text:
A Brief History of Wood-engraving/Chapter 13

It redounds greatly to the glory of Thomas Bewick that the important advance in the art of wood-engraving which was due to his talents and his industry did not die with him. He left behind him several eminent successors, whose influence is felt to the present day.

His brother John, seven years younger than himself, was his first pupil, and to him we are indebted for the illustrations to a work called 'Emblems of Mortality,' 1789, copied from Holbein's 'Dance of Death,' the 'Looking-Glass for the Mind,' and 'Blossoms of Morality,' 1796. Of these, the cuts in the 'Looking-Glass for the Mind' are decidedly the best, and after examining them carefully we cannot but regret that the artist was taken away so young. His drawings are very unlike those of his elder brother, and are certainly more graceful—we give one as an example of their style. Two other books, 'Poems,' by Goldsmith and Parnell, 1795, and Somerville's 'Chase,' 1796, also contain some of his best work; they were printed in quarto by Bulmer, 'to display the excellence of modern printing and wood-engraving.' For the former of these, John Bewick made most of the drawings, in which he was assisted by the clever artist, Robert Johnson, a fellow-pupil, and nearly all were engraved by Thomas and John Bewick, and a few by another pupil, Charlton Nesbit. For 'The Chase,' John Bewick made all the drawings except one, and nearly all were engraved by his brother. For five or six years John Bewick lived in London, till ill-health compelled him to return to his native place, where he died in the same year in which Somerville's 'Chase' was published. He was buried in Ovingham churchyard, where a tablet is erected to his memory.

Robert Elliot Bewick, the only son of Thomas Bewick, was trained to the business of wood-engraver, and at one time, over the window of the house in St. Nicholas' Churchyard, there was a board with an inscription ', engravers and copper-plate printers.' Robert suffered much from ill-health and turned his attention to drawing rather than engraving. He died in 1849, leaving fifty beautiful designs for a 'History of Fishes,' which he had long in contemplation as a companion volume to his father's works. These drawings, the gift of the last of Bewick's daughters, are now in the British Museum.

The most celebrated of Bewick's other pupils were Charlton Nesbit, born at Shalwell, near Gateshead, in 1775; Luke Clennell, born at Ulgham, a village near Morpeth, in 1781; and William Harvey, born near Newcastle in 1796. Nesbit engraved a few of the tail-pieces in the 'Land Birds,' and most of the head and tail pieces in the 'Poems' of Goldsmith and Parnell. He also engraved, from a drawing by Robert Johnson, a large block, 15 inches by 12 inches, of St. Nicholas Church, Newcastle, which at the time was considered a triumph of art. About the end of the century Nesbit migrated to London, where for many years he was employed by Rudolph Ackermann and other publishers in engraving the drawings of the artist, John Thurston, whose work was at that time very popular. In 1815 Nesbit returned to Shalwell, where he continued to reside till 1830, doing but little work besides the engraving of 'Rinaldo and Armida' for Savage's 'Hints on Decorative Printing,' after a design by Thurston. This is considered to be his best work. He then went back to London, and was chiefly engaged in engraving drawings by William Harvey for the second volume of Northcote's 'Fables.' He died at Queen's Elms in November 1838, aged 63. Mr. Chatto says: 'Nesbit is unquestionably the best wood-engraver that has proceeded from the great northern hive of art—the workshop of Thomas Bewick.'

The story of Luke Clennell's life is very sad. Like many other artists, he showed an early disposition to make sketches on his slate instead of 'doing sums,' and was often reproved; his uncle sympathised with him, and in 1797 apprenticed him to Thomas Bewick for the usual seven years, during which time he engraved many of the tail-pieces to the 'Water Birds' and learned to make water-colour drawings from nature. When his apprenticeship was over he assisted Bewick in the illustrations to a 'History of England,' published by Wallis and Scholey, in which Nisbet had also joined, but finding that Bewick was paid five pounds for each cut, while he received only two pounds, Clennell sent some specimens of his abilities to the publishers, who immediately offered him work in London, where he arrived in the autumn of 1804. Two years afterwards he received the gold palette of the Society of Arts for a wood-engraving of a battle-scene, and soon afterwards he was engaged on illustrations to new editions of Beattie's 'Minstrel,' 1807, and Falconer's 'Shipwreck,' 1808. About this time he married the eldest daughter of Charles Warren, a well-known line engraver, and became intimate with Abraham Raimbach and other artists whose friendship was of much service to him. His most important work as a wood-engraver was the 'Diploma of the Highland Society,' a large block 13½ inches by 10½ inches, of which we give a much-reduced copy. Benjamin West made the original design on paper, Clennell himself drew the Highlander and Fisherman on the wood, and gave Thurston fifteen pounds to fill in the circle with Britannia and her attendant groups. After he had worked on the block, which was of boxwood veneered upon beech, for about two months, the same fate befell it that had ruined Bewick's 'Chillingham Bull'; one evening, while he was at tea, the boxwood split with a loud report, and it is said poor Clennell threw the tea-things into the fire! This was the sad beginning of a long malady. Taking courage, however, he procured a block made of pieces of solid boxwood firmly clamped together, paid Thurston again for drawing the central groups, and, after much labour, produced his chef d'œuvre, for which he received 150 guineas from the Highland Society, and was further rewarded with the gold medal of the Society of Arts, May 30, 1809. This second block likewise met with an untimely fate; it was burnt in the fire at Bensley's printing-office. John Thompson afterwards engraved it in fac-simile. A copy of Clennell's original engraving, bequeathed by Mr. John Thompson, may be seen in the Art Library at South Kensington.

Among the best wood-engravings by Clennell we may rank the illustrations designed by Stothard as head and tail pieces for a small edition of Rogers's 'Pleasures of Memory,' 1810. They were drawn in pen and ink, and engraved in facsimile with charming spirit and fidelity. After this time, Clennell, who could work beautifully in water-colours, gave up engraving and exhibited drawings and paintings at the Academy, the British Institution, and the Exhibition of Painters in Water-Colours at their room in Spring Gardens. In March 1815, the British Institution set aside 1,000 guineas for premiums for the best oil-paintings illustrating the career of Wellington. One of these premiums was awarded to Clennell for his 'Charge of the Life Guards at Waterloo,' a picture full of spirit, which was afterwards engraved. In 1814 the Earl of Bridgewater gave him a commission to paint 'The Banquet of the Allied Sovereigns in Guildhall.' He experienced great difficulty in obtaining sitters for the necessary portraits, and suffered so much from anxiety that, although in April 1817 he had nearly conquered all his troubles, he suddenly lost his reason. This so much affected his wife that she also became insane and soon died. By the advice of his friends poor Clennell was sent to live with a relation who resided near Newcastle, and there he lingered till February 1840, when he died, leaving three children, who were for a time supported in a great measure by the Committee of the Artists' Fund and by the profits of the engraving of the 'Charge of the Life Guards.'

William Harvey was apprenticed to Bewick in 1810 and was his favourite pupil. He frequently made drawings on the wood after the designs of Robert Johnson, and engraved many of the cuts in 'Bewick's Fables,' 1818. On New Year's Day 1815 Bewick presented him with a copy of his 'History of British Birds' in two volumes, which he always showed to his friends with much pride. In September 1817 Harvey came to London and, to improve his knowledge of drawing, took lessons of an excellent master—B. R. Haydon. While under his tuition Harvey copied his picture of the 'Assassination of Dentatus' on a large block, and engraved it with most elaborate care. This cut has always been greatly admired by the profession, who point to the variety of the lines of engraving in the right leg of Dentatus as being a triumph of their art. If we can find any fault with this celebrated work, it is that, to use Mr. Chatto's words, 'More has been attempted than can be efficiently represented by means of wood-engraving'—it is, in fact, too much like an attempt to rival copper-plate line-engraving.

About the year 1824 Harvey had so many commissions for designs for both copper-plates and woodcuts that he gave up entirely the practice of engraving, and devoted himself to drawings for the illustration of books. His first successes were his vignettes for Dr. Henderson's 'History of Ancient and Modern Wines,' 1824, the illustrations to Northcote's 'Fables,' 1828 and 1833, the 'Tower Menagerie,' 1828, 'Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society,' 1831, and 'The Children in the Wood' and a 'Story without an End,' 1832. But perhaps his most characteristic designs were the illustrations to Lane's 'Thousand and One Nights' in 1834-40; these are considered to be his best work. He was at this time at the height of his reputation, and for twenty-six years more he almost monopolised the illustration of books published in London. Merely to give a list of them would occupy too much space. During the latter years of his life, Harvey lived near the old church of Richmond, and there he died in 1866. He was one of the most courteous and amiable of men, and though his designs were 'mannered,' they were always pleasant to look at, and often very poetical.

There were other pupils of Bewick who obtained some little fame. Among them were John Anderson, a native of Scotland, who assisted Thurston in illustrating Bloomfield's 'Farmer's Boy,' published in 1800 by Vernor and Hood; John Jackson, who was born at Ovingham in 1801, and Ebenezer Landells, born at Newcastle in 1808. Jackson for some reason quarrelled with his master, came to London and worked for William Harvey, who was much employed about that time in making illustrations for the various works issued by Charles Knight, including the 'Penny Magazine,' Knight's 'Shakspere,' 'Pictorial Bible,' 'Pictorial Prayer-book,' and a hundred other books which appeared between 1828 and 1840—under the auspices of that enterprising publisher. Some of Jackson's best work will be found in the 'Tower Menagerie' and other illustrations of animals designed by Harvey. He will always be remembered for the share he took in the 'Treatise on Wood-Engraving,' for which Mr. Chatto wrote the text. This work was undertaken at the sole risk of Mr. Jackson, who engraved many of the three hundred illustrations. It is a very valuable book and, supplemented by Mr. Linton's 'Masters of Wood-Engraving,' tells pretty well all that is ever likely to be known of this fascinating art. Jackson died in London in the year 1848.

At the death of Bewick, Ebenezer Landells came to London, 1829, and soon found employment in engraving designs for the Illustrated London News, Punch, and other periodicals. His studio became quite a nursery of art, and many excellent draughtsmen—among them, Birket Foster—and engravers were educated under his superintendence. He died at Brompton in 1860, the last of Bewick's pupils.

Going back to the last century we find that we have omitted to speak of another self-taught wood-engraver, Robert Branston, who was born in 1778 at Lynn in Norfolk. When he was twenty-one years of age he settled in London and soon found employment in working for the publishers. He engraved the 'Cave of Despair' from a drawing by Thurston for Savage's 'Hints on Decorative Printing' in rivalry with Nesbit's 'Rinaldo and Armida'; this is considered to be his best work. He also assisted in engraving the cuts in Scholey's 'History of England,' Bloomfield's 'Wild Flowers,' 1806, and a series of 'Fables' after Thurston's designs which, though beautifully executed, were never published. He died at Brompton in 1827. Among his pupils were his son, Robert Branston the younger, who for many years produced excellent work.

John Thompson, one of the princes of wood-engravers, was born in Manchester in 1785, came to London early in life, and, after practising for some years under Robert Branston the elder, soon gained great distinction in his art. Like all other wood-engravers of the period, he was employed chiefly in rendering the designs of Thurston. In 1818 he engraved the illustrations to a new edition of Butler's 'Hudibras,' and about the same time he was engaged by the Bank of England to produce a bank-note which could not be imitated. Then followed the illustrations to the 'Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green,' 1832, Shakespeare, 1836, and the 'Arabian Nights,' 1841, all after designs by William Harvey. He also engraved many of the beautiful cuts in the books of Natural History published by Van Voorst. In 1843 he produced the work for which he will for ever be celebrated, the illustrations to the 'Vicar of Wakefield' from the drawings by Mulready—one of the most charming books ever published. It would take too much time to enumerate even the best of the engravings he executed in his long life. We must not, however, forget to mention that he engraved in gun-metal Mulready's design for a postal envelope in 1839, and the figure of Britannia which is still printed on Bank of England notes. He presented his collection of valuable woodcuts to the Art Library at South Kensington, and died at Kensington in 1866, aged 81. His son, Thurston Thompton, was also an excellent engraver.

Among the other celebrated wood-engravers of the latter half of this century were John and Mary Byfield, who engraved the facsimile cuts of Holbein's 'Dance of Death' and 'Scenes from Old Testament History' for Pickering's editions of these celebrated works; W. H. Powis, some of whose best work may be seen in 'Solace of Song'; J. Orrin Smith, born in Colchester in 1800, who placed himself under the tuition of William Harvey, and became a very expert craftsman, and whose best work may be seen in Wordsworth's 'Greece,' 'The Solace of Song,' Lane's 'Arabian Nights,' and in 'Paul et Virginie,' published by Curmer of Paris—Orrin Smith died in 1843; Samuel Williams, also a native of Colchester, who designed on the wood most of the works which he engraved—he was famous for his country scenes, the best of which are in Thomson's 'Seasons' and Cowper's 'Poems,' published about 1840—he died in 1853 in his 65th year; W. T. Green and Thomas Bolton, both excellent reproducers of landscape, and especially of the drawings of Birket Foster; Charles Gray, and Samuel V. Slader, all of the first repute; Orlando Jewitt, celebrated both for his beautiful reproductions of architectural work, for Parker's 'Glossary,' and other important works; and, lately, we have lost J. Greenaway, brother of the famous artist, Kate Greenaway, and W. J. Palmer, both excellent men and engravers of the very first class.

Still with us, we can only mention in a few words the modern prince of wood-engravers, W. J. Linton, who has for many years resided in America; W. L. Thomas, the originator of The Graphic newspaper, and one of the ablest artists in water-colours in 'The Institute'; Edmund Evans and Horace Harral, who so successfully rendered Birket Foster's drawings some years ago; J. W. Whymper, the brothers Dalziel and James Cooper, the producers of thousands of good engravings, and a comparatively new man, W. Biscombe Gardner, who excels in portraiture.

In Germany, during the last half-century, wood-engraving met with much encouragement, and reverting to the earlier and purer style of the fifteenth century, many artists and engravers produced work of great merit: E. Kretzschmar, of Leipsic, the brothers A. and O. Vogel, F. Unzelmann and H. Müller, rendered the drawings of Adolf Menzel and Ludwig Richter with careful exactitude. In the atelier of Hugo Bürkner, of Dresden, the much-admired 'Death as a Friend,' by Rethel, was engraved by Jungtow, and 'Death as an Enemy' by Steinbrecher: and A. Gaber, recently deceased, faithfully reproduced the drawings of Overbeck, Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Oscar Pletsch, and Moritz von Schwind. Of living engravers we may refer our readers to the excellent examples of skill to be seen in the 'Meisterwerke der Holzschneidekunst,' a monthly periodical of great merit; and especially to the works of Pfnorr of Darmstadt; Höfel of Vienna; Flegel and Weber of Leipsic; Mezger and Vieweg of Brunswick; H. Günter, Karl Oertel, Lüttge, and E. Krelb.

In France no great advance has been made, and most of the engravers have been contented to produce work a little above mediocrity. Several French publishers have given commissions to English engravers—Orrin Smith, Henry Linton, and others.

In America great strides have been made, and, in the estimation of many excellent judges, the best works ever done by wood-engravers have been presented to us in the pages of the illustrated magazines. These publications excite our wonder not only at the great energy which is thrown into them, apparently without regard to cost, but at the immense success which they have justly achieved. Some critics disapprove of the style to which we have just referred, and say it is in too close an imitation of steel engraving, but it seems hard to censure works which have given unbounded satisfaction to so many thousand lovers of art.

Owing to the invention of various mechanical processes, and the perfection to which photography has attained, the art of wood-engraving would seem to be in danger of becoming extinct. This is by no means the real case, for the brilliant band of wood-engravers which has arisen in America, of whom we have just spoken, still continue to give us excellent examples of their skill; and especially we may mention the inimitable copies of paintings by the Old Masters by Timothy Cole, whose rendering of Paul Potter's 'Young Bull' excites our warmest admiration.

In England, under the influence of Mr. William Morris and his followers, a revival of this interesting craft, as practised in the fifteenth century, has been set on foot in some of the Schools of Art—notably at Birmingham, where in 1893 the students issued a Book of Carols illustrated with original designs, some of which were cut by the students themselves. This revival of the earlier and purer methods of engraving, coupled with a careful study of the possibilities of the art, may be taken as a sign that by no means the last chapter on the history of engraving on wood has yet been written.

At present, much of the new process work which we find in such over-abundance in newspapers and magazines is slovenly to the last degree. On the other hand, now and then we see beautiful results—the best in the American magazines; let us hope that the facile cheapness of this new craft—art it cannot be called—will in good hands soon achieve something more worthy of our regard.


text:
A Brief History of Wood-engraving/Index

The Engravings in this book are referred to in italic type

 * Abbreviations of Latin words, 18
 * Æsop's Fables (1481), 47
 * Æsop's Fables (Bewick's), 115
 * Aldegrever, 88
 * Aldus Manutius, 45-47
 * Alphabet, Figure, XV Cent., 25
 * Altdorfer, Albrecht, 87, 100
 * Amman, Jost, 88
 * Anderson, John, 122
 * Andre, Jerome, 82
 * Andreani, Andrea, 99
 * Annunciation, The, 8
 * Apocalypse, Dürer's, 70
 * Apocalypsis Sancti Johannis, 17
 * Ars Memorandi, 11, 26
 * Ars Moriendi, 11, 20, 26

 * Battista del Porta, 99
 * Beham, Hans, 87
 * Beilby, Ralph, 108,112
 * Berners, Dame Juliana, 66
 * Bewick, John, 116
 * Bewick, Robert, 117
 * Bewick, Thomas, 108-115
 * Bible Cuts, Holbein's, 86, 87
 * Biblia Pauperum, 12-16
 * Bibliomaniac, The, 38
 * Block Books of the XV Cent., 11
 * Blossoms of Morality, 116
 * Boldrini, Nicolo, 99
 * Bolton, Thomas, 126
 * Bonner, George, 82, 102
 * Booke of Christian Prayers (Q. Elizabeth), 100
 * Book of Fables (Pfister, 1461), 36
 * Book of Hours, 55
 * Book of St. Albans, 66
 * Borluyt's Figures from New Testament, 96, 97
 * Bourbon, Nicolas, 93
 * Brandt's Navis Stultifera, 38
 * Branston, Robert, 123
 * Breydenbach's Travels, 35, 37
 * British Birds, History of (Bewick), 110-115
 * British Quadrupeds, History of (Bewick), 111, 112
 * Brosamer, Hans, 88
 * Bürkner (German engraver), 127
 * Bullen, Mr. George, 20
 * Burgkmair, Hans, 69-80
 * Byfield, John and Mary, 82, 125

 * Caillaut, Antoine, 60
 * Canterbury Tales, The, 66
 * Canticum Canticorum, 11, 23
 * Casus Luciferi, 30
 * Caxton, William, 62
 * Chatto, W. A., 1, 4, 66, 118
 * Chiar-oscuro, Printing in, 50, 99
 * Chillingham Bull (Bewick), 111
 * Christopher, Saint, 6
 * Clennell, Luke, 118-121
 * Cole, Mr. Henry, 73
 * Cole, Timothy, 128
 * Colines, Simon de, Heures de, 92
 * Cologne Bible, 33, 36
 * Colonna, Francesco, 42
 * Colour Printing in Germany (XVI Cent.), 100
 * Conway, W. M. (Woodcutters of the Netherlands), 98
 * Copperplate-Engraving introduced, 98
 * Coriolano, Bartolommeo, 99
 * Cranach, Lucas, 69, 88, 100
 * Croxall's Æsop, 106, 111
 * Cuningham's Cosmographical Glasse, 102
 * Curio, Valentine, 81

 * Dance of Death (1485), 59
 * Dance of Death (Holbein's), 81-85
 * Daye, John (Printer), 101-104
 * Death of the Virgin (Missal), 54
 * Decameron, The (1492), 48
 * Dentatus, Death of (engraved by W. Harvey), 121
 * Dibdin's, Dr., Works, 1
 * Dienecker (Engraver), 78
 * Diploma of Highland Society (Clennell), 120
 * Douce, Francis, 82
 * Duplessis, M. Georges, 4
 * Dupré, Jean, 55, 60
 * Dürer, Albrecht, 69
 * —— Apocalypse, 70
 * —— Engravings on Copper, 71
 * —— Life of the Virgin, 71
 * —— Passion of Our Lord, 71
 * —— 'Smaller' Passion, 71, 73
 * —— Virgin crowned by Angels, 72

 * Elizabetha Regina (1569), 103
 * Elizabeth's, Queen, Prayer Book, 102
 * Emblems of Mortality (1789), 116
 * Estienne, Robert, 93

 * Figure Alphabet, The, 24
 * Flight into Egypt (Jegher's), 105
 * Foster, Birket, Drawing by, 126
 * Foxe's Book of Martyrs, 100
 * Froben, Johann, 81
 * Froschover, Christoph, 81
 * Fyshynge with an Angle (1496), 67

 * Gaber (German Engraver), 127
 * Game and Playe of the Chesse (Caxton's), 62, 64
 * German Engravers, 127
 * Gray, Charles, 125
 * Green, W. T. (Engraver), 125
 * Greenaway, J., 125
 * Gutenberg's Psalter, 34

 * Harvey, William, 115, 121
 * Heinecken, Herr, 4, 10
 * Henry VIII in Council, frontispiece
 * Heures à l'usaige de Chartres, 52
 * History of British Birds (Bewick), 110-114
 * History of Quadrupeds (Bewick), 111, 112
 * Holbein, Hans, 69, 81-87
 * —— Alphabet of Dance of Death, 87
 * —— Bible Cuts (Old Testament), 86, 87
 * —— Dance of Death, 82-84
 * —— Society, 20, 21
 * Holinshed's 'Chronicles of England,' &c., 100
 * Humphreys, Noel, 55
 * Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1494), 42-44

 * Illuminated Books of XV Century, 53
 * Images of Saints, 2

 * Jackson, John, 122
 * Jegher, Christoph, of Antwerp, 104
 * Jewitt, Orlando, 125
 * Johnson, Robert, 115
 * Jovius, Paulus, 95
 * Jungtow, 127

 * Kalendario (Venice, 1476), 41
 * Kerver, Thielman, 53, 58, 59
 * King's Banquet, The, 58
 * Kirkall, Elisha (1724), 106
 * Knight, Charles, 122

 * Landells, Ebenezer, 122
 * Le Noir (Printers' mark), 60
 * Le Rouge, 53
 * Linton, W. J., 1, 5, 106
 * Lippmann, Dr., 1
 * Little Masters, The, 87
 * Livres d'Heures, 57
 * Looking-glass for the Mind, 116, 117
 * Lützelburger, Hans, 81, 87

 * Macault reading his Translation, 94
 * Macé, Robert, of Caen, 96
 * Mansion, Colard, of Bruges, 62
 * Manuzio, Aldo, 45, 46
 * Marchant, Guyot, 53, 59
 * Maximilian, Emperor, 69, 74-80
 * Mazarine Bible, 30
 * Mer des Histoires, La, 53
 * Milan, Lives of Dukes of, 95
 * Metal Blocks, 51
 * Mirrour of the World (1478), 63
 * Morris, William, 53, 128
 * Mulready: Vicar of Wakefield, 125

 * Nanto, Francesco da, 99
 * Navis Stultifera (1497), 38
 * Nesbit, Charlton, 116, 118
 * Notary, Julian, 68
 * Nürnberg Chronicle, 36

 * Palmer, W. J., 126
 * Papillon, J. M. (French Engraver), 107
 * Passion of our Lord (Missal), 56
 * Petit, Jehan, 60
 * Pigouchet, Philippe, 55
 * Plantin, Christophe, Antwerp, 96
 * Playing Cards, 2
 * Porta, Giuseppe, 90, 91
 * Porto, Battista del, 99
 * Powis, W. H. (Engraver), 125
 * Printers' marks, 60
 * —— Kerver's, 59
 * —— Le Noir's, 60
 * —— Plantin's, 98
 * —— Pynson's, 68
 * —— Tory's, Geoffroy, 91
 * —— Wynkyn de Worde's, 65
 * Psalter, Gutenberg's, 34
 * Pynson, Richard, 66

 * Recueil des Histoires de Troye, 62

 * Saint Bridget of Sweden, 9
 * Saint Christopher, 6
 * Saint Sebastian, 9
 * Salomon, Bernhard (Petit Bernhard), 95
 * Schaufelein, Hans, 74
 * Schongauer, Martin, 56, 57
 * Scolari, Giuseppe, 99
 * Select Fables (Bewick), 111
 * Sessa Brothers, of Venice, 100
 * Slader, Samuel, 125
 * Smith, J. Orrin, 125
 * Somerville's Chase, 117
 * Sorti di Marcolini (1540), 90, 91
 * Speculum Salvationis, 11, 29

 * Terence (Lyons, 1493), 49
 * Theuredank, Adventures of, 74
 * Thompson, John, 119, 123, 124
 * Thurston, John, 118
 * Tory, Geoffroy, 91, 92, 94, 95
 * Tournes, Jean de, 95, 96
 * Trento, Antonio da, 99
 * Tristan, Romance of, 58
 * Triumphs of Maximilian, 74-80
 * —— Triumphal Arch (Dürer), 75, 76
 * —— Triumphal Car (Dürer), 77
 * —— Triumphal Procession (Burgkmair), 78, 79
 * Triumphal entry of Henri II into Lyons, 95
 * Triumphal entry of Henri II into Paris, 95
 * Triumphi del Petrarca (1488), 41, 47

 * Ugo da Carpi, 99

 * Vecellio, Cesare, 100
 * Verard, Antoine, 53, 57
 * Virgil Solis, 88
 * Virgin with four Saints (1418), 3
 * Vostre, Simon, 53, 55

 * Werskunig, 74
 * Williams, Samuel, 125
 * Willshire, Dr., 2, 55
 * Woodbery, Mr., 32
 * Wood-Engraver, The, x
 * Wood Engravers (Living), 126
 * Wynkyn de Worde, 65

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: A Brief History of Wood-engraving/Index


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antitype

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antitype


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Massachusetts


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Carrel, Alexis

CARREL, ALEXIS (1873-), Franco-American surgeon, was born at Sainte-Foy-les-Lyon, France, June 28 1873. He graduated at the university of Lyons (L.B., 1890; Sc.B., 1891; M.D., 1900), and for two years was prosecteur à la faculté de médecine at that university. In 1909 he became a member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. There he won world-wide fame by his experiments in transplanting human organs. In 1912 he read before the American Medical Association a paper on Preservation of Tissues and its Application to Surgery. The possibility of keeping alive tissues removed from the organism led to his seeking practical means of preserving them for surgical use. He was awarded a Nobel prize in 1912 for his contributions to surgical knowledge. On the outbreak of the World War he returned to France and devised the Carrel-Dakin treatment of wounds. Using H. D. Dakin's preparation, a neutral solution of hypochlorite of sodium, Carrel's apparatus keeps the wound continually moist. Countless amputations were avoided, healing was rapid, and scars supple. In 1919 he resumed his work at the Rockefeller Institute.


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Carson, Edward Henry Carson, Baron

CARSON, EDWARD HENRY CARSON, (1854-), British statesman and lawyer, son of Edward Henry Carson, C.E., Dublin, was born Feb. 9 1854 and educated at Portarlington school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. He was called to the Irish bar, and made his reputation as Crown Prosecutor in Dublin in the difficult years when Mr. Balfour was Chief Secretary for Ireland. His pluck, readiness, wit, and skill in cross-examination soon brought him to the front both in legal and in political circles. He became a Q.C. at the Irish bar in 1889; but his ambitions could not be satisfied with legal eminence in Dublin. He was called to the English bar, and took silk there in 1894. Meanwhile he had been returned to Parliament in 1892 in the Unionist interest as member for his own university of Dublin and was for a few months Solicitor-General for Ireland. He entered Parliament just when Gladstone was about to make a second effort to pass a Home Rule bill, and he helped the Unionist leaders to defeat the measure. But during the next 20 years he

was mainly occupied with his professional work. Having risen to a leading place at the bar in Ireland, he achieved an even more striking success at the English bar; and in 1900 he was appointed Solicitor-General, a post which he held until the change of government in 1905-6. In the early years of the new century he gradually came to be regarded as the spokesman in the House of Commons of the Irish Unionists, and in that capacity welcomed Mr. Birrel's University bill of 1908.

It was not until 1911, when another Home Rule bill was imminent, that Sir Edward Carson emerged as a political figure of first-class importance. He bitterly resisted the Parliament bill, which was to curtail the power of the Lords and enable a measure of Home Rule to be passed over their heads and without a direct appeal to the people. He was one of the “Die-hards” who urged the peers to take the responsibility of throwing out the bill in spite of the ministerial threat to swamp their House with sufficient new creations to make its passage secure. He told the House of Commons that the passing of Home Rule by force would be resisted by force and that the resisters would be constitutionally right. Feeling against the bill was most bitter in Ulster, which, Protestant and loyal, would be placed by it at the mercy of the Roman Catholic and largely disloyal majority of the other three provinces. He went to Ulster in the autumn, and at an enormous Unionist demonstration at Graigavon, near Belfast, endorsed the threats of rebellion against Home Rule which previous speakers made. Belfast, he said, was the key of the situation; Ulster would never submit to a Parliament in Dublin. They must be prepared, if necessary, to take over the administration of those districts which they were entitled to control. Practical measures were immediately undertaken in this direction, though Liberals and Nationalists scoffed. His position was that he and his Ulster friends were loyal to the constitution as it existed; they were only rebels, he said, in the sense that they desired to remain under the King and the imperial Parliament. In anticipation of the introduction of the Home Rule bill in the spring of 1912, he presided over a gigantic gathering in Belfast in Easter week, which Mr. Bonar Law, the newly appointed Unionist leader, came to address; and he made those present repeat after him, “We will never, in any circumstances, submit to Home Rule.” He himself, in a speech instinct with passion, moved the rejection of the bill on its introduction, and took a leading part in opposition during its subsequent stages. But his activity was mainly outside. He made frequent speeches in the next couple of years in different parts of England and Scotland, particularly at a great demonstration at Blenheim in July 1912, at which Mr. Bonar Law pledged the support of the Unionist party to Ulster. But his principal work was in the organization of resistance in Ulster itself, including the formation of a local volunteer force, which speedily assumed large proportions. In Sept. 1912 he was the chief figure at a series of demonstrations in all parts of the province, culminating in an enormous assemblage at Belfast on Sept. 28. There he took the lead in signing a solemn covenant by which the men of Ulster bound themselves to stand by one another in defending their position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all necessary means to defeat the conspiracy to set up Home Rule, and further pledged themselves to refuse to recognize a Home Rule parliament. He followed this up by moving unsuccessfully in Parliament on New Year's day 1913, to exclude Ulster from the operation of the bill. In the autumn of 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council organized itself, under his supervision, into a provisional Government, of which he was the leading member, and a guarantee fund of £1,000,000 was initiated to which he himself contributed £10,000. He reviewed the volunteers, who were rapidly becoming a formidable military force approaching in number 100,000 men. But when ministers, who had refused to prosecute him or interfere with his activities, began to realize the determination of the six north-eastern Protestant counties, he did not repulse their overtures for a settlement by consent, but said that it must not establish a basis for separation. His advice during the following winter to his Ulster friends was “peace but preparation.” He entirely declined to accept Mr. Asquith's offer, in the spring

of 1914, of a county option of exclusion for six years. That was “sentence of death with a stay of execution.” If that was the Prime Minister's last word, his place was in Belfast; and he and several of his fellow Unionist members from north-east Ireland made a dramatic exit from the House on March 19 to go to Ulster. When he returned for the debates on the Curragh incident he told the House that there was only one policy possible, “Leave Ulster out until you have won her consent to come in.” He became a member of the abortive Buckingham Palace Conference convened by the King in the hope of compromise; and when that broke down in the end of July it looked as if he and his Ulster friends would have to make good in action their policy of force.

The World War supervened, and switched off his activity into another direction. Though he resented, as a breach of the political truce between parties, Mr. Asquith's determination to pass the Home Rule bill into law while suspending its operation and promising some form of special treatment for Ulster, he went to Belfast in order to stimulate Ulstermen and especially Ulster volunteers to join the British army, and had a considerable success. He was eager for a thorough prosecution of the war, and accordingly joined Mr. Asquith's Coalition Ministry of June 1915 as Attorney-General, resigning however in Oct. because he thought that the policy of the Cabinet, after the defection of Greece, involved the desertion of Serbia, a small country in whose fate he took a profound interest. He was strongly in favour of the Compulsory Service bill in 1916, and regretted that Mr. Redmond should insist on excepting Ireland from its provisions. He looked favourably upok Mr. Lloyd George's efforts that summer to arrange an agreed settlement of the Irish question, and when that statesman formed a new government in Dec. for the more efficient conduct of the war, joined his Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty. The great anxiety of the Board of Admiralty at this period was how to counter the German submarine attack which was steadily increasing in intensity. He placed his reliance mainly on an Anti-Submarine Department which had been established in Whitehall, consisting of the most experienced men serving at sea, and on the Board of Inventions, under Lord Fisher, with whom were associated some of the greatest men of science in the country. His shipbuilding programme was largely one for making good losses in the mercantile marine. The losses however continued to increase, and led to a reorganization of the Admiralty, with a view to strengthening the navy war staff as well as to put the supply on a sounder basis by revising the office of Admiralty Controller. Outside his departmental duties Sir E. Carson warmly promoted the Irish Convention which the Government assembled this year. In July he quitted the Admiralty to become a member of the War Cabinet without portfolio, a position which he resigned at the beginning of 1918. But, in or out of the office, his activity was directed wholeheartedly to the vigorous prosecution of hostilities.

After the war was over, Ulster and Ireland regained the first place in his thoughts. At the general election of 1918 he left Dublin University, in order to represent one of the divisions of Ulster's capital, Belfast. On the anniversary in July 1919 of the battle of the Boyne, he restated, speaking near Belfast, Ulster's position and claims, demanded the repeal of the Home Rule Act, threatened to call out the volunteers if any attempt were made to change Ulster's status, declared Dominion Home Rule to be merely a blind for an Irish Republic, and criticized Sir Horace Plunkett as one who was distrusted by both sides. When, however, Mr. Lloyd George proposed in the winter his bill for the reform of the government of Ireland, establishing parliaments and executives both in Dublin and in Belfast, and a Federal Council for all Ireland, he moderated his attitude. Though he would have preferred that Ulster should remain in the United Kingdom, yet, as this bill gave her a parliament of her own, he would not oppose it. When the bill left the Commons in Nov. 1920, he said that, though Ulster did not ask for a parliament, she would do her best to make the arrangement a success. He exerted himself to that end in Ireland, with the result that the Unionists succeeded even beyond their hopes in the elections

in May 1921 for the first Ulster Parliament, and so started with an overwhelming majority. But he declined to sit in the new parliament himself; and he also resisted the suggestions that he, as the most outstanding fighter in the Unionist party, should be put forward to succeed Mr. Bonar Law as leader in the British House of Commons. He had done his best to save Protestant Ulster from domination by the Roman Catholic majority of the south and west. He was 67 and had felt the strain of the last 10 years; so he quitted active politics, and accepted a lordship of Appeal and a life peerage as Baron Carson of Duncairn.

He was twice married — in 1879 to Sarah A. F. Kirwan, who died in 1913, leaving two sons and a daughter; and in 1914 to Ruby Frewen, by whom he had one son. (G. E. B.)


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CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835-1912), Canadian statesman (see ), died at Kingston, Ont., Sept. 23 1912.


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 silver ores, lead, nitrate of soda, borax and salt. Iron and manganese ores are also found. Besides Antofagasta the principal towns are Taltal, Mejillones, Cobija (the old capital) and Tocopilla. Up to 1879 the province belonged to Bolivia, and was known as the department of Atacama, or the Litoral. It fell into the possession of Chile in the war of 1879–82, and was definitely ceded to that republic in 1885. ANTOINE, ANDRÉ (1858–), French actor-manager, was born at Limoges, and in his early years was in business. But he was an enthusiastic amateur actor, and in 1887 he founded in Paris the Théâtre Libre, in order to realize his ideas as to the proper development of dramatic art. For an account of his work, which had enormous influence on the French stage, see : France. In 1894 he gave up the direction of this theatre, and became connected with the Gymnase, and later (1896) with the Odéon. ANTONELLI, GIACOMO (1806–1876), Italian cardinal, was born at Sonnino on the 2nd of April 1806. He was educated for the priesthood, but, after taking minor orders, gave up the idea of becoming a priest, and chose an administrative career. Created secular prelate, he was sent as apostolic delegate to Viterbo, where he early manifested his reactionary tendencies in an attempt to stamp out Liberalism. Recalled to Rome in 1841, he entered the office of the papal secretary of state, but four years later was appointed pontifical treasurer-general. Created cardinal (11th June 1847), he was chosen by Pius IX. to preside over the council of state entrusted with the drafting of the constitution. On the 10th of March 1848 Antonelli became premier of the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX., a capacity in which he displayed consummate duplicity. Upon the fall of his cabinet Antonelli created for himself the governorship of the sacred palaces in order to retain constant access to and influence over the pope. After the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi (15th November 1848) he arranged the flight of Pius IX. to Gaeta, where he was appointed secretary of state. Notwithstanding promises to the powers, he restored absolute government upon returning to Rome (12th April 1850) and violated the conditions of the surrender by wholesale imprisonment of Liberals. In 1855 he narrowly escaped assassination. As ally of the Bourbons of Naples, from whom he had received an annual subsidy, he attempted, after 1860, to facilitate their restoration by fomenting brigandage on the Neapolitan frontier. To the overtures of Ricasoli in 1861, Pius IX., at Antonelli’s suggestion, replied with the famous “Non possumus,” but subsequently (1867) accepted, too late, Ricasoli’s proposal concerning ecclesiastical property. After the September Convention (1864) Antonelli organized the Legion of Antibes to replace French troops in Rome, and in 1867 secured French aid against Garibaldi’s invasion of papal territory. Upon the reoccupation of Rome by the French after Mentana, Antonelli again ruled supreme, but upon the entry of the Italians in 1870 was obliged to restrict his activity to the management of foreign relations. He wrote, with papal approval, the letter requesting the Italians to occupy the Leonine city, and obtained from the Italians payment of the Peter’s pence (5,000,000 lire) remaining in the papal exchequer, as well as 50,000 scudi—the first and only instalment of the Italian allowance (subsequently fixed by the Law of Guarantees, March 21, 1871) ever accepted by the Holy See. At Antonelli’s death the Vatican finances were found to be in disorder, with a deficit of 45,000,000 lire. His personal fortune, accumulated during office, was considerable, and was bequeathed almost entirely to members of his family. To the Church he left little and to the pope only a trifling souvenir. From 1850 until his death he interfered little in affairs of dogma and church discipline, although he addressed to the powers circulars enclosing the Syllabus (1864) and the acts of the Vatican Council (1870). His activity was devoted almost exclusively to the struggle between the papacy and the Italian Risorgimento, the history of which is comprehensible only when the influence exercised by his unscrupulous, grasping and sinister personality is fully taken into account. He died on the 6th of November 1876. ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (c. 1430–1479), Italian painter, was probably born at Messina about the beginning of the 15th century, and laboured at his art for some time in his native country. Happening to see at Naples a painting in oil by Jan Van Eyck, belonging to Alphonso of Aragon, he was struck by the peculiarity and value of the new method, and set out for the Netherlands to acquire a knowledge of the process from Van Eyck’s disciples. He spent some time there in the prosecution of his art; returned with his secret to Messina about 1465; probably visited Milan; removed to Venice in 1472, where he painted for the Council of Ten; and died there in the middle of February 1479 (see Venturi’s article in Thieme-Becker, Künstlerlexikon, 1907). His style is remarkable for its union—not always successful—of Italian simplicity with Flemish love of detail. His subjects are frequently single figures, upon the complete representation of which he bestows his utmost skill. There are extant—besides a number more or less dubious—twenty authentic productions, consisting of renderings of “Ecce Homo,” Madonnas, saints, and half-length portraits, many of them painted on wood. The finest of all is said to be the nameless picture of a man in the Berlin museum. The National Gallery, London, has three works by him, including the “St Jerome in his Study.” Antonello exercised an important influence on Italian painting, not only by the introduction of the Flemish invention, but also by the transmission of Flemish tendencies. ANTONINI ITINERARIUM, a valuable register, still extant, of the stations and distances along the various roads of the Roman empire, seemingly based on official documents, which were probably those of the survey organized by Julius Caesar, and carried out under Augustus. Nothing is known with certainty as to the date or author. It is considered probable that the date of the original edition was the beginning of the 3rd century, while that which we possess is to be assigned to the time of Diocletian. If the author or promoter of the work is one of the emperors, it is most likely to be Antoninus Caracalla.

ANTONINUS, SAINT [, also called ] (1389–1459), archbishop of Florence, was born at that city on the 1st of March 1389. He entered the Dominican order in his 16th year, and was soon entrusted, in spite of his youth, with the government of various houses of his order at Cortona, Rome, Naples and Florence, which he laboured zealously to reform. He was consecrated archbishop of Florence in 1446, and won the esteem and love of his people, especially by his energy and resource in combating the effects of the plague and earthquake in 1448 and 1453. He died on the 2nd of May 1459, and was canonized by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. His feast is annually celebrated on the 13th of May. Antoninus had a great reputation for theological learning, and sat as papal theologian at the council of Florence (1439). Of his various works, the list of which is given in Quétif-Echard, De Scriptoribus Ord. Praedicat., i. 818, the best-known are his Summa theologica (Venice, 1477; Verona, 1740) and the Summa confessionalis (Mondovi, 1472), invaluable to confessors.

ANTONINUS LIBERALIS, Greek grammarian, probably flourished about 150. He wrote a collection of forty-one tales of mythical metamorphoses ( ), chiefly valuable as a source of mythological knowledge.

ANTONINUS PIUS [], ( 86–161), Roman emperor 138–161, the son of Aurelius Fulvus, a Roman consul whose family had originally belonged to Nemausus (Nîmes), was born near Lanuvium on the 19th of September 86. After the death of his father, he was brought up under the care of Arrius Antoninus, his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and on terms of friendship with the younger Pliny. Having filled with more than usual success the offices of quaestor and praetor,

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antoine, André


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antonelli, Giacomo


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antonello da Messina


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antoninus, Saint


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Care, Henry


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antoninus Liberalis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carew, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carew, Bamfylde Moore


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Country: Netherlands

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carew, Benjamin Hallowell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carew, Edmund


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive ::e.

The first section of Erskine's two-part report, dated February 6, 1954; was based on the assumption that U.S. policy toward Indochina would not require resort to overt combat operations by U.S. forces. Within that framework, the report adhered closely to the Defense Department position that the French, if properly motivated, could win in Indochina, but that their failure to carry through on needed reforms would require U.S. consideration of active involvement. The report noted that:

 * "There is in Indo-China, or programmed for Indo-China..., a sufficient amount of equipment and supplies and a potential manpower pool sufficient eventually to defeat the Communists decisively if properly utilized and maintained and if the situation continues to permit this manpower to be converted into military effectiveness. Success will ultimately be dependent upon the inspiration of the local population to fight for their own freedom from Communist domination and the willingness of the French both to take the measures to stimulate that inspiration and to more fully utilize the native potential."

The Erskine Report (Part I) recommended: (1) augmentation of the French air force, but not using American personnel; (2) additional U.S. military assistance support of $124 million (supplementing FY 1954 commitments of $1.115 billion); (3) elevation of MAAG's status to that of Military Mission, with expanded personnel and advisory authority over training and planning; (4) assignment of additional U.S. personnel with the mission of acting as instructors and performing other key duties within the French forces; (5) Presidential letters to the Heads of State of the Associated States reaffirming our support of their independence and explaining our motivations in assisting them through the French; (6) an effort be undertaken to persuade Bao Dai to take a more active part in the anti-Viet Minh struggle. The report concluded that the program of recommended changes could bring about victory over the Viet Minh if it received full French approval and barring Chinese intervention.

 * f.

The second part of the Erskine Report did not appear until March 17, 1954, and unlike the first, was the responsibility only of the Defense Department and the Joint Chiefs, with the State Department position "reserved." The report confirmed previous determinations that the loss of Indochina would be a major military and political setback for the United States. It recommended that prior to the start of the Geneva Conference, the U.S. should inform Britain and France that it was interested only in military victory in Indochina and would not associate ourselves with any settlement which falls short of that objective. It further recommended that in the event of an unsatisfactory outcome at Geneva, the U.S. should Rh

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 he obtained the consulship in 120; he was next chosen one of the four consulars for Italy, and greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia. He acquired much influence with the emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on the 25th of February 138, after the death of his first adopted son Aelius Verus, on condition that he himself adopted Marcus Annius Verus, his wife’s brother’s son, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, afterwards the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aelius Verus (colleague of Marcus Aurelius). A few months afterwards, on Hadrian’s death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname , “cummin-splitter”). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavourable interpretation, he turned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities of signalizing his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor’s progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood. Under his patronage the science of jurisprudence was cultivated by men of high ability, and a number of humane and equitable enactments were passed in his name. Of the public transactions of this period we have but scant information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful. One of his first acts was to persuade the senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; this gained him the title of Pius (dutiful in affection). He built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and salaries upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. His reign was comparatively peaceful. Insurrections amongst the Moors, Jews, and Brigantes in Britain were easily put down. The one military result which is of interest to us now is the building in Britain of the wall of Antoninus from the Forth to the Clyde. In his domestic relations Antoninus was not so fortunate. His wife, Faustina, has almost become a byword for her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her hold on his affections to the last. On her death he honoured her memory by the foundation of a charity for orphan girls, who bore the name of Alimentariae Faustinianae. He had by her two sons and two daughters; but they all died before his elevation to the throne, except Annia Faustina, who became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. Antoninus died of fever at Lorium in Etruria, about 12 m. from Rome, on the 7th of March 161, giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password—aequanimitas.

The only account of his life handed down to us is that of Julius Capitolinus, one of the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. See Bossart-Müller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868); Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888); Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895); P. B. Watson, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (London, 1884), chap. ii.

ANTONIO, known as “” (1531–1595), claimant of the throne of Portugal, was the natural son of Louis (Luis), duke of Beja, by Yolande (Violante) Gomez, a Jewess, who is said to have died a nun. His father was a younger son of Emanuel, king of Portugal (1495–1521). Antonio was educated at Coimbra, and was placed in the order of St John. He was endowed with the wealthy priory of Crato. Little is known of his life till 1578. In that year he accompanied King Sebastian (1557–1578) in his invasion of Morocco, and was taken prisoner by the Moors at the battle of Alcazar-Kebir, in which the king was slain. Antonio is said to have secured his release on easy terms by a fiction. He was asked the meaning of the cross of St John which he wore on his doublet, and replied that it was the sign of a small benefice which he held from the pope, and would lose if he were not back by the 1st of January. His captor, believing him to be a poor man, allowed him to escape for a small ransom. On his return to Portugal he found that his uncle, the cardinal Henry, only surviving son of King John III. (1521–1557), had been recognized as king. The cardinal was old, and was the last legitimate male representative of the royal line (see : History). The succession was claimed by Philip II. of Spain. Antonio, relying on the popular hostility to a Spanish ruler, presented himself as a candidate. He had endeavoured to prove that his father and mother had been married after his birth. There was, however, no evidence of the marriage. Antonio’s claim, which was inferior not only to that of Philip II., but to that of the duchess of Braganza, was not supported by the nobles or gentry. His partisans were drawn exclusively from the inferior clergy, the peasants and workmen. The prior endeavoured to resist the army which Philip II. marched into Portugal to enforce his pretensions, but was easily routed by the duke of Alva, the Spanish commander, at Alcantara, on the 25th of August 1580. At the close of the year, or in the first days of 1581, he fled to France carrying with him the crown jewels, which included many valuable diamonds. He was well received by Catherine de’ Medici, who had a claim of her own on the crown of Portugal, and looked upon him as a convenient instrument to be used against Philip II. By promising to cede the Portuguese colony of Brazil to her, and by the sale of part of his jewels, Antonio secured means to fit out a fleet manned by Portuguese exiles and French and English adventurers. As the Spaniards had not yet occupied the Azores he sailed to them, but was utterly defeated at sea by the marquis of Santa Cruz off Saint Michael’s on the 27th of July 1582. He now returned to France, and lived for a time at Ruel near Paris. Peril from the assassins employed by Philip II. to remove him drove Antonio from one refuge to another, and he finally came to England. Elizabeth favoured him for much the same reasons as Catherine de’ Medici. In 1589, the year after the Armada, he accompanied an English expedition under the command of Drake and Norris to the coast of Spain and Portugal. The force consisted partly of the queen’s ships, and in part of privateers who went in search of booty. Antonio, with all the credulity of an exile, believed that his presence would provoke a general rising against Philip II., but none took place, and the expedition was a costly failure. In 1590 the pretender left England and returned to France, where he fell into poverty. His remaining diamonds were disposed of by degrees. The last and finest was acquired by M. de Sancy, from whom it was purchased by Sully and included in the jewels of the crown. During his last days he lived as a private gentleman on a small pension given him by Henry IV., and he died in Paris on the 26th of August 1595. He left two illegitimate sons, and his descendants can be traced till 1687. In addition to papers published to defend his claims Antonio was the author of the Panegyrus Alphonsi Lusitanorum Regis (Coimbra, 1550), and of a cento of the Psalms, Psalmi Confessionales (Paris 1592), which was translated into English under the title of The Royal Penitent by Francis Chamberleyn (London, 1659), and into German as Heilige Betrachtungen (Marburg, 1677).

.—Antonio is frequently mentioned in the French, English, and Spanish state papers of the time. A life of him, attributed to Gomes Vasconcellos de Figueredo, was published in a French translation by Mme de Sainctonge at Amsterdam (1696). A modern account of him, ''Un prétendant portugais au XVI. siècle'', by E. Fournier (Paris, 1852), is based on authentic sources. See also Dom Antonio Prior de Crato—notas de bibliographia, by J. de Aranjo (Lisbon, 1897).

ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617–1684), Spanish bibliographer, was born at Seville on the 31st of July 1617. After taking his degree at Salamanca (1636–1639), he returned to his native city, wrote his treatise De Exilio (which was not printed till 1659), and began his monumental register of Spanish writers. The fame of his learning reached Philip IV., who conferred the order of Santiago on him in 1645, and sent him as general agent to Rome in 1654.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Carew, John Edward


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 Returning to Spain in 1679, Antonio died at Madrid in the spring of 1684. His Bibliotheca Hispana nova, dealing with the works of Spanish authors who flourished after 1500, appeared at Rome in 1672; the Bibliotheca Hispana vetus, a literary history of Spain from the time of Augustus to the end of the 15th century, was revised by Manuel Martí, and published by Antonio’s friend, Cardinal José Saenz de Aguirre at Rome in 1696. A fine edition of both parts, with additional matter found in Antonio’s manuscripts, and with supplementary notes by Francisco Perez Bayer, was issued at Madrid in 1787–1788. This great work, incomparably superior to any previous bibliography, is still unsuperseded and indispensable.

ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA [], (1444–1522), Spanish scholar, was born at Lebrija in the province of Andalusia. After studying at Salamanca he resided for ten years in Italy, and completed his education at Bologna University. On his return to Spain (1473), he devoted himself to the advancement of classical learning amongst his countrymen. After holding the professorship of poetry and grammar at Salamanca, he was transferred to the university of Alcalá de Henares, where he lectured until his death in 1522, at the age of seventy-eight. His services to the cause of classical literature in Spain have been compared with those rendered by Valla, Erasmus and Budaeus to Italy, Holland and France. He produced a large number of works on a variety of subjects, including a Latin and Spanish dictionary, commentaries on Sedulius and Persius, and a Compendium of Rhetoric, based on Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian. His most ambitious work was his chronicle entitled Rerum in Hispania Gestarum Decades (published in 1545 by his son as an original work by his father), which twenty years later was found to be merely a Latin translation of the Spanish chronicle of Pulgar, which was published at Saragossa in 1567. De Lebrija also took part in the production of the Complutense polyglot Bible published under the patronage of Cardinal Jimenes.

ANTONIUS, the name of a large number of prominent citizens of ancient Rome, of the gens Antonia. Antonius the triumvir claimed that his family was descended from Anton, son of Heracles. Of the Antonii the following are important.

1. (143–87 ), one of the most distinguished Roman orators of his time, was quaestor in 113, and praetor in 102 with proconsular powers, the province of Cilicia being assigned to him. Here he was so successful against the pirates that a naval triumph was awarded him. He was consul in 99, censor 97, and held a command in the Marsic War in 90. An adherent of Sulla, he was put to death by Marius and Cinna when they obtained possession of Rome (87). Antonius’s reputation for eloquence rests on the authority of Cicero, none of his orations being extant. He is one of the chief speakers in Cicero’s De Oratore.

2., nicknamed in derision, elder son of Marcus Antonius, the “orator,” and father of the triumvir. He was praetor in 74, and received an extraordinary command (similar to that bestowed upon Pompey by the Gabinian law) to clear the sea of pirates, and thereby assist the operations against Mithradates VI. He failed in the task, and made himself unpopular by plundering the provinces (Sallust, Hist. iii., fragments ed. B. Maurenbrecher, p. 108; Velleius Paterculus ii. 31; Cicero, In Verrem, iii. 91). He attacked the Cretans, who had made an alliance with the pirates, but was totally defeated, most of his ships being sunk. Diodorus Siculus (xl. 1) states that he only saved himself by a disgraceful treaty. He died soon afterwards (72–71) in Crete. All authorities are agreed as to his avarice and incompetence.

3., nicknamed from his half-savage disposition (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 213), second son of Marcus Antonius, the “orator,” and uncle of the triumvir. He was one of Sulla’s lieutenants in the Mithradatic War, and, after Sulla’s return, remained in Greece to plunder with a force of cavalry. In 76 he was tried for his malpractices, but escaped punishment; six years later he was removed from the senate by the censors, but soon afterwards reinstated. In spite of his bad reputation, he was elected tribune in 71, praetor in 66, and consul with Cicero in 63. He secretly supported Catiline, but Cicero won him over by promising him the rich province of Macedonia. On the outbreak of the Catilinarian conspiracy, Antonius was obliged to lead an army into Etruria, but handed over the command on the day of battle to Marcus Petreius on the ground of ill-health. He then went to Macedonia, where he made himself so detested by his oppression and extortions that he left the province, and was accused in Rome (59) both of having taken part in the conspiracy and of extortion in his province. It was said that Cicero had agreed with Antonius to share his plunder. Cicero’s defence of Antonius two years before in view of a proposal for his recall, and also on the occasion of his trial, increased the suspicion. In spite of Cicero’s eloquence, Antonius was condemned, and went into exile at Cephallenia. He seems to have been recalled by Caesar, since he was present at a meeting of the senate in 44, and was censor in 42.

4., commonly called , the Triumvir, grandson of Antonius the “orator” and son of Antonius Creticus, related on his mother’s side to Julius Caesar, was born about 83 Under the influence of his stepfather, Cornelius Lentulus Sura, he spent a profligate youth. For a time he co-operated with P. Clodius Pulcher, probably out of hostility to Cicero, who had caused Lentulus Sura to be put to death as a Catilinarian; the connexion was severed by a disagreement arising from his relations with Clodius’s wife, Fulvia. In 58 he fled to Greece to escape his creditors. After a short time spent in attendance on the philosophers at Athens, he was summoned by Aulus Gabinius, governor of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus in Palestine, and in support of Ptolemy Auletes in Egypt. In 54 he was with Caesar in Gaul. Raised by Caesar’s influence to the offices of quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebs, he supported the cause of his patron with great energy, and was expelled from the senate-house when the Civil War broke out. Deputy-governor of Italy during Caesar’s absence in Spain (49), second in command in the decisive battle of Pharsalus (48), and again deputy-governor of Italy while Caesar was in Africa (47), Antony was second only to the dictator, and seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses, depicted by Cicero in the Philippics. In 46 he seems to have taken offence because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply appropriated. The estrangement was not of long continuance; for we find Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo the following year, and rejecting the suggestion of Trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that was already on foot. In 44 he was consul with Caesar, and seconded his ambition by the famous offer of the crown at the festival of Lupercalia (February 15). After the murder of Caesar on the 15th of March, Antony conceived the idea of making himself sole ruler. At first he seemed disposed to treat the conspirators leniently, but at the same time he so roused the people against them by the publication of Caesar’s will and by his eloquent funeral oration, that they were obliged to leave the city. He surrounded himself with a bodyguard of Caesar’s veterans, and forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then administered by Decimus Junius Brutus, one of the conspirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province, and Antony set out to attack him in October 44,

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antonio, Nicolas


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antonio de Lebrija


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 results are cited. Also, it does a better job when discussing `factorización de polinomios' (polynomial factorisation). On the other hand, article 2 [Wikipedia] is way better written than article 1. It has the right encyclopaedic tone, including a very good introduction. Also, article 2 does the very important task of pointing to applications of the subject at hand." (Reviewer 1 – academic)

The following picks this up very clearly and reiterates the emphasis from many reviewers that for an encyclopaedia article to be 'well-written', crucially entails it being accessible to the kind of readership presumed to seek out online encyclopaedia articles:

 * "This article [Britannica] is factually correct and gives some interesting historical background information on antibiotic resistance. The article is written in a style that is simple, and this article should be accessible to both specialist and non-specialist readers. The article avoids an excessive use of technical jargon, and instead focuses on 'real' world examples of antibiotic resistance. Good, logical structure." (Reviewer 2 – academic – Antibiotic Resistance)

The same reviewer, discussing the Wikipedia article on the same topic, in fact recognised that this provided richer content:

 * "The second article [Wikipedia] provided much more detailed information on antibiotics and resistance, including very good citations to the scientific literature. However, the [...] article lacked organisation and structure." (Reviewer 2 – academic – Antibiotic Resistance)

Thus, values such as simplicity, accessibility, lack of jargon and good structure are very often emphasised alongside values more immediately associated with encyclopaedias, such as accuracy, comprehensiveness and currency of information. It seemed, generally, that the academics reviewing these articles were generally willing to accept certain deficiencies in online encyclopaedia articles, so long as they combined some degree of accuracy, currency and scope with an account that brought a subject to life for newcomers to an area. In that respect, substantial content was no substitute for the lack of an underlying dynamic or coherence in its account of the topic, which is clearly considered by these reviewers to be a problem with respect to each of the following articles:

 * "It [Wikipedia] is a very shallow article [...] there are many terms used. I did not find any reference for, the only reference used is inappropriate [...] there is no biased info in the article, because there is no controversy in the article, it is just explanation of the medical terms [...] there is no coherence in the article because it is just stating terms and jumping from one term to another without any connection." (Reviewer 1 – academic – on Pharmacokinetics)
 * "The second article [Britannica] is way too long; it is not good enough to warrant such a long piece." (Reviewer 2 – academic – on Memory)

In terms of articles judged as very poor, such as the two above, the factors that led to harsh judgments appeared to be common to all sources, and it is hard to locate anything specific to any encyclopaedia in such judgments. Strongly negative reviews of articles generally consisted of an accumulation of weak points in terms of accuracy, missing information, 41

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 weak structure and lack of clarity, unredeemed by any strong impression of usability or readability:
 * "The text is too short and I don't think it is concise [...] The information is not well structured. In certain sentences we don't understand what the author is focused on [...] the use of the example is not in coherence with what the author intended to explain [...] It would have been useful to include a history section, and mention further topics such as interaction with logic and foundations of Mathematics [...] While most key ideas are included, no pointers are provided for the topics mentioned in the article, nor are there examples for them." (Combination of comments from all three reviewers for Wikipedia article on Mathematical Proof)
 * "The article is poorly written. Its language is stiff and it has a number of errors [...] The all-important relation of rational numbers ('números rationales') with real numbers is omitted completely. Indeed, there is no mention of real numbers at all [...] The grammatical and factual errors and the dull tone preclude the article from being useful in this regard [...] The article is repetitive and extremely boring. Moreover, it is pretentious to spend seven pages discussing such basic ideas [...] Would just confuse a non-academic reader. Too elementary [...] The article needs to be re-written, possibly from scratch. It has absolutely no value." (Combination of comments from all three reviewers for Enciclonet article on Numero Racional)

Overall, quite a small number of such articles were identified, whether from Wikipedia or other sources. In addition the article on Mathematical Proof quoted above, largely negative judgments about Wikipedia articles applied just to a small number out of the total of 22 Wikipedia articles: Pharmacokinetics, Percepcón (from the Spanish version), Primary Education and (according to just one of the two reviewers) St Thomas Aquinas. A certain number of negative comments were made about most articles, because the academic reviewers were generally rigorous in their judgments, but these were usually balanced or redeemed by a very fair identification of strengths. In the next section we focus mainly on Wikipedia articles in order to explore the balance of qualities that was identified in these specifically, and in order to see if it is possible to detect a particular mix of strengths and weaknesses that are particularly relevant to Wikipedia.

5.2.1.2 Academics' Judgments about Wikipedia Articles in Particular

When it comes to articles that were judged as being satisfactory or good, which is to say an article that is readable, and provides a useful point of reference or a good introduction to a topic, we argue that it was indeed possible to detect a particular pattern of qualities that were particularly characteristic of the Wikipedia articles within this sample at least. Not all of these qualities are wholly positive if taken on their own, but nonetheless constitute a set of characteristics which in combination outweigh specific weaknesses. The Wikipedia article on Hugo Chavez, for instance, illustrates this particular combination of qualities: "Generally speaking, the second article [Wikipedia] was much stronger than the first. It was far more comprehensive and detailed, it was up to date (going right up to the middle of last year rather than more or less stopping in 2005), and it offered a far more politically neutral interpretation of the subject." Both reviewers agreed that the Wikipedia article was the stronger on this particular topic, despite the fact that it did possess certain weaknesses: 42

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 * "The only areas it fell down on were length (the second being three times as long) and [...] lacking a clear argument or unifying perspective about the subject, making it a little harder to isolate what the key issues for debate might be." (Reviewer 1 – academic)

In general, it appears that Wikipedia articles were distinguishable from other online encyclopaedias in the qualitative judgments with respect to the following characteristics if combined within a particular article: good coverage of topic, currency, quality of referencing, along with the less desirable qualities of redundancy and repetition. We would add to this also the non-appearance of a particular area of potential criticism – that of bias, as this did not appear to be an issue on more than a very few occasions in judgments made about Wikipedia articles.

Coverage of topic

 * "The second article [Mawsoah] can be part of the first one [Wikipedia] [...] the first article is comprehensive while the second one is just an introduction, so we can use some information in the second article which is missing in the first one, like the addictors story to complete the first one." (Reviewer 3 – academic – Parkinson's)

In the same spirit, all three reviewers for the article on Memory felt that, despite "minor flaws" (Reviewer 2), the Wikipedia article was superior especially with respect to its coverage of the topic:

 * "The first article [Wikipedia] is decent. It is reasonably concise, and covers most things that I would include – certainly it is not perfect, and there are things missing, but it is concise and well-written. By contrast the second article [Britannica] is very vague and makes minimal links to the actual original science behind the points [...] I actually think that it would be a little misleading to a novice, because the literature has developed so much in the last 10-15 years." (Reviewer 3 – doctoral student)

Currency

Comprehensive coverage tended to be taken to imply currency as well, and this was certainly an area where Wikipedia articles consistently scored higher than others in the qualitative judgements:

 * "I think that the real strength of this article is that it gives people a good overview of what Attention actually is. It covers the historical background of the research area, but also more up to date perspectives. It is also very transparent about the overlap between attention and other related areas of study, such as Working Memory and Executive Processes [...]"

Indeed, this article earns particular high praise from this reviewer specifically because of its currency:

 "Everything in this article [Wikipedia] is stuff that I would have included had I written it myself. It is also very 'current' – all the stuff on disorders of attention in children is really very new [...] Everything that is stated as fact is pretty much accepted by the  43

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we have somewhat more than probability to guide us, in endeavouring to ascertain the population of China. We have the evidence of men who have long resided in the country, and a variety of estimates taken by the natives themselves, and published by imperial authority. While the learned of Europe are sitting at home, and calculating what may or may not be, which they decide according to their several hypotheses and partialities; we have the testimony of eye-witnesses and actual residents, as to what really exists. Between these bare supposers and personal enquirers there can be no difficulty in determining on whom most reliance is to be placed. The speculators on China's population, however, aware that facts are against them, have sought to throw discredit on the witnesses produced on the other side, by bestowing on them the most opprobrious epithets, and calling their veracity into question on every occasion. The authorities most likely to furnish


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 information on the subject of China are the catholic missionaries, and the Chinese themselves. The former, who penned the "Edifying and curious letters," are sometimes spoken of jocularly as "reverend gentlemen" telling their "pleasant stories;" at other times more cavalierly, as "stupid and lying missionaries, who contrived to impose upon Europeans with their absurd and ridiculous notions." Malte Brun, however, describes them as "weak and credulous, rather than wilfully mendacious." It must be confessed, that these are rather hard terms to bestow upon men who have left their native land, and ventured all, to spread what they conceive to be the truth; men, at the same time, of much learning, and, one would hope, of some sincerity—who have deserved better than to be denounced as downright liars, in matters where they had neither interest nor inclination to deceive. Their opportunities for ascertaining the fact, were many and great, as they were engaged, by imperial authority, in travelling through the various provinces, and drawing up a statistical view of the empire; so that they were not likely to be easily imposed upon by accounts inconsistent with truth.

The Chinese authorities have been treated in a still more unscrupulous manner, and the estimate given by a principal mandarin, to Sir G. Staunton, is described as complete an example of Chinese mendaciousness, as any ever afforded; and, as a document, bearing on its very face, the marks of fabrication. It is comparatively easy to get rid of adverse testimony, by throwing discredit on the judgment or veracity of the witnesses; but though the Chinese may be, generally, given to


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 majority of the literature. I cannot really see any particular perspective coming through here. It is actually very carefully written." (Reviewer 1 – academic – Attention)

This judgment contrasts sharply with the comments from the same reviewer on the Britannica article on the same topic, which was described as "all very out-of-date, and therefore would be of no use in a current research article". In fact, it was consistently striking throughout the sample, that Wikipedia articles were nearly all considered to be more up to date than others, although being more up to date was not always a sufficient reason for a Wikipedia article to be considered the better of the two, if it failed on a combination of other factors such as clarity, cohesion or accuracy.

Referencing

The same is also true with respect to the presence of references. Wikipedia articles generally earned approval for their references, although – as we indicate below – these were not invariably judged to be advantageous. Wikipedia articles were clearly acknowledged as being more extensively referenced than others, even if in some respects it was not considered to provide as much information as the other article:

 * "The second article [Wikipedia] gives a clear idea of the nature of climate change and its science but doesn't give as much detail on its impacts as the first one. Overall, the second article is better structured, organised and referenced," (Reviewer 2 – doctoral student – Cambio Climatico)

When the references are considered to be appropriate, this would generally earn the highest praise from reviewers, as in the following comment from the other reviewer for this article: "References are broad, valid and of the highest quality available." (Reviewer 1 – professor – Cambio Climatico). Similarly, it is the scholarly nature of its writing, supported by appropriate references, that earns Wikipedia higher praise in the following two separate instances, even though it is by implication to some extent insufficiently comprehensive if taken alone:

 * "I preferred the 1st article [Wikipedia] to the second. It is written in a more scholarly manner and it provides a lot of references. I found the second paper still a draft, and this might be the case. Ideally you would combine the two to give a more comprehensive picture of preschool education." Reviewer 2 – academic – Preschool Education)

 * "The works cited are all of high-scholarly quality." (Reviewer 1 – research student – Anselm of Canterbury)

The mere existence of references did not, though, necessarily earn approval, as all three reviewers make quite clear with respect to the Wikipedia article on Parkinson's:

 The references cited are all from internet and these references could be changed or removed from the internet [...] I prefer the use of medical data from published text books in the right way." (Reviewer 1 – academic) "Referencing was poor throughout the article." (Reviewer 2 – academic)  44

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 "References used are internet websites, no journals or books are used." (Reviewer 3 – student)

A similar point is made about the Wikipedia article on Mutation:

 * "Many of the references are from websites, magazines, or other popular media, and not from primary source scientific articles." (Reviewer 2 – academic)

But the same reviewer pointed out, in discussing the fact that the Britannica article "mentions the mutation rate of HIV, but doesn't cite any HIV related material", that anyway, "much of the article is quite basic and does not necessarily need intensive citation." Thus the mere presence of references is not inevitably viewed as an advantage if (a) the references are of a generally low level and (b) the overall article appears to aspire to be simply a good basic introduction to a topic.

This reflects a more general feeling that a good article needs to balance its elements throughout:

 * "All the references are published by recognized journals or are books written by academics that work in the topic. [...] The article [Wikipedia] is concise and focuses on its topic. All the information provided is relevant and necessary [...] provided in a well-structured form." (Reviewer 4 – academic – Neurona) but  "The use of technical terms is not accompanied by an explanation [...] it would be necessary to add new information to complete the map. [...] I would probably eliminate the topic about artificial neural networks." (Reviewer 4 – academic – Neurona)

For most reviewers, though, lack of references was sometimes seen as a negative feature, regardless of other qualities, as the same reviewer makes clear with respect to the Enciclonet article on Neurona: "It is a great article, well-structured, clear, and easy to understand and read. The information provided is precise and complete. However, no references are provided and no topics are treated in depth." (Reviewer 4 – academic)

Redundancy and Repetition

The following three comments on Wikipedia articles represent what was quite a common theme from many reviewers of Wikipedia in particular, which is to say up to date content with good coverage of issues, but at the same time a tendency to repetition and redundancy of content:

45
 * "A lot of information, including a very thorough account of the events of Anselm's life. Mentions his most important ideas and works and discusses them reasonably well. Cites respectable scholarly sources, for the most part. Doesn't read completely smoothly, a bit repetitive at times. There are some digressions and random sentences that harm the overall coherence." (Reviewer 1 – academic – St Anselm)

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Book of Moroni you, my beloved brethren, that you remember that every good gift cometh of Christ. And I would exhort you, my beloved brethren, that ye remember that he is the same yesterday, today, and forever, and that all these gifts of which I have spoken, which are spiritual, never will be done away, even as long as the world shall stand, only according to the unbelief of the children of men. Wherefore, there must be faith; and if there must be faith, there must also be hope; and if there must be hope, there must also be charity; and except ye have charity, ye can in no wise be saved in the kingdom of God; neither can ye be saved in the kingdom of God, if ye have not faith; neither can ye if ye have no hope; and if ye have no hope, ye must needs be in despair; and despair cometh because of iniquity. And Christ truly said unto our fathers, if ye have faith, ye can do all things which is expedient unto me. And now I speak unto all the ends of the earth, that if the day cometh that the power and gifts of God shall be done away among you, it shall be because of unbelief. And wo be unto the children of men, if this be the case; for there shall be none that doeth good among you, no not one. For if there be one among you that doeth good, he shall work by the power and gifts of God. And wo unto them who shall do these things away and die, for they die in their sins, and they cannot be saved in the kingdom of God; and I speak it according to the words af Christ, and I lie not. And I exhort you to remember these things; for the time speedily cometh that ye shall know that I lie not, for ye shall see me at the bar of God, and the Lord God will say unto you, did I not declare my words unto you, which were written by this man, like as one crying from the dead? yea, even as one speaking out of the dust? I declare these things unto the fulfilling of the prophecies. And behold, they shall proceed forth out of the mouth of the everlasting God; and his word shall hiss forth from generation to generation. And God shall shew unto you, that that which I have written is true. And again I would exhort you, that ye would come unto Christ, and lay hold upon every good gift, and touch not the evil gift, nor the unclean thing. And awake, and arise from the dust, O Jerusalem; yea, and put on thy beautiful garments, O daughter of Zion, and strengthen thy stakes, and enlarge thy borders forever, that thou mayest no more be confounded, that the covenants of the eternal Father which he hath made unto thee, O house of Israel, may be fulfilled. Yea, come unto Christ, and be perfected m him, and deny yourselves of all ungodliness,

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 without warning. From happiness we are switched to misery and back again almost without knowing how it all happened. The trouble with striving constantly for this kind of atmosphere is that it defeats its own purpose. You are plunged into gloom with the story's first paragraph and are mentally prepared for anything that may happen. When I bought a volume of Poe's works some years ago, I naturally waded through those dealing in horror first. 'Waded' is the mot juste. By the time I had read three of them, I was so saturated with their atmosphere that they had lost all value as shockers. I have never finished the volume and I never will. (This is sacrilege but I can't help it.) People are constantly borrowing my books—sometimes they return them—but I have never had any one of them borrow the volume of Poe although it still retains its attractive red-and-black cover. I don't believe people like that kind of literature. They like horror, mystery, even cruelty; but they like it dished up palatably. You can consign this to the editorial waste-basket if you like, but it is my sincere conviction that more stories of the Seabury Quinn type would sell more copies of WT."

Concise Comments

T. O. Mabbott writes from New York City: "My votes this month are for Roads, which has the truth of a legend about it, though curiously enough for Seabury Quinn, it struck me as deserving a cut or two to make the thing a little more compact; second: Valley of Bones—simple and wholly credible while being read, and, third, Toean Matjan, where I wished for a stronger suggestion the tiger was sometimes a man, too."

James Whiting Saunders writes from Alexandria, Virginia: "In the January issue the best story is Ethan Brand. It is an almost timeless allegory, of course. Thank you for printing an American classic."

Paul L. McCleave writes from St. Petersburg, Florida: "The Sea-Witch was truly the 'tops' in the December . Nictzin Dyalhis (how'd he ever get that name, anyway?) must have a thorough knowledge of the old Norse mythology."

Seymour Kapetansky writes from Detroit: "Lovecraft's Hypnos is one of the late master's obscure-weird pieces. A grand fictional yarn. I think that the reprint should contain a Lovecraft as often as possible, and ditto the early Robert E. Howards. These men were the best weird writers; their work should appear often. That will be their best memorial."

Harold F. Keating writes from Quincy, Massachusetts: "The Black Stone Statue by Mary Counselman is gorgeous. Most of her stories are excellent; but this was the best yet."

Howard Brenton MacDonald writes from Yonkers, New York: "The Sea-Witch was an exceptionally fine story. I am glad to see some author making use of the vast treasury of Norse mythology. Let's have more."

H. W. Marian writes from Union City, Tennessee: "In the December number Virgil Finlay is superb. Words fail me, and I can only attempt to express my appreciation for this new feature. These first two I have already framed and they occupy a position of honor in my room."

Andrew Galet writes from New York City: "I now have a double incentive for buying WT, but, please have Virgil Finlay's full-page drawing inside the back cover of your magazine. Not only will his illustrations be more fully appreciated but one could always tear the cover off and have the drawings framed."

Orin S. McFarland writes from Washington D. C.: "I've read your magazine for the last six years and know there is nothing like it. Keep up the good work. There are a few stories that don't quite click, but so few that all the good ones outshine, by far, any defect that your magazine may otherwise possess."

Flo M. Post writes from Guthrie, Oklahoma: "Tales of robots with human minds are just gibberish—and not weird gibberish either—whether they inhabit Mars, Venus, the Moon, or an Atlantis."

The Most Popular Story

Readers, it will help us to keep this magazine just as you like it to be, if you will let us know which stories you like best, and also which ones you dislike. In the January issue, as shown by your votes and letters, Seabury Quinn's strange tale about Santa Claus easily won first place. Vennette Herron's story about the were-tiger came next. W.T.—8


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10 built an altar of stones, and made an offering unto the Lord, and gave thanks unto the Lord our God. And it came to pass that he called the name of the river, Laman, and it emptied into the Red Sea; and the valley was in the borders near the mouth thereof.

And when my father saw that the waters of the river emptied into the fountain of the Red Sea, he spake unto Laman, saying, O that thou mightest be like unto this river, continually running into the fountain of all righteousness. And he also spake unto Lemuel: O that thou mightest be like unto this valley, firm, and steadfast, and immovable in keeping the commandments of the Lord. Now this he spake because of the stiffneckedness of Laman and Lemuel, for behold they did murmur in many things against their father, because he was a visionary man, and had led them out of the land of Jerusalem, to leave the land of their inheritance, and their gold, and their silver, and their precious things, to perish in the wilderness. And this, they said, he had done, because of the foolish imaginations of his heart. And thus Laman and Lemuel, being the eldest, did murmur against their father. And they did murmur because they knew not the dealings of that God who had created them. Neither did they believe that Jerusalem, that great city, could be destroyed according to the words of the prophets. And they were like unto the Jews, who were at Jerusalem, who sought to take away the life of my father.

And it came to pass that my father did speak unto them in the valley of Lemuel, with power, being filled with the spirit, until their frames did shake before him. And he did confound them, that they durst not utter against him; wherefore, they did as he commanded them. And my father dwelt in a tent.

And it came to pass that I, Nephi, being exceeding young, nevertheless being large in stature, and also having great desires to know of the mysteries of God, wherefore did cry unto the Lord; and behold he did visit me, and did soften my heart that I did believe all the words which had been spoken by my father; wherefore I did not rebel against him like unto my brothers. And I spake unto Sam, making known unto him the things which the Lord had manifested unto me by his Holy Spirit.

And it came to pass that he believed in my words; but behold Laman and Lemuel would not hearken unto my words. And being grieved because of the hardness of their hearts, I cried unto the Lord for them. And it came to pass that the Lord spake unto me,

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