strikes on war contracts. In Nov. 1917 he was appointed by President Wilson chairman of the War Industries Board, charged with devising and expediting means of producing the Government's industrial requirements for effective warfare. In Jan. 1918 he resigned in order to devote personal attention to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. After the Government had taken over the railways as a war measure a Federal manager displaced him as operating head of his road, but he remained president in charge of its corporate affairs, in which position he continued when the U.S. Government gave up control of the railways.


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 country with the higher practical requirements of optical science, would doubtless be able to evolve corollaries of the greatest importance bearing upon this question.

My chief object in working out the scheme of Applied Optics herein explained, has been to arrive at a complete system of algebraic formulæ of the second order which can be applied to any optical system likely to occur in practice with results which in general very closely approach to accuracy. I have therefore confined myself for the most part to the attainment of those practical conditions which have to be fulfilled by the best optical constructions conditions which include, and run closely parallel to, Von Seidel's five well-recognised conditions.

As far as I know, there is only one work in the English language professing to give a sketch of Von Seidel's methods, and that is Professor Silvanus Thompson's Contributions to Photographic Optics, after Otto Lummer, while there are numerous accounts of his methods published in German works, and several treatises built upon them, such as Steinheil and Voit's Handbuch der Angewandten Optik,, 1891, and Von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objective, the latter a most instructive and valuable work ; and last, but not least, Dr. Siegfried Czapski's new edition of Der Theorie des optischen Instrumenten, 1904. This last work is a philosophical, broad, and general survey of the various problems which have to be faced, and if possible solved, by the optical designer who would rise superior to mere rule of thumb. But its perusal requires in many respects a higher level of mathematical training than is necessary for the understanding of this treatise.

In the German language there exists quite a mine of optical literature written by men who are practical opticians as well as mathematical experts, while we have scarcely anything of a corresponding nature in the English tongue.

The fact that such works as I have just mentioned have been published in Germany (as first editions, at any rate) for so many years, and yet no demand has ever arisen for English translations, is only too painful evidence of the apathy with which the Science of Optics has been regarded in this country.

There are, of course, various works on geometrical optics which have more or less recently emanated from our universities, such as Heath's Geometrical Optics, Parkinson's Optics, Pendlebury's Lenses and


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willard, Edward Smith

WILLARD, EDWARD SMITH (1853-1915), British actor, was born at Brighton Jan. 9 1853 and first appeared in The Lady of Lyons at Weymouth at the age of sixteen. He toured first with E. H. Sothern and then joined various stock companies, coming to London in 1875 and playing Antonio in The Merchant of Venice with Charles Rice in 1876. After a varied experience in Shakespearean and other plays he was engaged by Wilson Barrett in 1881 for the Princess's theatre, London, and until 1886 played leading parts in many melodramas, the most notable amongst them being “The Spider” in Henry Arthur Jones's The Silver King. In 1889 he produced Jones's The Middleman at the Shaftesbury theatre, London, afterward taking it to America. He played Professor Goodwillie in Barrie's The Professor's Love Story in 1894 at the Comedy theatre, London. After 1903 he acted only in America, repeating these and other roles; but in 1911 he played Brutus at the Gala performance of scenes from Julius Caesar at His Majesty's theatre, London. He died in London Nov. 9 1915.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willcocks, Sir William

WILLCOCKS, SIR WILLIAM (1852-), British engineer, was born in India in 1852 and educated at Roorkee College, India. From 1872 to 1807 he was engaged successively in the Indian and Egyptian Public Works Departments. He designed and carried through the Assuan Dam in 1898, and for this work the C.M.G. was conferred upon him, followed by the K.C.M.G. in 1902. His most important undertaking, however, was the irrigation of Mesopotamia, begun in 1911 at an estimated cost of £26,195,000. The scheme provided for the irrigation of 3,500,000 acres. His published works include Egyptian Irrigation (1889); The Irrigation of Mesopotamia (1905) and From the Garden of Eden to the Crossing of the Jordan (1918). In Jan. 1921 he was put on trial before the Supreme Consular Court of Egypt on a charge of sedition and criminal libel, on account of statements made by him impugning the trustworthiness of the data concerning the Nile irrigation published by Sir Murdoch Macdonald, adviser of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works. He was found guilty March 11, and on April 16 he was bound over to be of good behaviour for one year.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willett, William

WILLETT, WILLIAM (1856-1915), English builder, was born at Farnham, Surrey, in Sept. 1856. He made a name for himself in London as a designer of beautiful houses; but his chief claim to fame was his conception and promotion of the system of “daylight saving.” Though scoffed at in his lifetime, his idea was taken up and put into practice in 1916, and honour has been paid to Willett's memory, which was denied to him in life. He died at Chislehurst March 4 1915.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/William II. of Hohenzollern

'''WILLIAM II. OF HOHENZOLLERN''' (1850-), German ex-Emperor and ex-King of Prussia (see ). When the hour of the downfall of the German Empire and the Prussian dynasty, following upon the military collapse of Germany, arrived in Nov. 1918, the ex-Emperor's flight to Holland bore in the eyes of his countrymen the aspect of a pitiable incident, rather than of a tragic climax. For a considerable portion of the rest of the world, which had frequently overestimated his personal, as distinguished from his official, significance, his conduct and bearing on the eve of the war, throughout its course, and at the moment of his country's disaster, may indeed have come as something of a revelation. There followed a series of disclosures as to his exploits in previous years, above all that piece of personal diplomacy, the Treaty into which he tricked the still

more inadequate Emperor of Russia at their meeting at Björkö on the Russian Imperial yacht (July 23, 24, 1905), and the equally characteristic “Willy-Nicky” correspondence (mainly in 1904-5), so-called on account of the signatures which the two Imperial correspondents appended to their letters. Only the Kaiser's share in that correspondence has (1920) been published. The Björkö Treaty, which was signed by the Tsar without consultation with the minister responsible for the foreign policy of Russia, represented an attempt by William II. to imitate Bismarck's Treaty of Reinsurance with Russia (1887-1890), which the great Chancellor had concluded behind the back of his ally Austria-Hungary, and which was allowed by his successor, Caprivi, to lapse in 1890 as being “too complicated”—i.e. too full of duplicity.

In William II.'s Treaty of Björkö, Russia and Germany engaged “to make foreign disturbers of the peace quiet, and in case of necessity to stand by one another with their armed strength.” Count Lamsdorff, then Russian Minister for Foreign Affairs, was “profoundly excited and upset” when he read the document, since, as it stood, it imposed upon Russia the obligation of fighting on Germany's side if Germany were involved in war with Russia's ally, France. It is true that Russia also pledged herself to make every effort to gain France over to this new alliance, the object of William II. being to organize a continental coalition against Great Britain. When Count Witte, on his return from signing peace with Japan at Portsmouth (U.S.A.), was informed by Count Lamsdorff of the terms of the Treaty, he asked: “Does not his Majesty (Nicholas II.) know that we have a treaty with France?” “Of course his Majesty knows that,” Count Lamsdorff replied, “but the fact must have slipped from his mind, or, what is more probable, he was befogged by William's verbiage, and he failed to grasp the substance of the matter” (Count Witte's Memoirs, English ed. 1921). Count Witte and Count Lamsdorff were afterward able to obtain the abandonment of the Treaty, while Prince Bülow and the German Foreign Office, conscious of the absurdity of their master's achievement, were content to let the Imperial agreement be treated as non avenu. In the Willy-Nicky correspondence, which he conducted in bad English, William had endeavoured to hold Nicholas to the bargain by adjuring him, “God is our testator” (sic). The correspondence represents an mttempt on the part of William to exercise a kind of tutorship over Nicholas even in Russian home affairs and to instill into his mind suspicions both of France and of Great Britain.

During the years immediately preceding the World War William II. was only gradually recovering from the contretemps which overtook him in 1908, when Prince Bülow, then Chancellor, repudiated the utterances published on William's behalf in the Daily Telegraph (Oct. 28 1908) and exacted from him by the threat of resignation a public promise that he would in future abstain from such personal incursions into the realm of foreign policy. The Emperor nevertheless continued when he visited foreign courts to impress upon those with whom he came into contact his conviction that he was an autocrat in the conduct of Germany's foreign relations.

At the end of Oct. 1910 he visited the Belgian court, accompanied by the Empress, and addressing the King of the Belgians said: “May our relations of confidence and friendly neighbourliness be drawn ever closer! May welfare and blessing be shed by Your Majesty's reign upon your Royal house and upon your people! That is my desire, which springs from the depths of my heart.” At the Hotel de Ville he addressed the Mayor, M. Max, who four years later was to be sent to a German prison by the invaders of his country, and spoke of the “sober and industrious” Belgian people, expressing at the same time “our profound gratitude and our warmest wishes for the prosperity of Brussels and for a happy future.” When the Emperor delivered these speeches he knew that Count von Schlieffen's plan for violating Belgian neutrality in the event of war with France lay cut and dried in the pigeon-holes of the German General Staff, and it was a plan which he himself had endorsed. In May 1911 he paid his last visit to England, and was present

as the guest of King George V. at the unveiling of the monument to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace, when the King, whose advisers remained ignorant of certain of the Emperor's wilder intrigues and schemes, referred to “the strong and living ties of friendship between the thrones and persons of the two sovereigns.”

In Feb. 1912 Lord Haldane visited Berlin in order to discuss proposals for a concurrent limitation in the increase of British and German naval armaments. As Lord Haldane states in his book Before the War, the visit was the sequel of a personal initiative of William II. through the medium of Sir Ernest Cassel. The Emperor had been concerned at the state of tension, dangerous to peace, which had attended the Morocco negotiations with France in the previous year. That critical episode had arisen out of the despatch of the German gunboat Panther on July 11 1911 to Agadir, not long after William II.'s return from his visit to England. In the meetings of German ministers with Lord Haldane, at one of which (between Lord Haldane and Adml. von Tirpitz) the Emperor was present in the self-imposed capacity of audience or chorus, he manifestly endeavoured for Lord Haldane's benefit to play for the time being the part of a constitutional monarch, exhibiting the balance of the ministerial advice from one side (Tirpitz) and from the other (Bethmann Hollweg) by which he had to guide his course. Lord Haldane's conclusion was that William II., and with him Germany, suffered from the lack of a constitutional system with a responsible government, the ministers being chosen more or less arbitrarily by the Emperor “and chosen in varying moods as to policy. . . . Thus the Kaiser was constantly being pulled at from different sides, and whichever minister had the most powerful combination at his back generally got the best of the argument. He had constantly to fix one eye on public opinion in Germany, and another on public opinion abroad. It is therefore not surprising that Germany seemed to foreigners a strange and unintelligible country.” Lord Haldane's opinion gives one aspect of the situation, but hardly takes sufficient account of the wayward personal initiative of William II., springing either from his own conceptions (as at Björkö) or from casual outside influences which his ministers were unable to control. Incidentally it may be mentioned that except, perhaps, for the Eulenburg episode in 1905-7 there was no so-called Court party, although military influences were frequently at work. As Prince Bülow said, the mischief which was done by sudden personal interventions of the Emperor was manifest, but nothing was known of the mischief which had been prevented.

In home affairs there was a fresh Imperial outburst about Alsace-Lorraine in May 1912, when the Emperor threatened the Burgomaster of Strassburg with the withdrawal of the new constitution of the Reichsland, which had been granted in the previous year. The threat was ill-considered, but Bethmann Hollweg defended it in the Reichstag.

In March 1912 William II. paid a visit to the Emperor Francis Joseph at Schönbrunn, and in April he met King Victor Emanuel at Venice by way of preparing for the renewal of the Triple Alliance, which took place on the following Dec. 5. There was a visit of King Ferdinand of Bulgaria to Berlin in June, and in July the Emperor met the Tsar at Baltic Port. An incident which excited considerable attention was the presence of William II. for the first time at manœuvres of the Swiss army, and the favourable popular reception of the Imperial visitor at Berne, Basle and Zürich (Sept. 3-7 1912). A good number of German-Swiss officers had studied military affairs in Germany, and William II., for obvious reasons, seized every opportunity of encouraging the professional sympathies between the two armies, which bore fruit during the World War in the partiality of the Swiss General Staff.

It is noteworthy that during the critical years of the Balkan wars and negotiations, particularly in 1913, William II. kept more than usually in the background. His government was coöperating at the London Ambassedors' Conference for the localization of the conflict and the restoration of peace. He

was, nevertheless, cultivating close personal relations, afterward to bear fruit during the World War, with his brother-in-law, Constantine, who had succeeded his assassinated father on the throne of Greece in March 1913. He sent Constantine flattering telegrams on his military prowess, and was consequently able in Aug. 1913 to induce the King of Greece to remove the last obstacle to the Peace of Bucharest (Aug. 10) by withdrawing the Greek claims, as against the Bulgarian, to the Thracian Hinterland of Kavala. King Carol of Rumania, at whose request the intervention had taken place, telegraphed to his kinsman, “thanks to you, the peace will be final.”

King George V., with Queen Mary, and likewise the Tsar Nicholas II., were present in Berlin at the marriage on May 24 1913 of William II.'s only daughter, Princess Victoria Louise, with Prince Ernest Augustus of Cumberland, at last acknowledged as Duke of Brunswick, a marriage which was described as marking the reconciliation between the Guelphs of Hanover and the Hohenzollerns after the feud which had lasted since the conquest of Hanover by Prussia and the expulsion of the dynasty in 1866. These festivities were followed on June 16 and 17 by brilliant celebrations of the 25th anniversary of the accession of William II., with copious references by German sovereigns and official personages to the military strength of the German Empire under his sway as the guarantee of European peace.

A curious incident occurred in the same month. The Emperor disclosed the fact that one of his predecessors on the Prussian throne, Frederick William IV., had in a political testament recommended his successor, if opportunity arose, to annul the Prussian Constitution which he had granted, or rather imposed, in 1848. William II. announced that he had magnanimously burned this document.

A visit which excited considerable speculation at a later date, when, during the World War, the future of the Russian borderlands became a question of practical politics, was that which William II. paid on June 12 1914 to the ill-fated heir to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Francis Ferdinand, and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, at Konopisht Castle in Bohemia. The Emperor was accompanied by Adml. von Tirpitz. It is most probable that, apart from the sustained and ultimately successful efforts of William II. to win the reluctant personal sympathies of Francis Ferdinand (partly by encouraging his ambition to make his wife—who was not of royal birth—Empress when he should succeed to the throne), the object of the visit was to enlist his host's support for the extension of Austrian and inferentially of German naval power and influence in the Mediterranean. The story that the Emperor broached vast schemes for providing, after a contemplated European war, kingdoms for Francis Ferdinand's two sons by resuscitating the Greater Poland of the Jagiellos and by creating a great South-Slav State stretching to Salonika, seems entirely fanciful. A main feature of these alleged schemes was that the hereditary Austrian dominions should politically come into the confederated German Empire. Such an idea was never entertained by any sovereign or government during the Hohenzollern epoch. It had been, indeed, the so-called “Great German” policy of the German Liberals in 1848, but it was rejected by Bismarck and by the ruling classes of Prussia. Its realization, apart from other considerations, would have entailed a diminution of the influence of the Prussian Throne and Government, and an immense strengthening of German Catholicism. It again became, of course, the cherished aspiration of republican Germany and republican Austria after the World War. But it never was an old-Prussian or a Hohenzollern policy.

The news of the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife at Serajevo on June 28 1914 reached William II. on his yacht at Kiel during the regatta. His first exclamation, “Now I must begin all over again, my work of years is undone,” showed that he had reckoned upon the Archduke as an instrument of German policy when he should ascend the thrones of the dual monarchy. William II. returned from Kiel to Potsdam for a week, and the laying of the mines which caused the world-explosion began. On July 5 Count Hoyos arrived at

Potsdam with a letter from the Emperor Francis Joseph containing a memorandum, written before the Serajevo assassination, describing the situation in the Balkans, the menace of the Pan-Slavist agitation, particularly in Serbia, and the changed attitude of Rumania. It was only by cultivating friendship with Bulgaria and by isolating and diminishing Serbia as a factor in the Balkans that these dangers could be averted. The crime of Serajevo, it was added, had only confirmed this estimate of the situation. William II. gave Count Hoyos a reply in which he said that any contemplated action against Serbia ought to be taken without delay, that Russia would certainly be hostile, but that he had long reckoned upon this eventuality. If it came to war between Austria and Russia, Germany would loyally take her stand by her ally. A conference (not, as erroneously reported, a Crown Council, which would have meant the presence ' of the whole Prussian Ministry) afterwards took place, and was attended by the Chancellor (Bethmann Hollweg), the War Minister (Gen. von Falkenhayn), the Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs (Zimmermann) and the Chief of the Emperor's personal Military Cabinet (von Lyncker). And on the following day, July 6, there was a conference with Adml. von Kapelle, Tirpitz's right hand man at the Admiralty (Tirpitz was on leave), and with representatives of the War Ministry and the General Staff. It was resolved to take measures of preparation for the event of war, and orders in this sense were issued. At the same time it was arranged that all appearance of unusual excitement or activity should be avoided, and that the Emperor should, according to programme, proceed upon his annual cruise in northern waters. He left for Kiel on the same day, and joined the fleet during its summer manœuvres off Norway. He was constantly kept informed by telegraph of the progress of events. And now began the famous series of his marginal notes, afterward published under the German Republican Government, upon the despatches he received. He was at first enthusiastic for the most energetic measures against Serbia. He suggested that Austria should reoccupy the Sandjak, so as to sever the union of Serbia and Montenegro and prevent Serbian access to the sea. Then “there will be a row at once,” he wrote. He deprecated war councils and conferences at Vienna, “because,” as Frederick the Great had said, “the timid party always gets the upper hand.” On July 19 he ordered the German battle-fleet not to disperse, so that it could at a moment's notice be recalled to Kiel. His chief anxiety at this stage was for the safety of the Baltic, and he wrote an angry marginal note because “the civilian Chancellor (Bethmann Hollweg) had not yet grasped his meaning.” He (William II.) must “concentrate his forces on land and sea.”

The text of the Austrian note to Serbia was communicated officially to the German Foreign Office on July 22, but the German ambassador in Vienna, Tschirschky, had had it on the previous day, and had probably telegraphed it direct to the German Emperor. It was presented at Belgrade on July 23.

The Kaiser at first exulted over a firmness of which he had thought Austria incapable, and expressed the belief that all Slav states were hollow. “Just tread firmly on the feet of this rabble!”—he added. On hearing that Count Berchtold, the Austrian Foreign Minister, did not desire to take any territory from Serbia he wrote, “Donkey! Austria must retake the Sandjak. . . . Austria must become preponderant over the smaller states at the expense of Russia, else there will be no peace.” On the report of Serbian mobilization he recalled the German fleet from the North Sea to Kiel. “If Russia mobilizes, our fleet must be ready in the Baltic, and so it is going home.” The chancellor had suggested on July 26 that the Emperor should calm European anxiety by remaining in Norwegian waters, but he was now thoroughly aroused, and on the following day he returned to Potsdam. There he received the text of the Serbian reply, and at first thought it “a great moral success.” No doubt the Serbians were liars and orientals, and Austria, he said in a letter to his chancellor, might do well to claim a “satisfaction d'honneur” and to exercise “une douce violence” by a temporary occupation of Serbian territory as a guarantee.

Anxiety about the attitude of Great Britain was now beginning to influence the Kaiser's mind, and his rage was sudden and great when his ambassador in London reported that Sir Edward Grey regarded the situation as serious and had suggested mediation. He described this as a piece of English pharisaism, and Sir Edward Grey as a “base deceiver, arch-base and Mephistophelian. Great Britain ought to put pressure upon Russia,” etc. On July 29 began the rapid interchange of telegrams between the Kaiser and the Tsar, which was to be continued up to and even immediately after the German declaration of war, and in which the object of the Kaiser's frequently rhetorical appeals was to induce Russia to reverse her measures of mobilization against Austria and to refrain from mobilization toward the German frontier. He hoped to score over Russia, by a policy of menace, a diplomatic victory in the Serbian question similar to, but far greater than, that which he had obtained in 1909, when, as he boasted, he had appeared beside his Austrian ally “in shining armour.” On July 29 a “Kronrat” with the whole body of the Kaiser's military and political advisers was held at Potsdam, and from Bethmann Hollweg's interview the same evening with the British ambassador (Sir Edward Goschen) and his bid for British neutrality it seems clear that the decision had fallen in favour of war.

After the proclamation of the state of “danger of war” (drohende Kriegsgefahr) on July 31, and the delivery of an ultimatum on the same day at St. Petersburg, and after a public mobilization order on the afternoon of August 1, a previously prepared declaration of war against Russia was delivered by the German ambassador at St. Petersburg on the evening of August 1.

Throughout the final episode of the German attempts to secure British neutrality the Kaiser was in a state of violent rage and disappointment, and he gave vent to his feelings in a memorandum to his chancellor on July 30 which may well be the wildest outburst of political passion that a monarch ever committed to paper. He declared that Great Britain had caught Germany in the trap of her loyalty to her Austrian alliance, that this was the crowning success of the policy of King Edward VII., who “though he is dead, is still stronger than I am”; and, finally, he exhorted the chancellor to inflame the Mahommedan world, for “if we are to bleed to death, England shall at least lose India,” William II.'s brief exchange of telegrams with King George V., based, as the Emperor's assumptions were, on a false report by brother, Prince Henry, and on a mistaken account by the German ambassador in London of a telephonic conversation with Sir Edward Grey, may be mentioned in passing. If King George's Government would assure the neutrality of France, the Kaiser was prepared to “employ elsewhere” his troops then moving against her. After Sir Edward Goschen had asked for his passports, a Berlin mob broke the windows of the British embassy. The Kaiser sent an aide-de-camp to the ambassador with an unkingly message, truculently delivered, expressing his regret, but telling Sir E. Goschen that he would “gather from these occurrences an idea of the feelings of the German people respecting the action of Great Britain in joining with other nations against her old allies of Waterloo.”

On August 4, William II. opened the session of the last Reichstag of his reign by a war speech, to which he added a personal appeal to the deputies (the Social Democrats alone were absent) to support him “through thick and thin,” and individually to shake hands with him in token of their promise to do this. To one of the deputies he said. “Now we will give them (his enemies) a good thrashing.”

If during the World War William II. ever attempted to interfere in military dispositions, it is clear that the leaders of the army were successful in preventing his effective intervention. He paid the inevitable visits to the fighting lines at critical moments, especially when a German success was believed to be impending, but there is no reason to believe that he was ever, in accordance with the traditions of his house, under fire. He once or twice narrowly escaped aeroplane attacks, but this was accidental. He lived in his comfortable Imperial train or in a portable asbestos hut, or at Supreme Headquarters at Pless

Castle in Silesia, and afterward at Spa. He took no practical military part in the war. His crude rhetoric was from time to time employed in firing the ardour of his troops, as when he exhorted them in Oct. 1914 to destroy French's “contemptible little army,” or when in the last year of the war he celebrated the 30th anniversary (June 15 1918) of his accession by describing the struggle as a mortal combat between Anglo-Saxon and Prusso-German ideals. In the eyes of his people his personal prestige did not increase; it distinctly diminished, even before the last phase of open aversion from him. He formally retained the final decision in military as in political affairs. There was a long and bitter struggle between three successive chancellors (Michaelis may be left out of account) and the higher military command on a variety of questions—hypothetical terms of peace, the Brest Litovsk negotiations, the armistice question, and, throughout the war, the best method of maintaining the war-spirit of the population. More than once Hindenburg and Ludendorff threatened to resign, and it was between them and Bethmann Hollweg that William II. had to choose when he parted (July 14 1917) with his first war chancellor. “The Government,” as Ludendorff says, “had itself to blame, as it frequently appealed to its agreement with the chief military command, and dismissed proposals and demands on the ground that the military leaders objected.”

In naval matters the Kaiser had greater success in resisting the authoritative methods of Grand Adml. von Tirpitz, and carrying out his own policy and Bethmann Hollweg's of holding the High Seas Fleet in reserve, or (as he called it in his order of Aug. 6 1914) “on the defensive.” For a long time Bethmann, and perhaps also William II., seem to have hoped that Great Britain might be detached from the Allies, if the struggle for naval ascendency were not too keenly pressed. This hope was chimerical, but Bethmann was not a far-seeing statesman, and the views of the Kaiser, who reckoned upon an intact fleet as a valuable political asset for peace negotiations, were seldom based on sound calculations. Tirpitz found himself compelled to resign on March 16 1916.

William II.'s reputation in peace-time had been largely based upon the spectacular setting which he gave to his policy and upon his rhetorical speeches. All effects of that kind gradually failed him during the World War, and some of them lent themselves to ridicule. In Jan. 1916 he had a meeting with his Balkan ally, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, at Nisch, when Ferdinand at a banquet addressed him in obsequious terms and exclaimed in unconsciously ambiguous Latin, “Tu es Caesar et gloriosus!” The Emperor's part in the attempts to secure a “German Peace” in 1916 and 1917 was singularly unfortunate. The declaration issued on Dec. 12 1916 by Germany and the powers associated with her was manifestly a manœuvre to anticipate President Wilson's peace action, to represent the Allies as blood-thirsty and unconciliatory, and to hearten the German working-classes for the fight. It gave no information as to terms, and it contained no reference to the crucial question of the future of Belgium. What the Kaiser's ideas of peace terms at that date may have been is a matter of inference from what has since become known regarding his attitude some six months later. After the Reichstag's so-called “Peace Resolution” of July 1917, efforts were made to induce the Vatican to interest itself in the question of peace, and ultimately a papal note on the subject was issued. In a document addressed on behalf of William II. to Mgr. Pacelli, the Papal Nuncio at Munich, the Kaiser's peace terms were described as including an indemnity of 30 milliard dollars from the United States and 40 milliard dollars from France. Longwy and Briey, rich mineral districts on the French frontier, were to go to Germany, and Great Britain was to give up Malta. The disclosure of these items in the Imperial document was made in the Reichstag on April 27 1921, by the Independent Socialist, Dr. Breitscheid, Chairman of the Reichstag Committee for investigating responsibility for the origin and prolongation of the World War. In 1917 as in 1916, the only peace which William II. and his military and political backers contemplated was a peace with victory (Siegfrieden).

The events which led up to the collapse of Germany and flight of William II. in Nov. 1918 were political as well as military. Even so stout a Catholic conservative as the Chancellor, Count Hertling, had described the Prussian franchise question, for example, as “a matter of life and death for the dynasty.” Internal reforms were long overdue, and this one had been promised in the Kaiser's edicts of April and July 1917, though only as a result of the apprehensions excited by the revolution in Russia. The obstinacy of the Prussian reactionary Chamber of Deputies and the Upper House delayed the reform until the monarchy fell. In the Reichstag the Imperial prerogatives—especially the right in certain circumstances to make war and peace—were being dealt with by a committee on the Constitution. Prince Max of Baden's Coalition Government, which included several Social Democrats, was avowedly installed for the purpose of introducing Parliamentary Government as well as for making peace. Here again reform came too late.

On Aug. 14 1918, the alarm which Ludendorff had communicated to the Kaiser regarding events in the field and the moral of the German troops had induced William II. and his political advisers to contemplate applying to Queen Wilhelmina of Holland for mediation, but nothing was done for some weeks. In the middle of Sept. the Kaiser addressed to the workmen at Krupp's an appealing speech which showed that he recognized the military situation and the internal conditions of Germany to be almost desperate. He returned at the beginning of Oct. from headquarters at Spa to Berlin.

Meanwhile an urgent appeal by Hindenburg and Ludendorff to the German Government to open negotiations at once for an armistice had reveabd the desperate state of affairs at the front to the members of the Government, including the Social Democrats. Shortly after the Emperor's return, the constitutional changes limiting his prerogatives had been adopted by the Reichstag, and the bill was awaiting his signature. On Oct. 28 he accepted the constitutional law in a letter to Prince Max, in which he avowed sentiments with regard to the rights and duties of the representatives of the people which might have saved his dynasty if he had expressed them years or perhaps even some months earlier. The question of his abdication had now definitely arisen and was being ventilated toward the end of Oct. in the Socialist and the Democratic press. President Wilson's frank declaration that he could not trust the word of the existing rulers of Germany gave a great impetus to the discussion. William II. on the throne, whatever might be his revised sentiments, was regarded in Germany as an obstacle to peace. The Independent Socialists had gone further than the other parties of the Left and, through the mouth of their leader, Haase, had declared in the Reichstag that it was no longer a question of the Kaiser alone, but of the Prussian and other German dynasties. The Majority Socialists, who at that stage would have been satisfied with the abdication of William II. and the renunciation of the Crown Prince's rights to the succession, were forced by the attitude of the Socialist left wing to make at least the Kaiser question most urgent. Scheidemann, in his book Der Zusammenbruch (1920), gives an account of the reception of the members of the Imperial Government by the Emperor on Oct. 20 1918 at Bellevue Castle in Berlin. It was the first time (with the exception of a parliamentary soirée at the residence of Dr. Helfferich in July 1917, at the time of the so-called Peace Resolution) that William II. had met the new Social Democratic Secretaries of State, men whom he had formerly described in public speeches as “fellows without a country.” Scheidemann says that the Emperor, in uniform, advanced holding in his hand a piece of cardboard, on both sides of which on typewritten sheets the words he was to address to his new ministers were pasted. William II. wore a forced smile and moved the cardboard sheet to and fro as if he meant to say “You know how these things are made up.” He read the address with a loud voice, and “it would have made an excellent impression,” Scheidemann says, “if it had been delivered some years earlier.” It expressed the intention that nowhere in the world should there be freer institutions than in Germany. It

concluded, however, with a reference to “the last breath and the last blow”—a phrase which was singularly out of place in view of the desperate efforts to obtain an armistice. The Kaiser afterward affably conversed with the Socialists who were presented to him. After he had departed, it was decided by the Ministry that the speech should not be published, as the situation was so far advanced that it would have made a ridiculous impression.

William II. knew what was in the air, and on Oct. 30 he quietly left Berlin for the western front. The revolution now broke out in the navy at Kiel and on Nov. 7 at Munich. Everything had been prepared by the Independent Socialists for the Berlin outbreak which came on the 9th, although another date had originally been contemplated. The Governmental Socialists, unable to control the movement, felt themselves constrained to address an ultimatum on the abdication question to the Chancellor, Prince Max. Emissaries from the Government had been at Spa from Nov. 3 urging the Emperor to abdicate, but he was stubborn and considered that it was his duty to remain and save Germany from Bolshevism. “Moreover,” he said, “I should willingly work with the new order and the new Government; various gentlemen in it whom I have met are very sympathetic to me.” On the morning of Nov. 9 Hindenburg was early at the Villa Fraineuse, the Emperor's quarters at Spa. The field-marshal had had a thorough discussion of the situation with representatives of the different army commanders, and at one o'clock he sent a final report to the Villa Fraineuse stating that, in the fairly unanimous opinion of the generals, the troops could still be relied upon to fight against the enemy, but would never fight against their own comrades, i.e. in defence of the Kaiser and the Prussian dynasty. Meanwhile, abdication was constantly being urged by telephone from Berlin. About two o'clock a precise answer was sent to Berlin that the Kaiser abdicated as German Emperor but not as King of Prussia. The reply came by telephone: “Too late: we have already published his abdication.” To the Crown Prince, who had arrived for luncheon, the Emperor said as he departed about three: “Tell the soldiers that it is not true that I have abdicated as King of Prussia.” Later, Hindenburg arrived at the Villa with Gen. Groener and Adml. Scheer. It was then “put in the Kaiser's mouth” to abdicate as King of Prussia also. When he left the conference he said to Count Dohna-Schlodien, his aide-de-camp, “You have no longer any Supreme War Lord.”

All the afternoon and evening his suite urged him, in view of the feeling among the troops, to escape to Holland. He at first refused, but consented to go and dine in the Imperial train. On the way he said: “I am so awfully ashamed. I cannot find it in my heart to do this. I cannot go away. If there be but one faithful battalion here, I shall remain at Spa.” He thus was contemplating a fratricidal war in defence of his crown. In the train one alarming message after another arrived regarding disorder on the lines of communication and concerning the approach of retreating troops to Spa. To those around him the Kaiser said: “At other times I have always known what to do, now I am at a loss.” At 10 P.M. Adml. von Hintze urged him to start, for “in an hour it might be too late.” The Kaiser finally said: “To facilitate peace for the nation I shall go to Holland. If I went to Germany, it would be supposed that I wanted to rally a new party to help me to make a coup d'état.” He now considered himself relieved from any duties toward the army, as it had left him in the lurch; nor did he recognize any duty toward the Government which, on its own responsibility, had announced his abdication.

At 5 o'clock next morning, Nov. 10, the Emperor left his train and, with a small suite, fled in motor-cars across the Dutch frontier to Eysden, where he arrived about 8 A.M. According to one account (Lady Norah Bentinck's The ex-Kaiser in Exile), he had walked up to a Dutch soldier at the frontier, saying, “I am the German Emperor,” and had offered his sword; but no one knew what to do. At 10 A.M. his railway train arrived at Eysden, and he took refuge in it and there

spent that day and the following night. Arrangements had meanwhile been made, apparently through the Dutch authorities, with Count Godard Bentinck, who with some reluctance consented to receive him as a guest “for a few days” in his castle at Amerongen. The Imperial train left Eysden at 9 A.M. and at 3 P.M. reached Maarn where Count Bentinck and Count Lynden, governor of the province of Utrecht, were awaiting the ex-Kaiser on the platform. There was a considerable suite in the train, who remained to unpack large quantities of food and wine which they had brought with them. Count Bentinck arrived at Amerongen in his motor-car with the Emperor as evening was falling, and, as the guest entered the house, his first words were “now give me a cup of real good English tea.” On Nov. 28 William II. signed his formal abdication at Amerongen, renouncing his rights to the Crown of Prussia and his consequential rights to the German Imperial Crown. On the same day the Empress Augusta Victoria arrived from Wilhelmshöhe Castle to join her husband. His personal suite, which had been a burden to his host, was soon reduced to two officials, a master of ceremonies and an aide-de-camp, but he retained a number of his servants. He seldom ventured, save for motor-car drives, beyond the precincts of the castle, which is surrounded by a moat. He spent most of his time in sawing logs of wood, an occupation in which he was so diligent that he provided the castle with firewood for the whole winter. As souvenirs, instead of autographs, he used to give away small blocks of wood on which he had inscribed his monogram. In June 1920 the ex-Kaiser and the ex-Kaiserin left Amerongen for Doorn, a property which the ex-Kaiser had just purchased, and which is situated near the main road between Utrecht and Arnheim. The house and grounds were henceforth watched by Dutch soldiers. Up to March 1920 the Allies' demand for his extradition was an open question, and notes were exchanged on the subject with the Dutch Government, which officially regarded him as a German refugee but undertook to prevent any political activities on his part. He was believed to have ample means, although it was reported toward the close of 1921 that he had been compelled further to reduce his establishment. In the autumn he managed to send a rhetorical message to a royalist demonstration in Berlin at which Ludendorff was present.

The prevailing German verdict upon William II. after the war was that he had been entirely unequal, by temperament, by capacity and by education, to the task of guiding the destinies of the German nation. His training before his accession had been almost entirely in the school of Prussian militarism, and, notwithstanding his subsequent travels and his intercourse with statesmen and men of affairs in his own and other countries, he retained in many matters the narrow outlook and the modes of expression of the average Prussian officer. In his cosmogony sovereigns and dynasties occupied a place entirely apart, and he regarded himself and a certain number of other sovereigns as occupying their positions by the grace of God, and as endowed with something like infallibility in home affairs. In his public speeches he affected the rhetoric of the Prussian officers' mess-room banquets and seemed quite unable to measure the effect of his words upon international relations. He aspired to guide the art, the intellect, the industry and commerce and even the theology of his country. He never realized that the age had moved beyond him in spheres in which he was essentially a dilettante. He had a lax conception of truth and honour in his personal diplomacy, and was accustomed to shift his standpoint in foreign affairs according to the nationality of the person with whom he was conversing. Dr. Hammann, however, testifies that there were almost inexplicable lacunae in the Kaiser's memory. One of the German verdicts upon him, which does not appear to be far from the truth, was that his intellect and character had never matured.

The Empress (see ), who was at the castle of Wilhelmshöhe (the place of Napoleon III.'s internment in 1870-71) at the time of the Emperor's flight, joined him at Amerongen on Nov. 28 1918. She was already suffering from

a heart complaint, and anxiety with regard to her husband and the possibility of his extradition weighed upon her more than upon him. She died at Doorn Castle on April 11 1921. Her remains were conveyed to Potsdam and placed in a temporary mausoleum in the park of the New Palace. The funeral furnished an occasion for some royalist demonstrations in Berlin. The Empress, although she accompanied William II. on many of his political journeys, confined her interests mainly to her family duties and to works of charity. She had been active in promoting Christian enterprises, particularly the building of churches in Berlin. She was regarded as the model of a German housewife and of a Landesmutter, as the Germans used to call the consorts of their sovereigns.

(G. S.)


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HERE were tears and trouble in Stockholm; there was sorrow in every house and hamlet in Sweden; there was consternation throughout Protestant Europe. Gustavus Adolphus was dead! The "Lion of the North" had fallen on the bloody and victorious field of Lutzen, and only a very small girl of six stood as the representative of Sweden's royalty.

The States of Sweden—that is, the representatives of the different sections and peoples of the kingdom—gathered in haste within the Riddarhaus, or Hall of Assembly, in Stockholm. There was much anxious controversy over the situation. The nation was in desperate strait, and some were for one thing and some were for another. There was even talk of making the government a republic, like the state of Venice; and the supporters of 192

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/William

WILLIAM, German Crown Prince up to 1918 (1882-), eldest child of William II. of Germany, was born at the Marble Palace, Potsdam, on May 6 1882. He was educated at the Military Cadets School at Ploen in Holstein and at the university of Bonn. After visits to the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg and an unofficial visit to Scotland he went on a tour with his brother Prince Eitel Friedrich to Constantinople and to the Nile. On his return to Germany he began his military career by serving in the 1st Foot Guards, and accompanied the Kaiser to England (Jan. 19-Feb. 5 1901) on the occasion of the funeral of Queen Victoria. On June 6 1903 he married the Duchess Cecilia, sister of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. There were five children, four sons and one daughter, of the marriage. His political and personal interventions in public affairs gave some trouble in the years preceding the war. He was credited with pan-German sympathies, and on one occasion (Nov. 9 1911) he appeared in the royal box in the Reichstag during the debate on the Morocco settlement and demonstratively applauded speakers who were attacking Great Britain and the Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg. He was afterward compelled by the Emperor to make amends to the Chancellor. Other ill-advised interventions were in connexion with the Brunswick settlement, in regard to which he questioned (1914) the adequacy of his brother-in-law Prince Ernest Augustus of Cumberland's renunciation of all claim to the throne of Hanover, and again, on the occasion of the conflict in Dec. 1913 at Zabern in Alsace between officers of the garrison and the civilian population, when he despatched telegrams encouraging the officers in their truculent attitude. He had, nevertheless, done a public service in 1907 by calling the attention of the Emperor to the disreputable morals of the court camerilla, headed by Prince Philip Eulenburg, which was being denounced in the Zukunft by Maximilian Harden. In 1910-1 he paid a visit to Ceylon, India and Egypt, and he published some account of his experiences in his Jagdtagebuch. On the outbreak of the World War he was promoted to the rank of Lt.-General and appointed to the command of the V. Army in the west, where his troops were successful in the battles of Longwy and Longuyon on Aug. 22 and 24 1914. In Sept. 1915 he received the command of an army group, and he was nominally in charge of the German operations against Verdun. After the Armistice he represented himself in newspaper interviews as having been sceptical, since the battle of the Marne, regarding the possibility of the ultimate success of

the German arms. His flight to Holland speedily followed that of the Emperor in Nov. 1918, and he went to Wieringen, an island in the Zuider Zee. He formally renounced on Dec. 1 1918 his rights of succession to the crowns of Prussia and the German Empire. The ex-Crown Princess and her children continued to reside at Potsdam, where she enjoyed considerable popularity among all classes of the population.

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HROUGHOUT that portion of the easterly United States where the noble bay called the Chesapeake cuts Virginia in two, and where the James, broadest of all the rivers of the "Old Dominion," rolls its glittering waters toward the sea, there lived, years ago, a notable race of men.

For generations they had held the land, and, though their clothing was scanty and their customs odd, they possessed many of the elements of character that are esteemed noble, and, had they been left to themselves, they might have progressed—so people who have studied into their character now believe—into a fairly advanced stage of what is known as barbaric civilization.

They lived in long, low houses of bark and boughs, each house large enough to accommodate, perhaps, from eighty to a hundred persons—twenty 208

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