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E.R. NOTE OF A MEETING HELD ON 29 JULY 1980

WELSH LANGUAGE BROADCASTING

The Home Secretary had called the meeting to discuss with the Welsh Secretary the policy on Welsh language broadcasting.

2. In the Home Secretary's view, there were now two alternatives: either (1) to go back to the one channel solution, or (2) to do everything possible to build on and strengthen the proposal for the Welsh Language Television Committee. Option (1) had large financial implications and would not certainly satisfy Gwynfor Evans. Option (2) would entail setting the Committee up, announcing a Chairman and members and letting the Committee get on with making recommendations on slotting of programmes etc.

3. The Welsh Secretary reported on the discussions he had recently with Welsh members. During those discussions it had become clear that there was a majority in favour of the status quo. He had pressed home the need for unity amongst the Party on this issue, and thought that he had now secured that, with the exception of Geraint Morgan MP. His assessment of the feeling in Wales was that apart from a powerful articulate minority, there was no great interest in the subject. His conclusion, based on the practical and financial difficulties of the one channel solution and the strong feeling of colleagues that a change would be seen as surrender to blackmail, was that the Government must keep to its decision on the two channel solution. At the same time it was essential to make all that could be made of the Welsh Language Television Committee. The BBC would have to be encouraged to take the attitude that the IBA was taking, and the idea of joint presentation exploited. The people of Wales could not be expected to sacrifice money which would be spent on other important areas for the simple convenience of having to switch channels to watch Welsh broadcasts.

4. The Home Secretary welcomed the Welsh Secretary's reasoned and courageous decision, and said that he and the Home Office must now give all the help possible. An immediate start should be made on the proposals for the Committee,and its composition and membership decided upon as soon as possible. was a contender for the Chairmanship and it would be necessary to talk /to him soon.


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E.R. 2. to soon. It was certainly important to have a Welsh speaker as Chairman. was a possibility for membership. Ideally the Committee would be in action by the time that Gwynfor Evans began his hunger strike.

Private Office 30 July 1980

cc

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Rh The Bande Mataram hymn is apparently addressed to both idols.”

The poem, then, is the work of a Hindu idealist who personified Bengal under the form of a purified and spiritualized Kali. Of its thirty-six lines, partly written in Sanskrit, partly in Bengali, the greater number are harmless enough. But if the poet sings the praise of the “Mother”

he also praises her as “Durga, bearing ten weapons,” and lines 10, 11 and 12 are capable of very dangerous meanings in the mouths of unscrupulous agitators. Literally translated these run, “She has seventy millions of throats to sing her praise, twice seventy millions of hands to fight for her, how then is Bengal powerless?” As S. M. Mitra points out (Indian Problems, London, 1908), this language is the more significant as the Bande Mataram in the novel was the hymn by singing which the Sannyasis gained strength when attacking the British forces.

During Bankim Chandra Chatterji’s lifetime the Bande Mataram, though its dangerous tendency was recognized, was not used as a party war-cry; it was not raised, for instance, during the Ilbert Bill agitation, nor by the students who flocked round the court during the trial of Surendra Nath Banerji in 1883. It has, however, obtained an evil notoriety in the agitations that followed the partition of Bengal. That Bankim Chandra himself foresaw or desired any such use of it is impossible to believe. According to S. M. Mitra, he composed it “in a fit of patriotic excitement after a good hearty dinner, which he always enjoyed. It was set to Hindu music, known as the Mallar-Kawali-Tal. The extraordinarily stirring character of the air, and its ingenious assimilation of Bengali passages with Sanskrit, served to make it popular.”

Circumstances have made the Bande Mataram the most famous and the most widespread in its effects of Bankim Chandra’s literary works. More permanent, it may be hoped, was the wholesome influence he exercised on the number of literary men he gathered round him, who have left their impress on the literature of Bengal. In his earlier years he served his apprenticeship in literature under Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, the chief poet and satirist of Bengal during the earlier half of the 19th century. Bankim Chandra’s friend and colleague, Dina Bandhu Mitra, was virtually the founder of the modern Bengali drama. Another friend of his, Hem Chandra Banerji, was a poet of recognized merit and talent. And among the younger men who venerated Bankim Chandra, and benefited by his example and advice, may be mentioned two distinguished poets, Nalein Chandra Sen and Rabindra Nath Tagore.

 CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752–1770), English poet, was born at Bristol on the 20th of November 1752. His pedigree has a curious significance. The office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe, at Bristol, one of the most beautiful parish churches in England, had been transmitted for nearly two centuries in the Chatterton family; and throughout the brief life of the poet it was held by his uncle, Richard Phillips. The poet’s father, Thomas Chatterton, was a musical genius, somewhat of a poet, a numismatist, and a dabbler in occult arts. He was one of the sub-chanters of Bristol cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street free school, near Redcliffe church. But whatever hereditary tendencies may have been transmitted from the father, the sole training of the boy necessarily devolved on his mother, who was in the fourth month of her widowhood at the time of his birth. She established a girls’ school, took in sewing and ornamental needlework, and so brought up her two children, a girl and a boy, till the latter attained his eighth year, when he was admitted to Colston’s Charity. But the Bristol blue-coat school, in which the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and the Church Catechism, had little share in the education of its marvellous pupil. The hereditary race of sextons had come to regard the church of St Mary Redcliffe as their own peculiar domain; and, under the guidance of his uncle, the child found there his favourite haunt. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic dignitaries, recumbent on its altar tombs, became his familiar associates; and by and by, when he was able to spell his way through the inscriptions graven on their monuments, he found a fresh interest in certain quaint oaken chests in the muniment room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parchment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, long lay unheeded and forgotten. They formed the child’s playthings almost from his cradle. He learned his first letters from the illuminated capitals of an old musical folio, and learned to read out of a black-letter Bible. He did not like, his sister said, reading out of small books. Wayward, as it seems, almost from his earliest years, and manifesting no sympathy with the ordinary pastimes of children, he was regarded for a time as deficient in intellect. But he was even then ambitious of distinction. His sister relates that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl that was to be his, he replied, “Paint me an angel, with wings, and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world.”

From his earliest years he was liable to fits of abstraction, sitting for hours in seeming stupor, or yielding after a time to tears, for which he would assign no reason. He had no one near him to sympathize in the strange world of fancy which his imagination had already called into being; and circumstances helped to foster his natural reserve, and to beget that love of mystery which exercised so great an influence on the development of his genius. When the strange child had attained his sixth year his mother began to recognize his capacity; at eight he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day long if undisturbed; and in his eleventh year he had become a contributor to Felix Farley’s Bristol Journal. The occasion of his confirmation inspired some religious poems published in this paper. In 1763 a beautiful cross of curious workmanship, which had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of three centuries, was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit of veneration was strong in the boy, and he sent to the local journal on the 7th of January 1764 a clever satire on the parish Vandal. But his delight was to lock himself in a little attic which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books, cherished parchments, saved from the loot of the muniment room of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of his literary mystifications, the duologue of “Elinoure and Juga,” was written before he was twelve years old, and he showed his poem to the usher at Colston’s hospital, Thomas Phillips, as the work of a 15th-century poet.

Chatterton remained an inmate of Colston’s hospital for upwards of six years, and the slight advantages gained from this scanty education are traceable to the friendly sympathy of Phillips, himself a writer of verse, who encouraged his pupils to write. Three of Chatterton’s companions are named as youths whom Phillips’s taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but Chatterton held aloof from these contests, and made at that time no confidant of his own more daring literary adventures. His little pocket-money was spent in borrowing books from a circulating library; and he early ingratiated himself with book collectors, by whose aid he found access to Weever, Dugdale and Collins, as well as to Speght’s edition of Chaucer, Spenser and other books.

His “Rowleian” jargon appears to have been chiefly the result of the study of John Kersey’s Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum, and Prof. W. W. Skeat seems to think his knowledge of even Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly spent at his mother’s house; and much of them in the favourite retreat of his attic study there. He had already conceived the romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th century, and lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own, in that elder time when Edward IV. was England’s king, and Master William Canynge—familiar to him among the recumbent effigies in Redcliffe church—still ruled in Bristol’s civic chair. Canynge is represented as an enlightened patron of literature, and Rowley’s dramatic interludes were written for

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 pressure on Sherman. The Army of the Cumberland was, after all, to strike the decisive blow. About 3.30 the centre advanced on the Confederate’s trenches at the foot of Missionary Ridge. These were carried at the first rush, and the troops were ordered to lie down and await orders. Then occurred one of the most dramatic episodes of the war. Suddenly, and without orders either from Grant or the officers at the front, the whole line of the Army of the Cumberland rose and rushed up the ridge. Two successive lines of entrenchments were carried at once. In a short time the crest was stormed, and after a last attempt at resistance the enemy’s centre fled in the wildest confusion. The pursuit was pressed home by the divisional generals, notably by Sheridan. Hooker now advanced in earnest on Rossville, and by nightfall the whole Confederate army, except the troops on Tunnel Hill, was retreating in disorder. These too were withdrawn in the night, and the victory of the Federals was complete. Bragg lost 8684 men killed, wounded and prisoners out of perhaps 34,000 men engaged; Grant, with 60,000 men, lost about 6000.

CHATTEL (for derivation see ), a term used in English law as equivalent to “personal property,” that is, property which, on the death of the owner, devolves on his executor or administrator to be distributed (unless disposed of by will) among the next of kin according to the Statutes of Distributions. Chattels are divided into chattels real and chattels personal. Chattels real are those interests in land for which no “real action” (see ) lies; estates which are less than freehold (estates for years, at will, or by sufferance) are chattels real. Chattels personal are such things as belong immediately to the person of the owner, and for which, if they are injuriously withheld from him, he has no remedy other than by a personal action. Chattels personal are divided into choses in possession and choses in action (see ).

A chattel mortgage, in United States law, is a transfer of personal property as security for a debt or obligation in such form that the title to the property will pass to the mortgagee upon the failure of the mortgagor to comply with the terms of the contract. At common law a chattel mortgage might be made without writing, and was valid as between the parties, and even as against third parties if accompanied by possession in the mortgagee, but in most states of the Union legislation now requires a chattel mortgage to be in writing and duly recorded in order to be valid against third parties. At common law a mortgage can be given only of chattels actually in existence and belonging to the mortgagor, though if he acquired title afterwards the mortgage would be good as between the parties, but not as against subsequent purchasers or creditors. In equity, on the other hand, a chattel mortgage, though not good as a conveyance, is valid as an executory agreement.

Goods and chattels is a phrase which, in its widest signification, includes any property other than freehold. The two words, however, have come to be synonymous, and the expression, now practically confined to wills, means merely things movable in possession.

CHATTERIS, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, 25½ m. N. by W. of Cambridge by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4711. It lies in the midst of the flat Fen country. The church of St Peter is principally Decorated; and there are fragments of a Benedictine convent founded in the 10th century and rebuilt after fire in the first half of the 14th. The town has breweries, and engineering and rope-making works. To the north runs the great Forty-foot Drain, also called Vermuyden’s, after the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen drainage works of the middle of the 17th century.

CHATTERJI, BANKIM CHANDRA [] (1838–1894), Indian novelist, was born in the district of the Twenty-four Parganas in Bengal on the 27th of June 1838, and was by caste a Brahman. He was educated at the Hugli College, at the Presidency College in Calcutta, and at Calcutta University, where he was the first to take the degree of B.A. (1858). He entered the Indian civil service, and served as deputy magistrate in various districts of Bengal, his official services being recognized, on his retirement in 1891, by the title of rai bahadur and the C.I.E. He died on the 8th of April 1894.

Bankim Chandra was beyond question the greatest novelist of India during the 19th century, whether judged by the amount and quality of his writings, or by the influence which they have continued to exercise. His education had brought him into touch with the works of the great European romance writers, notably Sir Walter Scott, and he created in India a school of fiction on the European model. His first historical novel, the Durges-Nandini or Chief’s Daughter, modelled on Scott, made a great sensation in Bengal; and the Kapala-Kundala and Mrinalini, which followed it, established his fame as a writer whose creative imagination and power of delineation had never been surpassed in India. In 1872 he brought out his first social novel, the Biska-Brikkha or Poison Tree, which was followed by others in rapid succession. It is impossible to exaggerate the effect they produced; for over twenty years Bankim Chandra’s novels were eagerly read by the educated public of Bengal, including the Hindu ladies in the zenanas; and though numerous works of fiction are now produced year by year in every province of India, his influence has increased rather than diminished. Of all his works, however, by far the most important from its astonishing political consequences was the Ananda Math, which was published in 1882, about the time of the agitation arising out of the Ilbert Bill. The story deals with the Sannyasi (i.e. fakir or hermit) rebellion of 1772 near PurmeaPurnea [sic], Tirhut and DinapurDinajpur [sic], and its culminating episode is a crushing victory won by the rebels over the united British and Mussulman forces, a success which was not, however, followed up, owing to the advice of a mysterious “physician” who, speaking as a divinely-inspired prophet, advises Satyananda, the leader of “the children of the Mother,” to abandon further resistance, since a temporary submission to British rule is a necessity; for Hinduism has become too speculative and unpractical, and the mission of the English in India is to teach Hindus how to reconcile theory and speculation with the facts of science. The general moral of the Ananda Math, then, is that British rule and British education are to be accepted as the only alternative to Mussulman oppression, a moral which Bankim Chandra developed also in his Dharmatattwa, an elaborate religious treatise in which he explained his views as to the changes necessary in the moral and religious condition of his fellow-countrymen before they could hope to compete on equal terms with the British and Mahommedans. But though the Ananda Math is in form an apology for the loyal acceptance of British rule, it is none the less inspired by the ideal of the restoration, sooner or later, of a Hindu kingdom in India. This is especially evident in the occasional verses in the book, of which the Bande Mataram is the most famous.

As to the exact significance of this poem a considerable controversy has raged. Bande Mataram is the Sanskrit for “Hail to thee, Mother!” or more literally “I reverence thee, Mother!”, and according to Dr G. A. Grierson (The Times, Sept. 12, 1906) it can have no other possible meaning than an invocation of one of the “mother” goddesses of Hinduism, in his opinion Kali “the goddess of death and destruction.” Sir Henry Cotton, on the other hand (ib. Sept. 13, 1906), sees in it merely an invocation of the “mother-land” Bengal, and quotes in support of this view the free translation of the poem by the late W. H. Lee, a proof which, it may be at once said, is far from convincing. But though, as Dr Grierson points out, the idea of a “mother-land” is wholly alien to Hindu ideas, it is quite possible that Bankim Chandra may have assimilated it with his European culture, and the true explanation is probably that given by Mr J. D. Anderson in The Times of September 24, 1906. He points out that in the 11th chapter of the 1st book of the Ananda Math the Sannyasi rebels are represented as having erected, in addition to the image of Kali, “the Mother who Has Been,” a white marble statue of “the Mother that Shall Be,” which “is apparently a representation of the mother-land.

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Page:History of Southeast Missouri 1912 Volume 1.djvu/18

xii, notably Iron, St. Francois and Wayne. Copper and zinc are also taken in connection with lead and other minerals are mined on a smaller scale.

There exist great quantities of fine clays and some of the largest deposits of sand fit for glass making in the United States. Besides these there are immense quantities of valuable building stone both lime stone and granite and also considerable quantities of a good quality of sand stone.

The north part of this district is drained largely by the Maramee river which has its source in Maramee springs in Dent county and flows north and east emptying into the Mississippi on the line dividing Jefferson county from St. Louis county. It is a picturesque and beautiful stream and with it are connected some of the earliest events in the history of the state. It receives a number of small tributaries from both north and south. The principal tributary of the Maramee on the south is Big river which rises in Washington county, flows north through Washington and Jefferson counties and empties into the Maramee in Jefferson county. It is not navigable but is a very beautiful stream and has considerable water-power yet undeveloped. All the eastern part of the district is drained by streams which flow to the east and empty into the Mississippi. South of the Maramee are Saline creek, Aux Vases, Cinquehomme, Apple Creek and Cape LaCroix creek; these streams with other smaller ones have their source within the Ozark upland and flow down its eastern border into the Mississippi.

The rest of this district is drained principally by streams flowing to the south, the easternmost of these are Castor and Whitewater both of which have their origin in St. Francois county flowing toward the south and uniting to form Little river in New Madrid county. The St. Francois river also rises in St. Francois county and flows in a general southerly direction receiving the waters of Little river in Arkansas and finally flowing into the Mississippi. West of the St. Francois river are Black river and Little Black; these streams rise in Reynolds and Iron counties, flowing to the south into Arkansas and finally uniting with White river. The most westerly of the streams of the district is Current river, perhaps the most beautiful stream in the entire state, its general direction is south and east, it is a tributary of Black river.

South and east of the line which we have indicated, from Cape Girardeau to the Arkansas line, is found the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi, Little River, the St. Francois, and Black River. With the exception of two areas, this section is practically level and all alluvial soil. These two areas are the Scott county hills and Crowley's ridge. The Scott county hills lie just south of what is called the Big swamp south of Cape Girardeau and extend a distance of about 15 miles from the neighborhood of Gray's Point to near Morley in Scott county. These hills are a part of the Paleozoic uplift and were doubtless connected with the ridge in Illinois at the time when the Mississippi river flowed to the southwest from Cape Girardeau. They are essentially the same in structure and geologic origin with the Ozark plateau.

The other elevated land in this part of Southeast Missouri is Crowley's ridge, extending from a point in Scott county not far from Bell City in a southwesterly direction, crossing the state line near Campbell, and ending at the Mississippi river near the mouth


text: The Folk-Lore Journal/Volume 4

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Rh of the St. Francois. This ridge varies in width, being about ten miles wide in the central part of Stoddard county and becoming very narrow between Dexter and Maiden. It is broken in two places, in the north by Castor and further south by the St. Francois river which crosses it just west of Campbell in Dunklin county. This ridge is geologically unlike the Ozark upland and most certainly had a different origin. It is composed principally of clay and seems the remains of alluvial soil which had been thrust up from below and sculptured down again by the action of the rivers, leaving this ridge. The ridge itself slopes from east to west having its greatest height on the eastern edge, where it is about one hundred feet in elevation.

The remainder of the land in Southeast Missouri is practically level but falls into a number of divisions. The first of these from east to west is the low country bordering along the Mississippi river. There is extending south from below the Scott county hills a sand ridge called the Sikeston ridge which reaches the river at New Madrid and extends almost to the south line of New Madrid county. This ridge is elevated some 10 or 15 feet above the level of the bottom lands and its soil is principally sandy loam. East of it in the neighborhood of Charleston, there are two other similar ridges of sandy loam.

West of the Sikeston ridge extending to Crowley's ridge in the north part and to the sandy ridge of Stoddard and Dunklin counties in the southern part, is the low bottom of Little River, which lies from 15 to twenty feet below the level of the sand ridges and is a heavily timbered section with a great deal of humus and exceedingly productive.

West of this bottom of Little River is another sand ridge which extends from just south of Dexter to the state line near Hornersville in Dunklin county. On this ridge are situated the towns of Bernie, Maiden, Clarkton, and Kennett. The ridge is from 5 to 10 miles in width, is from 10 to 15 feet higher than the bottoms of Little river, and has a very rich and productive sandy loam soil.

West of this ridge lying between it and Crowley's ridge in the north part is what is known as West swamp, while in the south in Dunklin county the St. Francois river is between the sand ridge and Crowley's ridge. The bottom of St. Francois river is not unlike that of Little river.

West of Crowley's ridge in Stoddard county is the valley of the St. Francois river and Black river. These are heavily timbered regions with a soil considerably heavier than the sand ridges above mentioned.

The drainage in this alluvial section of Southeast Missouri is principally from north to south. Of course on its eastern edge it is drained by the Mississippi which forms its eastern boundary. The Scott county hills are the source of two creeks, Ramsey creek which flows north emptying into the Mississippi, and Caney creek which flows to the north and then west and is a tributary of Little river. Mississippi county and the eastern part of New Madrid county are drained in part by St. James and St. John's bayous. The other streams of the alluvial section are principally those which have their origin in the Ozark upland and enter the alluvial district at its northern limit. In the neighborhood of Allenville, Crooked creek and Whitewater river combine and the stream thus formed is called Whitewater until it receives the waters of Caney creek and the East Fork after which it takes the name of Little river. This stream flows to the southeast and then to the


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Health

EDUCATION, Health. See .


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Engineering

EDUCATION, Engineering. One of the most marked features of recent educational history is the increasing attention given to engineering education. Engineering has been defined as the direction and control of the forces of nature for the use and convenience of man; but until comparatively recently there was no systematic attempt to formulate the principles of engineering nor any organized effort to instruct beginners in these principles.

Engineering education, the application of the sciences to the needs of man, in this country has been a growth entirely within the past 100 years. At the beginning of the 19th century organized instruction in engineering was confined to two or three schools on the continent of Europe. The United States Military Academy was founded in 1802, and for about 30 years was the only organized agency for engineering education in America. For three-quarters of a century a surprising proportion of the graduates of this institution practised engineering in civil life, not because the education there given was what would now be called engineering instruction, but because it was the best preparation for engineering practice that could then be obtained. At Troy, N. Y., between 1825 and 1835 was established the first institution in the world for giving instruction in engineering not military. In the next 30 years only four engineering schools were founded, of which only two were really entitled to the name engineering. At the close of the Civil War the graduates of the engineering schools, exclusive of West Point, numbered less than 300.

In 1862 Congress passed an act giving to the several States public lands for the benefit of “instruction in the arts and sciences relating to agriculture and the mechanical arts”; and shortly after the close of the Civil War many of our engineering schools were organized under this act. Never was there a movement more timely or more successful than this, since it has

resulted in the establishment of 64 technical colleges — at least one in each State and Territory. Fifty of these give instruction in one or more branches of engineering.

At present there are something over 100 institutions claiming to give instruction in engineering, of which more than 100 give more or less complete courses in one or more branches of engineering. Of these institutions, 67 offer complete courses in civil engineering, 61 in mechanical engineering, 49 in electrical engineering, 21 in mining engineering, 15 in architecture, 2 in naval engineering and 2 in sanitary engineering. The number of students in these courses has increased with astonishing rapidity in recent years; in 1889 there were 3,043; in 1899, 9,659; in 1900, 11,874; in 1901, 13,753; in 1910, 30,329. The rate of increase is most remarkable; during the first decade above the average annual increase was about 660, while during the last three it is practically 2,300. The increase in the number of students pursuing an engineering course is much greater than the increase in the number of male students pursuing a non-engineering collegiate course; in 13 years the former increased 444 per cent, while the latter increased only 48 per cent. At present the engineering students constitute 21 per cent of the tptal number of male students pursuing a collegiate course.

But the most significant fact connected with the growth of engineering education is the improvement in the methods employed and in the scope of instruction. The teaching force of the engineering schools has been increased and the material equipment has been extended, thus permitting a radical change in the methods employed and in the scope of the instruction given. The best engineering colleges of America are offering unexcelled opportunities for the acquisition of the fundamentals of an engineering education. Few, if any, Americans now attend European engineering schools, for it is generally conceded that the American schools, in equipment, methods and scope of instruction, are superior to any European schools — at least for American engineers. German and British engineers quite generally concede the greater effectiveness of American methods of engineering instruction, particularly in the use of fully equipped laboratories and shops and in the value of various forms of practical instruction. The curriculum of the engineering college at present consists of about 10 per cent of English or modern foreign language, usually the latter; 30 to 40 per cent of indirect technical studies, as mathematics, physics and drawing; and 50 to 60 per cent of technical work. Over half of the engineering students are in institutions requiring for entrance the completion of a four-year high-school course, and another quarter require a three-year high-school course.

At the beginning of the specialization of engineering education practising engineers doubted or denied the value of a technical training for young engineers, and distrusted the engineering graduate; but now general managers and chief engineers prefer technical graduates, since they have been trained in scientific methods of working, and have a knowledge of the fundamental principles underlying all engineering practise, and look out upon the world of truth from the viewpoint of a man of science. The national engineering societies now give

credit for training in the engineering school toward the requirements for admission to membership, and the most cordial relations now exist between practitioners and the schools of engineering. Within recent years, largely if not mainly through the influence of the technical colleges, engineering has ceased to be traditional and has become scientific; and engineering has come to be recognized as a learned profession.

The wonderful growth of engineering education is of interest to the young man who is trying to choose a lifework; but it is of vastly greater importance to the citizen who is interested in the continued growth and prosperity of the country. For the past few years our newspapers and our magazines have had much to say about our rapidly increasing foreign trade, chiefly in the way of recording its marvelous growth, but with little attention to the factors that make such success possible. Of course, such a result depends upon many elements, among which are: (1) the peculiarities of our national ancestry, which has peopled this country with the brightest minds of all nations; (2) our political constitutions, which make it possible for the humblest to rise to the highest position; (3) the fact that we are a great nation, speaking one language, with no barriers in the way of the freest social and commercial intercourse; (4) our great and varied natural resources of mine, forest and soil; (5) the high price of labor, which stimulates the introduction of labor-saving machinery; and (6) the general dissemination of education, which made possible the effective use of labor-saving machinery and permitted the nation to profit by the capable and ambitious workers of all classes.

But since 1900 we have entered upon a new phase of national and industrial life. Until then we had been engaged in subduing the great West, in establishing homes, in founding cities, in building railroads. By legislation we barred out foreign competition and preserved the home market for our own products; but now the new land in the West is occupied and there is no longer an outlet in that quarter for our surplus labor and our industries have outgrown the home market. If prosperity is to continue in the future as in the past, we must have new markets; and in these markets we must meet the competition of the world. What are the conditions necessary for success in that field? The modern commercial history of Germany and Great Britain is significant.

For many generations Great Britain was preëminent in manufactures and in commerce. In 1870, she did one-quarter of the world's business, and the English believed that their industrial supremacy was secure; but in a single generation they were awakened to the fact that they were rapidly losing ground and in some respects were already third in the race. With Germany the almost exact reverse was true. Thirty years before she had a comparatively unimportant place in the commercial world, but in a single generation all this had been changed. The power employed in manufacture had increased four times as rapidly as the population, and the tonnage of the ships engaged in foreign trade had increased ten-fold. From 1870 to 1895 German foreign trade increased 42 per cent, while the English increased only 13 per cent; and from 1895 to 1900 German foreign trade increased

$200,000,000, while England's increased only $30,000,000. Why is it that Germany, with one of the poorest seaboards in the world, with a poor soil and with a dangerous military position, was thus able in a single .generation to outstrip England — the mistress of the sea and the foremost manufacturing nation of the world?

The modern marvelous industrial development of Germany was coincident with and dependent upon the development of industrial education. About 30 years ago Germany reorganized and strengthened her technical schools and established many new ones, until the provision for technical education became the wonder and admiration of all who know the facts. In the number and equipment of her technical schools Germany led the world. She was fully alive to the commercial importance of scientific investigation and technical education.

England a few years ago, confident in the superiority of her own manufactures, passed a law that all foreign-made goods should be labeled with the name of the country from which they came. This stamp was intended to be a mark of inferiority; but, to the surprise of the British, the label “Made in Germany” appeared on the highest grade of goods, which the Englishman had assumed to be of home manufacture. England received another shock when she found her street railroads being supplied with electrical apparatus made in America, and when she discovered that her manufacturers were importing American machine tools, and when America obtained the contract for bridges in her African and Indian colonies. After vainly endeavoring to convince herself to the contrary, England is ready to admit that she is being distanced in the industrial and commercial race, because she has not kept alive to the intimate relation between science and industry, and that in neglecting the technical education of her people she has failed to train her industrial army, In these days of sharp competition and small margins, when the entire world is in the market, the nation that most carefully trains its industrial army will gain industrial supremacy. Of course, there are other factors, as wages, labor unions and tariff; but not one of them is of such transcendent importance as that training of the individual which enables him to produce the most in the least time and at the smallest cost.

What is the lesson tor the United States? It is, that if this country is to extend or maintain its foreign trade it must look carefully to higher education. We already have a goodly number of technical colleges, but in number and equipment they are inferior to those of Germany, although in method they are better adapted to American conditions than would be the German type. Most of our technical schools are in need of additional equipment and more instructors. Technical education in this country was inaugurated about 30 years ago, and the engineering education given now is vastly better than that of 25 years ago; but there is still opportunity for improvement. The one thing necessary is adequate financial support. Technical education, especially engineering education, is very expensive. A large and costly equipment is required, and machines and apparatus wear out or become antiquated and must be replaced by new. Our technical schools need a more generous support, so that they may add to

their facilities and extend their courses. Any money given for this purpose is wisely expended, for experience has abundantly proven that money given to technical education is returned many fold in the increased productiveness of the nation's industries.

To be most effective, technical education must be practically free. Unless it is, many will be debarred from its privileges, and society will be dependent upon a few workers from a favored class. One of the main reasons why the United States has been so prosperous in the past is that education has been free, and consequently the higher ranks have been continually recruited from the lower. The way should be open that the humblest may rise from the lowest to the very highest rank. Education should not be bestowed as a charity, nor as a means for helping the recipient to earn a livelihood, but because the proper education of the people is the only basis for social security, economic prosperity and the highest national development. The conclusion almost certainly follows that only the government has the ability to make provision for the adequate technical education of the people. The Federal government and the States, particularly the North Central ones, have made magnificent provisions for technical education; but the numbers seeking it require increased equipment and the change in industrial life demands a higher grade of work.

At present the engineering college is engaged chiefly in giving the rudiments of an engineering education, but it should do more than simply impart elementary instruction. There are numerous scientific and practical subjects that are very much in need of investigation. The practising engineer frequently encounters problems which ought to be investigated experimentally, but it is seldom that he can command the necessary laboratory equipment or find the time for such work. There should be some place where such problems could be sent for solution; and where is a better place than a research laboratory established in connection with a technical school? Much of the equipment required in the work of instruction could also be used in research work. The professors now do more or less such work, but they are usually, and rightly, employed because of their ability to teach and the impartation of instruction consumes so much of their time and energy that they cannot do much in the way of investigation. There should be trained corps of men engaged in original research in matters relating to engineering and manufactures, much as is the case with agricultural experiments and investigations now being carried on at most agricultural colleges. Many such investigations are returning to the public each year benefits equal to more than a hundred times their cost. Of these a few are: The breeding of cotton and of corn, the prevention of smut in oats, and the spraying of apple trees tor the destruction of harmful insects. Why should not similar aid be given to our manufacturing interests?

The following are the words of a prominent practising engineer: “The cost of duplicating the land, buildings, equipment and endowment of the largest and most complete technical school in the United States, training more than 1,500 young men, is little more than half the cost of one of the latest battleships, and the running expenses of one of the largest technical schools

are about the same as for keeping a battleship in commission. The technical school has a use no less important than the battleship in the ‘first line of national defense.’ The time has already come when the commonwealth and the nation should contribute more liberally to the burden of its support and help it to ever broader usefulness. The demonstration of its great value to the prosperity of the state is already complete. With the increasing numbers of students and with the rapidly increasing cost of laboratory facilities needed for the best training, the need of funds is greater than private munificence can be relied upon to meet. In the reawakening of the old spirit of commercial adventure in foreign lands, we must to-day base our hope of success on superior excellence and economy of manufacture and in the calling of our engineers to foreign lands. The growth of our cities is laying a burden of new and larger problems on our departments of public works, a burden which only those trained in the schools of engineering can carry wisely and well. The business man, when he comes to see these matters dearly, will urge again and again a generous support to schools of engineering by city, state, and nation when private munificence falls short.”

The increase in the number of engineering students attending college has not been as great in recent years as in the period covered by the statistics in the earlier part of this article. The number of engineering students reached a maximum about 1910, and fell off about one quarter during the next five or six years. This falling off occurred in all engineering courses, but was most marked in civil engineering; and was due to legislation affecting the rates of railroads and public utilities and the development of water powers which caused a curtailment of expenditures in those lines. However, in the meantime the number of engineers finding employment in other lines greatly stimulated the demand for engineers in new fields; and before the world war disturbed industrial and financial conditions in this country, the demand for engineers exceeded the supply. It is generally and confidently believed that after the close of the war there will be a greatly increased demand for technically trained engineers.

Since the assault of Germany on the peace of the world, there has been a general tendency to look with suspicion upon anything of German origin; and hence a few words concerning the reference above to German technical education may not be out of place. Unquestionably Germany for a generation before the great war had a marvelous industrial and commercial development, and also unquestionably it was largely due to the attention given to higher technical education. The rest of the world may profit from a study of the causes of Germany's great development without approving some of the commercial methods and social results or her military motive.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chatterton, Thomas


text: Author:Ira Osborn Baker

title: Author:Ira Osborn Baker


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotti, Antonio


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chatterton, John Balsir


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Kalevala

KALEVALA. The Romantic movement, which in Germany began by the collection of folk-songs and fairy-tales, frequently led in the outlying countries to literary creations of national epics on the basis of actual epic songs. Thus arose in Finland the ‘Kalevala,’ systematically arranged by Dr. A. Lönnrot in 1835, and in 1849 totally rearranged and enlarged to 22,800 verses. Almqvist showed how Lönnrot had eclectically glued together actual variants, sometimes composing himself a few lines in order to bridge over discordant passages, more frequently rejecting verses which clashed with the general scheme he had in mind. However, if we disregard the unity of the Kalevala as a whole and the unimportant literary transitions, we have in Lönnrot's production an extremely valuable collection of Finnish heroic and magical songs, which throw a light upon the formation of a popular literature among the Finnish tribes. Some archæologists have assumed that in this ‘Kalevala’ we have a documentary record of a primitive state of society, but Comparetii, with far more justice, holds that it is not an invariable document of antiquity, but reflects, in ever changing form, the intellectual condition of the simple folk not far removed from the time when these songs were written down. Therefore it is not correct to speak of the ‘Kalevala’ as an epic, especially since the indeterminateness of images represented and the arbitrary personification of nature permit no set classification. The Finnish mythology is based on shamanistic polydaemonism and is not as highly developed as it was among the Romans, Assyrians or other cultured nations of antiquity, hence it yields no well-defined theogony. Similarly the hero is not always to be separated from the poet and magician, and his chief exploit consists in song competitions, as is the case with the shamanic wizard, or in wooing of the bride. The most cherished possession of such a hero is the sampo, a treasure which is hazily identified with a precious casket or a mill, but which Comparetti takes to be a Scandinavian word meaning “the commonwealth,” and which

here has become a concrete object to be striven for. Just as indefinite is the Kalevala, the country of Kaleva, one of the heroes, though some authors take it to be “Finland,” while the Pohjola, with which it is in conflict, has been supposed to represent the country of the North or the abode of the dead. But, while the Kalevala loses in importance as a national epic with a well-sustained plot, it justly maintains its place in popular literature, on account of the vivid imagery displayed by the popular poet.

The poem is now accessible to English readers in several translations: ‘The Kalevala, the Epic Poem of Finland,’ rendered into English by J. M. Crawford (2 vols., New York 1888); ‘Kalevala, the Land of Heroes,’ translated from the original Finnish by W. F. Kirby (London 1907, in ‘Everyman's Library,’ 2 vols.). Selections from the ‘Kalevala’ are given in ‘Selections from the Kalevala,’ translated from a German version by J. A. Porter (New York 1868); ‘People of Finland in Archaic Times,’ by J. C. Brown (London 1892); ‘The Sampo, Hero Adventures from the Finnish Kalevala,’ by James Baldwin (New York 1912). The best study of the poem is still that by Comparetti, ‘The Traditional Poetry of the Finns,’ translated by Isabella M. Anderson, with introduction by Andrew Lang (London 1898). The obligation of Longfellow's ‘Hiawatha’ to the ‘Kalevala’ was early pointed out by Th. C. Porter (in the Mercersburg Review, Vol. VIII, 1856).


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chatterton, Thomas


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Rh you see in the papers. But if war come, sure enough with all its horrors—as I fear it will, and that right soon—I suppose that its seat will be not far from this place.

I have no idea of what Va. will do. If "the Convention" pass a secession ordinance, it does not follow that the people will ratify it; but there is no such thing as speaking with confidence about the matter—we must wait and see, when the people have recovered from the stirring events of the last few days.

. . . . I am trying to get up an expedition to the South Pole, and getting nautical monograph No. 3 ready for the press.

My love to dear Maria and all the ladies.

Yours, M.

It is not within the province of this biography to discuss at length the merits of the questions then at issue But to understand the motives which influenced Maury's course, and to make them clear—particularly to such of our readers as may not be residents of the United States—it will be necessary to give a brief glance at the history of the country before the war of 1776, in which we separated ourselves from England. The thirteen colonies covering our Atlantic front were dependent upon the mother country alone. Each colony was ruled by a governor appointed by the Crown, together with a representative body, after the fashion of a parliament, of rather ill-defined local powers. So far as their political relations were concerned, these infant States were absolutely independent of each other, though bound together by ties of kindred, neighbourhood, and preservation from the dangers which threatened them—dangers from the Indian, and dangers from the French, who were enclosing them by a cordon of forts along their whole western frontier, from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, to make good their claim to the great valley of the Mississippi.


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188 The rupture with England came: each colony elected a governor, from among its own people, to succeed his royal predecessor, and became an independent Republic. To carry on the war, these thirteen States formed a provisional Union; and after their independence of England had been secured, and each State individually recognised by her as an independent power, the draft of the present Constitution was prepared, and submitted to the States for consideration.

In the whole of that period there was not a hint or a doubt of the right of any one State to refuse to enter the Union thus proposed; and some States did not enter it for two years after its adoption by the rest.

For the first quarter of a century, the Union was considered quite in the light of an experiment, the feelings of patriotism in the people clustering entirely around the original unit. So strong was the feeling of jealousy against the plan of Union, that, but for the immense influence of Washington, it is very doubtful whether all the States ever would have adopted it. The States delegated to the central government certain specified functions, retaining their political organization to administer upon local affairs.

Fourscore years had passed, and the issue between the Northern and Southern States culminated in secession. Whatever the merits of the controversy may have been, in point of fact those States had resumed their sovereignty. Was the fealty of a citizen due to his State, or to the creation of the State from which she had withdrawn? This was the question Maury was now called upon to decide for himself.

He had been opposed to the dissolution of the Union, feeling it to be, in the time and manner, an unwise step—remaining where he was would bring the rich harvest of fame and wealth, whose seeds he had so wisely sown—the new Confederacy could offer him no personal advantages; and yet,


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Rh believing as he did, that his duty was to his State, he hesitated not a moment to espouse her cause.

On the 15th of April, 1861, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation calling on Virginia to furnish 75,000 troops to subjugate South Carolina, and force her back into the Union. Virginia's immediate response was an ordinance of secession, and a call upon her sons in the Federal Service to rally to her support. Maury responded to this call on the 20th, and resigned his commission in the United States Navy and went to Richmond, where he was immediately appointed one of a Council of three, the other two being Judge Allen, Chief Justice of the State, and General F. S. Smith, (of the Virginia Military Institute), to advise with the Governor, Letcher, as to the best and quickest way of arming and protecting the State.

When he resigned and came to Richmond, nothing had been offered him by the Confederacy, and both the President and Ms Secretary of the Navy were unfriendly to him. He was opposed to the war, a peace-loving man, a student, and a philosopher; but when Virginia called, he turned his back upon his congenial scientific labours, upon all the plans that he had organized for the good of mankind, and upon his splendid discoveries and achievements, born of his genius, developed by his original mind, children of his own creation—all were sacrificed to the inexorable law of duty.

Who but one who sympathised with him, and worked with him, can tell the throes of his mighty heart at this, his greatest, noblest act of self-sacrifice!

"It is related of Socrates, that when his last hour had come, and one of his young disciples brought him the cup of hemlock, the young man covered his face with his mantle, weeping as he presented it, and, falling on his knees, he buried his face on the couch where his dear master sat


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190 awaiting his death When Maury determined to leave the service of the United States, he bade his secretary (Mr. Thomas Harrison), write his resignation. That true and loyal heart, which had served and loved him for almost twenty years, and whose fluent pen had rendered him such willing service, refused its office now; and/ presenting the unfinished paper with one hand, he covered his eyes with the other, and exclaimed, with a choking voice and gathering tears, 'I cannot write it, sir!' He knew it was the death-warrant to his scientific life—the cup of hemlock that would paralyse and kill him in his pursuit after the knowledge of nature and of nature's laws."

When it became known in Europe that he had resigned his place in the Federal Service, he was solicited to become the guest of Russia in the following letter from the Grand Duke Constantine, Grand Admiral of Russia, and brother to the Czar.

The news of your having left a service which is so much indebted to your great and successful labours, has made a very painful impression on me and my companions-in-arms. Your indefatigable researches have unveiled the great laws which rule the winds and currents of the ocean, and have placed your name amongst those which will ever be mentioned with feelings of gratitude and respect, not only by professional men, but by all those who pride themselves in the great and noble attainments of the human race.

That your name is well-known in Russia I need scarcely add, and though "barbarians" as we are still sometimes called, we have been taught to honour in your person disinterested and eminent services to science and mankind. Sincerely deploring the inactivity into which the present political whirlpool in your country has plunged you, I deem


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Rh myself called upon to invite you to take up your residence in this country, where you may in peace continue your favourite and useful occupations.

Your position here will be a perfectly independent one; you will be bound by no conditions or engagements; and you will always be at liberty to steer home across the ocean in the event of your not preferring to cast anchor in our remote corner of the Baltic.

As regards your material welfare, I beg to assure you that everything will be done by me to make your new home comfortable and agreeable; whilst at the same time, the necessary means will be offered you to enable you to continue your scientific pursuits in the way you have been accustomed to.

I shall now be awaiting your reply, hoping to have the pleasure of seeing here so distinguished an officer, whose personal acquaintance it has always been my desire to make, and whom Russia will be proud to welcome on her soil.

Believe me, my dear Captain Maury,

Grand Admiral of Russia.

Maury replied to this invitation by pleading the call of duty, which weighed with him more than personal advantage.

Your letter reached me only a few days ago; it filled me with emotion. In it I am offered the hospitalities of a great and powerful Empire, with the Grand Admiral of its fleets for patron and friend. Inducements are held out such as none but the most magnanimous of princes could offer, and such as nothing but a stern sense of duty may withstand.

A home in the bosom of my family on the banks of the Neva, where, in the midst of books and surrounded by friends, I am, without care for the morrow, to have the most princely means and facilities for prosecuting those studies, and continuing those philosophical labours in which I take most


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192 delight: all the advantages that I enjoyed in Washington are, with a larger discretion, to be offered me in Russia.

Surely a more flattering invitation could not be uttered! Certainly it could not reach a more grateful heart. I have slept upon it. It is becoming that I should be candid, and in a few words frankly state the circumstances by which I find myself surrounded. The State of Virginia gave me birth; within her borders, among many kind friends, the nearest of kin, and troops of excellent neighbours, my children are planting their vine and fig-tree. In her green bosom are the graves of my fathers; the political whirlpool from which your kind forethought sought to rescue me has already plunged her into a fierce and bloody war.

In 1788, when this State accepted the Federal Constitution and entered the American Union, she did so with the formal declaration that she reserved to herself the right to withdraw from it for cause, and resume those powers and attributes of sovereignty which she had never ceded away, but only delegated for certain definite and specified purposes.

When the President elect commenced to set at naught the very objects of the Constitution, and without authority of law proceeded to issue his proclamation of 15th April last, Virginia, in the exercise of that reserved right, decided that the time had come when her safety, her dignity, and honour required her to resume those "delegated" powers and withdraw from the Union. She did so; she then straightway called upon her sons in the Federal Service to retire therefrom and come to her aid.

This call found me in the midst of those quiet physical researches at the Observatory in Washington which I am now, with so much delicacy of thought and goodness of heart, invited to resume in Russia. Having been brought up in the school of States-rights, where we had for masters the greatest statesmen of America, and among them Mr. Madison, the wisest of them all, I could not, and did not hesitate; I recognised this call, considered it mandatory, and, formally renouncing all allegiance to the broken Union, hastened over


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Rh to the South side of the Potomac, there to renew to Fatherland those vows of fealty, service, and devotion! which the State of Virginia had permitted me to pledge to the Federal Union so long only as, by serving it, I might serve her.

Thus my sword has been tendered to her cause, and the tender has been accepted. Her soil is invaded, the enemy is actually at her gates; and here I am contending, as the fathers of the Republic did, for the right of self-government, and those very principles for the maintenance of which Washington fought when this, his native State, was a colony of Great Britain. The path of duty and of honour is therefore plain.

By following it with the devotion and loyalty of a true sailor, I shall, I am persuaded, have the glorious and proud recompense that is contained in the "well done" of the Grand Admiral of Russia and his noble companions-in-arms.

When the invader is expelled, and as soon thereafter as the State will grant me leave, I promise myself the pleasure of a trip across the Atlantic, and shall hasten to Russia, that I may there in person, on the banks of the Neva, have the honour and the pleasure of expressing to her Grand Admiral the sentiments of respect and esteem with which his oft-repeated acts of kindness, and the generous encouragement that he has afforded me in the pursuits of science, have inspired his

Obedient servant, M. F. Maury, Commander C. S. Navy,

He also declined a similar invitation from France, because Virginia wanted him. These letters were brought to Richmond, under a flag of truce, by the Russian Minister, Baron Stacle; and the French Minister, accompanied by the Prussian Envoy, Baron Gerolt, who came, they said, in person


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194 to pay their respects and make their adieus to the "philosopher and man of science, who had given up all, everything he had save honour, at the call of his native State in her trouble."

On the breaking out of the war, when Maury moved all his family away from Washington, his affectionate kinsman, John Minor, offered his home in Fredericksburg as an asylum to the refugees. Maury responded to this invitation gratefully as follows:—

Bless your heart for offering us shelter in these times I There is no telling when we shall all be together again. I have written to my wife to accept your kind offer, until we can find out where we are to go. . ..

When your letter reached me, I was just leaving Washington. I left my beautiful home there with a heart full and eyes overflowing on the 20th.

My little money "pesters me" mightily. Pray help me, my friend, to put money-matters in a better train. . . . But consider your discretion ample to do the best you can, and to act as you do for yourself were you going to make such a transfer; only don't go beyond the means in your hands, for I cannot meet pressing necessities here. Will you not let me make over to you out and out my St. Paul


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Rh property? When peace comes—which God grant may be soon!—I can relieve you of taxes. Kiss my Maria for me.

Your friend always,

2em

I snatched time Saturday night to run up to Fredericksburg to see my family, who are all there except Betty, who is still in Washington—Dick, who is here—and Dave, who is at the University.

I asked John Herndon to make a deed in your favour of all my Minnesota property. If I retain it, it will, I fear, be confiscated; so if I am to lose it, I would rather you should have it than the State. . . . The mails here are so very uncertain now that I am afraid to trust anything like money through them. . . . I reckon you can reach me through Maury Bros., N. Y., should the terrible war, which now appears to be imminent, prove a reality. Of the funds in your hands, you might as well reserve say $60 for taxes next year. . . . Now, my friend, act as though you were acting for yourself. . . . My most affectionate love and solicitude for Maria, and love also to all of your dear household.

My friend, yours truly,

2em

Yours of the 8th, with enclosures, came to hand last night. It gives expression to those deep and abiding sentiments of friendship and affection which I knew were in your heart. Nevertheless, your utterance of them is very gratifying. These are difficulties which you and I have had no part in making, and the estrangements which they are destined to create have no business to come between you and me, or yours and mine. . . . The President refuses to accept my resignation. The object of this will be plain enough to you. But in such a cause the halter has no more


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196 terror than the bullet. Death is death. Our cause is just, and we enter the contest in. . . . armour. However, I am indisposed to enter into any discussion with my friends on the other side. I grant them sincere; but I cannot but lament, in the depths of my heart and in excruciating agony, that their delusion is such as to have already allowed the establishment of a military despotism. I am sorry I have said so much; but it is done.

2em

I wrote you in full this morning about the thirteen St. Paul mortgages. . . . There is nothing like excitement here. All of us are of one mind—very cool, very determined; no desire for a conflict. We are on the defensive. We have nothing to fight the North about; but if the North wants a fight, it can have it. We are ready; but the North must come to us for it.

From all I see in the public journals here, we have no idea, and never had any idea of attacking Washington, or of invading any Northern right, or Northern soil.

2em

I only saw last night the remarks of the Boston Traveller about Lieutenant Maury's treachery, his desertion, removing of buoys. It's all a lie! I resigned and left the Observatory on Saturday the 20th ult. I worked as hard and as faithfully for "Uncle Sam" up to three o'clock of that day as I ever did, and at three o'clock I turned everything—all the public property and records of the office—regularly over to Lieutenant Whiting, the proper officer in charge. I left in press, 'Nautical Monograph, No. 3'—one of the most valuable contributions that I have ever made to navigation; and just as I left it, it is now in course of publication there, though I shall probably not have an opportunity of reading


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Rh proof, and cannot tell what errors or alterations may appear. I have lost none of my interest in these enchanting fields of physical research which I have revelled in there for near twenty years. I am here to war, not against science, but against the oppressor, and for my fatherland. As for "the buoys," I touched them not! But I am here to defend the right, and will do all and everything to discomfit the enemy that is consistent with civilised and honourable warfare. A price has been set on my head in Boston. I thank them for the honour; for I do not forget that in other days a price was set upon the heads of the best men of that State, and the cause in which I fight is far more righteous than that which moved those great and good men to take up arms against their mother-country.

Yours most affectionately,

. . . . To show how I still delight in striving to do good in all proper ways, even to those who are enemies in war, but nevertheless friends in science, I enclose a bulletin of the International Exhibition for 1862, London. I am now engaged, snatching odds and ends of time, in replying to the Commissioners, and in putting the people of the Northern States in the way of an opportunity of exhibiting their handiwork there.

Yours,

Betty and party passed safely through the lines, and arrived in Fredericksburg last week, I have just returned from the sweet old Burg. She told mc all about your trip to Washington. It was a touching act of friendship which moved you to think even of a visit to Richmond. I have, you may be sure, my friend, weighed the matter well.

You do not see, and at present cannot, I fear, understand


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198 our Clause in its true bearings. Holy and just it is, as human cause can be, and one for which we are all ready to lay down life and sacrifice everything. I will not discuss it with you, because I might in some way wound your or Maria's sensibilities; but, my friend, believe me, my sleep is sweet, like that which the poet gives Richmond on the battle-field.

Your friend,

On the 10th of June, 1861, the Governor's Advisory Council was abolished, and, on the same day, Maury was appointed Chief of the Sea-coast, Harbour, and River Defences of the South. In this post he assisted in fitting out the 'Virginia' or 'Merrimac' for her short but destructive career. He also invented a most formidable torpedo to be used both for harbour and land defence, besides contributing in other ways to the protection of the Southern sea-board.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Kalevipoeg

KALEVIPOEG, kạ-lā'vē-pĕg (son of Kalev), the chief Esthonian epic poem, based upon popular songs collected by Kreutzwald (1857-59). As the material used by the collector was destroyed, much discussion has resulted as to the position occupied by the poem among real national epics. Consult Kirby, ‘Hero of Esthonia and Other Studies’ (Vol. I. London 1895); Reinthal, ‘Kalewipoeg, eine estniche Sage’ (including the text of the poem with a German translation, Dorpal 1857-61).


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Rh

warfare was re-introduced to the world by our civil war, and it was the practical mind of Maury which appreciated its power and developed its efficiency. The Federal Secretary of the Navy (in his Report, December 4th, 1865) stated that, during the war, their "navy lost more vessels by torpedoes than from all other causes whatever."

In pursuance of his plan for torpedo defence, Maury, soon after his arrival in Richmond, sent an agent to New York to purchase a quantity of insulating wire. The agent was foiled in his mission, and returned empty-handed.

There was neither wire-factory nor insulating material in the South, and though an establishment for the manufacture of the former was soon put in operation, yet, all the Southern ports having been placed under blockade, it was impossible to obtain either gutta-percha or india-rubber from abroad,


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200 There was, moreover, a great prejudice against, or lack of appreciation of this undeveloped system of defence, entertained by the officials of the new Confederacy into whose hands the defence of the South had fallen.

Finally, after a year had passed in futile efforts to impress the Confederate authorities with the importance, value, and economy of mining passes and channel-ways with magazines, to be sprung at will by means of the electric spark, Maury procured, in the summer of 1862, two barrels of powder from the Governor of Virginia, who was himself in favour of the plan, and prevailed on the Secretary of the Navy, and the Chairman of the Committee of Naval Affairs in the Congress of the Confederate States, to go down the river and see him explode powder, by an ingenious contrivance, under water.

Two magnificent jets went up; and when the two gentlemen heard the report of a barrel of powder, and saw the water pagodas rising up some hundred feet in the air, they were convinced. The next day $50,000 were placed at the service of Commander Maury (for he now held this rank in the Navy of the Confederate States) for mining the James River.

Still powder was scarce, wire scarcer, and of gutta-percha and india-rubber there was absolutely none, except such as might be collected by calling upon the patriotic women of that noble old State for their india-rubber over-shoes; but, by a remarkable coincidence, it happened that the enemy, in attempting to lay a submarine cable across Chesapeake Bay, from Fortress Munroe to Eastville, had been forced to abandon the attempt and had left the wire to the mercy of the waves.

Maury had the good fortune to secure the prize; it was much cut up and broken by chafing on the rocks, but it was better than anything of the sort that could be made out of old


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotto, Lorenzo


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotto

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotto


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotus

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotus


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lotus-Eaters


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loubet, Émile François


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270 on which the holy and the wise, the saint and the philosopher, alike delight to dwell.

It is no exaggeration then to say, that the conversation of the humble Christian on her death-bed—her lowly bed of suffering, surrounded by poverty and destitution—is sometimes so fraught with the intelligence of that celestial world on which her hopes are fixed, that to have spent an hour in her presence, is like having had the glories of heaven, and the wonders of immortality, revealed. And is this a vulgar or degrading employment for a refined and intellectual being? to dwell upon the noblest theme which human intellect has ever grasped, to look onward from the perishable things of time to the full development of the eternal principles of truth and love? to forget the sufferings of frail humanity, and to live by faith amongst the ransomed spirits of the blest, in the presence of angels, and before the Saviour, ascribing honour, and glory, dominion, and power, to Him that sitteth on the throne, and to the Lamb forever and ever?

In turning back to the world, from the contemplation of such a state of mind, we feel that vulgarity consists neither in religion itself, nor in its requirements, but in attaching undue importance to the things of time, and in making them our chief, or only good.

If young people are often deterred from becoming religious by seeing a great number of genteel, correct, and agreeable persons, who, for anything they can discover to the contrary, are doing very well without it they are still more forcibly deterred by feeling no want of it within themselves.

Perhaps you are so protected by parents, and so hemmed in by domestic regulations, that you feel it more difficult to do what is positively wrong, than what is generally approved as right. But do not be so blind and presumptuous as to mistake this apparently inoffensive state, for being

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Rh ; and remember, if it is difficult to do wrong now, it is the last stage of your experience in which you will find it so. Obliged to quit the parental roof, deprived by death of your natural protectors, required as years advance to take a more active part in the duties of life, or to incur a greater share of culpability by their neglect; thrown amongst strangers, or friends who are no longer watchful or solicitous for your temporal and spiritual good; involved in new connections, and exposed to temptations both from within and from without, how will your mind, lately so careless and secure, awake to a conscious feeling of your own weakness, and a secret terror of impending harm. For woman from her very feebleness is fearful; while from her sensitiveness she is peculiarly exposed to pain. Without religion, then, she is the most pitiable, the most abject, the most utterly destitute of all created beings. The world—society—nay, even domestic life, has nothing to offer on which her heart in its unregenerate state can rest in safety. Each day is a period of peril, if not of absolute agony; for all she has to give—her affections, which constitute her wealth—are involved in speculations, which can yield back into her bosom nothing but ashes and mourning.

It is not so with the woman who has made religion her stronghold—her defence—her stay. Unchecked in the happiest and most congenial impulse of her nature, she can still love, because the Lord her God has commanded that she should love him with all her heart, and with all her strength, and that she should love her neighbour as herself. Thus, though disappointment or death may blight her earthly hopes; or though a cloud may rest upon the bestowment of her affections in this vale of tears, the principle of love which fills her soul remains the same, and she is most happy when its sphere of exercise is unbounded and eternal.

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272 And is it possible that any of the rational beings whom I am addressing would dare to rush upon the dangers and temptations of this uncertain and precarious life, without the protection and support of religion? Oh! no, they tell me they are all believers in religion—all professors of the Christian faith. But are you all religious? Deceive not yourselves. There is no other way of being Christians, except by being personally religious. If not personally religious now, are you then ready to begin to be so? Delay not; you have arrived at years of discretion, and are capable of judging on many important points. You profess to believe in a religion which expressly teaches you that it is itself the one thing needful. What then stands in the way? If, after mature and candid deliberation, you decidedly prefer the world, injure not the cause of Christ by an empty profession, nor act the cowardly part of wearing the outward badge of a faith which holds not possession of your heart and affections. It is neither honourable nor just to allow any one to doubt on whose side you are. If, therefore, your decision be in favour of religion, it is still more important that you should not blush to own a Saviour, who left the glory of the heavenly kingdom, inhabited a mortal and suffering frame, and finally died an ignominious death, for you.

Nor let the plea of youth retard the offering of your heart to Him who gave you all its capacity for exquisite and intense enjoyment. If you are young, you are happy in having more to offer. Though it constitutes the greatest privilege of the Christian dispensation, that we are not required to bring anything by which to purchase the blessings of pardon and salvation; it surely must afford some additional satisfaction to a generous mind, to feel that because but a short period of life has passed away, there is more of health and strength, of elasticity and vigour, to

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Rh bring into the field of action, than if the decision upon whose side to engage, had been deferred until a later period.

What, for instance, should we think of the subjects of a gracious and beneficent sovereign, who maintained a small territory in the midst of belligerent foes, if none of these subjects would consent to serve in his army for the defence of his kingdom, until they had wasted their strength and their vigour in the enemy's ranks, in fighting deliberately and decidedly against the master, whom yet they professed to consider as their rightful lord; and then, when all was lost, and they were poor, decrepit, destitute, and almost useless, returned to him, for no other reason, but because he was a better paymaster than the enemy, under whose colours they had fought for the whole of their previous lives? What should we say, if we beheld this gracious master willing to receive them on such terms, and not only to receive, but to honour and reward them with the choicest treasures of his kingdom? We should say, that one of the most agonizing thoughts which could haunt the bosom of each of those faithless servants, would be regret and self-reproach, that he had not earlier entered upon the service of his rightful lord.

There is besides, this fearful consideration connected with the indecision of youth, that in religious experience none can remain stationary. Where there is no progress, there must be a falling back. He who is not with me, is against me, was the appalling language of our Saviour when on earth; by which those who are halting between two opinions, and those who are imagining themselves safe on neutral ground, are alike condemned, as being opposed to the Redeemer's kingdom. It is but reasonable, however, that the young should understand the principles, and reflect maturely upon the claims, of religion, before their decision is openly declared. Much injury has been done to

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274, as well as to society at large, by a precipitate and uncalculating readiness to enlist under the banners of the Cross, before the duties of a faithful soldier of Christ have been duly considered. It is the tendency of ardent youth, to invest whatever it delights in for the moment, with ideal qualities adapted to its taste and fancy. Thus has religion often—too often—been decked in charms more appropriate to the divinities of Greece and Rome, than to the worship of a self-denying and persecuted people, whose lot on earth, they have been fully warned, is not to be one of luxury or repose.

The first and severest disappointment to which the young enthusiast in religion is subject, is generally that of finding, on a nearer acquaintance with the devout men and honourable women who compose the religious societies into which they are admitted, that they have faults and failings like the rest of mankind, and even inconsistencies in their spiritual walk, which are still more unexpected, and more difficult to reconcile. The first impulse of the young, on making this discovery, is often to give up the cause altogether; 'for if such,' say they, 'be the defects of the Christian character, after such a season of experience, and while occupying so exalted a position, it can be of little use to us to persevere in the same course.' They forget, or perhaps they never have considered, that the highest attainment of the Christian in this world, is often that of alternate error and repentance; and that it is the state of the heart before God, of which he alone is the judge, which constitutes the difference betwixt a penitent, and an impenitent sinner. Besides which, they know not all. The secret struggles of the heart, the temptations overcome, the tears of repentance, which no human eye beholds, must alike be hid from them, as well as the fearful effects upon the peace of mind which these inconsistencies so seriously disturb, or destroy.

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Rh A wiser application of this humbling lesson, would be, for youth to reflect, that if such be the defects in the character of more experienced Christians, they themselves enjoy the greatest of all privileges, that of profiting by the example of others, so as to avoid stumbling where they have fallen; and instead of petulantly turning back from a path which will still remain to be right, though thousands upon thousands should wander from it, they will thus be enabled to steer a steadier course, and to finish it with greater joy.

Another great discouragement to the young, consists in finding their efforts to do good so feeble and unavailing—nay, sometimes almost productive of evil, rather than of good. In their charities, especially, they find their confidence abused, and their intentions misunderstood. On every hand, the coldness of the rich, and the ingratitude of the poor, alike repel their ardour. If they engage in schools, no one appears the better for their instruction. If they connect themselves with benevolent societies, they find their individual efforts so trifling, in comparison with the guilt and the misery which prevail, as scarcely to appear deserving of repetition; while, in the distribution of religious books, and the general attention they give to the spiritual concerns of the ignorant and the destitute, they perceive no fruit of all their zeal, and all their labour.

I freely grant, that these are very natural and reasonable causes of depression, and such as few can altogether withstand; but there is one important secret which would operate as a remedy for such depression, if we could fully realize its supporting and consoling power. The secret is, are we doing all this unto God, or unto man? If unto man, and in our own strength, and solely for the sake of going about doing good; but especially if we have done it for the sake of having been seen and known to have done it; even if we have done it for the sake of the reward which we

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276 to follow the performance of every laudable act; or with a secret hope of thereby purchasing the favour of God; we have no need to be surprised, or to murmur at such unsatisfactory results, which may possibly have been designed as our wholesome chastisement, or as the means of checking our farther progress in folly and presumption.

But, if in every act of duty or kindness we engage in, we are actuated simply by a love to God, and a sense of the vast debt of gratitude we owe for all the unmerited mercies we enjoy, accompanied with a conviction, that whatever the apparent results may be, our debt and our duty are still the same; that whatever the apparent results may be, our heavenly Father has the overruling of them, and is able to make everything contribute to the promotion of his glory, and the extension of the Redeemer's kingdom, though in ways which we may neither be able to perceive nor understand; then, indeed, with this view of the subject, we are enabled to persevere through every discouragement, rejoicing only in the ability to labour, and leaving the fruit of our labour with him who has appointed both.

I must yet allude to another cause of discouragement with which the young have to contend, and that is, their own spiritual declension, after the ardour of their early zeal has abated. Perhaps I ought rather to say, their imagined declension, because I believe they are often nearer heaven in this humbled, and apparently degraded state, than when exulting in the confidence of untried patience, fortitude, and love. The prevalent idea under this state of mind is, that of their own culpability, in having made a profession of religion in a state of unfitness, or on improper and insufficient grounds, accompanied with an impression that they are undergoing a just punishment for such an act of presumption, and that the only duty which remains for them to do, is to give up the profession of religion altogether.

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guchkov, Alexander

GUCHKOV, ALEXANDER (1862-), Russian politician, was born in Moscow in 1862. His father was a factory owner of some means, whose family came from a stock of Old Believers, who had acknowledged the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church while keeping the ancient ritual for which their forefathers had endured persecution since the days of Patriarch Nikon. Guchkov's mother was French. He studied history and humanities at the university of Moscow, and, after having gone through his military training in a grenadier regiment, left for Germany where he read political economy in Berlin under Prof. Schmoller. Academic studies were, however, not suited to his active and adventurous character. He gave them up and started travelling. He rode alone on horseback through Mongolia to western Siberia, and narrowly escaped being slaughtered by a mob. During the Boer War 1899-1902 he volunteered for service against the English and joined Gen. Smuts's commando. He was shot in the leg, picked up by the English, and successfully treated, although he remained slightly lame. He was elected by the Moscow municipal Duma to be a member of the executive (Uprava), and took active part in the self-government of the city. During the Russo-Japanese War he served in the Red Cross and in the Municipal Union for the organization of hospitals; he was left to take care of the Russian wounded after the battle of Moukden, and showed much dignity and efficiency in the performance of his arduous duties. When the first Russian revolutionary movement developed in 1905 he took part in the meetings of Zemstvo representatives, but did not join the Cadets, whom he considered to be too doctrinaire and cosmopolitan. Together with D. Shipov, E. Trubetzkoy and N. Lvov, he founded the Octobrist party, in the hope that the Tsar's Government would recognize the necessity of great reforms and work with the moderate Liberals of the Zemstvos while safeguarding the monarchical principle. Stolypin was for some time in sympathy with that programme, and even contemplated the formation of a Ministry strengthened by leaders of public opinion, of whom Guchkov, Count Heyden and N. Lvov would have been prominent members. When this project came to grief, Guchkov continued to support Stolypin. In the third Duma, elected on a restricted franchise, the Octobrists assumed the leading rôle.

After Khomiakov's resignation in 1910 Guchkov was elected speaker. He attacked with patriotic eloquence the “irresponsible influences” at Court and the shortcomings of the Ministry of War in preparing for the inevitable conflict with Germany. As Stolypin became more and more violent and reactionary, the Octobrists lost their standing ground, and Guchkov eventually resigned the presidentship of the Duma. In the elections to the fourth Duma he failed to secure a seat. He came again into prominence, however, during the World War. He was put in charge of the Red Cross organization on the German front, and it fell to him to search for the corpse of the unfortunate Samsonov. When the campaign of 1915 had disclosed the incredible inefficiency and corruption of the Russian War Office, Guchkov threw his whole energy into the work of refitting the army on the technical side. He was one of the principal workers and leaders of the mixed committees for the defence of the country, formed with the help of the Zemstvos and towns. He was not content with laying the blame at the door of the effete War Office, but deplored the apathetic way in which the Tsar passed the time at headquarters, without any clear political plan, holding on supinely to formalism and routine, yielding to the spasmodic interference of the Empress.

When the March Revolution of 1917 broke out Guchkov was called in to take charge of the Ministry of War. Together with Shulguin, he submitted the Act of Abdication for signature to Nicholas II. He was powerless against the mounting flood of desertion and demoralization in the army, and he was the first of the ministers to resign in despair. In the “emigration” he found himself without proper place and influence. He would have liked to organize a big move against the Bolsheviks from the west, but such a move could not be made while the Entente Powers were resolved to keep Germany out, and while they sympathized with all the new organizations hostile to Russia — Esthonia, Latvia and Poland. Later he took refuge in Paris, where he pleaded for a national reunion of all parties against the Red tyrants. (Author:Paul Vinogradoff)