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 means of the rapid isoclinal folding, they form lenticular masses. In Islay and at various localities on the mainland a conglomerate occurs at or near the base of the quartzites, which contains fragments of the underlying rocks and boulders of granite not now found in place in that region.

On the mainland, on the north side of the compound synclinal folding of Loch Awe, the Ardrishaig phyllites reappear at Craignish near Kilmartin, and the quartzites of this group are supposed to come to the surface again in Glencoe, not far from the outcrop of the Schiehallion quartzite.

The metamorphic rocks are associated with bands of epidiorite which have shared in the folding and metamorphism of the region. These are largely developed near Loch Awe, in Knapdale, and on the south-east coast of Islay. They have been usually regarded as intrusive, but south of Tayvallich on the mainland, lavas and tuffs, which have escaped deformation, occur in the Easdale slates and the pebbly limestone.

The Lower Old Red Sandstone, chiefly composed of volcanic rocks—lavas and tuffs—rests unconformably on the metamorphic series. These rocks cover a wide area in Lorne between Loch Melfort, Oban and the Pass of Brander, and they reappear in the lofty mountains on both sides of Glencoe. Representatives of this formation are found in Kintyre, south of Campbeltown, where the sediments prevail. The intrusive igneous rocks belonging to this period are widely distributed and form conspicuous features. The plutonic masses are represented by the granite of Ben Cruachan, by the diorite of Gleann Domhainn, and by the kentallenite (a basic rock related to the monxonites), near Ballachulish. Throughout the Lorne volcanic plateau there are numerous dykes of porphyrite which likewise traverse the schists and part of the Ben Cruachan granite. Sheets of quartz-porphyry, lamprophyre and diorite are also represented, the first of these types being quarried at Crarae on the north shore of Loch Fyne.

The Upper Old Red Sandstone forms isolated patches resting unconformably on all older rocks, on the west coast of Kintyre, and between Campbeltown and Southend. In the district of Campbeltown these red sandstones and cornstones are followed by the volcanic rocks of the Calciferous Sandstone series, which lie to the south of the depression at Machrihanish, and are succeeded by the lower limestones and coals of the Carboniferous Limestone series.

On the north and south shores of the promontory of Ardnamurchan there are small patches of Jurassic strata ranging from the Lower Lias to the Oxford Clay, and in Morvern on the shores of Loch Aline representatives of the Upper Greensand are covered by the basaltic lavas of Tertiary age. The acid and basic plutonic rocks (gabbros and granophyres) of Tertiary time occur in Ardnamurchan. A striking geological feature of the county is the number of dolerite and basalt dykes trending in a north-west direction, which are referred to the same period of intrusion. There is, however, another group of dolerite dykes running east and west near Dunoon and elsewhere, which are cut by the former and are probably of older date.

Lead veins occur at Strontian which have yielded a number of minerals, including sphalerite, fluorite, strontianite, harmotone, brewsterite and pilolite. Near Inveraray, nickeliferous ore has been obtained at two localities.

Climate.—The rainfall is very abundant. At Oban, the average annual amount is 64·18 in.; in Glen Fyne, 104·11 in.; at the bridge of Orchy, 113·62 in., and at Upper Glencoe 127·65. The prevailing winds, as observed near Crinan, are south-west and south-east, and next in frequency are the north-west and north-east. The average yearly temperature is 48° F.

Agriculture.—Argyllshire was formerly partly covered with natural forests, remains of which, consisting chiefly of oak, ash, pine and birch, are still visible in the mosses; but, owing to the clearance of the ground for the introduction of sheep, and to past neglect of planting, the county is now remarkable for its lack of wood, except in the neighbourhood of Inveraray, where there are extensive and flourishing plantations, and a few other places. Replanting, however, has been carried on. Most of the county is unfitted for agriculture; but many districts afford fine pasturage for mountain sheep; and some of the valleys, such as Glendaruel, are very fertile. The chief crop is oats; there is a little barley, but no wheat. The shire is one of those where the crofting system exists, but it is by no means universal. It is predominant in Tyree and the western district of the mainland, but elsewhere farms of moderate size are the rule. The cattle, though small, are equal to any other breed in the kingdom, and are marketed in large numbers in the south. Dairy farming is carried on to some extent in the southern parts of Kintyre, where there is a large proportion of arable land. In the higher tracts sheep have taken the place of cattle with excellent results. The black-faced is the species most generally reared.

Industries.—Whisky is manufactured at Campbeltown, in Islay, at Oban, Ardrishaig and elsewhere. Gunpowder is made at Kames (Kyles of Bute), Melfort and Furnace. Coarse woollens are made for home use; but fishing is the most important industry, Loch Fyne being famous for its herrings. The season lasts from June to January, but white fishing is carried on at one or other of the ports all the year round. Slate and granite quarrying and some coal-mining are the only other industries of any consequence.

Communications.—Owing partly to the paucity of trading industries and partly to the fact that, owing to its greatly indented coast-line, no place in the shire is more than 12 m. from the sea, the railway mileage in the county is very small. The Tyndrum to Oban section of the Caledonian railway company’s system is within the county limits; a small portion of the track of the North British railway company’s line to Mallaig skirts the extreme west of the shire, and the Caledonian line from Oban to Ballachulish serves the northern coast districts of the Argyllshire mainland. In connexion with this last route mention should be made of the cantilever bridge crossing the Falls of Lora with a span of 500 ft. at a height of 125 ft. above the water-way. The chief means of communication is by steamers, which maintain regular intercourse between Glasgow and various parts of the coast. In order to avoid the circuitous passage round the Mull of Kintyre the Crinan Canal, across the isthmus from Ardrishaig to Loch Crinan, a distance of 9 m., was constructed in 1793–1801, at a cost of £142,000. It has 15 locks, an average depth of 10 ft., a surface width of 66 ft., and bottom width of 30 ft., is navigable by vessels of 200 tons, and runs through a district of remarkable beauty. Another canal unites Campbeltown with Dalavaddy. In summer the mails for the islands and the great bulk of the tourist traffic by the MacBrayne fleet is conveyed through the Crinan Canal, transhipment being effected at Ardrishaig and Crinan. Throughout the year goods traffic between the Clyde and elsewhere and the West Highland ports is conveyed by deep-sea steamers round the Mull. Before the advent of railways the shire contained many famous coaching routes, but now coaches only run during the tourist season, either in connexion with train and steamer, or in districts still not served by either.

Population and Government.—Owing to emigration, chiefly to Canada, the population has declined, almost without a break, since 1831, when it was 100,973, to 74,085 in 1891 and 73,642 in 1901, in which year there were 24 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 the number of Gaelic-speaking persons was 34,224, of whom 3313 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Campbeltown (population in 1901, 8286), Dunoon (6779) and Oban (5427), with Ardrishaig (1285), Ballachulish (1143), Lochgilphead (1313) and Tarbert (1697). The county returns a member to parliament. Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban belong to the Ayr district group of parliamentary burghs. Argyllshire is a sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs-substitute at Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban; courts are held also at Tobermory, Lochgilphead, Bowmore in Islay, and Dunoon. Both Presbyterian bodies are strongly represented; there are Roman Catholic and (Anglican) Episcopal bishops of Argyll and the Isles, and there is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral at Oban. Campbeltown, Dunoon and Oban have secondary schools, Tarbert public school has a secondary department, and several other schools earn grants for giving higher education. Part of the “residue” grant is spent by the county council on classes of navigation and other subjects in various schools, short courses in agriculture for farmers, and in providing bursaries.

History.—The early history of Argyll (Airergaidheal) is very obscure. At the close of the 5th century Fergus, son of Erc, a descendant of Conor II., airdrigh or high king of Ireland, came over with a band of Irish Scots and established himself in Argyll and Kintyre. Nothing more is known till, in the days of Conall I., the descendant of Fergus in the fourth generation, St Columba

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days had passed, and they had made themselves fairly comfortable on the island, when, on chancing to walk some distance up the shore in search of dry driftwood, Larry saw a sight that fairly made his heart stop beating.

"Luke! Luke! come here, quick!" he cried, as soon as he could catch his breath. "Oh, what a find!"

"What is it, Larry?" called back the Yankee sailor, and came running from the hut on the double-quick. "A boat, as sure as you're born! Now ain't we the lucky ones, though!"

He was right; Larry had discovered a boat,—a heavy, cumbersome craft, such as old-time merchantmen were in the habit of carrying for trading purposes among the natives. The boat lay on her side, half in and half out of the water, and had evidently washed up on the beach the night before.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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 "You surprise me. Why do you say this? Has anything gone wrong? What is the matter?"

"Matter! Look at this shroud—rags. Look at this gravestone, all battered up. Look at that disgraceful old coffin. All a man's property going to ruin and destruction before his eyes, and ask him if anything is wrong! Fire and brimstone!"

"Calm yourself, calm yourself," I said. "It is too bad—it is certainly too bad, but then I had not supposed that you would much mind such matters, situated as you are"

"Well, my dear sir, I do mind them. My pride is hurt, and my comfort is impaired—destroyed, I might say. I will state my case—I will put it to you in such a way that you can comprehend it, if you will let me," said the poor skeleton, tilting the hood of his shroud back, as if he were clearing for action, and thus unconsciously giving himself a jaunty and air very much at variance with the grave character of his position in life—so to speak—and in prominent contrast with his distressful mood.

"Proceed," said I.

"I reside in the shameful old graveyard a block or two above you here, in this street—there, now, I just expected that cartilage would let go!—third rib from the bottom, friend, hitch the end of it to my spine with a string, if you have got such a thing about you, though a bit of silver wire is a deal pleasanter, and more durable and becoming, if one keeps it polished—to think of shredding

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Rh "It's a godsend to us, lad," went on Striker. "Come, let us pull her high and dry, before the waves have a chance to send her adrift. Why, look, she's got a small mast, and hang me if the sail ain't set! I reckon if she could spin her yarn it would be an interesting one. More than likely the men who manned her went down in one of those hurricanes, although she looks as if she's been water-logged this many a day."

It was no easy matter to pull the boat in, but the find had raised their spirits wonderfully, and they worked with a will, and once the Treasure, as Larry christened her, was clear of the waves, Striker took the extra precaution to tie her soaked painter to the nearest palm.

"We can't afford to lose her nohow," he said. "See, the sail seems to be in good condition, so is the stumpy mast, and I don't believe she leaks in the least. With a stock of eatables on board we can sail in her to Luzon without half trying."

"Yes, but the eatables, Luke; how can we get them? Fish and birds won't keep, and we'll have to take some water along, and—"

"You leave that to me, Larry. We know we can get all the fish and birds we want, and we can

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176 salt 'em, and cook 'em, and perhaps we can take some of the fish along alive, by putting them in some water in the bottom of the boat. As for the other eatables, we'll skirmish around the island for cocoanuts,—which will give us eating and drinking,—and I think I saw a banana tree yesterday, and some wild onions; while as for water, I saw some bamboo on the hill, which is big and hollow, and one piece will hold at least half a pint of water, and can easily be corked up."

Larry could not help but gaze in admiration at the fellow, whose head was so full of resources. "You're a real Yankee, and no mistake, Luke," he laughed. "I believe if nothing but a plank had drifted in, you would have had a boat out of it by sundown. All right; I'm with you, and the sooner we are ready to set sail, the better it will suit me; for even if we have the luck to reach Luzon, we'll still have the job of getting to Manila or some other big town and finding a ship to take us to Hong Kong."

From that moment on work went forward briskly, and while Larry spent his time in fishing and in hunting turtles, Striker hunted up the cocoanuts and other eatables he had mentioned. Yet the

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Rh preparations for the trip took some time, and it was not until several days later that they were ready to embark.

"Good-by to Lonely Island!" cried Larry, taking off the seaweed cap he still wore. "It served us well, yet I can't say that I care to see its shores again."

"You're right, lad; a Robinson Crusoe life is all well enough in books. Give me the deck of a stanch vessel, every time."

The Treasure was run out across the reefs without great difficulty, and as soon as the single sail was hoisted, Striker set the course as he thought due south, although in reality, as it afterwards proved, his course was to the southwest, just a variation sufficient for him to miss the northwest extremity of Luzon.

Two days and a night were passed upon the somewhat clumsy craft without anything of special interest happening. The weather and wind remained fair, and the only thing which bothered them was the fierce sun, which beat down as pitilessly as ever. Striker had thoughtfully thrown into the boat a number of broad palm leaves, and during the middle of the day they were glad

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origin of the word clipper is not quite clear, though it seems to be derived from the verb clip, which in former times meant, among other things, to run or fly swiftly. Dryden uses it to describe the flight of a falcon :

Some falcon stoops at what her eye designed.

And, with her eagerness the quarry missed,

Straight flies at check, and clips it down the wind."

The word survived in the New England slang expression "to clip it," and "going at a good clip," or "a fast clip," are familiar expressions there to this day. It therefore seems reasonable to suppose that when vessels of a new model were built, which were intended, in the language of the times, to clip over the waves rather than plough through them, the improved type of craft became known as clippers because of their speed. It is probable that the swift privateers built at Baltimore during the War of 1812 became known as " Baltimore clippers," and while the first application of the term in a

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 taken us in, and all that remains of the cheer of our old home is the cluster of lugubrious forest trees that stand, bored and weary of a city life, with their feet in our coffins, looking into the hazy distance and wishing they were there. I tell you it is disgraceful!

"You begin to comprehend—you begin to see—how it is. While our descendants are living sumptuously on our money, right around us in the city, we have to fight hard to keep skull and bones together. Bless you, there isn't a grave in our cemetery that doesn't leak—not one. Every time it rains in the night we have to climb out and roost in the trees—and sometimes we are wakened suddenly by the chilling water trickling down the back of our necks. Then I tell you there is a general heaving up of old graves and kicking over of old monuments, and scampering of old skeletons for the trees! Bless me, if you had gone along there some such nights after twelve you might have seen as many as fifteen of us roosting on one limb, with our joints rattling drearily and the wind wheezing through our ribs! Many a time we have perched there for three or four dreary hours, and then come down, stiff and chilled through and drowsy, and borrowed each other's skulls to bale out our graves with—if you will glance up in my mouth, now as I tilt my head back, you can see that my head-piece is half full of old dry sediment—how top-heavy and stupid it makes me sometimes! Yes, sir, many a time if you had happened to come along just before the dawn you'd have caught us baling out our graves and hanging our shrouds on the

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178 enough to wet these and throw themselves under the shade to be had by setting the leaves up in the form of an inverted letter V—thus Λ—in the stern.

As the sun went down upon the second day, Larry noticed Striker looking anxiously to the eastward. "Yes, I'm afraid we're in for another storm," said the Yankee, in reply to a question on that point. "How soon it will come there's no telling. But it ain't far off, and we'll have to make the best of it."

The hurricane—for it was nothing less—came upon them at midnight, striking the Treasure heavily and sending her prow into a very torrent of water. A large amount of the water was shipped, and both fell to bailing vigorously, knowing their very lives depended upon it.

The storm lasted until daybreak, then cleared off as rapidly as it had come. But, alas! that storm had been the unmaking of the Treasure. The sail with its half-rotted ropes was gone, the boat had sprung a bad if not dangerous leak, and more than half of the drinking-water and eatables were gone.

"It's a sorry pickle, truly, Larry," said Striker,

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Wikisource talk:Dynamic Links

Source code is here: oldwikisource:MediaWiki:Dictionary.js.

What good are dynamic links?
What benefit to dynamic links provide? Seeing that this feature disables access of the material to browsers which don't use Javascript, it seems like there should be a significant benefit to offset this loss. Bob Burkhardt (talk) 01:12, 14 January 2013 (UTC)

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Rh soberly, as he surveyed the mischief, "and I don't know which is the wust,—the leak or the loss of the provender,—but both are bad enough."

"The loss of the sail is the worst, I imagine," answered the boy. "How are we to keep sailing without a sheet?"

"That's true; we'll have to see what we can do with our shirts. But first let us go to work on that leak," concluded Striker, and they started in before either had a mouthful of breakfast.

Quarter of an hour later found them thoroughly alarmed. The leak was growing worse. In vain they tried to mend it. The Treasure had been so strained by the storm she was scarcely able to hold together. Suddenly there was a cracking, and out went a plank of the bottom, and Larry found himself dropping down into the ocean. Then the clumsy craft turned over, carrying Striker with it.

For several minutes there was a splutter and a struggle upon the part of man and boy to save themselves. At length Larry caught hold of the keel of the upturned boat and drew himself up. Soon Striker followed.

"We're in for it now, lad," cried the Yankee,

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180 dolefully. "We made a bad miss when we left that island and trusted to such a rotten craft as this."

"I'd like to know how far we are from shore now," said Larry. "All of our provisions have gone to the bottom."

"All but these," answered the tar, holding up half a dozen of the bamboo stems filled with fresh water. "It's not much to save, but a single drink of water may save our lives before we are done with this adventure."

There was but little to add in the way of talk after this. Both were too down-hearted to say much, and clung on in silence as the upturned boat drifted onward, and the rising sun mounted higher and higher in the tropical sky. Larry's head was entirely unprotected, and by noon the sun's rays seemed unbearable.

"I must have a bit of water," he said. "My tongue is like cotton, and my head feels as if it was ready to split open."

"We'll divide the water in one of the sticks between us," answered Striker; and this was done, and once again they relapsed into a moody, distressing silence. The glare of the sun on the water nearly blinded Larry, and often he closed his eyes.

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 Now, you will hardly believe it, but it is true, nevertheless, that there isn't a single coffin in good repair among all my acquaintance—now that is an absolute fact. I do not refer to low people who come in a pine box mounted on an express waggon, but I am talking about your high toned, silver mounted burial-case, your monumental sort, that travel under black plumes at the head of a procession and have choice of cemetery lots—I mean folk like the Jarvises, and the Bledsoes and Burlings, and such. They are all about ruined. The most substantial people in our set, they were. And now look at them—utterly used up and poverty-stricken. One of the Bledsoes actually traded his monument to a late bar-keeper for some fresh shavings to put under his head. I tell you it speaks volumes, for there is nothing a corpse takes so much pride in as his monument. He loves to read the inscription. He comes after awhile to believe what it says himself, and then you may see him sitting on a fence night after night enjoying it. Epitaphs are cheap, and they do a poor chap a world of good after he is dead, especially if he had hard luck while he was alive. I wish they were used more. Now, I don't complain, but confidentially I do think it was a little shabby in my descendants to give me nothing but this old slab of a gravestone—and all the more that there isn't a compliment on it. It used to have '' on it, and I was proud when I first saw it, but by-and-by I noticed that whenever an old friend of mine came

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Rh It was getting towards sundown when Striker uttered a sudden shout.

"A boat! a steamship!"

"Where?" ejaculated Larry, rousing up. "I can't see anything," he went on, as Striker pointed with his finger. "I see a bit of smoke, though."

"She is well down in the water and painted dark. I can see her quite plainly."

"Oh, yes, I see her now. Do you think she is coming this way?" was the boy's next anxious question; then, before Striker could answer, he continued: "There is another steamer, over to the left! And there is another—or am I dreaming?"

He pointed this way and that, and the Yankee sailor followed the indications eagerly.

"There ain't no mistake, Larry, they're all there; and see, there's another bit of smoke off to the north'ard. We must be right in the track o' some reg'lar line, though what line I can't imagine, nor why so many of the steamships should be out here at one time," added Striker, in much perplexity.

"I don't care about that, if only one of them will come this way and pick us up."

"They are coming this way—as straight as a string," cried Striker, after five minutes of painful

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182 suspense. "I can see all four of the vessels as plain as day, and—yes, there's another! What in the world can this mean? Larry, if I was a drinking man, I would say I had 'em bad," concluded the Yankee sailor, as he raised himself up as high as possible, his eyes meanwhile almost starting from his head.

Another five minutes passed, and the vessels came closer, until they could readily see the black smoke pouring from their funnels. The five vessels were sweeping along in almost a semicircle, and now Striker declared he could see more smoke to the rear.

"If only they see us!" cried Larry, in almost a pleading tone. "Can't we wave something? I'll try my jacket." And he slipped the garment off, and proceeded to bestride the keel of the upturned Treasure. In a moment more Striker was beside him, and both waved their hands like demons.

Boom! loud and clear over the sea sounded the dull discharge of a ship's gun, and they saw the smoke float away from the nearest of the oncoming vessels.

"It's a man-o'-war, that's what it is!" burst from Striker's lips. "And it's a whole fleet of 'em!"

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Rh "Yes! yes! and we are saved!" cried Larry, hysterically. "That gun was surely meant for us." They watched on for a few more minutes in silence. "Oh, Luke! see the stars and stripes! They are United States vessels, every one of them!"

"You're right, lad; they are our own Yankee ships, and we have fallen among friends. See, that big fellow is heading directly for us and intends to pick us up. This must be Commodore Dewey's Asiatic Squadron. Hurrah for Uncle Sam! Hurrah!" And Striker cheered so lustily that the men on the approaching cruiser heard him quite plainly.

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text: Under Dewey at Manila/Chapter 18

title: Under Dewey at Manila/Chapter 18


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The New International Encyclopædia/Paul (apostle)

PAUL. The Apostle of Jesus Christ who was specially commissioned to work among the Gentiles. The sources from which we secure our knowledge of his life and work are his own Epistles and the Book of Acts. From these it is clear that the condition of the Church when he came to the full prosecution of his work was one which rendered that work not only most significant for the future development of the Church, but most revolutionary to the ideas which the Church's leaders entertained as to what that development should be. These leaders were the Apostles who had formed the nucleus of Jesus's discipleship during His ministry on earth. They were men of limited education, and with no great breadth of religious ideas. As a consequence their views of the necessary development of Jesus's religion practically restricted it to a reforming of Judaism in accordance with Jesus's teaching, and as this reformed Judaism went out in a new evangelism to the world, it involved the bringing of the world into this religion through the gateway of Judaism. Tn view of their Palestinian training and experience, these views were perfectly natural for the Apostles to entertain; but they were also clearly impossible for the Church to carry out, if the religion of Jesus was to realize for itself that world-wide development which the Gospels show us Jesus himself intended it should have. It was at this latter point that Paul through his work and teaching introduced into the Church new conceptions which virtually revolutionized its ideas and made possible for Christianity its development as a universal religion.

Paul's early name was Saul; he was a native of Tarsus, in the Province of Cilicia (Acts xxi. 39), where he was born about the beginning of

the Christian Era. His parents were Jews (Acts xxiii. 6; II. Cor. xi. 22). His early training was doubtless that of the ordinary Jewish boy, though it was apparently at an early age that he was sent to Jerusalem to be educated in the Rabbinic schools of that city, having as his teacher in the sacred law the liberal-minded Gamaliel (Acts xxii. 3; see ). According to his own testimony he threw his whole heart into all that was taught him there, becoming one of the straitest of the sect of the Pharisees, and having no conception beyond that of a salvation to be obtained through a perfect performance of the works of the Law (Gal. i. 14; Acts xxii. 3; xxvi. 4-5; Phil. iii. 4-6).

After his Rabbinic training he returned for a while to his native city, in order to learn his trade (Acts xviii. 3). While there he may possibly have supplemented his Jewish education by attendance upon the Gentile schools, for which Tarsus was famed. From Cilicia he came back to Jerusalem, where he became prominent in ecclesiastical affairs, being apparently chosen to membership in the Sanhedrin (Acts xxvi. 10). Though in Jerusalem for some time, it is not probable that he was there during the time of Jesus's ministry, for he does not seem to have ever seen the Great Teacher. He was, however, well acquainted with Jesus's Messianic claims and was clearly conscious of the opposition to Judaism which they involved. Consequently, when, after the Day of Pentecost, this new discipleship began to assume large proportions, and take to itself a definitely organized form, he shared in the bitter hostility to the movement which animated the religious leaders of the people. Into the persecution which this produced he threw himself with energy, participating practically in the death of Stephen (Acts vii. 58; viii. 1), and following up this assault with a rigor of inquisition that made him conspicuous among his fellows (Acts xxii. 4; .xxvi. 9-11; Gal. i. 13-14). In the year 34 or 35, however, while on a journey to Damascus undertaken for the purpose of searching out the disciples in that place and bringing them bound to Jerusalem, he went through the experience of a supernatural vision that brought him to his journey's end under the deep conviction of the sinfulness of the course he was pursuing (Acts ix. 1-9). Out of this state of soul he came a Christian disciple, profoundly convinced of the Messiahship of Jesus, and distinctly conscious of having received from his Master a commission to preach His religion among the nations of the earth (Acts ix. 10-18; Gal. i. 15-16).

This mission, however, he did not immediately carry out, but for the greater part of three years withdrew into the region of Arabia (Gal. i. 17). The purpose of this withdrawal it may not be possible definitely to determine, though, from the contrast in which he places it to the alternative course of conference with the Apostles at Jerusalem, it would seem that primarily it was for the sake of meditative thought upon the spiritual revolution which had taken place in his life. At the same time, it cannot be doubted that he availed himself of such opportunity of practical work as the region afforded (Gal. i. 15-23).

Upon his return to Damascus and Jerusalem he began to preach his new-found faith, evidently with some fuller conception of the Gentile

of his mission than he had had immediately after his conversion (Acts ix. 19-22), especially in Jerusalem, where he singled out the Greek-speaking Jews, disputing with them, doubtless largely along the lines of the Messiahship of Jesus (Acts. ix. 28-29; xxii. 18). His motive in making Jerusalem the place of his preaching was apparently the courageous one of returning to the scene of his former work of persecution, and bearing open testimony to Jesus before those with whom he had formerly been associated. That this, however, was not what the Master intended him to do is clear from the fact that while in Jerusalem he was made conscious through a vision that he was to leave the city and give himself to work among the more distant Gentiles (Acts xxii. 17-20).

In obedience to this command, he went to his home in Cilicia, visiting on the way the regions of Syria, where in all probability he accomplished some work of a Gentile character in the city of Antioch. Such a hypothesis at least explains the reason for the statement that refugees from the Stephen persecution in Jerusalem coming to Antioch changed the character of their ministry and preached the word to those who were not pure Jews (Acts xi. 19-20), and that, upon the successful outcome of their preaching, Paul was summoned from Tarsus to give his aid and assistance in the development of this new movement {Acts xi. 21-26).

Antioch became thus the place of Paul's labors, and here his ministry gradually reached the full Gentile character which the Master had intended it should have, resulting finally, under divine direction, in the sending out of Paul and Barnabas to the neighboring Gentile regions of Asia Minor (Acts xiii. 1-3). The remarkable success of this mission brought Paul at last to a consciousness of the full meaning of his Gentile commission (Acts xiii. 44-48), and also brought the Church to a full realization of the significance of this new departure. In fact, upon their return to Antioch. Paul and Barnabas were confronted with a grave and serious dispute. Parties representing the extreme Jewish element in the Mother Church came to Antioch insisting upon the need of circumcision in order to salvation. This was so contrary to Paul's fundamental conception of salvation by faith that surrender was impossible, and under the advice of the local Church the controversy was carried up to Jerusalem for submission to the Apostles and Elders there (Acts xv. 1-2). A clear understanding of the resultant council and the position in it of Paul and Barnabas on the one side, and the leaders of the Church on the other, can only be secured by recognizing the development through which Paul's work had gone from his own original conception of it, and especially from the original conception of it held by the Jerusalem Church. That Paul had the fundamentals of his theology from the time of his conversion may he accepted, as far as our records give any light; that these fundamentals included a clear conviction of the principles of justification by faith is almost necessary, if Paul's theology is to be understood as in any sense self-consistent—for this principle is practically essential to his thinking. But while Paul may have possessed the principle of his theology from the beginning, it is manifestly clear that the practical experiences of his work had an effect upon the application which he

gave to these principles. Few greater experiences, however, did he go through in his work than that of the wholesale conversion of the Gentiles during his first mission tour. That these experiences must have given strength to his conviction of justification by faith is of course very clear; but it is also clear that it must have widely broadened the application of that principle in the direction of the universalizing of the Gospel beyond the bounds of Judaism. If, however, such was the influence of this experience upon Paul's own views, its effect upon the slower and more conservative views of the Jerusalem Church must have been even more significant. That Paul told them fully of his commission to a Gentile work at his first visit to the city after his conversion may not be doubted; that they fairly understood his position, and frankly accepted it, would seem to be clear from the companionship with them into which the records show him to have entered; but if Paul himself at that time had but an undeveloped view of all his theology meant in the direction of a justification by faith, much less developed must have been the views on this point of those in the Jerusalem Church. It may be safely said that their conception of and agreement to Paul's position was largely theoretical until the results of this first mission tour startled them into a realization of the full significance of his commission. Treasuring as they did the Jewish origin of Jesus's religion and the Jewish character of his discipleship, this wholesale ingathering of the uncircumcised Gentiles naturally seemed to them to herald the doom of the Church.

From such a situation it was inevitable that there should come dispute and controversy. The extremists on the side of the Jerusalem Church insisted on circumcision—the distinctive feature of ceremonial Judaism—as necessary to salvation and acceptance within the Church. Paul and his followers insisted on the freedom from this rite given by the essential principle of justification by faith. It was the determination of this contention, in the light of the practical results of the first mission tour, that constituted the real question before the Jerusalem Council; and the decision which was reached to grant the Gentiles, with a few unessential provisos, full freedom from the ceremonial law was a result which was not only a triumph for the views of Paul, but a salvation for the Church itself. For, in spite of the conviction of the Jerusalem leaders, the Church's future lay beyond Judaism, and could be reached only as the way to Christ was no longer obstructed by the forms which Judaism imposed.

From this council Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch, and soon afterwards Paul, having disagreed with Barnabas on some matters of their practical work, took with him Silas, who had come down with them from Jerusalem, and started upon his second missionary tour (Acts xv. 30-40). On this tour he first revisited the churches established at an earlier period in Syria and Cilicia, as well as those gathered together on his first journey. From one of these latter churches he secured Timothy to be a helper in his work. Upon arriving finally at Antioch in Pisidia he essayed to go farther westward into the Province of Asia, but, being divinely forbidden, he returned northward with a view

of entering the Province of Bithynia, but, again, being forbidden by the Holy Spirit, he turned westward to the seacoast town of Troas, the old classical region of Troy (Acts xv. 41-xvi. 8).

It is clear from his general policy of selecting the large city centres for his work that Paul's purpose in this further extension of his journey beyond Antioch had been to go to Ephesus and, when forbidden to preach there, to go northward to Byzantium, which at that time was within the Province of Bithynia. The divine prevention of this policy, confusing though it was, left him naturally convinced that the Master had for him some distinctive mission to perform. He was consequently in a receptive mood for the vision which came to him at Troas and called him across the water to Thrace.

In obedience to this divine direction he entered upon his first European mission, passing down along the commercial highway that gave him entrance at the important towns of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea and finally brought him to Athens and Corinth (Acts xvi. 9-xviii. 1). At all of these places, as far as Corinth, his mission efforts had been disappointing, either being broken off by persecution or being received with indifference and contempt. As a consequence he came at last to Corinth in a despondent frame of mind (I. Cor. ii. 3). At this last place, however, his work was greatly blessed, and for a year and a half he and his companions remained in that region establishing churches, not only in Corinth itself, but throughout the Province of Achaia (Acts xviii. 2-11; II. Cor. i. 1). It was during the early part of his stay in Corinth that, anxious for their welfare in the face of persecution, corrupting influences, and false teachings, he wrote his two letters to the Thessalonians, generally considered the earliest of his preserved writings. (See .) From Corinth Paul returned by sea to Syria, stopping on the voyage at Ephesus long enough to reason in the synagogue and make promise of a return for more extended work. Landing finally at Cæsarea, he went up to Jerusalem with greetings to the Church, and then returned to Antioch (Acts xviii. 18-22).

After some time spent there he set out upon his third mission tour, visiting again the churches of Southern Asia Minor, and in fulfillment of his promise proceeded on to Ephesus. At this large centre of activity and influence he remained at work for the greater part of three years, carrying the Gospel, either personally or through his helpers, throughout the entire seacoast Province of Asia (Acts xviii. 23-xix. 20: xx. 17-35; I. Cor. xvi. 19). During this period he was in more or less contact with the Church at Corinth, whose problems of organization, Christian brotherhood, and moral life necessitated frequent comnumication with the Apostle. This produced considerable correspondence, portions of which are preserved in his Corinthian Epistles. It is quite clear that late in this period, in answer to an urgent summons, he made a hurried trip from Ephesus to Corinth by the direct route across the sea. The occasion of the visit was evidently a new manifestation of factional tendencies in the Church. The visit was apparently quite brief, and resulted in a practical failure to straighten out the situation. (See .) Soon after his return to Ephesus from this fruitless trip Paul was obliged to leave the

city, because of disturbances occasioned by pagan resentment of his increasingly successful work. To give himself and the people at Corinth time to recover from the disappointing experiences of his recent visit, as well as to visit the Macedonian churches established on his previous journey, he selected the less direct route by the way of Troas (Acts xix. 23-xx. 1; II. Cor. i. 23-ii. 13). On the way he again wrote to the Corinthians and engaged in more or less mission work in the provinces south of Macedonia, covering the territory up to if not across the borders of Illyricum. It is quite likely that during the progress of this work he received the startling news from the Galatian churches which occasioned his letter to them. (See .) Reaching Corinth in the late autumn or early winter of the year 55, he remained there three months (Acts xx. 1-3). During this time he wrote his letter to the Church at Rome—a church he had not founded or seen, but to the visiting of which he looked forward with earnest longing, and largely to prepare them for this visit he sent them his letter. See .

In the spring of 56 he left Corinth for Jerusalem with quite a company, who doubtless represented the churches that had been engaged in gathering a contribution for the Mother Church (Acts xx. 4. See also I. Cor. xvi. 1-4; II. Cor. viii.-ix.). After a journey which was accompanied by some incidents of a foreboding nature, to all of which Paul's mind seemed resignedly receptive, he reached Jerusalem (Acts xx. 3-xxi. 15). His reception by the brethren of the Church was full of Christian fellowship; at the same time it was clear that the leaders were deeply impressed by the growing alienation from Paul among the believing Jews. As a consequence they suggested that he carry out in the temple a certain course of ceremonial observance designed to show his respect for the Law of Moses, and to disprove the charge that he everywhere urged its abandonment by the Christian Jews. This he willingly did; but his action was so misunderstood and the motive for it so misconstrued as to rouse against him a riotous demonstration on the part of the Jews in general, that would have ended his life but for the rescue of his person effected by the soldiers of the adjoining Roman garrison (Acts xxi. 17-32).

It is clear from this incident, as presented in the passage cited, that the head and front of Paul's offending in the eyes of the Jews was not so much his heralding of the Messiahship of Jesus as his denial of the continued obligation of the Mosaic Law. This is instructive as to the large significance of the controversy which ensued upon his first mission journey and which, in spite of the wise action of the Jerusalem Council, wrought itself into the Galatian and to a certain degree into the Corinthian churches. Paul's position as to the absolute essentiality of the principle of justification by faith alone apparently went to the heart of the whole problem of salvation as it was present before the early Church.

Having found it impossible to secure from the excited mob any idea of the offense of which his prisoner was guilty, and Paul himself asserting his rights of Roman citizenship, the chief captain of the guard, Claudius Lysias, summoned a council of the Sanhedrin and brought Paul before

it for examination (Acts xxi. 33-xxii. 30). This gathering, however, resulting in nothing but disorder among the members of the court, and, information having been brought of a desperate plot against Paul's life by a secret band of Jews, Claudius Lysias sent him away by night under heavy guard to Cæsarea with letters to Felix, Governor of the Province of Syria, whose official residence was at that place (Acts xxiii.).

Paul's stay at Cæsarea, which lasted some two years, was practically a continued commitment for trial. He appeared before Felix soon after his arrival at Cæsarea and pleaded his cause against the High Priest Ananias and certain of the elders from Jerusalem, who were accompanied by counsel. But, though the prosecution failed to make out their case, no decision was reached by the Governor (Acts xxiv. 1-23). Later Paul was summoned before Felix and his wife to speak “concerning the faith in Jesus Christ,” but, though the Apostle “reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and the judgment to come” in such a way as to make a terrifying impression upon Felix, the fear was wholly transient; for Paul was returned again to prison, where Felix kept him through the remainder of his term of office, arranging frequent hearings from him and interviews with him, in hope of securing from the Apostle a bribe for his release. Finally, in order to please the Jews, he handed him over bound to his successor, Festus (Acts xxiv. 24-27).

Before Festus Paul appeared but once, being again confronted with his accusers from Jerusalem, who as before failed to make out a case against him. When, however, the Governor seemed about to follow in his predecessor's steps and ignore the evidence presented, suggesting that Paul go up to Jerusalem for another trial, the Apostle, on the basis of his rights of citizenship, transferred the case to Rome by appealing to Cæsar. Such action left the Governor no further choice, though he took the opportunity of Agrippa's presence in Cæsarea to bring Paul once more into court, and to have his case heard by his royal visitor (Acts xxv.). In his defense, the Apostle presented before Agrippa the course of his life and the grounds of his Christian hope, persuading the King, as he had in fact both Governors, that there was no reason for his being retained in bonds (Acts xxvi. 1-31). Beyond such personal impressions, however, his plea was of no use, since his appeal to the Emperor made transportation to Rome obligatory upon the authorities (Acts xxvi. 32).

The voyage to Italy was begun in the fall of 58, being marked by disastrous experiences which resulted in shipwreck on the island of ../Malta/ (q.v.). There the company remained through the winter, continuing their voyage in the spring and reaching at last their journey's end at the Imperial capital some time in the early half of the year 59 (Acts xxvii. 1-xxviii. 14). Here Paul was cordially welcomed by the Christian brethren of the city and kindly received by the authorities, being allowed to reside under guard in his own hired house, with freedom of intercourse among his friends and liberty of preaching his gospel (Acts xxviii. 15-31). It was during this period of imprisonment that he wrote his letters to the Philippians, the Colossians, Philemon, and the Ephesians. Of these, Philippians and Philemon, especially Philemon, dwell upon the

Apostle's personal relation to the readers, though the practical problems of Christian brotherhood and moral living emerge quite clearly in Philippians. On the other hand, Colossians and Ephesians were intended to counteract doctrinal errors of a subtle nature involving a large element of nascent Gnosticism. This is especially true of Colossians, Ephesians, as an encyclical letter, emphasizing rather the principles of Christian solidarity in the membership of the churches. See the articles on the above letters.

It is a matter of considerable debate as to what was the outcome of this imprisonment at Rome, though the better critical opinion of the present day tends in the direction of holding that after some two years Paul was brought to trial before Nero, and on the absence of any real evidence against him was released. After this release he returned to the region of his former missionary labors in the East, engaging again in active work, in the course of which he was rearrested and transported again as a captive to Rome. At his second trial he was sentenced to death, which was accomplished not later than the year 65. During this return he wrote the letter to Titus, and the first letter to Timothy, both of which have to do almost wholly with the practical matters of Church organization and discipline. His second letter to Timothy was written after his reimprisonment at Rome, shortly before his death, and is practically his last word of personal counsel and encouragement to his trusted helper and friend. See the articles on these letters.

The picture of Paul stands clearly before us in the records which the New Testament gives—a man of education, if not of culture, for his time—a Roman citizen and yet a Jew, a student of the Scriptures, a zealot in the law, and withal a conscientious seeker for the way of life within the circle of its precepts—consequently an earnest persecutor of the disciples of Jesus until divinely convinced of his error, when all his energy and enthusiasm and loyal devotion were transferred to his new life and infused into his new work. In this new life and work, however, Paul manifestly remained a Jew. He did not conceive of his Christianity as having severed him from the Israel of God, but rather as having enabled him to realize the ideal of Israel's Godward relations. His doctrinal thinking consequently found its historical and logical background in the Old Testament, rising through its anthropology and its soteriology to its climax in its Christology. His doctrine of Christ controlled all the rest of his theology. It was the beginning point of his preaching and formed the main theme of his last letters to his churches. In all his thinking he was intense and characteristically logical, though he often clothed his thought in the old Rabbinic forms which he had brought with him from the Jerusalem schools, and frequently yielded to the rhetorical impulses more or less belonging to his intensity of nature. He was not metaphysical, even in treating the profoundest themes, but practical in the extreme and sympathetic on broad and comprehensive lines. Though his position in the matter of relationship to ceremonial Judaism was not that of the Jerusalem leaders, his views came to dominate the Church, and he himself became the Church's leader in its world work. On the theology of the Church since his day his influence has not been

even. During the centuries immediately succeeding the Apostolic age it largely if not completely disappeared, being revived in its doctrine of man and of salvation in the theology of Augustine and receiving again at these points its conspicuous restoration in the essential position of the Protestant Reformation. Since then these Pauline doctrines have come and gone with the rise and fall of that trend of thinking which may be termed Calvinistic. To-day they are not prominent, being dominated by a mode of thought which is characterized by a spiritualism of the feelings that has come to us from the Schleiermacher school, though Paul's supreme doctrine of Christ, which really controls his thought, contributes more to the present-day exaltation of Jesus than is popularly supposed.

. For consideration of the sources (a) from the point of criticism: consult the New Testament introductions and the critical discussions referred to in articles on the Epistles and the Book of Acts; (b) from the point of exegesis: consult the commentaries referred to in these articles. For study of the times: Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (Eng. trans., New York, 1896); Weber, Jüdische Theologie (Leipzig, 1897); Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (New York, 1894). For study of the chronology: Burton, Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age (New York, 1895); Clemen, Die Chronologie der paulinischen Briefe (Halle, 1893); Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur, Band i. (Leipzig, 1897). For study of the man: Baur, Paulus (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1873-75); Renan, Les apôtres ( Eng. trans.. London, 1869); id., Saint Paul (Eng. trans., ib., 1887); Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of Saint Paul (ib., 1850-52); Lewin, Life and Epistles of Saint Paul (ib., 1851 ); Farrar, Life and Work of Saint Paul (London, 1879); Stalker, Life of Saint Paul (New York, 1884); Matheson, The Spiritual Development of Saint Paul (Edinburgh, 1892); Ramsay, Saint Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen (New York, 1896); Cone, Paul the Man, the Missionary, and the Teacher (New York, 1898); Gilbert, The Student's Life of Saint Paul (New York, 1899). Consult also McGiffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age (New York, 1897). For study of Paul's teaching: Ritschl, Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche (Bonn, 1857); Sabatier, L'apôtre Paul (Eng. trans., New York, 1891); Pfleiderer, The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development of Christianity (Hibbert Lectures for 1885; New York, 1885); Knowling, The Witness of the Epistles (London, 1892); Holsten, Das Evangelium des Paulus (Berlin, 1880-98); Bruce, Saint Paul's Conception of Christianity (New York, 1894); Stevens, The Pauline Theology, (New York, 1892). Consult also the accepted works on New Testament theology.


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Page:The Clipper Ship Era.djvu/90

 58 nautical sense is by no means certain, it seems to have had an American origin.

The first clipper constructed in Great Britain was the schooner Scottish Maid, one hundred and fifty tons, built in 1839 by Alexander Hall & Co., of Aberdeen, to compete with the paddle steamers between Aberdeen and London. She proved a very fast vessel, and saw half a century of service before she was wrecked on the coast of England. Three schooners of the same model and tonnage, the Fairy, Rapid, and Monarch, were built by this firm in 1842. These four were the first Aberdeen clippers. The earliest competition between American and British clippers was in the China seas. As early as 1831 three small English schooners, the Jamesina, Lord Amherst, and Sylph, were engaged in the opium trade, which proved exceedingly lucrative. In 1833 the Jamesina sold opium from India to the value of £330,000 at Poo Chow, Amoy, Ningpo, and other ports in China. This business increased and attracted the attention of the American merchants in China. In 1841, the Angola, a schooner of 90 tons, built by Brown & Bell, of New York, for Russell & Co., China, was despatched to Hongkong. She was followed in 1842 by the schooners Zephyr, 150 tons, built by Samuel Hall at East Boston; Mazeppa, 175 tons, built by Brown & Bell, and Ariel, 100 tons, built by Sprague & James, Medford, and in 1843 by the brig Antelope, 370 tons, built by Samuel Hall at East Boston. These vessels, owned by John M. Forbes and Russell & Co., soon controlled the opium-trade and became known as opium clippers. It was necessary that they should

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 appears. Conall died in 574, and Columba was mainly instrumental in establishing his first cousin, Aidan, founder of the Dalriad kingdom and ancestor of the royal house of Scotland, in power. In the 8th century Argyll, with the Western Islands and Man, fell under the power of the Norsemen until, in the 12th century, Somerled (or Somhairle), a descendant of Colla-Uais, airdrigh of Ireland (327–331), succeeded in ousting them and established his authority, not only as thane of Argyll, but also in Kintyre and the Western Islands. Somerled died in 1164 and his descendants maintained themselves in Argyll and the islands, between the conflicting claims of the kings of Scotland, Norway and Man, until the end of the 15th century.

Up to 1222 Argyll had formed an independent Celtic princedom; but in that year it was reduced by Alexander II., the Scottish king, to a sheriffdom, and was henceforth regarded as an integral part of Scotland. Among the various clans in Argyll, the Campbells of Loch Awe, a branch of the clan McArthur, now began to come to the fore, though the mainland was still chiefly in the possession of the MacDougals. The position of the lords of the house of Somerled was now curious, since they were feudatories of the king of Norway for the isles and of the king of Scotland for Argyll. Their policy in the wars between the two powers was a masterly neutrality. Thus, during the expedition of Alexander II. to the Western Isles in 1249, Ewan (Eoghan), lord of Argyll, refused to fight against the Norwegians; in 1263 the same Ewan refused to join Haakon of Norway in attacking Alexander III. Forty years later the clansmen of Argyll, mainly MacDougals, were warring on the side of Edward of England against Robert Bruce, by whom they were badly beaten on Loch Awe in 1309. The clansmen of the house of Somerled in the isles, on the other hand, the MacDonalds, remained loyal to Scotland in spite of the persuasions of John of Argyll, appointed admiral of Edward II.’s western fleet; and, under their chief Angus Og, they contributed much to the victory of Bannockburn. The alliance of John, earl of Ross and lord of the Isles, with Edward IV. of England in 1461 led to the breaking of the power of the house of Somerled, and in 1478 John was forced to resign Ross to the crown and, two years later, his lordships of Knapdale and Kintyre as well. In Argyll itself the Campbells had already made the first step to supremacy through the marriage of Colin, grandson of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, first Lord Campbell, with Isabel Stewart, eldest of the three co-heiresses of John, third lord of Lorne. He acquired the greater part of the lands of the other sisters by purchase, and the lordship of Lorne from Walter their uncle, the heir in tail male, by an exchange for lands in Perthshire. In 1457 he was created, by James II., earl of Argyll. He died on the 10th of May 1493. From him dates the greatness of the house of the (q.v.), whose history belongs to that of Scotland. The house of Somerled survives in two main branches—that of Macdonald of the Isles, Alexander Macdonald (d. 1795) having been raised to the peerage in 1776, and that of the Macdonnells, earls of Antrim in Ireland. The principal clans in Argyll, besides those already mentioned, were the Macleans, the Stewarts of Appin, the Macquarries and the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and the Macfarlanes of Glencroe. The Campbells are still very numerous in the county.

Argyllshire men have made few contributions to English literature. For long the natives spoke Gaelic only and their bards sang in Gaelic (see : Literature: Scottish). Near Inistrynich on the north-eastern shore of Loch Awe stands the monumental cairn erected in honour of Duncan Ban McIntyre (1724–1812), the most popular of modern Gaelic bards. But the romantic beauty of the country has made it a favourite setting for the themes of many poets and story-tellers, from “Ossian” and Sir Walter Scott to Robert Louis Stevenson, while not a few men distinguished in affairs or in learning have been natives of the county.

The antiquities comprise monoliths, circles of standing stones, crannogs and cairns. In almost all the burying-grounds—as at Campbeltown, Keil, Soroby, Kilchousland, Kilmun—there are specimens of sculptured crosses and slabs. Besides the famous ecclesiastical remains at (q.v.), there are ruins of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay, and of a church founded in the 12th century by Somerled, thane of Argyll, at Saddell. Among castles may be mentioned Dunstaffnage, Ardtornish, Skipness, Kilchurn (beloved of painters), Ardchonnel, Dunolly, Stalker, Dunderaw and Carrick.

.—The (Eighth) Duke of Argyll, Commercial Principles Applied to the Hire of Land (London, 1877); Crofts and Farms in the Hebrides (Edinburgh, 1883); Iona (Edinburgh, 1889); Scotland as it Was and Is (Edinburgh, 1887), House of Argyll (Glasgow, 1871); A. Brown, Memorials of Argyllshire (Greenock, 1889); Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides (Edinburgh, 1892); D. Clerk, “On the Agriculture of the County of Argyll” (Trans. of H. and A. Soc., 1878); T. Gray, Week at Oban (Edinburgh, 1881); Stewart, Collection of Views of Campbeltown. For antiquities see The Sculptured Stones of Scotland, vol. ii., published by the Spalding Club, and Capt. T. P. White’s Archaeological Sketches in Kintyre and ''Proc. Antiq. Soc. of Scotland'', vols. iv., v., viii.

ARGYRODITE, a mineral which is of interest as being that in which the element germanium was discovered by C. Winkler in 1886. It is a silver sulpho-germanate, Ag8GeS6, and crystallizes in the cubic system. The crystals have the form of the octahedron or rhombic dodecahedron, and are frequently twinned. The botryoidal crusts of small indistinct crystals first found in a silver mine at Freiberg in Saxony were originally thought to be monoclinic, but were afterwards proved to be identical with the more distinctly developed crystals recently found in Bolivia. The colour is iron-black with a purplish tinge, and the lustre metallic. There is no cleavage; hardness 2½, specific gravity 6.2. It is of interest to note that the Freiberg mineral was long ago imperfectly described by A. Breithaupt under the name Plusinglanz, and that the Bolivian crystals were incorrectly described in 1849 as crystallized brongniardite. The name argyrodite is from the Greek , rich in silver.

Isomorphous with argyrodite is the corresponding tin compound Ag8SnS6, also found in Bolivia as cubic crystals, and known by the name canfieldite. Other Bolivian crystals are intermediate in composition between argyrodite and canfieldite. ARGYROKASTRO, or (Turkish, Ergeri; Albanian Ergir Castri), a town of southern Albania, Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina. Pop. (1900) about 11,000. Argyrokastro is finely situated 1060 ft. above sea-level, on the eastern slopes of the Acroceraunian mountains, and near the left bank of the river Dhrynos, a left-hand tributary of the Viossa. It is the capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, and was formerly important as the headquarters of the local Moslem aristocracy, partly owing to the mountainous and easily defensible nature of the district. It contains the ruins of an imposing castellated fort. A fine kind of snuff, known as fuli, is manufactured here. Argyrokastro has been variously identified with the ancient Hadrianopolis and Antigonea. In the 18th century it is said to have contained 20,000 inhabitants, but it was almost depopulated by plague in 1814. Albanian Moslems constitute the greater part of the population. ARGYROPULUS, or, JOHN (c. 1416–1486), Greek humanist, one of the earliest promoters of the revival of learning in the West, was born in Constantinople, and became a teacher there, Constantine Lascaris being his pupil. He then appears to have crossed over to Italy, and taught in Padua in 1434, being subsequently made rector of the university. About 1441 he returned to Constantinople, but after its capture by the Turks, again took refuge in Italy. About 1456 he was invited to Florence by Cosimo de’ Medici, and was there appointed professor of Greek in the university. In 1471, on the outbreak of the plague, he removed to Rome, where he continued to act as a teacher of Greek till his death. Among his scholars were Angelus Politianus and Johann Reuchlin. His principal works were translations of the following portions of Aristotle,— Categoriae, De Interpretatione, Analytica Posteriora, Physica, De Caelo, De Anima, Metaphysica, Ethica Nicomachea, Politica;

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Kipps embarked upon his engagement, steeled himself to the high enterprise of marrying above his breeding. The next morning found him dressing with a certain quiet severity of movement, and it seemed to his landlady's housemaid that he was unusually dignified at breakfast. He meditated profoundly over his kipper and his kidney and bacon. He was going to New Romney to tell the old people what had happened and where he stood. And the love of Helen had also given him courage to do what Buggins had once suggested to him as a thing he would do were he in Kipps' place, and that was to hire a motor car for the afternoon. He had an early cold lunch, and then, with an air of quiet resolution, assumed a cap and coat he had purchased to this end, and thus equipped strolled around, blowing slightly, to the motor shop. The transaction was unexpectedly easy, and within the hour Kipps, spectacled and wrapped about, was tootling through Dymchurch.

They came to a stop smartly and neatly outside the

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246 little toy shop. "Make that thing 'oot a bit, will you," said Kipps. "Yes, that's it." "Whup," said the motor car. "Whurrup!"

Both his Aunt and Uncle came out on the pavement. "Why, it's Artie," cried his Aunt, and Kipps had a moment of triumph.

He descended to hand claspings, removed wraps and spectacles, and the motor driver retired to take "an hour off." Old Kipps surveyed the machinery and disconcerted Kipps for a moment by asking him in a knowing tone what they asked him for a thing like that. The two men stood inspecting the machine and impressing the neighbours for a time, and then they strolled through the shop into the little parlour for a drink.

"They ain't settled," old Kipps had said to the neighbours. "They ain't got no further than experiments. There's a bit of take-in about each. You take my advice and wait, me boy, even if it's a year or two, before you buy one for your own use."

(Though Kipps had said nothing of doing anything of the sort.)

"'Ow d'you like that whiskey I sent?" asked Kipps, dodging the old familiar bunch of children's pails.

Old Kipps became tactful. "It's a very good whiskey, my boy," said old Kipps. "I 'aven't the slightest doubt it's a very good whiskey and cost you a tidy price. But—dashed if it soots me! They put this here Foozle Ile in it, my boy, and it ketches me jest 'ere." He indicated his centre of figure. "Gives

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 Rh be swift in order to contend with the strong tides and currents on the China coast, and to beat against the monsoons in the China Sea. The Antelope, under the command of Captain Philip Dumaresq, still has the reputation of having been the only square-rigged vessel which could beat through the Formosa Channel against the northeast monsoon. Moreover, these vessels required speed to escape from the heavily manned piratical craft which infested the China seas, and which were formidable vessels, especially in light winds and calms, when they were propelled by long sweeps.

In 1846, Alexander Hall & Co. built the clipper schooner Torrington for Jardine, Matheson & Co., to compete with the American opium clippers in China. This schooner, the first British clipper in the China seas, was followed by the Wanderer, Gaselle, Rose, the brig Lanark, and others, until almost every British and American firm in China owned one or more of these smart vessels. The competition among them was keen, and the American clippers had decidedly the best of it. The last of these famous little vessels were the sister schooners Minna and Brenda, of 300 tons each, built in 1851 by George Raynes at Portsmouth, for John M. Forbes, of Boston, and others, and the schooner Wild Dayrell, 253 tons, built in 1855 by the well-known yacht builders J. White, of Cowes, Isle of Wight, for Dent & Co., China. These opium clippers, all beautifully modelled and equipped with long raking masts and plenty of canvas, like yachts rather than merchant vessels, were heavily armed and carried large crews. They all made a great

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CH. IV me the heartburn," he said, and shook his head rather sadly.

"It's a very good whiskey," said Kipps. "It's what the actor manager chaps drink in London, I 'appen to know."

"I dessay they do, my boy," said old Kipps, "but then they've 'ad their livers burnt out, and I 'aven't. They ain't dellicat like me. My stummik always 'as been extrey dellicat. Sometimes it's almost been as though nothing would lay on it. But that's in passing. I liked those segars. You can send me some of them segars.…"

You cannot lead a conversation straight from the gastric consequences of Foozle Ile to Love, and so Kipps, after a friendly inspection of a rare old engraving after Morland (perfect except for a hole kicked through the centre) that his Uncle had recently purchased by private haggle, came to the topic of the old people's removal.

At the outset of Kipps' great fortunes there had been much talk of some permanent provision for them. It had been conceded they were to be provided for comfortably, and the phrase "retire from business" had been very much in the air. Kipps had pictured an ideal cottage, with a creeper always in exuberant flower about the door, where the sun shone forever and the wind never blew and a perpetual welcome hovered in the doorway. It was an agreeable dream, but when it came to the point of deciding upon this particular cottage or that, and on this particular

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60 deal of money for their owners until they were superseded by steamers.

From the earliest times in maritime history it had been the custom to build large vessels of a model suitable for carrying heavy cargoes—"ships of burden" they were called,—while the vessels designed for speed,—the galley of the Mediterranean, caravel of Portugal and Spain, lugger of France, cutter of England, yacht of Holland, schooner and sloop of America, had been comparatively small. To the latter class belonged the earlier British and American clippers of the nineteenth century. The Baltimore clippers, as we have said, were modelled after the French luggers which visited American ports during the Revolutionary War. They gained a world-wide reputation for speed as privateers during the War of 1812, and later also as African slavers, many of them sailing under the flags of Portugal and Spain. These vessels were brigs, brigantines, fore-and-aft or topsail schooners, and rarely exceeded two hundred tons register.

So far as history records, no one had ever attempted to reproduce the lines of a small, swift vessel in a large one, until in 1832 Isaac McKim, a wealthy merchant of Baltimore, commissioned Kennard and Williamson, of Fell's Point, Baltimore, to build a ship embodying as far as possible the lines of the famous Baltimore clipper brigs and schooners. This ship was the Ann McKim, named in honor of the owner's wife, of 493 tons register, a large vessel for those days. She measured: Length 143 feet, breadth 31 feet, depth 14 feet, and drew 17 feet aft and 11 feet forward. She possessed many

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248 house or that, Kipps was surprised by an unexpected clinging to the little home, which he had always understood to be the worst of all possible houses.

"We don't want to move in a 'urry," said Mrs. Kipps.

"When we want to move, we want to move for life. I've had enough moving about in my time," said old Kipps.

"We can do here a bit more, now we done here so long," said Mrs. Kipps.

"You lemme look about a bit fust," said old Kipps.

And in looking about old Kipps found perhaps a finer joy than any mere possession could have given. He would shut his shop more or less effectually against the intrusion of customers, and toddle abroad seeking new matter for his dream; no house was too small and none too large for his knowing enquiries. Occupied houses took his fancy more than vacancies, and he would remark, "You won't be a livin' 'ere forever, even if you think you will," when irate householders protested against the unsolicited examination of their more intimate premises.…

Remarkable difficulties arose of a totally unexpected sort.

"If we 'ave a larger 'ouse," said Mrs. Kipps with sudden bitterness, "we shall want a servant, and I don't want no gells in the place larfin' at me, sniggerin' and larfin' and prancin' and trapesin', lardy da! If we 'ave a smaller 'ouse, there won't be room to swing a cat."

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Marshall work. He died at Kensington on 26 March 1878.

 MARSHALL, THOMAS WILLIAM (1818–1877), catholic controversialist, son of John Marshall, who in the time of Sir Robert Peel was government agent for colonising New South Wales, was born in 1818, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1840. Taking orders he was appointed curate of Swallowcliffe and Anstey, Wiltshire. In 1844 he published a bulky work entitled 'Notes on the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic Church: with some Account of the Development of the Modern Religious Systems,' London, 1844, 8vo. In 1845 he joined the Roman catholic church, and resigned his curacy. He subsequently became an inspector of schools and published 'Tabulated Reports on Roman Catholic Schools, inspected in the South and East of England and in South Wales,' 1859. A later work by him, 'Christian Missions; their Agents, their Method, and their Results,' 3 vols. London, 1862, 8vo, embodied extensive research, and passed through several editions in this country and the United States; it has been translated into French and other European languages, and Pope Pius IX acknowledged its value by bestowing on the author the cross of the order of St. Gregory. Among his other works are: 'Church Defence;' 'Christianity in China: a fragment,' London, 1858, 8vo; 'Catholic Missions in Southern India,' London, 1865, 8vo, in conjunction with the Rev. W. Strickland, S.J.; and 'My Clerical Friends and their Relation to Modern Thought,' London, 1873, 8vo. About 1873 he visited the United States and lectured in most of the large towns on subjects connected with the catholic religion; and he received the degree of LL.D. from the college of Georgetown. After his return to England Marshall published 'Protestant Journalism' (anon.), London, 1874, 8vo; and contributed to the 'Tablet' a series of articles on 'Religious Contrasts,' 1875–6, on 'The Protestant Tradition,' June–Dec. 1876, and on 'Ritualism,' 1877 (incomplete). Marshall died at Surbiton, Surrey, on 14 Dec. 1877, and was buried at Mortlake.

 MARSHALL, WALTER (1628–1680), Presbyterian divine, born at Bishop Wearmouth, Durham, 15 June 1628, was the son of Walter Marshall, curate of that place from 1619 to 1629. At the age of eleven he was elected a scholar of Winchester College. He proceeded thence to New College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. and was elected a fellow 1650. From 15 Dec. 1657 to 1661 he was a fellow of Winchester (, Winchester Scholars). In 1661 he was presented to the living of Hursley, four miles from Winchester. The patron, Richard Major, father of Richard Cromwell's wife, was a peaceable country sauire who 'did not like sectaries' (Cromwell s Letters), and the connection between him and Marshall was soon dissolved. He was ejected by the Act of Uniformity in 1662, but soon after settled as minister of an independent congregation at Gosport.

Marshall experienced much mental disquiet before he attained peace of mind. The works of Baxter, which he studied deeply, produced in him a profound melancholy. He appealed to their author and to Dr. Thomas Goodwin [q. v.], who replied that he took them too 'legally.' He died at Gosport, Hampshire, shortly before August 1680. His funeral sermon was preached by Samuel Tomlyns, M. A., of Andover, and was printed, with a dedication to Lady Anne Constantine and Mrs. Mary Fiennes, and with an epistle to the inhabitants of Gosport and the county of Southampton, dated 23 Aug. 1680.

Marshall's chief work, 'The Gospel Mystery of Sanctification,' was not published till 1692. A short preface, signed 'N. N.,' and dated (in the 2nd edit. 1714) 21 July 1692, furnishes a few details of his life. A 'Recommendatory Letter,' by James Hervey (1714-1758) [q. v.] dated 5 Nov. 1756, is prefixed to the6th edit. 1761. In his 'Theron and Aspasio,' Hervey also speaks highly of Marshall's work, saying that 'no man knows better the human heart than he,' and mentions it as the first book after the Bible that he would choose if banished to a desert island. Joseph Bellamy of New England made large quotations from 'The Gospel Mystery' in his 'Letters and Dialogues between Theron, Paulinus, and Aspasio,' London, 1761, as also did Hervey in his 'Polyglott,' published the same year. Marshall's work became extremely popular, and numerous editions and abridgments have been published up to a recent date. The third large-type edition was published at Edinburgh, 1887.

An elder brother, John Marshall, was elected a scholar at Winchester in 1637, aged


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CH. IV Room to swing a cat it seemed was absolutely essential. It was an infrequent but indispensable operation.

"When we do move," said old Kipps, "if we could get a bit of shootin'. I don't want to sell off all this here stock for nothin'. It's took years to 'cumulate. I put a ticket in the winder sayin' 'sellin' orf,' but it 'asn't brought nothing like a roosh. One of these 'ere dratted visitors pretendin' to want an air gun, was all we 'ad in yesterday. Jest an excuse for spyin' round and then go away and larf at you. No-thanky to everything, it didn't matter what.… That's 'ow I look at it, Artie."

They pursued meandering fancies about the topic of their future settlement for a space and Kipps became more and more hopeless of any proper conversational opening that would lead to his great announcement, and more and more uncertain how such an opening should be taken. Once indeed old Kipps, anxious to get away from this dangerous subject of removals, began: "And what are you a-doin' of in Folkestone? I shall have to come over and see you one of these days," but before Kipps could get in upon that, his Uncle had passed into a general exposition of the proper treatment of landladies and their humbugging, cheating ways, and so the opportunity vanished. It seemed to Kipps the only thing to do was to go out into the town for a stroll, compose an effectual opening at leisure, and then come back and discharge it at them in its consecutive

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250. And even out of doors and alone, he found his mind distracted by irrelevant thoughts.

His steps led him out of the High Street towards the church, and he leant for a time over the gate that had once been the winning post of his race with Ann Pornick, and presently found himself in a sitting position on the top rail. He had to get things smooth again, he knew; his mind was like a mirror of water after a breeze. The image of Helen and his great future was broken and mingled into fragmentary reflections of remoter things, of the good name of Old Methusaleh Three Stars, of long dormant memories the High Street saw fit, by some trick of light and atmosphere, to arouse that afternoon.…

Abruptly a fine, full voice from under his elbow shouted, "What—O Art!" and, behold, Sid Pornick was back in his world, leaning over the gate beside him, and holding out a friendly hand.

He was oddly changed and yet oddly like the Sid that Kipps had known. He had the old broad face and mouth, abundantly freckled, the same short nose, and the same blunt chin, the same odd suggestion of his sister Ann without a touch of her beauty; but he had quite a new voice, loud and a little hard, and his upper lip carried a stiff and very fair moustache.

Kipps shook hands. "I was jest thinking of you, Sid," he said, "jest this very moment and wondering

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 is nothing if not typical of his fellow countrymen in his interest in sport. If there be any truth in the assertion that Englishmen are neglecting the more serious affairs of life in their devotion to all forms of athletic sports, Mr. Punch would seem to be determined that there shall be no lack of humour in the process; for an immense proportion of his merry pages have been occupied with the humour of sport.

Indeed, there is no kind of open-air pastime which has escaped the kindly attention of our national humorist, and the fact that he never tires of poking good-natured fun at these hobbies of his countrymen, making merry over their misadventures, indicates in some degree that, whatever our social critics may think of the national taste for outdoor games, these must have a humanising influence and make for manliness, when their devotees can thus with good grace look upon themselves in Mr. Punch's mirror, and join in the laughter at their own expense.

But it must not be assumed that Mr. Punch's attitude is one of satirical criticism; on the contrary, his sympathies are with

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CH. IV if ever I should see you again, ever. And 'ere you are!"

"One likes a look 'round at times," said Sid. "How are you, old chap?"

"All right," said Kipps. "I just been lef'"

"You aren't changed much," interrupted Sid.

"Ent I?" said Kipps, foiled.

"I knew your back directly I came 'round the corner. Spite of that 'at you got on. Hang it, I said, that's Art Kipps or the devil. And so it was."

Kipps made a movement of his neck as if he would look at his back and judge. Then he looked Sid in the face. "You got a moustache, Sid," he said.

"I s'pose you're having your holidays?" said Sid.

"Well, partly. But I just been lef'"

"I'm taking a bit of a holiday," Sid went on. "But the fact is, I have to give myself holidays nowadays. I've set up for myself."

"Not down here?"

"No fear! I'm not a turnip. I've started in Hammersmith, manufacturing." Sid spoke offhand as though there was no such thing as pride.

"Not drapery?"

"No fear! Engineer. Manufacture bicycles." He clapped his hand to his breast pocket and produced a number of pink handbills. He handed one to Kipps and prevented him reading it by explanations and explanatory dabs of a pointing finger. "That's our make, my make to be exact. The Red Flag, see?—I got a transfer with my name—Pantocrat tyres, eight

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Marshall twelve. He also become a fellow of New College in 1645, and was appointed rector of Morestead, Winchester. He died in 1670.

 MARSHALL, WILLIAM (fl. 1535), reformer, printer, and translator, appears at one time to have been clerk to Sir Richard Broke [q. v.], chief baron of the exchequer. He had some acquaintance with Sir Thomas More, who is said to have made some effort to obtain an office for him at court (, Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, vol. iv. pt. iii. App. 133). He adopted with enthusiasm the views of the protestant reformers, and eagerly advocated Catherine's divorce. He appears to have consequently secured some interest with Anne Boleyn, and in 1535 was one of Cromwell's confidential agents. Probably through Anne's favour he obtained a license for printing books, and his main occupation from about 1534 seems to have been in preparing works for his press (, ed. Herbert, i. 371). In 1534, when he first began literary work, he was living in Wood Street. Writing to Cromwell on 1 April 1534, he says: 'I send you two books now finished of the Gift of Constantine; I think there was none ever better set forth for defacing of the pope of Rome. Erasmus lately wrote a work on our common creed. . . which I will have from the printers as soon as God sends me money and send a couple of them bound to you. I trust you will like the translation; it cost me labour and money' (, Letters and Papers, vol. vii.) Erasmus's work appeared under the title 'Maner and Forme of Confession' or 'Erasmus of Confession.' Writing again about the same date he says he has done Constantine and Erasmus on the Creed, and hopes to print 'De veteri et novo Deo' immediately after Easter, which, together with a 'Prymer in Englysshe,' both printed by John Byddell, appeared later on in the year. He also borrowed 20l. from Cromwell to enable him to publish 'The Defence of Peace.' This appeared on 27 July 1535. It is a translation of Marsilio of Padua's 'Defensorium Pacis,' written in the fourteenth century, against the temporal power of the pope. It was printed by Robert Wyer, and Marshall says his object is 'to helpe further and profyte the chrysten com[m]enweale to the uttermost of my power, namely and pryacy pally in those busynesses and troubles, whereby it is and before this tyme hath ben unjustly molested, vexed, and troubled by the spyrytuall and ecclesjastycall tyraunt.' Marshall gave twenty-four copies to be distributed among the monks of Charterhouse, 'of whom many took them saying they would read them if the president licensed them. The third day they sent them back, saying that the president had commanded them so to do. One John Rochester took one and kept it four or five days and then burnt it, which is good matter to lay to them when your pleasure shall be to visit them' (Letter to Cromwell, October 1535; Gairdner, ix. 523). In the same year appeared his 'Pyctures and Ymages,' printed by John Gough (fl. 1528-1556) [q. v.], of which Lord-chancellor Thomas Audeley [q. v.] wrote to Cromwell that 'the book will make much business should it go forth,' and expressed an intention of sending 'for the printer to stop' it. Thomas Broke, writing 11 Sept. 1535, says that 'the people greatly murmur at it' (ib. pp. 345, 358). Marshall's energy appears to have involved him in financial difficulties. Writing to Cromwell in 1536, he says: 'The "Defence of Peace" cost over 31l.; though the best book in English against the usurped (sic) book of the Bishop of Rome, it has not sold.' His brother Thomas, who was parson of South Molton, Devonshire, had become bound for the 20l. he had borrowed from Cromwell, and proceedings were instituted against him by John Gostwick, treasurer of the first fruits. Marshall begged Cromwell to stay the action at least for a season, as his brother's house and chattels would not suffice to pay the debt, and asked the minister to bestow upon his brother Thomas or his son Richard one of the preferments which he had heard Reginald Pole [q. v.] was about to lose, ' if but the little prebend he has in Salisbury, 18l. a year or the little deanery of Wynbourne Mynster worth 40 marks.' The request appears to have been refused. In 1542 appeared Marshall's 'An Abridgement of Sebastian Munster's Chronicle,' printed by Robert Wyer. The date of his death is unknown. Marshall was married and had a son, Richard.

Ames also attributes to Marshall the 'Chrysten Bysshop and Counterfayte Bysshop,' n.d., printed by John Gough.


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Mr. Punch's Book of Sports every form of sportsmanship, and it is chiefly because his jovial knights of the pencil delight to illustrate the mishaps incidental to all games that we are entitled to look upon him as a great patron of our sports. And is not he always ready to pillory the cad and the incompetent as further proof of the soundness of his heart?

Certain volumes of this library are devoted entirely to one or other of our popular pastimes, determined mainly on their varying richness in humour, but in this "Book of Sports" we have brought together a carefully chosen selection of Mr. Punch's wittiest sayings on a variety of games and pastimes. Cricket might of itself have furnished forth a volume, Football, and Racing also; but we have sought after variety rather than repletion, and to this end even the passing craze for Ping-pong has not been ignored, as it is not the least of the merits of the Punch Library of Humour that within these volumes is enshrined a comic chronicle of the passing time.

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252 pounds—yes, there—Clinchers ten, Dunlop's eleven, Ladies' one pound more—that's the lady's. Best machine at a democratic price in London. No guineas and no discounts—honest trade. I build 'em—to order. I've built," he reflected, looking away seaward—"seventeen. Counting orders in 'and.… Come down to look at the old place a bit. Mother likes it at times."

"Thought you'd all gone away"

"What! after my father's death? No! My mother's come back, and she's living at Muggett's cottages. The sea air suits 'er. She likes the old place better than Hammersmith … and I can afford it. Got an old crony or so here.… Gossip … have tea.… S'pose you ain't married, Kipps?"

Kipps shook his head, "I" he began.

"I am," said Sid. "Married these two years and got a nipper. Proper little chap."

Kipps got his word in at last. "I got engaged day before yesterday," he said.

"Ah!" said Sid airily. "That's all right. Who's the fortunate lady?"

Kipps tried to speak in an offhand way. He stuck his hands in his pockets as he spoke. "She's a solicitor's daughter," he said, "in Folkstone. Rather'r nice set. County family. Related to the Earl of Beaupres"

"Steady on!" cried Sid.

"You see, I've 'ad a bit of luck, Sid. Been lef money."

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 MARSHALL, WILLIAM (fl. 1630–1650), the most prolific of the early English engravers, worked throughout the reign of Charles I. He confined himself entirely to the illustration of books, and the portraits and title-pages which he executed for Moseley and other booksellers are extremely numerous. Some of Marshall's plates are engraved with miniature-like delicacy and finish, and have a pleasing effect; but the majority, probably on account of the low rate of remuneration at which he was compelled to work, are coarse and unsatisfactory; the portraits in Fuller's 'Holy State,' 1642, are particularly poor. From the monotony in the style of his ornaments it is concluded that Marshall worked chiefly from his own designs. Among his many portraits, which are valued on account of their scarcity and historical interest, the best are those of John Donne at the age of eighteen (frontispiece to his 'Poems,' 1635); John Milton at the age of twenty-one, with some Greek lines by the poet, in which he sarcastically alludes to the elderly appearance which Marshall has given him ('Juvenile Poems,' 1645); Shakespeare ('Plays,' 1640); Francis Bacon ('Advancement of Learning,' 1640); Charles I on horseback; Sir Thomas Fairfax on horseback, after E. Bower, 1647; Archbishop Ussher; Nathaniel Bernard, S.T.P.; Charles Saltonstall ('Art of Navigation,' 1642); Sir Robert Stapylton (translation of Strada's 'De Bello Belgico,' 1650); Joannes Banfi; and Bathusa Making, governess to Princess Elizabeth. At the Sykes sale Marshall's portrait of William Alexander, earl of Stirling ('Recreation of the Muses,' 1637) fetched twenty guineas, and that of Margaret Smith, lady Herbert (the only impression known), twenty-five guineas. The title-page to Braithwait's 'Arcadian Princess,' 1635, is perhaps the best of his plates of that class, and the emblematical frontispiece to Εἰκών Βασιλικὴ, 1648, the most familiar.

MARSHALL, WILLIAM (1745–1818), agriculturist and philologist, was baptised on 28 July 1745 at Sinnington, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. He himself states that he was 'born a farmer, and that he could trace his blood through the veins of agriculturists for upwards of four hundred years,' but that, from the age of fifteen, he was 'trained to traffic, and wandered in the ways of commerce in a distant climate (the West Indies) for fourteen years;' but after 'a violent fit of illness' he returned to this country, and in 1774 undertook the management of a farm of three hundred acres near Croydon in Surrey. Here he wrote his first work entitled 'Minutes of Agriculture made on a Farm of three hundred acres of various soils near Croydon … published as a Sketch of the actual Business of a Farm,' London, 1778, 4to. Dr. Johnson, to whom the manuscript was submitted, disapproved of certain passages sanctioning work on Sunday in harvest-time (, Life of Johnson, ch. xxxix.) These passages were subsequently cancelled. In a note in the second edition of the 'Minutes' (1799, p. 70) Marshall says: 'That which was published, and is now offered again to the public, is, in effect, what Dr. Johnson approved; or let me put it in the most cautious terms, that of which Dr. Johnson did not disapprove.

In 1779 Marshall published 'Experiments and Observations concerning Agriculture and the Weather,' and in 1780 he was appointed agent in Norfolk on the landed estate of Sir Harbord Harbord. To the 'Philosophical Transactions' he contributed in 1783 'An Account of the Black Canker Caterpillar which destroys the Turnips in Norfolk.' This is quoted in Kirby and Spence's 'Entomology' (1st edit. i. 186) as the only authority for information on the subject. Marshall left Norfolk in 1784 and settled at Stafford, where he was busily occupied in arranging and printing his works. His 'Arbustum Americanum, the American Grove, or an Alphabetical Catalogue of Forest Trees and Shrubs, natives of the American United States,' appeared in 1785. From 1786 to 1808 he resided in Clement's Inn, London, during the winters, and travelled during the summers in the country.

His chief publication was 'A General Survey, from personal experience, observation, and enquiry, of the Rural Economy of England,' dividing the country into six agricultural departments. In 1787 the first two volumes appeared, dealing with the eastern division (exemplified in Norfolk); the northern (dealing with Yorkshire), followed in 2 vols, in 1788; the west central (treating of Gloucestershire) in 2 vols, in 1789; the midland (Leicestershire, &c.) in 2 vols, in 1790 (2nd edit. 1796); the western (Devonshire, Somerset, Dorset, and Cornwall), 2 vols. 1796; and the southern (Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Hampshire, 2 vols. 1798; to a second edit, of the last, 1799, the author prefixed a sketch of the 'Vale of London and an outline of its Rural Economy'). Most of these valuable works were collected by Paris in his ' Agri-


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CH. IV Sid's eye travelled instinctively to mark Kipps' garments. "How much?" he asked.

"'Bout twelve 'undred a year," said Kipps, more offhandedly than ever.

"Lord!" said Sid, with a note of positive dismay, and stepped back a pace or two.

"My granfaver it was," said Kipps, trying hard to be calm and simple. "'Ardly knew I 'ad a granfaver. And then—bang! When o' Bean, the solicitor, told me of it, you could 'ave knocked me down"

"'Ow much?" demanded Sid, with a sharp note in his voice.

"Twelve 'undred pound a year—'proximately, that is.…"

Sid's attempt at genial unenvious congratulation did not last a minute. He shook hands with an unreal heartiness and said he was jolly glad. "It's a blooming stroke of Luck," he said.

"It's a bloomin' stroke of Luck," he repeated; "that's what it is," with the smile fading from his face. "Of course, better you 'ave it than me, o' chap. So I don't envy you, anyhow. I couldn't keep it, if I did 'ave it."

"'Ow's that?" said Kipps, a little hipped by Sid's patent chagrin.

"I'm a Socialist, you see," said Sid. "I don't 'old with Wealth, What is Wealth? Labour robbed out of the poor. At most it's only yours in Trust. Leastways, that 'ow I should take it." He reflected. "The Present distribution of Wealth," he said and stopped.

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