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 FANEUIL HALL

nest of rebels,

King-hated Boston town,

Whose brood is still a-rearing

To pull the tyrant down,—

Once more to Fanueil Hall, freemen, come!

There's a virtue in the name,—

And the words, they turn to flame,

That breathe from Freedom's cradle and her home.

Old abolition tocsin,

Strike out the present hour!

Throng, men, upon the ringing stones

Whence Phillips drew his power!

His mother's hand along the narrow pave

Held up his toddling feet,

And he swore to make the street

Too pure to bear the footstep of a slave.

Come! once more rock the Cradle

Whence rose our sires free men!

Till all downtrodden peoples

Shall have their rights again! 209


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Sketch of Carl Vogt

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Editor's Table


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Scientific Literature


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 14. As rain-water that has fallen on a mountain-ridge runs down the rocks on all sides, thus does he, who sees a difference between qualities, run after them on all sides. 15. As pure water poured into pure water remains the same, thus, O Gautama, is the Self of a thinker who knows."


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/General Notices


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Publications Received


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210 Send loud cheers echoing round the holy wall!

Hail, to heroic deeds!

Hail, every land that bleeds!

Tongue of the thoughts of freemen, Faneuil Hall!

The pictured lips of patriots

Speak out for the opprest,

And every heart turns orator

And pleads within the breast,

Upon whatever land the despots fall:

Once more, where Adams spake,

Bid the sacred rafters shake

With the roaring popular voice of Faneuil Hall!


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Fragments of Science


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Minor Paragraphs


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/November 1897/Notes


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/December 1897/The Racial Geography of Europe: The British Isles XI


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/December 1897/Are There Planets Among the Stars?


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 thoughts, who, though one, fulfils the desires of many. The wise who perceive him within their Self, to them belongs eternal peace, not to others. 14. They perceive that highest indescribable pleasure, saying, This is that. How then can I understand it? Has it its own light, or does it reflect light? 15. The sun does not shine there, nor the moon and the stars, nor these lightnings, and much less this fire. When he shines, everything shines after him; by his light all this is lighted ."


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 THE EAGLE

211


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The Eagle

 * The Eagle, a poem by Alfred Tennyson
 * The Eagle, a poem by George Edward Woodberry

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 advance geographical interests in south Arabia, continued Wellsted’s work in Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina coast he crossed the dividing range into the Dhahira, and reached Birema, one of its principal oases. His investigations show that the Dhahira contains many settlements, with an industrious agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract extending 250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border the shores of the gulf.

Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and north. The first explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a definite scientific object was the Spaniard, Badia y Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and claiming to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs, arrived at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. Besides giving to the world the first accurate description of the holy city and the Haj ceremonies, he was the first to fix the position of Mecca by astronomical observations, and to describe the physical character of its surroundings. But the true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J. L. Burckhardt, who had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra, and whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab life qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters of Islam. Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when Mehemet Ali had already driven the Wahhābi invaders out of Hejaz, and was preparing for his farther advance against their stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif at the invitation of the pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he spent three months studying every detail of the topography of the holy places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a Moslem pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by the western or coast route, and arrived there safely but broken in health by the hardships of the journey. His illness did not, however, prevent his seeing and recording everything of interest in Medina with the same care as at Mecca, though it compelled him to cut short the further journey he had proposed to himself, and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where he died only two years later.

His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly the same ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling as a Moslem pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage with the same keen observation as Burckhardt, and while amplifying somewhat the latter’s description of Medina, confirms the accuracy of his work there and at Mecca in almost every detail. Burton’s topographical descriptions are fuller, and his march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him over ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the lava beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high plateau which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. His original intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his way across the peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal (as an Indian officer on leave) was insufficient for so extended a journey; and his further contributions to Arabian geography were not made until twenty-five years later, when he was deputed by the Egyptian government to examine the reported gold deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found in several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made, and a valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering the whole Midian coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to the mouth of the Wadi Hamd, and including both the Tehama range and the Hisma valley behind it; while the importance of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained by its tributaries was for the first time brought to light.

Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the Egyptian expedition would have given him the opportunity to see something of Nejd, but he had already left Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhābi power by Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from Hejaz, and though several European officers accompanied the expedition, none of them left any record of his experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest that the first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha, as de facto ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down piracy in the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian trade, sent a small mission under Captain G. F. Sadlier to congratulate the pasha on the success of the Egyptian arms, and no doubt with the ulterior object of obtaining a first-hand report on the real situation. On his arrival at Hofuf, Sadlier found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still hoping to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the retreating Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim, where he caught up the main body of Ibrahim’s army, though the pasha himself had gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated about going farther, but he was unable to obtain a safe conduct to Basra, or to return by the way he had come, and was compelled reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina. Here he at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu, whence he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt to treat with Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results of the mission were nil, the value to geographical science was immense; for though no geographer himself, Sadlier’s route across Arabia made it possible for the first time to locate the principal places in something like their proper relative positions; incidentally, too, it showed the practicability of a considerable body of regular troops crossing the deserts of Nejd even in the months of July and August.

Sadlier’s route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his successor, G. A. Wallin, was to make that the objective of his journey. Commissioned by Mehemet Ali to inform him about the situation in Nejd brought about by the rising power of Abdallah Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April 1845, and crossing the pilgrim road at Maʽan, pushed on across the Syrian desert to the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted during the hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in the nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town, and the capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all northern Arabia from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay in Hail, where he had every opportunity of observing the character of the country and its inhabitants, and the hospitality and patriarchal, if sometimes stern, justice of its chief, he travelled on to Medina and Mecca, and returned thence to Cairo to report to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned to Arabia, avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering Shammar territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail; and after spending a month there travelled northwards to Kerbela and Bagdad.

The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and central Arabia had settled down again under its native rulers when W. G. Palgrave made his adventurous journey through Nejd, and published the remarkable narrative which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the Indian army, but for some time before his journey he had been connected with the Jesuit mission in Syria. By training and temperament he was better qualified to appreciate and describe the social life of the people than their physical surroundings, and if the results of his great journey are disappointing to the geographer, his account of the society of the oasis towns, and of the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad, must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab life in its freest development.

Following Wallin’s route across the desert by Maʽan and Jauf, Palgrave and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail in July 1862; here they were hospitably entertained by the amir Talāl, nephew of the founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, and after some stay passed on with his countenance through Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of the desert part of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much of the

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 steadiness, as one draws the pith from a reed. Let him know that Self as the Bright, as the Immortal; yes, as the Bright, as the Immortal. 18. Having received this knowledge taught by Death and the whole rule of Yoga (meditation), Nakiketa became free from passion and death, and obtained Brahman. Thus it will be with another also who knows thus what relates to the Self. 19. May He protect us both! May He enjoy us both! May we acquire strength together! May our knowledge become bright! May we never quarrel ! Om! Peace! peace! peace! Harih, Om!"


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The New International Encyclopædia/Crotalaria

CROT'ALA'RIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk., krotalon, rattle). A genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosæ, deriving its name from the inflated pods in which the seeds rattle when ripe. The species are numerous; annual, perennial, and shrubby plants, natives of the temperate and tropical parts of the world. Many of them have long, straight, slender stems and branches, and some of these yield valuable fibre, particularly the ../Sunn/ (q.v.), or Sunn hemp of India, Crotalaria juncea, an annual species, the fibre of which is now an important article of commerce. Jubbulpore hemp, also an important fibre, and regarded as stronger than Sunn, is the produce of Crotalaria tenuifolia, usually considered a variety of Crotalaria juncea, a perennial species about nine feet high, a native of the south of India, which, when growing in abundant space, throws out many branches; but when sown thick, grows with little branching. Crotalaria burhia, which naturally grows in very arid places, is also cultivated in Sinde for its fibre. There are a dozen species native of the United States, one of which, Crotalaria sagittalis, and perhaps others, are reputed to be injurious to horses, causing what is termed ‘crotalism,’ a disease something like loco (q.v.).


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Thus we see that fully two thousand years ago Maya art had already reached a high level of development, implying far more remote beginnings. No such series can be found in Peruvian antiquities, but they may be the older for all that. The history of the rise of the Inca is fairly well known, the succession of rulers being as follows:—

 * 1) Rocca—about 1200 A.D.
 * 2) Lloque Yupanqui
 * 3) Mayta Capac
 * 4) Capac Yupanqui
 * 5) Sinchi Rocca
 * 6) Yahuar Huacac Mayta Yupanqui
 * 7) Huira Cocha-Tupac Yupanqui
 * 8) Tupac Yupanqui
 * 9) Huaina Capac (Inti Cusi Hualpa)
 * 10) Huascar Inti (Cusi Hualpa Yupanqui)

The unfortunate Huascar was made an end of in civil war just as the Spaniards came upon the scene in 1532. But Markham produces records of a much longer list of ninety-two kings, which, if authentic, carries us back to about 1300 B.C. While the specific correctness of these early lists is improbable, we must bear in mind that such an antiquity is in keeping with archæological data and closely parallels the projected Maya chronology.

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 ON THE DEPARTURE OF THE TROOPS FOR FRANCE

213


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The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, Samuel

CHASE, (1741-1811). An American jurist, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He was born in Somerset County, Md., studied law in Annapolis, was admitted to the bar in 1761; soon attained a considerable practice; and became prominent in colonial politics. He served for more than twenty years in the General Assembly of Maryland; was prominent as one of the ‘Sons of Liberty’ during the Stamp Act excitement; was one of the framers of the ‘Declaration of Rights of Maryland;’ and from 1774 to 1778 was a member of the Continental Congress. In 1775 he was associated with Franklin and Carroll in an unsuccessful mission to secure the good will of Canada, and soon after his return advocated and signed the Declaration of Independence. As agent for the State of Maryland, he went to England in 1783 to recover the value of stock held by it in the Bank of England before the outbreak of the war, and after remaining a year succeeded in obtaining about $650,000. In 1788 he was a member of the convention which ratified the Federal Constitution for Maryland, but was himself, along with Luther Martin, opposed to that document. He was appointed Judge of the General Court of Maryland in 1791, and Judge of the Criminal Court for Baltimore County in 1793, and in 1796 became, by Washington's appointment, an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. He presided over the trials of Thomas Cooper, John Fries, and Thomas Callender in 1800, and conducted the two latter with such asperity and apparent favoritism that the counsel for the defendants indignantly withdrew. As a judge, though frequently presiding with firmness and ability, he was unable to suppress or conceal his decided political predilections, and on various occasions, notably in Baltimore on May 2, 1803, delivered what his political opponents regarded as partisan harangues to the grand jury. This harangue in Baltimore attracted the notice of prominent Democrats, who were then engaged in a general movement to diminish the influence of the judiciary, and, on John Randolph's motion, the House of Representatives passed a resolution of impeachment in 1804. In the following year the trial was conducted with much

before the Senate, Chase being represented by Luther Martin, R. G. Harper, Charles Lee, P. B. Key, and Joseph Hopkinson, and the prosecution by John Randolph, G. W. Campbell, Joseph Nicholson, C. A. Rodney, John Boyle, Peter Early, and Christopher Clark. By the latter, eight articles were exhibited, two setting forth Chase's oppressive treatment of Fries, two more charging similar treatment of Callender, two others charging an infringement of the laws of Virginia in the Callender case, one relating to alleged unbecoming and unfair conduct before a Delaware grand jury, and the last calling Chase to account for his harangue before the Baltimore grand jury. Chase was finally acquitted on all but two charges—partisanship in the Callender trial and ‘electioneering’ before the Baltimore grand jury—and no article received the two-thirds vote requisite for impeachment. This decision has been regarded as of considerable significance in the history of the American judiciary, serving as it did to discountenance impeachment trials unless based on really serious grounds, and at the same time warning judges to suppress all manifestations of partisanship on the bench. After the trial, until his death, Chase continued to serve as a member of the Supreme Court. Consult an article “The Impeachment Trial of Judge Samuel Chase” in the American Law Review, Vol. XXXIII. (Saint Louis, 1889), and Smith and Lloyd (reporters). The Trial of Samuel Chase (Washington, 1805).


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 52/December 1897/Animated Pictures


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, Thomas

CHASE, (1827-92). An American educator, born in Worcester, Mass. He graduated in 1848 at Harvard University, studied at the University of Berlin and the Collège de France, and was professor of Greek and Latin at Haverford College in 1855-75. From 1875 to 1886 he was president of Haverford. He was a member of the American committee for the revision of the New Testament, and a delegate to the Stockholm Philological Congress of 1889. He published Hellas: Her Monuments and Scenery (1863), a Latin Grammar (1882), and editions (1881) of Cicero on Immortality (1868), The Æneid (1869), Horace (1872), Four Books of Livy, and (1876) Juvenal and Persius.


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Rh Isar flowing slowly. Here the work of the inundations of the primal oceans becomes conceivable. In many granite rubbles I found the counterparts of the specimens in my cabinet, for which I have to thank Knebel.

The mists rising from the river and the meadows hung about for a time; but at last they, too, dispersed. Between these gravelly hills, which you must think of as extending, both in length and breadth, for many leagues, is a highly beautiful and fertile region like that in the basin of the Regen. Now one comes again upon the Isar, and observes in its channel a precipitous section of the gravel-hills, at least a hundred and fifty feet high. I arrived at Wolfrathshausen, and reached the eight and fortieth degree. The sun was scorching hot. No one relies on the fine weather. Every one is complaining of the past year, and bitterly weeping over the arrangements of Providence.

And now a new world opened upon me. I was approaching the mountains, which stood out more and more distinctly.

Benedictbeuern has a glorious situation, and charms one at first sight. On a fertile plain is a long and broad white building, and behind it a broad and lofty ridge of rocks. Next, one ascends to the Kochelsee, and, still higher on the mountains, to the Walchensee. Here I greeted the first snow-capped summit, and, in the midst of my admiration at being so near the snowy mountains, I was informed that yesterday it had thundered in these parts, and that snow had fallen on the heights. From these meteoric tokens people draw hopes of better weather, and from this early snow anticipate change in the atmosphere. The rocks around me are all of limestone, of the oldest formation, and containing no fossils. These limestone mountains extend, in vast, unbroken ranges, from Dalmatia to Mount St. Gothard. Hacquet has travelled over a


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 fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its bright, exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fēsal, who had been in power since the Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and the religious tyranny of Wahhābism prevailed, in marked contrast to the liberal régime of Talal in Jebel Shammar. Still, Palgrave and his companions, though known as Christians, spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation, making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important of which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly district of Nejd. Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama, and across a strip of sandy desert to El Hasa where Palgrave found himself in more congenial surroundings. Finally, a voyage to the Oman coast and a brief stay there brought his adventures in Arabia to a successful ending.

Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern Arabia, though he covered little new ground, saw more of the desert life, and has described it more minutely and faithfully than any other explorer. Travelling down from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped at El Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the rock-cut tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully completed his investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and drawings of the tombs to Renan in Paris, he determined to push on farther into the desert. Under the protection of a sheikh of the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over the whole of the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where among other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone, afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he went on to Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro governor and townsmen, less tolerant than his former Bedouin hosts, ill-treated him and even threatened his life. Returning to Hail in the absence of the amir, he was expelled by the governor; he succeeded, however, in finding protection at Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.

Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their expedition to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria they had gained the confidence and friendship of a young sheikh whose family, though long settled at Tadmur, came originally from Nejd, and who was anxious to renew the connexion with his kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In his company the Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the Syrian desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some of his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged; but though the object of the journey had been attained, the Blunts were anxious to visit Hail and make the acquaintance of the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose might and generosity they daily heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long stretch of waterless desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed without difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and hospitably entertained for a month, after which they travelled northwards in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to Kerbela and Bagdad.

In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus to Hail. The narrative of the last named forms a valuable supplement to that published by the Blunts, and together with Doughty’s, furnishes as complete a picture as could be wished for of the social and political life of J. Shammar, and of the general nature of the country. Huber’s journal, published after his death from his original notes, contains a mass of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest scientific value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first and only scientific data for the construction of the map of northern Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal importance, for, besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district between Hail and Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession of the since famous Tema stone, which ranks with the Moabite stone among the most valuable of Semitic inscriptions. From Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty’s track to Aneza and thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later, in July 1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches north of Jidda, on his way back to Hail.

One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the amir Mahommed—Baron E. Nolde—who arrived there in 1893, not long after the amir had by his victory over the combined forces of Riad and Kasim brought the whole of Nejd under his dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to Haiyania by a more direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir was away from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired territory; Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to Ibn Rashid’s camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra. Here he was on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or no description of his route thither, or of his journey northwards by the Persian pilgrim road, already traversed by Huber in 1881. His narrative thus, while containing much of general interest on the climate and on the animal life of northern Arabia, its horses and camels in particular, adds little to those of his predecessors as regards topographical detail.

If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they will be found to cover the northern half of the peninsula above the line Mecca-Hofuf, with a network of routes, which, though sometimes separated by wide intervals, are still close enough to ensure that no important geographical feature can have been overlooked, especially in a country whose general character varies so little over wide areas. In the southern half, on the other hand, except in Nejran and Jauf, no European traveller has penetrated 100 m. in a direct line from the coast. The vast extent of the Dahna, or great southern desert, covering perhaps 250,000 sq. m., accounts for about a third of this area, but some of the most favoured districts in Arabia—Asir and northern Yemen—remain unexplored, and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the Hadramut valley.

Topographical Details.—Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia. It is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a few miles E. of El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head of the Gulf of Akaba; and on the W. by the Suez Canal; its length from El Arish to its most southern point is 240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly 160 m. The greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the land rises gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep depression of Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of (q.v.), in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.; except in W. Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part consisting of bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered with tamarisk and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the peninsula from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a reservoir and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent leads down from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.

The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian desert, extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the Euphrates valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a gravelly plain unbroken by any considerable range of hills or any continuous watercourse except the Wadi Hauran, which in rainy seasons forms a succession of pools from J. Hauran to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the north-east from the volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran to the edge of the Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad depression some 500 ft. below the average level of the Hamad, crosses it from north-east to south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a nearly uniform height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be the bed of an inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is found in it a few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is carried on at the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced in the neighbouring salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is continuous with the depression known as the Jauf, situated on the northern edge of the Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between Damascus and Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues eastward towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the thirtieth parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist. Jauf is a small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts’ visit in 1879, of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens, surrounded by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a mile in width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and except for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead flat of

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Author:Richard Monckton Milnes

Works

 * Memorials of a Tour in Some Parts of Greece: Chiefly Poetical (1834)
 * Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats (1850)
 * "To Byron" a sonnet, in Life, Letters, and Literary Remains (1814)
 * "Good Morning and Good Night", in The Book of Betty Barber (1901), by Maggie Browne

Works about Milnes

 * "The Life of Lord Houghton" in Historical Essays and Studies by John Acton (1907)
 * "The Life of Lord Houghton" in Historical Essays and Studies by John Acton (1907)
 * "The Life of Lord Houghton" in Historical Essays and Studies by John Acton (1907)
 * "The Life of Lord Houghton" in Historical Essays and Studies by John Acton (1907)

title: Author:Richard Monckton Milnes


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48, was the elemental spark, the saving power of genius, the temperance, sanity, and self-reverence of a fine nature gradually coming to the knowledge of its faculties and unriddling the secret of its own moral beauty. Hence Lord Houghton, doing more essential justice to Keats than any of his louder eulogists, describes his works as rather the exercises of his poetical education than the charactery of his original and free power; and Matthew Arnold, even when placing him with Shakespeare, excuses him as a 'prentice hand in the wisest art. Too many of his admirers, seizing upon the external, accidental, and temporal in his biography and the fragmentary and parasitical in his poetry, have really wronged Keats more than did the now infamous reviews; they have rescued him from among the cockneys only to confound him with the neo-pagans. In what did the promise of Keats lie? The first step in the inquiry is the recognition of his immaturity,—the acknowledgment that his memorials must be searched for the germ rather than the fruit.

Sensuous Keats was, as every poet whose inspiration is direct from Heaven must be; unfortunately, the extraordinary beauty and


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92 considerable portion of the chain. They dip on the primary rocks of the quartz and clay.

I reached Walchensee about half-past four. About three miles from this place I met with a pretty adventure. A harper and his daughter, a little girl of about eleven years, were walking before me, and he begged of me to take up his child. He went on with his instrument. I let her sit by my side; and she very carefully placed at her feet a large new box,—a pretty and accomplished creature, and already pretty well acquainted with the world. She had been on a pilgrimage on foot, with her mother, to Maria Einsiedel; and both had determined to go upon the still longer journey to St. Jago of Compostella, when her mother was carried off by death, and was unable to fulfil her vow. It was impossible, she thought, to do too much in honour of the Mother of God. After a great fire, in which a whole house was burnt to the lowest foundation, she herself had seen the image of the Mother of God, which stood over the door, beneath a glass frame,—image and glass both uninjured; which was surely a palpable miracle. All her journeys she had taken on foot. She had just played in Munich, before the elector of Bavaria, and altogether her performances had been witnessed by one and twenty princely personages. She quite entertained me. Pretty, large hazel eyes, a proud forehead, which she frequently wrinkled by an elevation of the brows. She was natural and agreeable when she spoke, and especially when she laughed out loud with the free laugh of childhood. When, on the other hand, she was silent, she seemed to have a meaning in it, and, with her upper lip, had a sinister expression. I spoke with her on very many subjects: she was at home with all of them, and made most pertinent remarks. Thus she asked me once what tree one we came to was. It was a huge and beautiful maple, the first I had seen


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Rh on my whole journey. She narrowly observed it, and was quite delighted when several more appeared, and she was able to recognise this tree. She was going, she told me, to Botzen, for the fair, where she guessed I, too, was hastening. When she met me there, I must buy her a fairing; which, of course, I promised to do. She intended to put on there her new coif, which she had had made out of her earnings at Munich. She would show it to me beforehand. So she opened the bandbox; and I could not do less than admire the head-gear, with its rich embroidery and beautiful ribbons.

Over another pleasant prospect we felt a mutual pleasure. She asserted that we had fine weather before us; for they always carried their barometer with them, and that was the harp. When the treble-string twanged, it was sure to be fine weather; and it had done so yesterday. I accepted the omen, and we parted in the best of humours and with the hope of a speedy meeting.

, Sept. 8, 1786.

Evening.

Hurried, not to say driven here by necessity, I have reached at last a resting-place in a calm, quiet spot just such as I could wish it to be. It has been a day which for many years it will be a pleasure to recall. I left Mittelwald about six in the morning, and a sharp wind soon perfectly cleared the sky. The cold was such as one looks for only in February. But now, in the splendour of the setting sun, the dark foreground thickly planted with fig-trees, and, peeping between them, the gray limestone rocks, and, behind all, the highest summit of the mountain covered with snow, and standing out in bold outline against the deep blue sky, furnish precious and ever-changing images.


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300 face. This belief is, in the main, justified, when we review the measurements that have been made. The studies of Boas and Jenks upon mixed-blood Indians in the United States, show that the relative width of face among these is still greater than in case of whites, while reference to the accompanying table shows a very positive difference between the whites and full-blood Indians, in both North and South America. Thus, it is generally true that the New World peoples are characterized by broad faces. This feature is strongly accented in the Eskimo, but not sufficiently to place them in a class by themselves. Of Old World peoples, the broad faces are chiefly among Asiatics.

VALUES OF FACE-BREADTH HEAD-BREADTH INDEX FOR MALES (Compiled from Jenks )

FLATTENING OF THE FEMUR

Another anatomical trait supposed to characterize native Americans is an excessive flattening of the femur, or platymeria. A résumé of the literature, however, leaves one in doubt that any such variation can be definitely assigned to the New World as a whole, though some reports of Hrdlicka suggest that Indians differ from whites and negroes. The same can be stated for flattening of the tibia, or platycnemia. If the theory of Manouvrier that the phenomenon is dependent upon the muscular development of the individual, is accepted, then these flattenings of the shafts have no racial significance. (For a brief résumé, see Duckworth. )

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Rh Another curious femoral variation is the presence of a third trochanter, which Duckworth believes is, to a certain extent, correlated with platymeria. The most convenient frequency table so far compiled is that of Deniker, which shows a range from 13 per cent, for prehistoric Europe to 64 per cent, for the Fuegians of the New World. The great frequency of this trochanter among the Fuegians raises a suspicion as to the remainder of the New World, but satisfactory published data are wanting.

This about exhausts the list of widely diffused common characters for the New World as a whole. As we have seen, the somatic line-up is with the Mongoloid peoples, and, while we are facing this way, attention may well be called to other similarities asserted by certain observers. Posnansky reports the Mongolian spot in the Andean area, and an anatomical peculiarity of the cranium in the maxillar or region of the processus frontalis which is absent in the European, but prominent in Mongolian crania. It seems best, however, to defer further discussion of this subject until we have considered the differentiation of internal New World types and their distributions.

HEAD FORM

Head form has received so much attention that it almost monopolizes the subject matter of physical anthropology. As to what extent this is justifiable, remains to be seen. The special literature for the New World contains a large mass of measurements, both on crania and heads of living subjects, from which we can form some idea of their classificatory value. The most conventional of these measurements is the cephalic index, or the maximum breadth of head divided by the maximum length and the quotient expressed in per cent. Ripley has plotted the distribution of this index on a map of the world, but an inspection of this suggests that the New World cannot be sharply differentiated on the basis of the cephalic index alone. It is true, however, that the broadest heads are here accredited to Asia and the longest have minor

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 facility of his descriptions of sensation, and his taste for climax and point in his prose have made it easy to quote phrases which seem to show that he was unduly attached to delights of mere sense. To pass by the anecdotes of Haydon, not too scrupulous a truth-teller, here is a characteristic paragraph written to his brother George:—

"This morning I am in a sort of temper, indolent, and supremely careless; I long after a stanza or two of Thomson's Castle of Indolence; my passions are all asleep, from my having slumbered till nearly eleven, and weakened the animal fibre all over me to a delightful sensation about three degrees this side of faintness. If I had teeth of pearl and the breath of lilies, I should call it languor; but as I am I must call it laziness. In this state of effeminacy, the fibres of the brain are relaxed in common with the rest of the body, and to such a happy degree that pleasure has no show of enticement and pain no unbearable frown; neither poetry, nor ambition, nor love have any alertness of countenance; as they pass by me, they seem rather like three figures in a Greek vase, two men and a woman, whom no one but myself could distinguish in their


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94 One enters the Tyrol by Scharnitz, The boundary-line is marked by a wall which bars the passage through the valley, and abuts on both sides on the mountains. It looks well. On one side the rocks are fortified; on the other they ascend perpendicularly. From Seefeld the road continually grew more interesting, and from Benedictbeuern to this place it went on ascending, from height to height: while all the streams of the neighbouring districts were making for the Isar. Now one caught a sight, over a ridge of rocks, of the Valley of the Inn; and Inzingen lay before us. The sun was high and hot, so that I was obliged to throw off some of my coats; for indeed, with the varying atmosphere of the day, I am obliged frequently to change my clothing.

At Zierl one begins to descend into the Valley of the Inn. Its situation is indescribably beautiful, and the bright beams of the sun made it look quite cheerful. The postilion went faster than I wished; for he had not yet heard mass, and was anxious to be present at it at Innspruck, where, as it was the festival of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, he hoped to be a devout participant. Accordingly, we rattled along the banks of the Inn, hurrying by Martinswand,—a vast, precipitous, wall-like rock of limestone. To the spot where the Emperor Maximilian is said to have lost himself, I ventured to descend, and came up again without a guide; although it is, in any case, a rash undertaking.

Innspruck is gloriously situated in a rich, broad valley, between high rocks and mountains. Everybody and everything was decked out in honour of the Virgin's Nativity. At first I had some wish to stop there, but it promised neither rest nor peace. For a little while I amused myself with the son of my host. At last the people who were to attend to me came in one by one. For the sake of health, and prosperity to the flocks, they had all gone on a pilgrimage to


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Rh Wilden,—a place of worship on the mountains, about three miles and a half from the city. About two o'clock, as my rolling carriage divided the gay, merry throng, every one was in holiday garb and promenade.

From Innspruck the road becomes even still more beautiful: no powers of description can equal it. The most frequented road, ascending a gorge which empties its waters into the Inn, offers to the eye innumerable varieties of scenery. While the road often runs close to the most rugged rocks, indeed is frequently cut right through them, one sees the other side above you slightly inclining, and cultivated with the most surprising skill. On the high and broad-ascending surface lie valleys, houses, cottages, and cabins, white-washed, glittering among the fields and hedges. Soon all changed: the land becomes available only for pasture, until it, too, terminates on the precipitous ascent. I have gained some ideas for my scheme of a creation; none, however, perfectly new and unexpected. I have also dreamed much of the model I have so long talked about, by which I am desirous to give a notion of all that is brooding in my own mind, and which in nature itself I cannot point out to every eye.

Now it grew darker and darker; individual objects were lost in the obscurity; the masses became constantly vaster and grander; at last, as the whole moved before me like some deeply mysterious figure, the moon suddenly illuminated the snow-capped summits; and now I am waiting till morning shall light up this rocky chasm in which I am shut up on the boundary-line of the north and south.

I must again add a few remarks on the weather, which, perhaps, favours me so highly in return for the great attention I pay to it. On the lowlands one has good or bad weather when it is already settled for either: on the mountains one is present with the beginning of the change. I have so often experienced this


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96 when, on my travels, or walks, or hunting-excursions, I have passed days and nights between the cliffs in the mountain forests. On such occasions a conceit occurred to me, which I give you as nothing better, but which, however, I cannot get rid of, as indeed, generally, such conceits are, of all things, most difficult to get rid of. I altogether look upon it as a truth; and so I will now give utterance to it, especially as I have already so often had occasion to prove the indulgence of my friends.

When we look at the mountains, either closely or from a distance, and see their summits above us, at one time glittering in the sunshine, at another enveloped in mist, swept round with strong clouds, or blackened with showers, we are disposed to ascribe it all to the atmosphere, as we can easily with the eye see and discern its movements and changes. The mountains, on the other hand, with their glorious shapes, lie before our outward senses immovable. We take them to be dead, because they are rigid; and we believe them to be inactive, because they are at rest. For a long while, however, I cannot put off the impulse to ascribe, for the most part, to their imperceptible and secret influence the changes which are observable in the atmosphere. For instance, I believe that the mass of the earth generally, and therefore, also, in an especial way, its more considerable continents, do not exercise a constant and invariable force of attraction, but that this attractive force manifests itself by a certain pulse, which, according to intrinsic, necessary, and probably, also, accidental external causes, increases or decreases. Though all attempts by other objects to determine this oscillation may be too limited and rude, the atmosphere furnishes a standard both delicate and large enough to test their silent operations. When this attractive force decreases never so little, immediately the decrease in the gravity, and the diminished


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Author:Benjamin Robert Haydon

Works

 * Painting, and the fine arts (1838)
 * Lectures on painting and design (1844-46)
 * Life of Benjamin Robert Haydon, historical painter, from his autobiography and journals (1853)

Works about Haydon

 * "Addressed to Haydon", a sonnet by John Keats
 * "Addressed to the Same", a sonnet by John Keats

title: Author:Benjamin Robert Haydon


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Rh elasticity of the air, indicate this effect. The atmosphere is now unable to sustain the moisture which is diffused throughout it, either chemically or mechanically: the clouds lower, and the rain falls, and passes to the lowlands. When, however, the mountains increase their power of attraction, then the elasticity of the air is again restored, and two important phenomena result. First of all, the mountains collect around their summits vast masses of clouds, hold them fast and firm above themselves like second heads, until, as determined by the contest of electrical forces within them, they pour down as thunder-showers, rain or mist; and then, on all that remains, the electricity of the air operates, which is now restored to a capacity of retaining more water, dissolving and elaborating it. I saw quite clearly the dispersion of a cloudy mass of this kind. It was hanging on the very highest peak; the red tints of the setting sun still illuminated it. Slowly and slowly pieces detached themselves from either end. Some fleecy nebulæ were drawn off, and carried up still higher, and then disappeared; and in this manner, by degrees, the whole mass vanished, and was strangely spun away before my eyes, like a distaff, by invisible hands.

If my friends are disposed to laugh at the itinerant meteorologist and his strange theories, I shall, perhaps, give them more solid cause for laughter by some other of my remarks; for I must confess, that as my journey was, in fact, a flight from all the unshapely things which tormented me in latitude 51°, I hoped in 48° to meet with a true Goshen. But I found myself disappointed; for latitude alone does not make a climate and fine weather, but the mountain chains, especially such as intersect the land from east to west. In these, great changes are constantly going on; and the lands which he to the north have most to suffer from them. Thus, farther north, the weather throughout the


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98 summer was determined by the great Alpine range on which I am now writing. Here, for the last few months, it has rained incessantly, while a southeast or southwest wind carried the showers northwards. In Italy they are said to have had fine weather; indeed, a little too dry.

And now a few words on a kindred subject,—the vegetable world, which in so many ways depends on climate and moisture, and the height of the mountain ranges. Here, too, I have noticed no remarkable change, but still an improvement. In the valley before Innspruck, apples and pears are abundant; while the peaches and grapes are brought from the Welsh districts, or, in other words, the Southern Tyrol. Near Innspruck they grow a great deal of Indian corn and buckwheat, which they call blende. On the Brenner I first saw the larch, and near Schemberg the pine. Would the harper's daughter have questioned me about them also?

As regards the plants, I feel still more how perfect a tyro I am. Up to Munich I saw, I believed, none but those I was well accustomed to. In truth, my hurried travelling by day and night was not favourable to nicer observation on such objects. Now, it is true, I have my "Linnæus" at hand; and his terminology is well stamped on my brain. But whence are the time and quiet to come for analysing, which, if I at all know myself, will ever become my forte? I, therefore, sharpen my eye for the more general features; and, when I met with the first gentiana near the Walchensee, it struck me that it was always near the water that I had hitherto noticed any new plants.

What made me still more attentive was the influence which the altitude of the mountain region evidently had on plants. Not only did I meet there with new specimens, but I also observed that the growth of the old ones was materially altered. While, in the


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Rh lower regions, branches and stalks were stronger and more sappy, the buds stood closer together, and the leaves broader, the higher you got on the mountains, the stalks and branches became more fragile, the buds were at greater intervals, and the leaves thinner and more lanceolate. I noticed this in the case of a willow and of a gentiana, and convinced myself that it was not a case of different species. So, also, near the Walchensee, I noticed longer and thinner rushes than anywereanywhere [sic] else.

The limestone of the Alps which I have as yet travelled over has a grayish tint, and beautiful, singular, irregular forms; although the rock is divisible into blocks and strata. But as irregular strata occur, and the rock in general does not crumble equally under the influence of the weather, the sides and the peaks have a singular appearance. This kind of rock comes up the Brenner to a great height. In the region of the Upper Lake I noticed a slight modification. On a micaceous slate of dark green and gray colours, and thickly veined with quartz, lay a white, solid limestone, which, in its detritus, sparkled, and stood in great masses, with numberless clefts. Above it I again found micaceous slate, which, however, seemed to me to be of a softer texture than the first. Higher up still, there was to be seen a peculiar kind of gneiss, or rather a granitic species which approximated to gneiss, as in the district of Ellbogen. Here at the top, and opposite the Inn, the rock is micaceous slate. The streams which come from the mountains leave deposits of nothing but this stone and of the gray limestone.

Not far from here must be the granitic base on which all rests. The maps show that one is on the side of the true great Brenner, from which the streams of a wide surrounding district take their rise.

The following is my external judgment of the people. They are active and straightforward. In form


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100 they are pretty generally alike. Hazel, well-opened eyes: with the women, brown and well-defined eyebrows, but with the men, light and thick. Among the gray rocks, the green hats of the men have a cheerful appearance. The hats are generally ornamented with ribbons, or broad silk sashes, and with fringes, which are prettily sewn on. On the other hand, the women disfigure themselves with white undressed cotton caps of a large size, very much like men's night-caps. These give them a very strange appearance; but abroad, they wear the green hats of the men, which become them very much.

I have opportunity of seeing the value the common class of people put upon peacock's feathers, and in general how every variegated feather is prized. He who wishes to travel through these mountains will do well to take with him a lot of them. A feather of this kind produced at the proper moment will serve instead of the ever-welcome "something to drink."

Whilst I am putting together, sorting, and arranging these sheets, in such a way that my friends may easily take a review of my fortunes up to this point, and that I may at the same time dismiss from my soul all that I have lately thought and experienced, I have, on the other hand, cast many a trembling look on some packets of which I must give a good but brief account. They are to be my fellow travellers: may they not exercise too great an influence on my next few days!

I brought with me to Carlsbad the whole of my manuscripts in order to complete the edition of my works which Goschen has undertaken. The unprinted ones I had long possessed in beautiful transcripts by the practised hand of Secretary Vögel. This active person accompanied me on this occasion in order that I might, if necessary, command his dexterous services. By this means, and with the never-failing coöperation


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Rh of Herder, I was soon in a condition to send to the printer the first four volumes, and was on the point of doing the same with the last four. The latter consisted, for the most part, of mere unfinished sketches, indeed of fragments; for, in truth, my perverse habit of beginning many plans, and then, as the interest waned, laying them aside, had gradually gained strength with increasing years, occupations, and duties.

As I had brought these scraps with me, I readily listened to the requests of the literary circles of Carlsbad, and read out to them all that before had remained unknown to the world, which already was bitter enough in its complaints that much with which it had entertained itself still remained unfinished.

The celebration of my birthday consisted mainly in sending me several poems in the name of my commenced but unfinished works. Among these, one was distinguished above the rest. It was called "The Birds." A deputation of these happy creatures, being sent to a true friend, earnestly entreat him to found at once and establish the kingdom so long promised to them. Not less obvious and playful were the allusions to my other unfinished pieces; so that all at once they again possessed a living interest for me, and I related to my friends the designs I had formed, and the entire plans. This gave rise to the expression of wishes and urgent requests, and gave the game entirely into Herder's hands, while he attempted to induce me to take back these papers, and, above all, to bestow upon the "Iphigenia" the pains it well deserved. The fragment which lies before me is rather a sketch than a finished piece. It is written in poetical prose, which occasionally falls into a sort of iambical rhythm, and even imitates other syllabic metres. This, indeed, does great injury to the effect, unless it is read well, and unless, by skilful turns, this defect is carefully concealed. He pressed this matter on me very earnestly; and as


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102 I concealed from him, as well as the rest, the great extent of my intended tour, and as he believed I had nothing more in view than a mountain trip, and as he was always ridiculing my geographical and mineralogical studies, he insisted I should act much wiser, if, instead of breaking stones, I would put my hand to this work. I could not but give way to so many and well-meant remonstrances, but as yet I have had no opportunity to turn my attention to these matters. I now detach "Iphigenia" from the bundle, and take the play with me as my fellow-traveller into the beautiful and warm country of the South. The days are so long, and there will be nothing to disturb reflection, while the glorious objects of the surrounding scenery by no means depress the poetic nerve: indeed, assisted by movement and the free air, they rather stimulate and call it forth more quickly and more vividly.  FROM THE BRENNER TO VERONA.

, morning of the 11th September.

full fifty hours passed in active and constant occupation, I reached here about eight o'clock yesterday evening, and soon after retired to rest; so that I now find myself in condition to go on with my narrative. On the evening of the 9th, when I had closed the first portion of my diary, I thought I would try and draw the inn and post-house on the Brenner, just as it stood. My attempt was unsuccessful, for I missed the character of the place: I went home, therefore, in somewhat of an ill-humour. Mine host asked me if I would not depart, telling me it was moonlight and the best travelling. Although I knew perfectly well, that as he wanted his horses early in the morning to carry in the after-crop (Grummet), and wished to have them home again in time for that purpose, his advice was given


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The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, William Merritt

CHASE, (1849—). An American painter. He was born in Franklin, Ind., November 1, 1849. After studying under R. F. Hays, in Indianapolis, and in the schools of the National Academy of Design, he painted with Piloty and Wagner at Munich (1872), acquiring a thoroughly German method, which at that time was bituminous and dark. On his return to New York (1878) he began to change his style of painting, gradually clarifying his color and showing an appreciation for the work of the French school. One of the most facile and brilliant technicians of the American school, Chase succeeds equally well with figure, portrait, and still life. He himself considers his best work to be still life, of which remarkable examples are one in the Pennsylvania Academy and an “English Cod” lately exhibited. Other well-known works are “A Broken Jug,” “Ready for a Ride” (1878, Union League Club, New York), “Alice” (Art Institute, Chicago), and a “Lady in Black” (Metropolitan Museum, New York). He has received many medals, is a National Academician, and has been president of the Society of American Artists.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Chasidim

CHASIDIM, kă-sḗ'dīm (Heb., saints). A name employed at different periods of history to designate a sect of Pietists among the Jews. (1) Beginning in the time of the high priest Simon the Just (B.C. 300-270), a sect of Jews arose which was distinguished by its strict observance of ceremonial regulations. They firmly opposed all Hellenizing tendencies, and clung closer and closer to the ceremonies of Judaism. The members even suffered death in preference to transgressing the rites of their religion. They carried out to the letter the Sabbath laws and incurred loss and personal danger rather than extinguish a fire on that day; but they were no less stringent in carrying out the purely ethical features of the law, and were noted for their kindness and charity. Under Mattathias, the Hasmonean, they took part in the Jewish wars for independence, and were keen patriots, although lacking the ardor and spirit of the Hasmoneans themselves. In the days of John Hyrcanus, when Judæa was again independent, the Pietists withdrew into a life of retirement, and became the sect of ../Essenes/ (q.v.), while those of the Chasidim who were not willing to resign participation in political affairs branched off into the sect of ../Pharisees/ (q.v.). These Chasidim are mentioned in the Apocrypha (cf. I. Mac. ii. 42), as ‘Asidæans’ or ‘Hasidæans.’ Consult Hamburger, Realencyklopädie für Bibel und Talmud, Vol. II. (Leipzig, 1896).

(2) In modern times the name Chasidim is applied to a sect which originated in Poland under the leadership of Israel of Miedziboz (died 1759), and after his death of Beer of Mizricz (died 1772). Israel was called ‘Baal Shem,’ ‘master of the name,’ because he professed to perform miracles by using the name of God, and the sect that followed him was characterized by a belief in miracles, and in the approach of the coming of the Messiah. They opposed Talmudic learning, because their leader was not a Talmudist. Their worship became characterized by its noisiness and the almost frenzied gyrations of its devotees. Beer was dignified with the title ‘Zaddik’ (righteous), and claimed to represent God upon earth. The members of the sect formed a kind of fraternity, and it spread rapidly, numbering about fifty thousand in 1770. The new division provoked great opposition on the part of the Talmudists, and in 1781, in Vilna. the Chasidim were declared to be heretics, but the sect continued to flourish, and to-day has a large number of adherents. With their antipathy to the Talmud on the one hand, the Chasidim combine an aversion to all modern culture on the other, their literature consisting of mystical, cabalistic works. Consult Schechter, Studies in Judaism (New York, 1896).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Chasing

CHASING (short form of enchase; Fr. enchâsser, from en + châsse, frame, OF. casse, It. cassa, Cat., Lat. capsa, case, from capere, to hold). The art of working in metals by indenting. This is an art of very early times, and was practiced largely by the Greeks in ornamenting the draperies and costumes of religious figures for the temples. It is produced by punching from behind the general character of the design, which is afterwards perfected by chiseling the details. This results in a kind of embossed engraving, often of great richness. The favorite metal used for this purpose was silver, although gold, and in very early times even iron, was thus

That the art was known at a very early period may be inferred from the shield of Achilles, the ark of Cypselus, and other productions of the kind. Such portions of the colossal statues made by Phidias and Polycletus as were not of ivory were produced by this art. The statue of Athena was richly adorned in this manner. Besides Phidias and Polycletus, Myron, Mys, and Mentor were celebrated toreutic artists in antiquity, and among many moderns the most famous is Benvenuto Cellini.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Hempel, Charles Julius

HEM'PEL, (1811-79). An American homeopathist. He was born at Solingen, in Prussia, and was educated there, at the University of Paris, and, after coming to the United States (1835), at New York University. In 1857 he became professor of materia medica at the Hahnemann Medical College in Philadelphia, and later practiced at Grand Rapids, Mich., where he died. A man of considerable literary ability, Hempel, who when a student in Paris had assisted in the preparation of Michelet's Histoire de la France, published translations of Hahnemann's Chronic Diseases (1846), and of

Jahr's Mental Diseases (1853), as well as other homeopathic manuals. His most important works, however, were: A System of Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1859); The Science of Homœopathy (1874); and among several miscellaneous studies, Christendom and Civilization (1840).


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Several of the states at Manila were acutely disappointed at the reluctance of the U.S. to place its military forces at the disposal of the pact; they were expecting a NATO-like commitment and they were surprised when it was not forthcoming. Admiral Davis reported that:

 * "With respect to the military aspects of the Treaty, most of the participating States, notably the Philippines and Thailand, urged provisions that would explicitly commit the Treaty Parties to take military action in event of aggression in the Treaty area. The commitment of the United States to such action, of course, was the purpose of these urgings. Much was said about the desirability of the NATO as opposed to the allegedly weaker ANZUS formula. Most of the participating States argued that explicit commitments to take action were necessary if the Treaty was to have the desired deterrent effect on the communists."

But the U.S. delegates maintained their opposition, arguing that the U.S. had to retain its freedom of action, and could not accept a treaty commitment that was inconsistent with Constitutional requirements, and therefore prejudicial to ratification of the treaty by the Senate.

 * (2)

At the beginning of the Manila Conference, the U.S. served notice that it looked on the future SEATO agreement as an anti-communist pact, and that it would react only against a communist threat. The U.S. agreed to "consult" with the other members to decide future action, if faced with a non-communist threat. This, of course, had the effect of emphasizing once again the qualified nature of the U.S. commitment: the strongest power in the pact reserved the right to opt out of contingencies. Other nations present at Manila saw many other threats to regional peace, some of which seemed to them a good deal more dangerous than communism (e.g. Indonesian relations with Malaya, and Indian relations with Pakistan). There was, as a result, some hesitance to look on the pact as a mutual banding together against all dangers. Few missed the irony of the U.S. being the chief advocate of the SEATO pact, and also its prime qualifier.

 * 2.

Although Secretary of State Dulles wished to avoid comparisons of SEATO with NATO, such were inevitable. Similarities were in fact intended by many of the Manila Conferees, and emerged in the wording of the treaties. All the delegations at Manila, the U.S. included, took pains with treaty terminology, calculating carefully the effect it would have on their own domestic politics, as well as on the communist countries. As Admiral Davis reported:

 * "The Treaty is a document that speaks to many audiences; it supports self-determination of peoples, self-government and independence in deference to Asian nationalism; it provides for economic and technical cooperation as an inducement to present

Rh


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  : Asian 'neutralist' countries to associate themselves with the Treaty; it permits the accession of other states, thus avoiding the charge that the Treaty members form an exclusive club with aggressive designs 'against' other States;...These elements of the Treaty attest to the importance the member States place on the effect of the document upon their respective publics...The success that the Treaty may have in enhancing the defense of the area will therefore have to be judged in light of the fact that it has psychological and economic as well as military objectives."

 * a.

The initial article of both treaties is the same, word for word. The member nations promise not to use force in any manner inconsistent with the principles of the United Nations. Article 2 of NATO conforms to Article III of SEATO: an undertaking to strengthen free institutions and promote economic progress, and is identical except for specific mention in SEATO of technical assistance and promotion of social well-being, wording which is not in the NATO version. The reversal of the order of presentation of the second and third articles is interesting. In NATO, the article committing the members to strengthen free institutions precedes the article on developing collective capacity to resist attack. The order is changed in SEATO, perhaps emphasizing defense over other considerations. Article 3 of NATO corresponds to Article II of SEATO: an expression of resolve to develop a collective capacity to resist armed attack. There is, however, a significant difference in the SEATO article with the addition of a clause applying the Treaty specifically to subversion. This clause, in combination with the provision of SEATO Article IV that the parties shall consult immediately on measures of common defense if threatened by other than armed attack, places subversive aggression, in the form of externally fomented or supported insurgency, or, within the purview of the treaty.

 * b.

Central to analysis of the two treaties is comparison of the articles calling for action to meet an enemy threat. These are Articles 4 and 5 of the NATO Treaty, and Article IV of the SEATO Treaty. In general, the SEATO article has come under heavy criticism for lack of forcefulness. As presented below, the SEATO article has been transposed to parallel the two articles of NATO, but no words have been added or deleted.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {|style="width: 100%" cellpadding="5" |} Rh
 * width="50%"|
 * width="50%"|
 * -valign="top"
 * political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened.
 * If, in the opinion of any of the parties, the inviolability or the integrity of the territory or the sovereignty or political independence of any Party in the Treaty Area or of any other State or territory to shichwhich [sic] the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article from time to time apply is threatened in any way other than by armed attack or is affected or threatened by any fact or situation which might endanger the peace of the area, the Parties shall consult immediately in order to agree on the measures which should be taken for the common defense.
 * -valign="top"
 * The Parties agree that an armed attack
 * Each Party recognizes that aggression by means of armed attack
 * -valign="top"
 * against one or more of them
 * against any of the Parties or against any state or territory which the Parties by unanimous agreement may hereafter designate
 * -valign="top"
 * in Europe or North America
 * In the Treaty area
 * -valign="top"
 * shall be considered an attack against them all
 * would endanger its own peace and safety
 * -valign="top"
 * and consequently they agree that
 * and agrees that
 * -valign="top"
 * if such an armed attack occurs, each of them
 * it will in that event
 * -valign="top"
 * in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations
 * -valign="top"
 * will assist the party or parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other parties
 * act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes
 * -valign="top"
 * such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force.
 * -valign="top"
 * to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic Area.
 * -valign="top"
 * to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic Area.
 * to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic Area.


text: The Poems of Ernest Dowson/To One in Bedlam


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320 the independence of Mexico, and had himself elected Captain-General of America and Commander-in-chief of the army. The treasure, said to have amounted to five million dollars, provided him with the sinews of war.

We next see him at Valladolid, carrying all before him with the same violence and excessive severity as at Guanajuato. About this time he was joined by Morelos, also a priest, and a former pupil at San Nicolas, where Hidalgo had been regent. He had heard of the revolution, and in October hastened to ascertain the truth concerning it from Hidalgo. He traveled a long distance before overtaking him, but when assured that his sole aim was the independence of Mexico, full of patriotism and reverence for his old teacher, Morelos tendered his services, and received a verbal commission to organize an army and arouse interest in the southwest. This was their last meeting. The grand old college of San Nicolas had nurtured them both, and given an impetus to their endowments which would render both famous.

After the departure of Morelos, Hidalgo proceeded toward the capital, then under the command of the viceroy Venegas. With his large army of undisciplined Indians he began the march, and reached Monte las Cruces on the 30th of the month, and there encountered the Spanish forces, commanded by Truxillo and Iturbide. Here for the first time the raw recruits of Hidalgo came in contact with cannon. It is said that the Indians, in their frenzy, rushed forward and clapped their straw hats over the muzzles of the guns, hoping to evade the death-dealing missiles.

In this engagement, Hidalgo, though victorious, lost heavily. He then went within sight of the city, but declined to enter, though urged by Allende to do so. The victory of Las Cruces had been so dearly bought that another such would have been certain ruin.

Although at this time Hidalgo had cannon captured from the enemy, and his forces were in a more soldierly condition than ever before, nevertheless at the bridge of Calderon he was defeated by General Calleja. He then determined to retreat to the north, and with


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 white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which lies the open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a similar basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000 inhabitants and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.

A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows very nearly the line of the thirtieth parallel, along which it extends east and west for a length of some 400 m.; its breadth from north to south is 200 m. Though almost waterless, it is in fact better wooded and richer in pasture than any part of the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with ghada, a species of tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses and succulent plants—among them the adar, on which sheep are said to feed for a month without requiring water—are found in abundance in good seasons. In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the Bedouins care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with their flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up everywhere after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the Nafud in the district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border, and along its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted to by the nomad tribes.

Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day’s journey in length, the valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but the most striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped sand-hills, known locally as falk or falj, described by Blunt and Huber, who devoted some time to their investigation. The falks enclose a deep hollow (known as kaʽr), the floor of which is often hard soil bare of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as steeply as the sand will lie (about 50°). On the summit of the falk there is generally a mound known as tas or barkhus composed of white sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of the surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively gentle. The falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly in size; the largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1 m. across and 330 ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east to west, corresponding in this with their individual direction, the convex face of the falk being towards the west, i.e. the direction of the prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the Nafud, where Huber found the prevailing wind to be from the south, the falks are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to slight changes in the course of years, there is no doubt that these dunes are practically permanent features; the more prominent ones serve as landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The character of the vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that even superficial changes must be slight. The general level of the Nafud was found by Huber’s observations to be about 3000 ft. above sea-level; the highest point on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam, the rocky peaks of which rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the sand. Other peaks cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near the wells of Shakik, and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the middle of the desert.

The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava, which from their hardness have preserved the underlying sandstones from degradation, and now stand up considerably above the general level. These tracts are known as harra; the most remarkable is the Harrat El Awerid, west of the Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a mountain mass 100 m. in length with an average height of over 5000 ft., and the highest summit of which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The harra east of Khaibar is also of considerable extent, and the same formation is found all along the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel el Kura, east of Mecca. The surface of the harra is extremely broken, forming a labyrinth of lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole region is sterile and almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it produces little vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in the spring and summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In winter it is cold and snow often lies for some time.

Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division, lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that slope is at its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea. A high range of granite hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest point of which, J. Shar, in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it longitudinally into a narrow littoral and a broader upland zone 2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea. Both are generally bare and unproductive, the uplands, however, contain the fertile valleys of Khaibar and Medina, draining to the Wadi Hamd, the principal river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi Jadid or Es Safra, rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina, which contain several settlements, of which the principal produce is dates. The quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the Tehama contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings were investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The only ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim traffic to the holy cities, without which they could not exist.

The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia between the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part forms the basin of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the Khaibar harra, runs north-eastward across the whole width of Nejd, till it is lost in the sands of the eastern Nafud, north of Aneza. The greater portion of this region is an open steppe, sandy in places and in others dotted with low volcanic hills, but with occasional ground water and in favourable seasons furnishing support for a considerable pastoral population. Its elevation varies from about 5000 ft. in the west to 2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar, Kasim and Wushm, where the water in the wadi beds rises nearly to the ground level, numerous fertile oases are found with thriving villages and towns.

Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes its name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising sharply out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western and higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from north-east to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau extending from and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest point, J. Fara, near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft. above sea-level, or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most of the larger villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja. The town, which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid family to be the capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley between the twin ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja, and contained at the time of Nolde’s visit in 1893 about 12,000 inhabitants.

The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower Kasim, and at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank to bank. Forty years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred, which passed down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at Thuwerat, 50 m. lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly 100 m. long, crowded by waterfowl not known before in that desert country. Below this its course has not been followed by any European traveller, but it may be inferred from the line of watering-places on the road to Kuwet, that it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that neighbourhood.

East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction of these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case forms an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting by a transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly slope of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma from that of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi Dawasir. The districts of Sudēr and Wushm lie on its northern side, Arid in the centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the basin of the W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern Nejd is, perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous, in which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys, supporting numerous villages with a large agricultural population. The W. Hanifa is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by an almost continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among which Deraiya the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn Saūd kingdom are the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain, but it probably continues in a south-east direction to the districts of El Harik and Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj and the W. Dawasir, it runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of sandy desert 100 m. in width that forms the eastern boundary of Nejd, to reappear in the copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and the Bahrein littoral.

As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave’s informants in Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a day’s march south of that place the Yemen road enters the W. Dawasir, up which it runs for ten days, perhaps 200 m., to El Kura, a thinly peopled district on the borders of Asir; this accords with the information of the French officers of the Egyptian army in that district, and with that of Halévy, who makes all the drainage from Nejran northward run to the same great wadi. Whether there be any second line of drainage in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the great desert and following the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain a matter of conjecture. Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries, that the low salt swamp, extending inland for some distance from Khor ed Duwan, in the bay east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive drainage system which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and extend far into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.

East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again a succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast has to be crossed before El Hasa is reached. This province, which skirts the Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman, is low and hot; its shores are flat, and with the exception of Kuwet at the north-west corner of

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/272


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 ALLIES

I

the dark of the mine,

In the bloom of the sun,

In the leap of the vine

I heard the war-message run;

Heard old earth softly crooning

And whispering to her own,

The hymn of man attuning

Under republic and throne:—

"Nature my garment, love my creed,

And the thought of man to grow in;

Labor the arm, freedom the seed,

And the field of time to sow in!

What are these mighty labors worth,

If justice die upon the earth?"

II

I heard the old earth calling

Loud over plains and mountains,

Voices, arising and falling,

In the noise of ocean-fountains:— 214


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Rh "Waken, old allies of man,

Ye, who were borne in my bosom!

He, in whom freedom began,

The topmost flower and blossom,

The glory and fruit of all

The ages have lifted on high

On the heavenmost branch of the sky,—

Shall he fail? Shall he drop? Shall he die?—

What are ye all, if he fall?

What are we all, if he die?

III

Ships for the pilot of time,

Who hath the stars for eyes!

Room for the sailor sublime,

The unroller of the skies!

He, who stretched, past hope's increase,

Freedom o'er the laughing foam,

And on the billows set her home,

The boundless empire of the seas,

Continent-bastioned, island-strown,—

And grasped the keys of fates unknown!

Let nature's universal whole

Press on the common toil,—

Corn, and cotton, and coal!

Copper, and iron, and oil!


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216 What are ye all, if he shall fall?

What you or I, if he shall die?

IV

He harnessed our wild forces;

He edged our might with mind

Our ways are heavenly courses

His instincts have divined:

All light that we inherit

Pours from his azure spirit,

That hath a higher law—

Honor and freedom knowing,

Justice and mercy showing,

That our dumb worlds o'erawe:

The truths his lips let fall

Point the celestial pole;

For the greatest ally of all

Is man's own soul."


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Hemp

HEMP (AS. henep, OHG. hanaf, hanof, Ger. Hanf; connected with Lat. cannabis, Gk. κάνναβις, kannabis, OChurch Slav, konoplya, Lith. kanapes, hemp, and probably with Skt. śana, hemp). Cannabis sativa. A fibre plant of the natural order ../Urticaceæ/ (q.v.), which has the male and female flowers on different plants. There is only one known species of the genus, which varies considerably, however, in different soil, climate, and cultivation. It is an annual, a native of the warmer parts of Asia, but has been cultivated in Europe from the earliest historic times, and is now naturalized in many parts of Europe and America. Like flax, it adapts itself to diversities of climate, and is cultivated equally well under the burning sun of the tropics, and in the northern parts of Russia. It is, however, readily injured by frost, particularly when young; and in many countries where it is cultivated, it succeeds only because the summer is sufficiently long for its whole life. Hemp varies very much in height, according to the soil and climate;

it is only three or four feet, sometimes fifteen or twenty feet. Notwithstanding the nettle-like coarseness of its leaves, it is an elegant plant, and is sometimes utilized in shrubberies and large flower borders. The stem is erect, more or less branched; the leaves are five to nine-fingered, the flowers yellowish-green, small, and numerous. It is hollow or filled with only a soft pith, surrounded by a tender brittle substance, consisting chiefly of cellular tissue, with some woody fibre, which is called the ‘reed,’ ‘boon,’ or ‘shive’ of hemp. Over this is the thin bark, composed chiefly of fibres extending parallel with the stalk, with an outer membrane or cuticle. The female plants are taller and stronger than the male.

Hemp is cultivated for its fibre in almost all countries in Europe; most extensively in the centre and south of European Russia, which is the chief hemp-exporting district. French hemp is much esteemed in the market, as is also that of England and Ireland, of which, however, the quantity is comparatively inconsiderable. Hemp is cultivated to some extent in the United States; especially Kentucky, Missouri, and Illinois. The production has been greatly reduced in the last quarter century, owing to the introduction of Manila hemp and jute. Limestone soils and alluvial soils are best adapted to this plant. It is very necessary to have the soil so rich, and to sow the seed at such a season, that the plants shall grow rapidly at first, as they thus form long fibres. Hemp sown thinly produces a coarser fibre than that sown thickly. It is not considered an exhaustive crop when the leaves of the plant and the shive or boon are returned to the land. As with flax, a thorough preparation of the soil is necessary. With the ground well prepared there is little trouble with weeds, as hemp occupies the entire ground. The crop is ready to cut when the first seeds are ripe, or about 100 days from planting. Cutting is done by a knife or by a heavy mower. The treatment of hemp by ‘retting,’ etc., is similar to that of flax (q.v.). It is usually dew-retted by spreading evenly over the ground to rot out the gums that hold the filaments together. The hemp-stalks are afterwards decorticated by hand beating or machinery and cleaned from the fibre by ‘hackling.’ The fibre is tied up into ‘hands’ and baled. The average yield of hemp-fibre is about 1000 pounds per acre. The fibre of hemp is generally used for coarser purposes than that of flax, particularly for sail-cloth, pack-sheet, ropes, and the calking of ships.

The seed of hemp is produced in great abundance. It is commonly sold as food for cage-birds; and birds are so fond of it that not only the ripening fields, but the newly sown ground, must be carefully guarded against their depredations. Hemp is cultivated in warm countries for a resinous secretion which has narcotic or intoxicating qualities. In India the resin is commonly known as churrus or charras. See .

While strictly speaking the name hemp belongs to the plant Cannabis sativa, by common usage it is now applied to other fibre-plants that in a great measure supply the uses once filled by common hemp alone. These are designated as bowstring, Manila, Sisal, and Sunn hemp (see below). Many lesser known fibre-plants pass under the general name of hemp, though they

vary widely in their botanical aspects and relations.

title: The New International Encyclopædia/Hemp


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322 vestments of his holy office. While on his knees before the representative of the bishop, he listened to the explanation of the causes which led to this painful and humiliating scene. He was then stripped of his sacerdotal garments, and turned over to the civil authorities, after which he was again shackled and taken to his cell.

Ere the first streak of dawn, on July 31, 1811, Hidalgo was summoned to prepare for the closing scene. With the utmost serenity he partook of his last breakfast. He then declared his readiness to go with the guards, and assured them of his forgiveness. So heavily ironed that he could scarcely walk, his courage and fortitude did not for an instant fail him. He even remembered and asked for some sweets left under his pillow, and divided them among the soldiers. The sun had not yet risen and orders had been given that his head should not be mutilated, so he calmly placed his hand over his heart, as a guide for their aim. A platoon fired, wounding only his hand; Hidalgo remained motionless, but continued in prayer. Another volley severed the cords that held him to his seat, and he fell, though still breathing. Life was only extinguished when the soldiers had fired three more volleys near his breast, the veneration in which he was held doubtless interfering with the accuracy of their aim. Heroic to the last, thus died Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, and the fame of the Washington of Mexico, as he is called, grows brighter with succeeding generations.

Allende, Jimenez, Aldama, and Santa Maria had met the deaths of martyrs to the cause of liberty on June 26. The next day Chico and three others were shot, all meeting their death bravely, though forced to kneel like traitors and receive the fire of the musketry in their backs. Those who were priests were first stripped of their sacerdotal robes; then, after death, each one was dressed in the habit of his order and laid away with becoming respect. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Jimenez, and Aldama were placed in the four angles of the public storehouse in Guanajuato. Their bodies, however, were deposited in the chapel of the Franciscans, where they remained until 1823, when Congress ordered them, with


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 TO S——,

Ætat. 15

217


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 THE RED CROSS CHRISTMAS

219


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330 year in which his father died he joined a volunteer militia regiment in Morelia, and in 1805 entered the regular royalist army. His first experience of real military life was at the encampment at Jalapa, and in 1809 he gave material aid in crushing an embryo revolution at Morelia.

It is said that Hidalgo so highly appreciated the military talents displayed by Iturbide, that he offered him the position of lieutenant general before the first grito at Dolores. He declined this office and afterward, as colonel of the royal army, took part in many brilliant engagements, directed mostly against Morelos, the recognized successor of Hidalgo. The dashing young colonel, full of enthusiasm for the maintenance of established law and order, and the grave, clerical leader, had been nurtured among the same scenes.

Mention has been made of the defeat of Morelos by Iturbide at their native city. One of the most memorable events in the War of Independence was this encounter on the hills of Santa Maria, which skirt the city. Iturbide, who was second in command, sallied out with a small party to reconnoiter. Seeing defects in the position of the insurgents, where Matamoros had not taken due precautions in forming his line, he determined to seize the advantage, and with only three hundred and sixty cavalry, he dashed up the hill, accessible only by a steep path, where they were much exposed to cross-fires from the revolutionary army. He gave a loud cheer and rushed forward with his gallant band, creating dismay and confusion in the forces of Morelos. Not expecting such an attack, they were panic stricken, and, it being then after dark, believed that the entire royalist forces were upon them. A desperate battle ensued in the darkness of the night between the insurgents themselves, during which, after his gallant feat, and with captured banners and cannon, Iturbide retired in safety to the city, where he was received with enthusiastic demonstrations.

He received no promotion for that service, and Calleja said in after years, "Colonel Iturbide deserved more than I thought proper to give him." Soon after this brilliant action he became involved in