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90 assist in deflecting the spear when it strikes. The axe, spear, and dowark were headed with silex, of which also knives and chisels were made; but broken glass is now commonly used, and knives and tomahawks obtained from the settlers. Their skill in hunting, either alone or in numbers, is remarked by all who have witnessed it. Weirs were made for fish, stakes driven to intercept the kangaroo at their watering places, and lines and nets manufactured for catching fish, which are also commonly speared both by day and by torchlight. On the North Coast a clumsy raft is also used for sea fishing. Their mias or huts vary in construction from a slight shelter made of brushwood to a dome of logs covered with day, large enough to contain several persons.

To particularise crimes and their perpetrators is both invidious and painful. It may be well, however, to call to mind those things in which natives have been and still are found useful, since as early as 1849 some 500 were in the employ of the settlers, at first as guides to exploring parties. It may be safely asserted that the longer explorations could never have been successful without their aid, and the names of Kaiber, Warrup, Pierre, Tommy Windich, and others will be always remembered. Mr. J. Forrest writes of the natives about the upper district of the Murchison:—"Altogether they are tractable and willing to work, and were of great service to me." As assistants to the Police they have been invaluable from their power of tracking. They have been employed as letter carriers. They have even done good work in road making, especially on the Sound Road, and are still useful as shepherds, teamsters, stock riders, messengers, and servants. At Rottnest they have been employed as builders, agriculturists, and in salt making. They have often themselves up


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Rh for punishment—a rare occurrence among civilized men. They are by no means, more than other men, deficient in gratitude; and, as in the Swan District some of the heads of families were most useful to the Government in assisting to preserve peace and harmony between their people and the settlers, so in the North a chief whose name, Mullagough, should be recorded, was the means of the white men being admitted to peaceful settlement. Commonly the virtues of civilization are credited to all the settlers, collectively, and the vices of savage life, ignoring all virtues, to each native individually.

The natives of West Australia are, like other savages, very superstitious. The power, especially for evil, of their Bolyas or sorcerers is a constant source of terror to them; they have also their Karakols or medicine men, able to inflict as well as cure diseases; and probably the caves in which rude paintings and carvings have been found, especially on the North Coast, were appropriated to their use. They also have great fear of an evil spirit, Jingy, whom they suppose to inhabit the more deep and gloomy recesses of the hills; and of an imaginary monster, Wangul, inhabiting the fresh waters, whose principal victims are the women. Each family has its Kobong or cognizance, some animal or vegetable for which they have a superstitious reverence, and which is therefore not used as food by the family who adopt it.

Circumcision is practised by some families. Mr. J. Forrest says the natives who practise circumcision are found to the East and North of a line drawn from Point Culver on the South Coast by Mounts Ragged, Jeramungup and the Wongon Hills to the Geraldine Mine on the Murchison River, where the line from thence carried Northerly approaches nearer the coast. The sexes are

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93 kept separate for a certain period of the year. Some of their other domestic and personal habits resemble those inculcated by the laws of Moses. Their social intercourse is regulated by very strict and ceremonious customs, but both superstitions and customs are becoming less influential in proportion to their intimacy with the settlers.

The attention of the Government has always been directed to the welfare of the aborigines—and yet but little has been done. In the early days of the Colony there was a sort of refuge to which they might resort for food and shelter, where the Invalid Dépôt now is under Mount Eliza. Protectors were also appointed for them, but their opinions did not, as they were not likely to, accord with those of many of the colonists. Great difficulties also resulted from the antagonism of the British Laws, to which, as subjects of the Crown, they were amenable, and the native laws and customs. Schools were, however, established at Perth and Fremantle with some useful results, and the school conducted by the Wesleyans, at Wanneroo, near Perth, afterwards removed to York, gave the first proof that they were capable of adopting the habits of civilized life, and of conversion to Christianity. The ultimate failure of these efforts is to be attributed to the first having been made in the towns, and that at Wanneroo to the mistake in selection of the locality and the small quantity of land available for it. To the Benedictine Monks was reserved the full and satisfactory proof of these facts, which are apparent at their settlement of New Norcia, which was originally established by the Fathers Serra and Salvado, mainly by assistance rendered them by some Protestants in Perth. An account of it will be found in another place. Further evidence


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Rh was afforded by the results of the Protestant School established at Albany; and the Church of England and Roman Catholic Orphanages, now in active operation in Perth, and at Subiaco in the neighborhood, unite in the same testimony. The results of the penal establishment at Rottnest, already noticed, might also be adduced in evidence; but this is not so conclusive, the work there being done under compulsion.

In 1848 Sir George, then Captain Grey, submitted a memorial to the Imperial Government in accordance with these facts, which was adopted and forwarded to the Colonial Governments for their direction, and had considerable influence on the treatment of the natives in West Australia. In 1871 a Select Committee of the Legislative Council reported, as desirable, that grants of land should be made to aboriginal natives, recommended by the Principal of any Native Industrial Institution, on condition that such land should not be sold, transferred, or let, without the consent of the Governor, and that it might be resumed by him if not improved or cultivated for three consecutive years; and in 1875 an Act was passed giving power to the Principals of such Institutions to act as trustees of orphan native children or others entrusted to them by their natural guardians.

The opinion of those in charge of the Institutions at New Norcia and Albany (since transferred to Perth) are to be found in the reports made by them, which were published with the Council Papers for 1871.

Bishop Salvado says that the natives are generally not capable of continuous hard work, either corporeal or mental, and that he considers condemnation to hard labor condemnation to death; he found it necessary to combine both, giving three hours daily to bodily, three to mental labor in the school, and the rest of the day to


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94 relaxation, gymnastics, games, music, dancing, &c. He considers the labor of a well-conducted farm most suitable as a means of civilization. Tailoring, shoemaking, and harness making, have been successfully taught and practised, but require too long continued and regular labor for natives generally. The young men become good agriculturists, and four reaped 190 bushels of wheat of their own in the year 1871. All labor at New Norcia is paid for at customary rates, and the property of individuals is respected. He finds that the diseases from which the natives suffer most are not so amenable to the ordinary course of medical treatment adopted by European medical men as they are in the case of the settlers, but that they more often recover under their native remedies. They suffer much from "home sickness," and occasional hunting is allowed them on this account.

Father Garrido reports that they have been found good shepherds and teamsters, and first-class stockmen, but, like Bishop Salvado, he prefers agricultural labor, as more tending to civilization; that in one year 5413 sheep were sheared at New Norcia by natives, one shearing 1421 sheep in 25 days, and earning £19s. 8½d. The girls, he says, are taught to wash, cook, and work with the needle; several couples have been married, and those living in cottages on the estate of the Monastery have adopted the habits, manners, and dress of civilized life.

Mrs. Camfield, who had charge of the school at Annesfield (Albany), reports specially on the fondness of the natives for music. One girl, sent to Sydney, played for some time the harmonium in St. Philip's Church, and gained her living by teaching; several others married civilized natives from institutions in the


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Rh other colonies, having become good housewives, able to make bread, cook, wash, cure fruit and meat, and use their needle well; some are now employed as school teachers. She also notes the fondness of the boys for mechanical arts. They are, she adds, easily taught to be neat and clean in their persons, being very observant and great admirers of dress.

The land of the Colony has been one principal source of income to the Government and of capital to the settler. That land was the possession of the natives, and was taken from them without payment or other consideration, nor even were reserves made for them as in North America. The proportion between the income derived from land and the expenditure on the natives was, from 1837 to 1845, one-sixth; from 1845 to 1855, one-third; from 1855 to 1865, one-tenth; and from 1865 to 1875, one-twentieth. In 1875 the receipts from land amounted to £33,286 0s. 7d., and the expenditure on natives to £803 0s. 9d. There were then, besides the large area held in fee simple, 21,315,290 acres held in lease for sheep and cattle runs. The revenue of the Colony was £141,180 14s. 5d. The imports were, in value, £349,840, and the exports £391,217 3s. 4d., which, without estimating the amount of wealth accumulated by the colonists in houses, fenced and cultivated lands, stock, machinery, &c., may give some indication of the profit derived from the labor and capital expended on the vast estate which has been taken from the aboriginal inhabitants. These figures would seem to show that the advantages which the settlers have derived from the natives have been much greater than any which the natives have received from them.

In these days, responsibilities so accruing are more generally acknowledged than formerly; yet, as has been


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96 already noticed, both the Imperial and Colonial Governments recognised a duty and endeavoured to fill it. As early as 1834, on the organization of the mounted police force, the Governor gave instructions to the officers to make themselves acquainted with the names, numbers, movements, habits, and haunts of the natives, their prejudices, and how they might be conciliated; subsequently, as above noticed, protectors were appointed. There were, however, obstacles to the accomplishment of this desire; experience alone could teach what ought to be done, and, had that then been known, men might not, in so small a community, have been found able and willing to do it. Moreover, in the early days of colonial life, prompt action is required to produce immediate results. The Colony is now prosperous, the laws respected, the natives in the settled districts submissive, and in the North they supply labor for the pastoral settlements and the pearl fishery, and are probably progressing towards civilization by their residence among the settlers. In other districts they are decreasing in number, and lingering out a poor and degraded existence.

There is no trustworthy estimate of the number of the aboriginal inhabitants of West Australia. In the settled districts they may average one to ten of the white population.

The introduction of convicts entirely changed the political and social condition of the Colony, by (1) introducing a large number of men subject to the Imperial Government, and because (2) the men so


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Rh introduced suffering under the penalty for crime, even when let loose among the people and permitted to work for themselves, were, until the expiration of their sentence, subject to the surveillance of the magistracy and police, and thus isolated from the general mass of the people.

These circumstances, and their having of necessity become intimately known to each other while in the condition bf prisoners, could not fail to form a bond of union between them, which would be maintained, in some degree, even after they had become free men. The inhabitants of the Colony were henceforth divided into two classes, bond and free.

Some soon received tickets-of-leave, and found employment according to their conduct and capacities, afterwards obtaining conditional pardons and becoming free in all respects, except that they might not leave the Colony. Their term of penal obligation being ended, they, as expirees, were in all respects in the same condition as the other inhabitants, with the exception of these disabilities—they might not sit as members of the Legislative Council, or practise in the law courts. The first convicts sent out were all men selected for good conduct while in confinement; but afterwards no selection was made, the authorities in England not finding it practicable; and many were therefore men well skilled and practised in crimes requiring dexterity and intelligence, who introduced their criminal arts into the Colony. Some succeeded in escaping, and for a time became bush-rangers and leaders of the natives in plunder and violence until again captured. The great majority, however, became useful members of society; some being skilled artisans and mechanics, exercised their abilities for the benefit of the community; some


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98 engaged in trade successfully; others became agriculturists and stock and cattle owners; and not a few, who had been educated in the liberal arts and sciences, obtained professional, literary, and clerical employment. The Colony has not only profited, therefore, by their labors when in the bond class, but in a greater degree when they became free men.

The labors of the bond class accelerated greatly the material progress of the Colony, to the increase of its wealth and prosperity. The great want had been means of communication between the widely scattered settlements, the interior and the seaboard, resulting from the manner in which its first settlement was made, and the vast area in consequence occupied by a small population, thus making the transport of goods and produce, whether internal or external, in all cases difficult, in many impossible. To the labors of the convicts the Colony owes most of its roads, bridges, and public works, which are still far in advance of the number of its population. By their introduction a new market was opened for produce, and production was largely increased by the purchases made for their maintenance; and the expenditure of the salaries of officials attached to the department, and of the magistrates and police in the pay of the Imperial Government, formed a not inconsiderable item in the trade of the Colony.

Convicts were introduced in 1850, and Mr. Knight, in his remarks in the Census papers of 1870, concludes that "the large proportion reclaimed and absorbed into the general population, and the infrequency of crime, are the best proofs that the system 'was not only well considered and arranged' but has been judiciously and efficiently carried out and borne good fruit." It is true that a paid magistracy, and a large and efficient body of


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Rh police have been maintained by the Imperial Government; but, in all probability, there is no country in which life and property are safer than in West Australia. The benefits which have been derived by the Colony from the introduction of convicts must therefore be considered as far out-weighing any disadvantages resulting from it. One, however, of these must be noticed as of considerable importance. The convicts have been all males, and their numbers have greatly increased the disproportion between the sexes which existed before their introduction. To this very many of the crimes committed by them, and indeed by others, must be directly or indirectly imputed, and its evil influence has affected the natives even more than the colonists.

A few years more must bring the operation of the system to an end. Transportation ceased in 1868. In 10 years more, probably, the bond class will no longer exist, having been exhausted by death, or by the termination of penal sentences, and the distinction between bond and free be a remembrance of the past.

The number of the bond class has been already considerably diminished by death, as well as by many, who had made money, having left the Colony for other lands, where their past condition would not be known. Transportation ceased in West Australia in consequence of the remonstrances of the Eastern Colonies, which still watch jealously against the introduction of convicts, and will not permit them to enter until they have been free men for three years. Yet the East was first opened to colonization by convicts, and many of the wealthy and influential inhabitants are descendants of that class. From South Australia alone they have always been excluded. The direct effect produced by the


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100 of convicts on the population of West Australia will appear from the following estimates:—To the year 1868, 9680 had been landed. In 1875 the number of expirees and men holding conditional pardons was about 4478, of ticket-of-leave holders 350, in confinement 280, with 4 invalids. The total convict element in addition to the free immigrant population must be therefore above 6000, but the number of their descendants cannot he estimated.

Besides these, between the years 1850 and 1858, 1780 military pensioners, some with wives and families, and 2,888 free emigrants were sent out at the expense of the Imperial Government, and from 1858 to 1876 2243, making a total of 7086, or some 2500 less adults than the number of convicts. It had been part of the agreement that the numbers should be equal, but differences arose as to expenses incurred after landing in the Colony, and at times labor was not in demand.

The effect of the introduction of convicts on the finances of the Colony may be estimated from the following figures:—The expenditure on account of the Colony by the Imperial Government from 1832 to 1850, was £355,772 13s. 3d., from 1850 to 1870, £1,932,850 9s. 2d.

The results of convict labor are apparent in the Government House, Town Hall, and Prison at Perth, the Prison and Lighthouse at Fremantle, as well as in other buildings in those places and throughout the Colony. Mr. Knight, in the Census Papers of 1870, estimates a total length of 1100 miles of road, and that, out of 16,294 feet in length of bridges, 9589, including all the most important and most expensive, with 79 small bridges of a single span, and an innumerable number of culverts, to have been made by their labor.


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/The Classification of Fishes


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/Stages of Vital Motion


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/The Slavic Immigrant


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/Obituary Notice of a Lung-Fish


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/The Opportunity of the Smaller Museums of Natural History


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/College Entrance Examinations


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text:
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities/D

Dactyliotheca – Dedicatio

 * Dactyliotheca
 * Dactylus
 * Daduchus
 * Daedala 1.
 * Daedala 2.
 * Dalmatica
 * Damareteion
 * Damiurgi
 * Damnum
 * Damnum infectum
 * Damnminjuria datum
 * Damosia
 * Danaces
 * Daneisma
 * Daphnephoria
 * Dardanarii
 * Daricus
 * Datatim ludere
 * Datetae
 * Dealbatores
 * Debitor
 * Decadarchia
 * Decaduchi
 * Decanus
 * Decaproti
 * Decasmus
 * Decastylos
 * Decate
 * Decemjugis
 * Decempeda
 * Decem primi
 * Decemremis
 * Decennalia
 * Decimatio
 * Decimatrus
 * Declamatio
 * Decoctor
 * Decretum
 * Decumae
 * Decumana porta
 * Decumani
 * Decuncis
 * Decuria
 * Decurialis
 * Decurio
 * Decuriones
 * Decursio
 * Decussis
 * Dedicato

Dediticii – Designator

 * Dediticii
 * Detitio
 * De dolo malo actio
 * Deductio
 * Defensor civitatis
 * Defrutum
 * Deicelistae
 * Deigma
 * Dejecti effusive actio
 * Dejectum effusum
 * Deilias graphe
 * Deipnon
 * Delatio nominis
 * Delatores
 * Delectus
 * Delia
 * Delictum
 * Delphicae mensae
 * Delphini
 * Delphinia
 * Delphis
 * Delubrum
 * Demarchi
 * Demens
 * Demensum
 * Dementia
 * Demetria
 * Deminutio capitis
 * Demioprata
 * Demiurgi
 * Demius
 * Democratia
 * Demontratio
 * Demopoietos
 * Demosii
 * Demus
 * Denarius
 * Dendrophori
 * Denicales feriae
 * Dens
 * Dentifricium
 * Depas
 * Depensi actio
 * Depontani senes
 * Deportatio
 * Depositi actio
 * Depositum
 * Dermatikon
 * Desertor
 * Designator

Desmoterion – Diobolon

 * Desmoterion
 * Desposionautae
 * Desultor
 * Detestatio sacrorum
 * Deversorium
 * Deunx
 * Dextans
 * Dextrale
 * Diabateria
 * Diabathron
 * Diadema
 * Diadicasia
 * Diadoseis
 * Diaeta
 * Diatetae
 * Diaetetica
 * Diagogion
 * Diagrapheis
 * Dialis flamen
 * Diamartyria
 * Diamastigosis
 * Diapsephisis
 * Diarium
 * Diasia
 * Diastylus
 * Diatreta
 * Diaulos
 * Diazoma
 * Dicasterion
 * Dicastes
 * Dicasticon
 * Dike
 * Dichalcon
 * Dicrotum
 * Dictator
 * Dictynnia
 * Didrachmon
 * Diengyesis
 * Dies
 * Diffarreatio
 * Digesta
 * Digitalia
 * Digitus
 * Diipolia
 * Dimachae
 * Dimachaeri
 * Dimensum
 * Diminutio capitis
 * Diobelia
 * Diobolon

Diocleia – Doru

 * Diocleia
 * Diomosia
 * Dionysia
 * Dioscuria
 * Diota
 * Diphros
 * Diphthera
 * Diplax
 * Diplois
 * Diploma
 * Dipolia
 * Dipteros
 * Diptycha
 * Directa actio
 * Diribitores
 * Discus
 * Dispensator
 * Dithyrambus
 * Diversorium
 * Dividiculum
 * Divinatio
 * Divisor
 * Divortium
 * Dokana
 * Dokimasia
 * Dodrans
 * Dolabra
 * Dolichos
 * Dolium
 * Dolo
 * Dolus malus
 * Domestici
 * Domicilium
 * Dominium
 * Dominus
 * Domus
 * Donaria
 * Donatio
 * Donatio inter virim
 * Donatio mortis causa
 * Donatio proter nuptiuas
 * Donativum
 * Dormitorium
 * Dorodokias graphe
 * Doron 1.
 * Doron 2.
 * Doroxenias
 * Dorpia
 * Dorpon
 * Doru

Doryphori – Dux

 * Doryphori
 * Dos
 * Dossuarius
 * Doulos
 * Drachma
 * Draco
 * Ducenarii
 * Ducentesima
 * Duella
 * Dulciarii
 * Duodecim scripta
 * Duodecin tabularum lex
 * Duo viri
 * Duplarii
 * Duplicatio
 * Dupondius
 * Dussis
 * Duumvir
 * Dux


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/The Decrease in the Size of American Families


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/Helen Keller: A Psychological Autobiography


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/Discussion and Correspondence


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/Scientific Literature


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 63/May 1903/The Progress of Science


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Page:Aristotle - History of Animals, 1883.djvu/85

 B. I1I.J THE HISTOBT OF ANIMALS. 69 one suture, in a circle ; the male has three, meeting at the top of the head, like a triangle ; and human skulls have been seen without sutures. The head is not composed of four bones, but of six ; two of these are placed above the ears, and are small compared with the rest. . From the head the jaw-bones descend. All other ani- mals move the lower jaw, the river-crocodile alone moves the upper jaw. In the jaws are the order of the teeth, which are bony, in some parts they are perforated, in others they are not. These are the only bones too hard to be engraved. . From the spinal-column, which is the point of union, ori- ginate the clavicles and ribs ; the breast also is placed upon the ribs, and some of these are united, others are not, for no animal has a bone round the stomach. There are also the scapulae upon the shoulders, and these are conti- nued upon the arms, and those again to the hands ; and in all animals with fore legs the nature of the bone is the same. . At the extremity of the lower part of the spinal co- lumn, and next to the hip, is the socket, and the bones of the lower extremity, with those of the thigh and leg, which are called the colenes. The ancles form a portion of these, and the part called the spur in all creatures with ancles. Continuous with these are the bones of the feet. Viviparous animals with blood and feet do not diifer much in their bones, but rather by analogy, in hardness, softness, and size. Again, some of the bones contain marrow, whilst others, in the same animal, have none. . Some animals do not appear to have any marrow at all in their bones, as the lion, whose bones are very small and Blight : or there may be marrow in a few of its bones, as in those of the thigh and fore leg ; otherwise, in the lion, the bones are particularly solid, for they are sufficiently hard to emit fire like stones on concussion. The dolphin also has bones, but it has no spine, like fish. Some sanguineous ani- mals differ partially from these, as the class of birds. In others, as fish, the bones are only analogous, for viviparous fish have a cartilaginous spine, like those which are called selachea ; the oviparous fish have a spine, which is like the backbone of quadrupeds. . It is a peculiarity in fish that some species have small one 9.


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304 pages. The concluding stanzas xvii., xviii., xix., which Moore gives in a note (Life, p. 249), were not printed in Byron's lifetime, but were first included, in a separate poem, in Murray's edition of 1831, and first appended to the Ode in the seventeen-volume edition of 1832.

Although he had stipulated that the Ode should be published anonymously, Byron had no objection to "its being said to be mine." There was, in short, no secret about it, and notices on the whole favourable appeared in the Morning Chronicle, April 21, in the Examiner, April 24 (in which Leigh Hunt combated Byron's condemnation of Buonaparte for not "dying as honour dies"), and in the Anti-Jacobin for May, 1814 (Letters, 1899, iii. 73, note 3).

Byron's repeated resolutions and promises to cease writing and publishing, which sound as if they were only made to be broken, are somewhat exasperating, and if, as he pleaded in his own behalf, the occasion (of Napoleon's abdication) was physically irresistible, it is to be regretted that he did not swerve from his self-denying ordinance to better purpose. The note of disillusionment and disappointment in the Ode is but an echo of the sentiments of the "general." Napoleon on his own "fall" is more original and more interesting: "Il céda," writes Léonard Gallois (Histoire de Napoléon d'après lui-même, 1825, pp. 546, 547), "non sans de grands combats intérieurs, et la dicta en ces termes.

'Les puissances alliées ayant proclamé que l'empereur Napoléon était le seul obstacle au rétablissement, de la paix en Europe, l'empereur Napoléon fidèle à son serment, déclare qu'il renonce, pour lui et ses héritiers, aux trônes de France et d'Italie, parce qu'il n'est aucun sacrifice personnel, même celui de la vie, qu'il ne soit prêt à faire à l'intérêt de a France. .'"


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306


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Rh


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 86 THE HISTOEY OF ANIMALS. [ B j^ . The nature of the haemorrhois, the purpura, and all such animals is the same. But those which have the left foot greater are not found in the shells of the strombus, but in the neritae. There are some cochli which contain an ani- mal like the small astacus, which is found in rivers ; but they differ from them in having the inner part of the shell soft. Their form may be seen by examining dissections. CHAPTER V. . THE echini contain no flesh, but this part is peculiar, for they are all of them void of flesh, and are filled with a black substance. There are many kinds of echinus, one of which is eatable ; in this one the ova are large and eatable, both in the greater and the less. . And there are two other kinds, the spatangus and that called bryttus ; these are inhabitants of the sea, and rare. Those which are called echinornetrae 1 are the largest of all. Besides this, there is another small species, which has long and sharp spines ; this is procured from the sea, in many fathoms water, and some persons use it for stranguary. . Around Torona there are white marine echini, which have shells, and prickles, and ova, and are longer than others ; but the prickle is neither large nor strong, but soft, and the black parts from the mouth are more in number, and united to the outward passage, but distinct among themselves, and by these the animal is as it were divided. The eatable kinds are particularly and especially active, and it is a sign of them ; for they have always something adhering to their spines. . They all contain ova, but in some they are very small, and not eatable : that which is called the head and mouth in the echinus is downwards, and the anus placed upwards. The same thing occurs in the turbinated shells, and the patella ; for their food is placed below them, so that the mouth is towards the food, and the anus at or on the upper part of the shell. . The echinus has five hollow internal teeth, in the midst of these a portion of flesh like a tongue ; next to this is the oesophagus; then the stomach, in five divisions, full offsecu- lent matter : all its cavities unite in one, near the anus, where the shell is perforated. Beneath the stomach, in an- Echinus esculentus. nim9.


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308


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 2.djvu/67

CANTO I.] A nation swoln with ignorance and pride,

Who lick yet loathe the hand that waves the sword

To save them from the wrath of Gaul's unsparing lord.

XVII.

But whoso entereth within this town,

That, sheening far, celestial seems to be,

Disconsolate will wander up and down,

'Mid many things unsightly to strange ee;

For hut and palace show like filthily:

The dingy denizens are reared in dirt;

Ne personage of high or mean degree

Doth care for cleanness of surtout or shirt,

Though shent with Egypt's plague, unkempt, unwashed, unhurt.

XVIII.

Poor, paltry slaves! yet born 'midst noblest scenes—

Why, Nature, waste thy wonders on such men?


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134 that it is a study by itself, and requires for its mastery an acquaintance with an extensive literature of its own. It were useless to attempt a criticism, or to describe Shelley anew, but some unstudied remarks upon his fortunes in life may be ventured upon.

Must one incur the charge of being supercilious and aristocratic if he acknowledges at once a feeling, after reading Shelley's life, of having been in very disagreeable company? Assuredly no one can rise from the perusal with a heightened respect for human nature, apart from Shelley. He was born a gentleman; his innate courtesy clothes him with attractiveness, and distinguishes him among his associates as a person of a different kind from them, in his actions and bearing; and the deference which Byron showed to him, it is not unlikely, sprang from a perception of this strain of breeding in him rather than from appreciation of his genius or his nature. In his earliest fellowship with school-friends, for whom he had a kindly regard at Eton and after they went down together to Oxford, though Hogg plainly obscures it, there is a gleam here and there of natural and equal companionship; but this morning ray soon dies out. He was,


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Rh, almost uniformly unfortunate in his acquaintances. His life was truly one long and sorrowful disillusion; and in it not the least part was the discovery of how he had been deceived in his judgment of persons.

Hogg was his first example. Shelley became familiar with him at Oxford, and, not content with having him for a bosom friend, wished to make him his brother-in-law. At that time Shelley was in the first crude ferment of his intellectual life, eagerly absorbing the new knowledge which came to him from his indiscriminate reading, and disputing on all the usual topics with vehement and unwearied earnestness, insatiable curiosity, and the delight of a youth who has just made the discovery that he has a mind of his own. His thoughts and letters were mostly polemical; ideal elements of morality were growing up in him, and radical views of conduct getting a hold in his convictions. He was willful, precipitate, and heedless through inexperience; he was thrown the more upon himself, and given a violent turn toward rebellion, to which he was prone enough, by his expulsion from Oxford, and the senseless attempt of his family to make him suppress his mental and


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136 moral life by denying his first dear conclusions. In this state, partly from adventure and restlessness, perhaps, but also from a sense of obligation, the desire to spread his gospel, and by the mere favor of circumstances, he married his first wife, though he knew that his sympathies were more engaged than his heart.

At Edinburgh, whither the pair had gone, Hogg joined them, and with him they returned to York, where Shelley left his wife in his friend's care during a brief necessary absence. Hogg, who appears to have been not so pure as might be wished in his university days, tried to seduce her; and when Shelley came back he learned the facts. He loved Hogg; he was ashamed, he wrote, to tell him how much he loved him; he was grateful to him for having stood by him and shared his expulsion from the college; and he placed the most extravagant estimate upon his abilities. What followed upon the disclosure Shelley himself tells in a letter written at the time:—

"We walked to the fields beyond York. I desired to know fully the account of this affair. I heard it from him, and I believe he was sincere. All I can recollect of that


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Rh day was that I pardoned him,—fully, freely pardoned him; that I would still be a friend to him, and hoped soon to convince him how lovely virtue was; that his crime, not himself, was the object of my detestation; that I value a human being not for what it has been, but for what it is; that I hoped the time would come when he would regard his horrible error with as much disgust as I did. He said little; he was pale, terror-struck, remorseful."

One may smile at this episode, if he be cynical, and has left youth far enough behind; but for all that, there is something pathetic in these sentences of boyish goodness, this simple belief in the moral principles which Shelley had found in his first search, and to which he had given the allegiance of his unworn heart; and in this scene of forgiveness, still confused with the emotions of first friendship betrayed, one perceives the Shelley we know, though he was not yet out of his teens. Some time elapsed before Shelley realized all the incident meant; then he wrote, "I leave him to his fate;" and when they met again in London, the old footing was gone forever.

Godwin, too, affords a capital example of


text: Studies in letters and life/Remarks on Shelley


text:
Lohrmann's Lunar Map

Lohrmann’s Lunar Map. Mondkarte in 25 Sectionen von W. G. Lohrmann, mit beschreibendem Text von Dr. J. F. Julius Schmidt. Verlag Von J. A. Barth in Leipsig. Price 50s.

A desideraturn long awaited by astronomers has been at length supplied by the publication of Lohrmann's complete map of the moon. The ﬁrst part of his Topographie, &c., which contained only four sections of the twenty-ﬁve composing the map, was published so long ago as 1824, and no more of this great work was issued; but in 1838 a small map, comprising all the sections on a reduced scale, was lithographed by Werner at Dresden.

Lohrmann’s lunar survey commenced in Dresden in 1821, and was finished in 1836. In 1840 he died, and Mädler, in the mean time, having stepped into the field, the work of the other fell for a period into neglect; but, fortunately, his manuscripts were in the hands of a true lover of science — Herr W. A. Barth, of Leipsig — who, at his private cost, undertook their publication according to the original plan of the author. In this he was assisted by Herr Opelt of Dresden, who revised the calculations and the tables, and superintended the engraving. The work, however, proceeding but_slowly, Herr Barth, in February 1851, applied for the assistance of Dr. Schmidt, of the Athens observatory. Though Dr. Schmidt was at the time fully engaged with his own lunar map, he willingly responded to the call, and the work was quickly progressing when Herr Barth died in December of the same year. It was now fortunate that his son, Dr. A. A. Barth, determined to carry out the wishes of his father; and, after a lapse of two years, Dr. Schmidt resumed his labours at the map. Dr. Schmidt got his appointment as Director of the observatory at Athens in 1858; and the work then chiefly fell on Opelt, who was assisted by his son, a First-Lieutenant in the Saxon army; and the task was continued by the latter, after the death of his father in 1863.

Another death now occurred which might have been fatal to the ﬁnal success of the undertaking, namely, the death of Dr. A. A. Barth, were it not that he was succeeded by a man of equal zeal in the cause of science, Herr J. A. Barth, who was determined to accomplish the design of his predecessors, and Lohrmann’s 25 Sections have, accordingly, at length appeared with a descriptive_letterpress written by Dr. Schmidt, who also completed the final revision and correction of the tables.

The map of 3 French feet, measures the 3 1/2 millionth of the moon’s diameter. The new text, by Schmidt, is on a considerably abridged plan compared with Lohrmann’s. The parts connected with general astronomy are omitted; so also are the biographical notes relating to lunar nomenclature, and the method of calculating and fixing positions. On the other hand, Lohrmann’s account of his mode of delineation is retained, and a list of positions by Opelt is added. Lohrmann’s minute descriptions are also modified, as Dr. Schmidt considers that the various minor objects are sufficiently well outlined on the map, and require no special reference in the text.

In the preface to the published part of his work Lohrmann explained that his design was to represent the lunar mountains and shadings as closely as possible; and, following the methods of measuring and representation as prescribed by science, he adopted the orthographic projection of the lunar surface seen at mean libration.

As might be naturally expected, in a work of engraving taken in hand at intervals during a space of fifty years, a very unequal style of performance in the different plates was the result, and the several tones of shading, which even in the Lohrmann’s originals were not always satisfactory, appeared in very different proportions in different parts of the map.

To correct these completely would involve too much labour and expense, but some of the most important features have been retouched by Dr. Schmidt, who also has struck out several names that impaired the clearness of delineation.

To the largely increasing class of astronomers, professional and amateur, who make the lunar surface their study, and who have depended hitherto chiefly on Beer and Mädler’s map, the publication of Lohrmann’s complete sections must be highly appreciated. Schmidt's own wonderful map of 6 feet diameter will soon appear, and then we shall have the opportunity of testing our own observations by comparison with the lunar features as represented in no less than three great works. Evidences of continued volcanic activity in the moon may now be sought with increased facility, while at the same time, the almost cotemporary maps of Lohrmann, and B. and M. may serve to show that many apparent differences are due to the mode, or accidents of sketching rather than to change.

Too much praise cannot be given to Herr J. A. Barth for his liberal expenditure in carrying out the excellent design of his predecessors; and it is to be hoped that the undoubted value of the work will insure a demand that will amply reimburse a large outlay.

The astronomical world must surely recognize the good fortune that placed the task of editing in hands like those of Dr. Schmidt, whose disinterested conduct in suspending his labours at his own map for the purpose of publishing the work of another, and giving it precedence, is quite in keeping with the estimable character and scientiﬁc devotedness of the chief of the Athens observatory.

J. BIRMINGHAM.

title: Lohrmann's Lunar Map


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Rh hunted, and shot down Arabs, and in the end she has peopled Algeria with Italians and Spaniards!

"The irony of these results is cruel enough, and it is hard to realise that this empire, ten or eleven times as big as France herself, has been formed to our detriment. But, it must be taken into consideration that whereas the French nation derives no advantage whatsoever from the possession of territories in Africa and Asia, the heads of its Government, on the other hand, find it to their great advantage to acquire them. They thereby secure the affection of the navy and army, which on the occasion of colonial expeditions reap a harvest of promotions, pensions, and crosses, to say nothing of the glory won in defeating the enemy. They conciliate the clergy by opening new paths to the Propaganda, and by allocating territories to Catholic missions. They make joyous the ship-owners, builders, and army contractors, whom they load with orders. They secure for themselves in the country itself a numerous following by the granting of concessions of immense forests and plantations without end. And, what is still more precious to them, they attach to their majority every parliamentary jobber and kerbstone-broker. Lastly, they cajole the multitude, proud in its possession of a yellow and black empire, which makes Germany and England turn green with envy. They are looked

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174 upon as good citizens, patriots, and great statesmen. And if, like Ferry, they incur the risk of going under, as the result of some military disaster, they willingly run the risk fully convinced that the most harmful of distant expeditions will cost them fewer difficulties, and will inveigle them into fewer perils than the most useful of social reforms.

"You can now realise why we have occasionally had imperialist ministers, jealous of aggrandising our colonial domain. We must congratulate ourselves, however, and praise the moderation of our rulers, who might have burdened us with still more colonies.

"But all danger has not been averted, and we are threatened with an eighty years' warfare in Morocco. Is there never to be an end to the colonial mania?

"I am fully aware that nations are not sensible. How can it be expected of them, if one considers what they are made of? Still, a certain instinct oftentimes warns them of what is harmful. They are occasionally endowed with the power of observing. In the long run they undergo the painful experience of their errors and blunders. The day will come when it will dawn upon them that colonies are a source of perils and ruinous results. Commercial barbarism will be followed by commercial civilisation, and forcible, by pacific

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Rh. These ideas have to-day found an echo even in the bosom of parliaments. They will prevail, not because men will be more disinterested, but because they will know their own interests better.

"The great human asset is man himself. In order to rate the terrestrial globe, it is necessary to begin by rating men. To exploit the soil, the mines, the waters, all the substances and all the forces of our planet, it needs man, the whole of man; humanity, the whole of humanity. The complete exploitation of the terrestrial globe demands the united labour of white, yellow, and black men. By reducing, diminishing, and weakening, or, to sum it up in one word, by colonising a portion of humanity, we are working against ourselves. It is to our advantage that yellow and black men should be powerful, free, and wealthy. Our prosperity and our wealth depend on theirs. The more is produced, the more will there be consumed. The greater the profit they derive from us, the greater the profit we shall derive from them. If they reap the benefit of our labours, so shall we fully reap theirs.

"If we study the movements which govern the destinies of societies, we may perhaps discover signs that the era of violent deeds is coming to an end. War, which was formerly a standing institution among nations, is now intermittent, and the periods of peace have become of longer duration than those

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176 of war. Our country affords the observations of a fact full of interest, for the French nation presents an original characteristic in the military history of nations. Whereas other nations never waged war except from interest or necessity, alone the French have fought for the pleasure of fighting. Now it is remarkable that the taste of our compatriots has undergone a change. Thirty years ago Renan wrote: 'Whoever knows France as a whole and in her provincial varieties will not hesitate to recognise the fact that the movement swaying this country for the past fifty years is essentially pacific' It is a fact attested by a large number of observers that in 1870 France had no desire to have recourse to the arbitrament of war, and that the declaration of war was greeted with consternation. It is an assured fact that few Frenchmen dream of taking the field, and that everybody readily accepts the idea that the army exists in order to avoid a war. Let me quote one example out of a thousand in confirmation of this state of mind. Monsieur Ribot, a representative of the people and a former Cabinet Minister, having been invited to some patriotic celebration, replied with an eloquent letter, begging to be excused. The same Monsieur Ribot knits his brows superciliously at the mere mention of the word disarmament. He has towards standards and cannon the leaning

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Rh proper to a former Minister of Foreign Affairs. In his letter he denounces as a national peril the pacific ideas disseminated by the Socialist. He sees in them a spirit of renunciation he cannot endure. Not that he is of a bellicose turn of mind. He, too sighs for peace, but a peace full of pomp, magnificent, and flashing with the same pride as war. Between Monsieur Ribot and Jaurès, the matter is merely one of form. Both of them are for peace. Jaurès, simply; Monsieur Ribot, superbly. That is all. Better still and more surely than the Socialist democracy which contents itself with a bloused or coated peace does the sentiment of the bourgeois, who demand a peace gleaming with military insignia and bedecked with emblems of glory, testify to the inevitable decline of all idea of revenge and conquests, since one discerns in it the military instinct, at the very time when it is losing its nature and is becoming pacific.

"France is acquiring by degrees the sentiment of her true strength, consisting in intellectual strength; she is becoming conscious of her mission, which is the sowing of ideas and the exercise of a sway over thought. She will within measurable time perceive that her only stable power has lain in her speakers, her writers, and her men of science. Hence she will some day fain have to recognise that the force of numbers, after having so often betrayed her, is

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178 finally escaping from her, and that the time has come for her to resign herself to the glory which the exercise of the mind and the use of reason assure her of."

Jean Boilly, shaking his head, said:

"You ask. that France should teach other nations concord and peace. Are you so sure that she will be listened to and her example followed? Is her own tranquillity so assured? Has she not to fear threats from outside, to foresee dangers, to watch over her safety, and to provide for her defence? One swallow does not make a summer; one nation does not make the peace of the world. Is it so sure that Germany keeps up an army with the sole object of not waging war? Her Social-Democrats desire peace. But they are not the masters, and their deputies do not enjoy in the Parliament the authority which the number of their electors should give them. And Russia, who has hardly entered upon the industrial period, do you believe that she will soon be entering upon the pacific period? Is it not to be feared that after having disturbed Asia she will disturb Europe?

"Supposing even that Europe should become pacific, can you not see that America would become warlike? Following upon Cuba, reduced to the state of a vassal republic, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the annexation of the Philippines, it is impossible

title: Page:The White Stone.djvu/182


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Rh to say that the American Union is not a conquering nation. A publicist of Yankee proclivities, Stead, has said amid the plaudits of the whole of the United States: 'The Americanisation of the world is on the march.' And then there is Mr. Roosevelt, whose dream is to plant the Stars and Stripes in South Africa, Australia, and the West Indies. Mr. Roosevelt is Imperialist and he sighs for an America mistress of the world. Between ourselves, he is planning the Empire of Augustus. He has unfortunately perused Livy. The conquests of the Romans banish sleep from him. Have you read his speeches? They breathe a bellicose spirit. 'Fight, my friends,' says Mr. Roosevelt, 'and fight hard. There is nothing like blows. We are upon earth only to exterminate one another. Those who tell you the contrary are men without morality. Mistrust men who think. Thought enervates. 'Tis a French failing. The Romans conquered the world. They lost it. We are the modern Romans.' Words full of eloquence, backed up with a navy which will soon be the second in the world, and with a military Budget of 40,500,000 francs!

"The Yankees declare that in four years' time they will fight Germany. If we are to believe this, they should first tell us where they expect to come into contact with the enemy. That a Russia, the serf of her Czar, that a still feudal Germany, should

title: Page:The White Stone.djvu/183


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180 entertain armies for fighting purposes, this one is tempted to lay to the door of ancient habits and the survival of a strenuous past. But that a young democracy, the United States of America, an aggregation of business men, a mass of emigrants from all countries, lacking community, traditions, and memories, madly cast into the scramble for the mighty dollar, should of a sudden be swept with the desire of firing torpedoes at the flanks of battleships, and of exploding mines under the enemy's columns, affords a proof that the inordinate struggle for the production and exploitation of riches keeps alive the employment of and taste for brutal force, that industrial violence engenders military violence, and that mercantile rivalries kindle between nations hatreds that bloodshed can alone extinguish. The colonial mania of which you were speaking a while ago is but one of the thousand forms of the much-vaunted competition of our economists. The capitalistic state is just as much a warlike one as the feudal. The era has dawned of great wars for the industrial sovereignty. Under the present régime of national production it is the cannon which fixes tariffs, establishes customs, opens and closes markets. There exists no other regulator of commerce and industry. Extermination is the fatal result of the economic conditions in which the civilised world finds itself to-day...."

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Rh The perfume of Gorgonzola and Stracchino was pervading the table. The waiter was bringing in wax-candles to each of which was attached the abbrustolatoio wherewith to light the long cigars with straws, so dear to Italians.

Hippolyte Dufresne, who for some time past seemed to have remained indifferent to the con- versation, here remarked in a low tone tinged with an ostentatious modesty:

"Gentlemen, our friend Langelier was asserting just now that many men are afraid of disgracing themselves in the eyes of their contemporaries by assuming the horrible immorality which is to be the morality of the future. I do not entertain a like fear, and I have written a little tale, which has perhaps no other merit than the one of revealing my calmness of mind when considering the future. I shall one day crave permission to read it to you."

"Read it right away," said Boni, lighting his cigar.

"You will be giving us pleasure," added Joséphin Leclerc, Nicole Langelier, and M. Goubin.

"I am not sure whether I have the manuscript with me," replied Hippolyte Dufresne.

With these words, he drew out of his pocket a roll of paper, and began to read what follows.

title: Page:The White Stone.djvu/185


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/454

 It was in Egypt that the minaret received its highest development. The earliest example is that of the mosque of Tulun, which is of unusual shape, and has winding round it an inclined plane or staircase of easy ascent which can be made on horseback. The original design of this scheme was probably derived from the mosque of Samara, a town 60 m. north of Bagdad, where the minaret built c. 850 has a spiral ascent round it, recalling that of the Assyrian ziggurat as at Khorsabad. The general design of the Cairo minarets would seem to have been universally adhered to from the 12th century onwards, but the upper storeys are all varied in detail, there being virtually no two alike. As a rule the lower portion of the minaret forms part of the main wall of the mosque, and was carried up square a few feet above the cresting. It then became octagonal on plan, the sides decorated with niches or geometrical ornaments in bold relief. This, the first independent storey, was crowned by a stalactite cornice carrying the balcony (fig. 59), from which the muezzin (call-to-prayer) was chanted. In the early and fine examples the balustrade round it consisted of vertical posts with panels between, pierced with geometric ornaments, and all in stone. The second storey, also octagonal, was set back sufficiently to allow a passage round, and this was crowned by a similar stalactite cornice and balustrade. A third storey, sometimes circular on plan, completed the tower, which was crowned with a bulbous terminal. In one of the mosques, that of El Azhar, the first storey is square on plan, and the second storey has twin towers with lofty bulbous finials. The elaboration of the carved ornament on the various storeys of the minarets is of considerable beauty. Among the most remarkable, other than those already referred to, are the minarets of the mosque of al-Bordeni, of Kalaun, al-Nazir, Muʽayyad (built on the semicircular bastion wall of the Zuwela Gate), Sultan Barkuk (1348), and numerous other mosques or tombs outside Cairo.

The earlier domes were quite plain, hemispherical, with buttresses round the base, similar to those of St Sophia at Constantinople. In the later domes it was found that by raising the upper portion so as to take the form in section of a pointed arch, they could be built in horizontal courses of masonry up to about two-thirds of their height, the upper portion forming a lid without any thrust. It is probably owing to this method of construction that they still exist in such large numbers. The outer surfaces are decorated in various ways with geometrical designs, star patterns, chevrons, diapers, &c. Domes built in brick were covered with stucco and divided up into godroons.

We have already referred to the lofty portal of the mosque of Sultan Hasan; portals of smaller dimensions form the principal entrance to all the mosques and private houses. The recessed portion rises to twice or three times the height of the door, and its pointed or cusped head is always filled by a rich stalactite vault.

The descriptions of the disposition of plan, and the principles which have governed the plans of the Cairene mosques, apply equally to those in Syria, so that it now only remains necessary to quote the chief examples. Of these the earliest is the Dome of the Rock, incorrectly called the mosque of Omar, which was built by Abdalmalik in 691, partly with materials taken from the buildings destroyed by Chosroes. At first it consisted of a central area enclosing the sacred rock, covered with a dome and with aisles round carried on columns and piers, and like the smaller Dome of the Chain open all round, but the climate of Syria is very different from that in Egypt, and consequently at a later period (813–833) the sultan Mamun built the walls which now enclose the whole structure. Many restorations have taken place since, and the dome with its rich internal decoration is attributed to Saladin (1189). The magnificent Persian tiles which encase the walls, the marble casing of some of the piers, and the stained glass, form part of the works of Suleiman (1520–1560).

The great mosque of Damascus occupied the site of an ancient church dedicated to St John the Baptist, which for a time was divided between the Christians and the Mahommedans. But in 705 the caliph al-Walid took possession of the whole church, which he rebuilt, retaining, however, the whole of the south wall, portions of which belonged to a Roman temple. This, which by chance happened to face south, became the Mecca wall, the niche being sunk in one of the doorways of the original temple. Its plan, therefore, is a variation of those we have already described. It consists of a transept with dome over the centre, three aisles of equal width, running both east and west, and a great court on the north side surrounded by arcades. The great transept is virtually the prayer chamber. The new building was erected by Byzantine masons sent from Constantinople, and decorated with marbles and mosaic by Greek artists. The mosque was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1893, but has since been rebuilt.

The mosque of El Aksa in the sacred enclosure in Jerusalem, and south of the Dome of the Rock, was commenced by Abdalmalik (691), who used up materials taken from the church of St Mary, built by Justinian on Mount Sion, which had been destroyed by Chosroes. There have been so many restorations and rebuildings since, owing to destructive earthquakes and other causes, that it is difficult to give the precise dates of the various portions. The columns of the nave and aisles are extremely stunted in proportion, and their capitals are of a very debased type, copied by inferior artists from Byzantine models. They carry immense wood beams cased, and above them a range of pointed arches, among the earliest examples used throughout a mosque, and probably dating from the rebuilding (774–785). The Crusaders made various additions in the rear, but the great entrance porch is said to have been added by Saladin, after 1187, and was built probably by Christian masons who were allowed to remain in the country.

The numerous minarets at Jerusalem and Damascus in general design follow those of Egypt, but instead of the incised work are generally encased with marble in geometric patterns.

The great mosque at Mecca, from which it was thought at one time the plan of the Egyptian and other mosques was taken, is necessarily different from all others, because the Ka‘ba or Holy Stone, towards which all the niches in all other mosques turn, stood in its centre. The arcades which surround the court were nearly all rebuilt in the 17th century, as the whole mosque was washed away by a torrent in 1626.

The mosque of Kairawan in Tunisia was built in 675. It occupies an area of 427 ft. deep and 225 ft. wide, with a prayer chamber at the Mecca end of 17 aisles and 11 bays deep, more than twice, therefore, that of ʽAmr in Old Cairo. The columns to the prayer chamber,

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/454


text: The White Stone/Chapter 4

title: The White Stone/Chapter 4


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Bright, John (1811-1889)


text:
Joan of Arc (Coates)

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "Joan of Arc" in Mine and Thine (1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "Joan of Arc" in Poems I.

title: Joan of Arc (Coates)


text: Childe Harold's Good Night

title: Childe Harold's Good Night


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/455

 all taken from ancient buildings, are 22 ft. high in the central aisle and 15 ft. in all the others. They carry horse-shoe arches, which, as in the mosque of ʽAmr, are all tied together by wood beams inserted at the springing of the arches. The mosque of Cordova was built by Abdarrahman (Abd-ar-Rahman) in 786–789 in imitation of the mosque of Kairawan. There were eleven aisles of twenty-one bays, the centre one slightly wider than the other. The materials were taken from earlier buildings, and, as the columns and caps were not considered high enough, above the horse-shoe arches are built a second row of arches which carry the barrel vaults. To this mosque Hakim added twelve more bays in depth at the Mecca end (962), and in 985 Mansur added eight more aisles of thirty-three bays on the east side. Part of the open court on the north side dates from Abdarrahman’s foundation (690) and part from Mansur.

In the mosque of Cordova we find the earliest example of the cusped arch, in the additions made by Hakim in 961; in order to obtain a greater height above the columns, it became necessary to employ the expedient of raising arch above arch in order to obtain the height they required for the ceilings; and as these arches formed purely decorative features, which might otherwise have become monotonous, variety was given by introducing the cusped form of arch and interlacing them one within the other. It is probably this elaborate design which suggested the plaster decorations of the screens above the arches in the court of the Alhambra. Though commenced in 1245, the existing palace of the Alhambra was built in the first half of the 14th century, at a time when the style was fully developed. There are two great courts at right angles to one another, the most important of which was the Court of the Lions, so called from the fountain in the centre, with twelve conventional representations of that animal carrying the basins. This court is surrounded by an arcade with stilted arches carried on slender marble columns with extremely rich decoration above, partly in stucco painted and gilt. The hall of the Abencerrages (35 ft. square) has a polygonal dome covered with arabesque (fig. 60). Two other halls are roofed with lofty stalactite vaults of great intricacy, richly gilded and of remarkable effect (fig. 61), but the employment of stucco instead of stone, as in Egypt, has led to an abuse in the wealth of enrichment, which is only partly redeemed by the plain masonry of the towers and walls enclosing the palace. The Giralda at Seville is the only example of a tower, but it does not seem to have served the purpose of a minaret.

With the exception of the tombs of Zobeide and Ezekiel near Bagdad, and a hospital at Erzerum of the 12th century, built by the Seljukian dynasty, the Mahommedan style in Persia dates from the 13th century, i.e. if Ghazan Khan built the mosque at Tabriz in 1294. The plan is that of a Byzantine church with a central dome, aisles and sanctuary. The portal consists of a lofty niche vaulted with semi-domes and stalactite pendentives, similar in many respects to the well-known example of Sultan Hasan in Cairo, built sixty years later. It is built in brick and covered internally and externally with glazed bricks of various colours, wrought into most intricate patterns with interlacing ornament and with Cufic inscriptions. The dazzling and perfect beauty in point of colour is not to be surpassed, but from the architectural point of view it possesses the fatal sin of not showing its construction. The bricks and tiles are only a veneer, and though in certain features (such as the portal and the dome) the construction is at least suggested, the tendency is to trust to decoration alone to produce architectural effects. (But see .)

The great mosque at Isfahan (1585) is a good illustration of the danger attending a too free use of surface decoration. Strip the walls of their tiles, and nothing is left except square box-like forms with pointed arched openings of different form. The interior, however, owing to the variety of its features, and the varied play of light and shade given in the hemispherical vaults of its transepts and niches and the vaulted aisles, constitutes one of the most beautiful monuments of Mahommedan art.

Apart from the great development of Mahommedan architecture in India (see ), there remains now to be described only one other phase of the style, that found in Constantinople.

Prior to the conquest of Constantinople in 1445, two mosques were built by the Turks at Brusa in Asia Minor. The plan of Ulu Jami, the great mosque, follows the original courtyard type. Yeshil Jami, the Green mosque (1430), built on the site of a Byzantine church, is cruciform on plan. In both of them the Persian influence is shown, in the magnificent towers with which they are covered, the marble casing and the stalactite vaults.

After the conquest of Constantinople, the supreme beauty of St Sophia, and the adaptability of its plan to the requirements of the Mahommedan faith, caused it to be accepted as the model on which all the new mosques were based. The first two erected were the Bayezid (1497–1515) and the Selim mosques (1520–1526). In the former the dome and its pendentives are carried on octagonal piers, and the dome, 108 ft. in diameter, is greater than in any subsequent example. The finest mosque, and the example in which we find the complete development of the Turkish style, is that erected by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1550–1555. This mosque, designed by Sinan, an Armenian architect, is still quite perfect. The plan follows very closely its model, St Sophia, and consists of a central dome, 86 ft. in diameter and 156 ft. high, carried on pendentives, resting on great arches which are slightly pointed, with great apses on the east and west sides, and three smaller apses in each, the arches of which are all circular. The principal change in design is that found in the north and south walls, under the arches carrying the dome; in St Sophia they were subdivided into two storeys with galleries overlooking the church, but in the Suleimanic mosque the galleries are set back in the outer aisles, and the screen walls consist of a wide central and two side pointed arches, and voussoirs alternately of black and white marble. The tympana above this is pierced with eighteen windows filled with geometric tracery. Stalactite work is employed in the pendentive of the smaller apses and in the capitals of the columns carrying the pointed arches. The columns are of porphyry, the shafts, 28 ft. high, being taken from the Hippodrome and probably brought originally from Egypt. The walls are cased with marble up to the springing of the dome, but the magnificent mosaics of St Sophia are here replaced by vulgar colouring and plaster decoration of a rococo style, due probably to recent restorations. The mosque is preceded by a forecourt, surrounded by an arcade on all sides and containing a fountain, and in the garden in the rear is the tomb of the founder and his wife.

The Shah-Zadeh mosque, known as the prince’s mosque, was also built by Sultan Suleiman, from the designs of Sinan, the same

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 49 083156 TERM AT FULL STRENGTH OF 350.

090556 THERE WAS A CHANGE IN POLICY FROM TRAINING THE VIETNAMESE ARMY FROM INTERNAL SECURITY ALONE TO BOTH A MISSION OF INTERNAL SECURITY AND LIMITED INITIAL RESISTANCE. OCMH.

091656 U.S. TRAINING PROGRAM OF ARVN WENT INTO EFFECT.

091956 FRENCH AIR FORCE OFFICIALLY TRANSFERRED THE TOURANE AIR BASE TO VIETNAMESE CONTROL.

100156 OPLAN 46-56 DEFENSE OF SOUTH VIETNAM PREPARED BY CINCPAC.

102456 STATE DEPARTMENT REPORT EMPHASIZED THAT THE SUBVERSION–POLITICAL THREAT TO SOUTH VIETNAM WAS MORE LIKELY TO BE A REAL DANGER THAN OVERT AGGRESSION.

110156 THE CHIEF OF MAAG PROPOSED SUPPORTING THE CIVIL GUARD AT A STRENGTH OF 59,160 AND A SELF DEFENSE CORPS OF 60,000. OCMH.

1256 COUNTRY TEAM JUDGED THE VNA CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SECURITY. /JCS HIST.

0157 DIEM ASKED THE U.S. TO INCREASE HIS FORCE TO 200,000. THIS WAS REFUSED.

010357 THE ICC REPORTED THAT BETWEEN DECEMBER 1955 AND AUGUST 1956 NEITHER NORTH OR SOUTH VIETNAM HAD BEEN FULFILLING ITS OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE 1954 ARMISTICE AGREEMENT.

021557 THE TWO PACIFICATION OPERATIONS TRUONG TAN BUU AND THOAI NGOC HAU TERMINATED. THE VN MILITARY FELT THAT THE ARMY SHOULD PERFORM ONLY MILITARY FUNCTIONS WHICH DID NOT INTERFERE WITH NORMAL TRAINING. HOWEVER DIEM WANTED THE TWO OPERATIONS TO BE CONTINUED AS PART OF THE PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS ROUTINE FUNCTIONS. BUU AND HAU HAD BEEN VAST MILITARY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS EMPLOYING MEN FROM THE ARMED CIVIL GUARD, AND CIVIL ACTION COMMITTEES WITH THE PURPOSE TO BRING ALL UNDER GOVERNMENT CONTROL AND TO PUBLICIZE AND POPULARIZE THE DIEM GOVERNMENT. /WID 15-57

0357 THE GOVERNMENT OF PRESIDENT DIEM ANNOUNCED A SERIES OF REGULATIONS INTENDED TO ENCOURAGE FOREIGN INVESTMENTS. /J.B.

031957 OPLAN 16-56 DEFENSE OF SOUTH VIETNAM WAS APPROVED BY JCS.

041657 ELBRIDGE DURBROW PRESENTED HIS CREDENTIALS AS AMBASSADOR OF THE U.S. TO SOUTH VIETNAM.

050257 PRES. DIEM REINSTITUTED A DRAFT LAW. /JCS HIST.

050457 ARVN'S FIRST MAJOR TACTICAL CONTROL HEADQUARTERS WAS ESTABLISHED, I CO /JCS HIST.

050557 PRESIDENT DIEM VISITED THE U.S.

050957 PRESIDENT DIEM ADDRESSED A JOINT ASSEMBLY OF CONGRESS. MM


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138 a shattered ideal. He was the Socrates of the young poet, and Shelley, who derived the main articles of his political and social creed from the radical philosopher's great book, was already adoring him as one in the pantheon of the immortal dead, when he learned from Southey that his master and emancipator still walked the earth. He sat down at once and wrote a characteristic epistle, in which he expressed himself with the enthusiasm of a disciple not yet twenty, and respectfully but earnestly besought the living friendship and advice of him whom he regarded as the light of the new age. Godwin was interested, and long and frequent letters, admirable in tone upon both sides, passed between them. The elder endeavored to check the irrepressible activity and eager plans of the young reformer, who had no notion of waiting until he should grow old before setting to work to remake society; and the youth, on his part, exhibited a deference and willingness to be guided such as he never showed before or afterwards. The first modification of Shelley's idea of Godwin came in consequence of their personal acquaintance, as was natural; but in discovering that Godwin was really an


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 VII

THE FREEDOM OF MEN

the consideration of the Realities presented by the geography of our Globe we have come to the conclusion that if the Freedom of Nations is to be secure, it must rest on a reasonable approach to equality of resources as between a certain number of the larger Nations. We have also seen that, given the imperious Reality of the Going Concern, it is necessary that the Nations should be so controlled in their economic growth that they do not tend to get out of hand and clash. But what have these principles to do with the Freedom of Men and Women? Will free Nations in a League be able to give more freedom to their citizens? Certainly the men who have been fighting, the men who have been sailing our ships through danger on the seas, and the mothers and wives who have been working, waiting, and mourning at home, are not looking for the mere defeat of a danger that threatened; they have positive visions 236


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 50 051057 IN A MEETING BETWEEN PRESIDENT DIEM AND DEPUTY SECRETARY QUARLES, DIEM PUT FORTH HIS PLAN TO MOVE THE CIVIL GUARD INTO HIGH PLATEAU AREAS TO FILL THE VACUUM THERE. HE ALSO PUT FORTH THE NEW ARMY REORGANIZATION. HE WANTED THE SAME NUMBER OF DIVISIONS BUT WITH A STRENGTH INCREASE UP TO 10,000 WHICH REQUIRED A TOTAL FORCE INCREASE OF 20,000.

051157 PRESIDENT EISENHOWER AND PRESIDENT DIEM DECLARED THAT BOTH COUNTRIES WOULD WORK TOWARD A PEACEFUL UNIFICATION OF VIETNAM (JOINT COMMUNIQUE).

051157 ACCORDING TO EISENHOWER AND DIEM THE CHIEF DANGER TO SOUTH VIETNAM WAS THE LARGE BUILDUP OF MILITARY FORCES IN NORTH VIETNAM.

051757 NORTH VIETNAMESE LIAISON MISSION TO THE ICC WAS WITHDRAWN FROM SAIGON AT THE REQUEST OF SOUTH VIETNAM.

052457 ASST. SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, GVN, SUBMITTED A WRITTEN REQUEST TO CHIEF-M FOR U.S. ADVISOR ASSISTANCE FOR THE VIETNAM AIR FORCE AND NAVY.

052857 NEW YORK STATE POLICE INSPECTOR UPDIKE WAS ASKED TO SET UP THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE POLICE FORCE.

053157 FRENCH PARTICIPATION IN THE TRAINING OF THE VIETNAMESE AIR FORCE, NAVY, AND AT THE VIETNAMESE COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE TERMINATED. FRENCH LEGAL INSTRUCTORS TO GENDARMERIE AND CIVIL GUARD STILL REMAINED.

0657 THE FRENCH NAVAL AND AIR FORCE TRAINING MISSION WAS WITHDRAWN FROM SOUTH VIETNAM.

061357 THREE NEW YORK STATE POLICEMEN WERE ASSIGNED TO HELP ORGANIZE THE POLICE IN SOUTH VIETNAM.

0757 GVN REQUESTED $60 MILLION FOR HEAVY EQUIPMENT FOR THE CIVIL GUARD. MA AND MSU PROPOSED $14–18 MILLION. /JCS HIST.

0757 AN ICA SURVEY REPORT ON VIETNAM INDICATED THAT COMMODITY ASSISTANCE FUNDING TO THE INTERNAL SECURITY PROGRAM WAS TO END IN 1958. /159-1

0757 SINCE THE ARVN'S ANTI-DISSIDENT CAMPAIGNS HAD ACHIEVED SUCH SUCCESS, THE SOUTH VIETNAM GOVERNMENT DIVERTED MOST OF THE MILITARY TO TRAINING FOR CLASSICAL WARFARE AS A NECESSITY FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE AGAINST POSSIBLE DRV AGGRESSION. /WID 30-58.

0957 ALL 10 ARVN DIVISIONS HAD COMPLETED BASIC TRAINING. 7 DIVISIONS HAD FINISHED THIRD LEVEL TRAINING.

102257 U.S. PERSONNEL WERE INJURED IN SAIGON IN THE BOMBING OF INSTALLATIONS THE U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE ADVISORY GROUP AND OF THE U.S. INFORMATION SERVICE.

1157 INTELLIGENCE REPORTS DEPICTED VIETCONG EFFORTS AS ONE OF SURVIVAL DURING JULY 1956 – JULY 1957. /JCS HIST. NN


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Rh of greater happiness in their own lives or in the lives of those dear to them.

Let us analyse from this point of view the successive stages of democratic idealism which were referred to in the opening pages of this book. The American Declaration of Independence claimed for all men the right to pursue happiness. The French Revolution crystallised this phrase into the single word Liberty, and added Equality, which implies control, and Fraternity, which implies self-control. Fraternity is of the essence of successful democracy, the highest but the most difficult of all modes of government, since it demands most of the average citizen. That is the first cycle of democratic thought; it pertains directly and obviously to the Freedom of Men.

In the middle of the nineteenth century began the second cycle, which has aimed at the Freedom of Nations. The claim of Nationality is to the right of a local group of men to pursue happiness together, with their own ways of control to secure equality among them. Fraternal feeling is not easy of attainment unless you have been brought up together; hence the part played by History in the National sentiment. But mere Nationalism claims only the right to pursue happiness


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 Armenian architect who built the Suleimanic mosque. Here, instead of confining the great apses to the east and west sides, they are introduced on the north and south sides in place of the screen, and produce a monotonous and poor effect. The same design is found in the Ahmedin mosque, built 1608, and with the same result. Externally, however, they are both fine, owing to the variety of domes, semi-domes and other curved forms of roof.

The minarets of the Turkish mosques are very inferior to those of Cairo. They are of great height, generally semicircular, with narrow balconies round the upper part, and crowned with extinguisher roofs. To a certain extent, however, they contrast very well with the domes and semi-domes of St Sophia and those of the mosques built by the Turks.

In the mosque of Osman, built 1748–1757, we find the first trace of Western influence in its rococo design, but here, as in the mosque of Mehemet Ali in Cairo, built in 1837, the scheme is so good that, notwithstanding the great falling off in design, and, in the latter mosque, the construction, the effect of the interior is very fine.

Amongst other architectural features, the fountains in the courtyards of the mosques and those which decorate the public squares are extremely pleasing in design. The latter are square on plan with polygonal angles elaborate niches with stalactite heads, with overhanging eaves on each side; the ornament is very varied and the colour sometimes very attractive. The roofs have sometimes most picturesque outlines.

The beginning of the 19th century may be considered to mark the beginning of the modern era in architecture. The 19th century is the period par excellence of architectural “revivals.” The great Renaissance movement in Italy already described was something more than a mere revival. It was a new spirit affecting the whole of art and literature and life, not an architectural movement only; and as far as architecture is concerned it was not a mere imitative revival. The great Italian architects of the Renaissance, as well as Wren, Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor in England, however they drew their inspiration from antique models, were for the most part original architects; they put the ancient materials to new uses of their own. The tendency of the 19th-century revivals, on the other hand, except in France, was distinctly imitative in a sense in which the architecture of the great Renaissance period was not. Correctness of imitation, in the English Gothic revival especially, was an avowed object; and conformity to precedent became, in fact, except with one or two individual architects, almost the admitted test of excellence.

The earliest classical London building of note in the 19th century is Soane’s Bank of England, which as a matter of date belongs in fact to the end of the 18th century; but its architect lived well into the 19th century, and the bank may be classed with this section of the subject. Soane had to make something architectural out of the walls of a very extended building of only one storey, in which external windows were not admissible; and he did so by applying a classical columnar order to the walls and introducing sham window architraves. The latter are indefensible, and weaken the expression of the building; the columnar order was the received method at the time of making a building (as was supposed) “architectural,” and the building has grace and dignity, and could hardly be taken for anything except a bank, although a more robust and massive treatment would have been more expressive of the function of the building, as a kind of fortress for the storage of money. It was only some years later that the Greek revival took some hold of English architects (the Bank of England is rather Roman than Greek); the impetus to it was probably given by the “Elgin marbles”; Stuart and Revett’s great work on the Antiquities of Athens had been issued a good while previously, the three first volumes being dated respectively 1762, 1787 and 1794; but the appearance of the fourth volume in 1816 was no doubt influenced by the transportation to London of the Elgin marbles, and the sensation created by them. One of the first architectural results was the erection, at an immense cost in comparison with its size, of the church of St Pancras in London (1819–1822), designed by Inwood, who published a fine and still valuable monograph on the Erechtheum, and showed his enthusiasm for Greek architecture by copying the Erechtheum order and doorways for his façade, and erecting over it a tower composed of the Temple of the Winds with an octagonal imitation of the monument of Lysicrates imposed above it. This use of Greek monuments was architecturally absurd, though at the time it was no doubt the offspring of a genuine enthusiasm.

A better use was made of the study of Greek architecture by William Wilkins (1778–1839), who was in his way a great architect, and whose University College (1827–1828), as designed by him, was a noble and dignified building, of which he only carried out the central block with the cupola and portico. The wings were somewhat altered from his design but not materially spoiled, but the university authorities permitted the vandalism of erecting a low building as a partial return of the quadrangle on the fourth side, for the purposes of a mechanical laboratory, which ruined the appearance of the building. Wilkins’s other well-known work is the National Gallery (1832–1838), which he was not allowed to carry out exactly as he wished, and in which the cupola and the “pepperpots” are exceedingly poor and weak. But his details, especially the profiles of his mouldings, are admirably refined, and show the influence of a close study of Greek work. Among other prominent English architects of the classic revival in England are Sir Robert Smirke and Decimus Burton (1800–1881). To Burton we owe the Constitution Hill arch and the Hyde Park screen. The latter is a very graceful erection of its kind; the arch has never been completed by the quadriga group which the architect intended as its crowning feature, though for many years it was allowed to be disfigured by the colossal equestrian statue of Wellington, completely out of scale and crushing the structure. Smirke is kept in memory by his fine façade of the British Museum, which has been much criticized for its “useless” colonnades and the wasted space under them. The criticism is hardly just; for classic colonnades have at least some affinity with the purposes of a museum of antique art, and it conveys the impression of being a frontispiece to a building containing something of permanent value and importance. The early classic revival set its mark also, in a very fine and unmistakable manner, on the capital of the sister island. Dublin is almost a museum of fine classic buildings of the period, among which the most remarkable is the present Bank of Ireland (fig. 85), originally begun as the Parliament House. The beginning of the building belongs to the 18th

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238 together; it is not until we come to the League of Nations that we advance to an ideal which has been thought out to a stage equivalent to that of the great trilogy of the French Revolution. Some degree of control by the League is admittedly necessary to secure the equality of nations before the law, and I believe that in the ideal of the balanced development of each nation we have the self-control which is implied in fraternity. Without balanced development nations are sure to acquire special hungers, whether neglectfully or criminally, which can only be satisfied at the expense of other nations. In other words, we can only permanently secure equality among the nations by control from within as well as from without. But this involves the statement that home politics must be conducted with an eye to their effect on foreign politics, a truism in the superficial sense, but carrying deeper implications than are commonly admitted.

It carries, I believe, this implication among others, that, since nations are local societies, their organisation must, if they are to last, be based dominantly on local communities within them, and not on nation-wide 'interests.' That is the old English idea of the House of Commons. The word commons is.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 51 120957 SOUTH VIETNAM EX-DIRECTOR OF POLICE NGUYEN VAN TON WAS SENTENCED FOR AIDING THE REBEL ELEMENTS.

58 THE VIETNAMESE ARMY WAS REORGANIZED. FIELD AND LIGHT DIVISIONS WERE CONVERTED TO 7 IMPROVED DIVISIONS. (LATE 1958–SEPT. 1959)

010458 LARGE COMMUNIST GUERRILLA BAND ATTACKED A PLANTATION NORTH OF SAIGON, REFLECTING STEADY INCREASE IN COMMUNIST ARMED ACTIVITY IN SOUTH VIETNAM SINCE MID–1957.

032758 PERMANENT SECRETARIAT GENERAL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE UNDER THE PRESIDENCY ESTABLISHED.

0458 THROUGH INTENSIVE RECRUITING IN THE SOUTH, THE NORTH VIETNAM GUERRILLA STRENGTH IN THE SOUTH ROSE TO ABOUT 2,100. /WID 51-58.

0558 ORGANIZED COMMUNISTS IN SOUTH VIETNAM WERE ESTIMATED AT 1,140–1,400. /WID 22-58.

0758 THE SVN GOVERNMENT ATTEMPTS TO ANNIHILATE VIETCONG SUFFERED FROM RELYING TOO HEAVILY ON THE INEFFICIENT PARAMILITARY FORCES INSTEAD OF THE ARMY TO PURPUT [sic] DOWN ARMED INSURGENCY. /WID 30-58.

0758 GENERAL PHAM XUAN CHIEU WAS THE DEPUTY CHIEF OF STAFF FOR ARVN. /WID

0958 MAAG REPORTED U.S. PERSONNEL WERE VC TARGETS.

091058 FRANCE AND SOUTH VIETNAM SIGNED AN AGREEMENT UNDER WHICH FRANCE PROVIDED AID FOR THE VIETNAM GOVERNMENT'S AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM — 1,490

1258 VIETNAMESE BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION STRENGTH OF 6,500, INCLUDING 2,500 PERMANENT AGENTS. /WID 52-58.

120858 PRESIDENT EISENHOWER APPROVED A NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL ACTION WHICH AMONG OTHER ITEMS EMPHASIZED POLICE AND CONSTABULARY TYPE FORCES FOR INTERNAL SECURITY PURPOSES IN LIEU OF LARGER INDIGENOUS MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS.

59 IT WAS ESTIMATED THAT THERE WERE BETWEEN 5,000–12,000 COMMUNIST GUERRILLAS ACTIVE IN SOUTH VIETNAM IN 1959.

0159 JCS REPORTED ARVN WAS READY TO FULFILL THE MISSION THE U.S. HAD SET /JCS HIST.

0159 GVN AGREED TO TRANSFER THE CIVIL GUARD TO THE MINISTRY OF INTERIOR. AID PROGRAM TO THE CIVIL GUARD WAS THEN RESUMED. /JCS HIST.

010759 30,000 POLICE AND CIVIL GUARDSMEN HAD BEEN LOCALLY TRAINED IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND TECHNICAL TRAINING COURSES. MORE TRAINING IN ADMINISTRATION AND COMMAND FUNCTIONS WAS BEING REQUESTED. OO


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Rh of course, identical with the French word 'communes,' signifying communities; the House of Communities—shires and burghs—would be the true modern translation. As a fact, the knights and the burgesses of the Middle Ages represented communities of far more complete and balanced life than the artificially equalised constituencies of to-day.

If the real organisation of the Nation be by classes and interests—and that is the alternative to organisation by localities —it is quite inevitable that the corresponding classes in neighbouring nations will get themselves together, and that what has been described as the horizontal cleavage of international society will ensue. Fortunately the Tower of Babel was the beginning of certain great Going Concerns known as Languages, and these have impeded internationalism. But the development of the modern struggle between capital and labour has led to the use of some international phrases and words which have carried a few key ideas into common currency; they correspond unfortunately to certain social Realities which were rapidly gathering importance when this War came upon us.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 52 010759 NSC 5809 REPORTED THAT THE U.S. EMBASSY AND THE GVN HAD REACHED AN AGREEMENT ON TRAINING AND EQUIPPING A CIVIL GUARD FORCE OF 32,000. THE WAS IN WASHINGTON FOR APPROVAL. THE QUESTION BEING ASKED WAS WHETHER THIS SITUATION REQUIRED IMPROVEMENT IN THE CIVIL GUARD OR WHETHER OTHER EXISTING VIETNAMESE SECURITY FORCES COULD ADEQUATELY DEAL WITH THE SITUATION.

011259 A NORTH–SOUTH VIETNAM MEETING WAS HELD TO DISCUSS PROBLEMS CONCERNING DEMILITARIZED ZONE. THE OPPOSING PARTIES PREPARED TO DISCUSS SPECIFIC LOW-LEVEL MATTERS OF MUTUAL CONCERN. ARRANGED BY ICC. /WID 39-58.

032959 VNAF FLEW ITS FIRST MISSION AGAINST A VC TARGET. /SAIGON–STATE MSG 4-457. /JCS HIST.

0459 DIEM ENCOURAGED TERRORIST ACTIVITY REPORTING.

040959 DURBROW–DIEM–WILLIAMS CONFERENCE ON WORSENING INTERNAL SECURITY SITUATION.

050659 EMBASSY DID NOT BELIEVE DIEM'S STORY THAT SECURITY WAS AT ITS WORST SINCE 1955. U.S. SKEPTICISM RE THREAT TO SVN CONTINUED THROUGH 1959. S-STATE 2345 6MAY59.

052659 THE ICC STATED TERM SHOULD END ACTIVITIES BY MID–1959.

052659 2,000 GUERRILLAS WERE REPORTED IN SVN. THOUSANDS MORE WERE INACTIVE. CIVIL GUARD STRENGTH = 47,000. VNA = 136,000 REGULARS. INTERNAL SECURITY FORCES WERE NOT CONSIDERED CAPABLE OF ERADICATING A DRV SUPPORTED GUERRILLA FORCE. VNA WILL HAVE TO BE DIVERTED TO THIS TASK. /249-

052959 U.S. ADVISORS WERE AT REGIMENTAL, SEPARATE ARTILLERY, ARMOR AND MARINE BATTALION LEVEL.

052959 USOM PUBLIC SAFETY DIVISION BEGAN RETRAINING AND RE-EQUIPPING CIVIL GUARD. /JCS HIST.

063059 THE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY POLICE ADVISORY GROUP LEFT VIETNAM. USOM PUBLIC SAFETY DIVISION TOOK OVER TRAINING RESPONSIBILITY. THEY OBTAINED NO RESOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS OF THE CIVIL GUARD DURING THE NEXT TWO YEARS. /JCS HIST.

070859 COMMUNIST GUERRILLAS ATTACKED THE VIETNAMESE MILITARY BASE AT BIEN KOA TWO U.S. MAAG PERSONNEL WERE KILLED AND ONE WAS WOUNDED.

083059 SECOND NATIONAL ELECTIONS GAVE THE NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AND OTHER PRO-GOVERNMENT POLITICAL PARTIES ALL SEATS IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY IN SOUTH VIETNAM. NO OPPOSITION CANDIDATES WERE ALLOWED TO TAKE THEIR SEATS.

0959 DIEM ESTIMATED THAT THERE WERE 1000 VC REGULARS.

0959 THE ARVN FRENCH STYLE 4 FIELD AND 6 LIGHT DIVISIONS CONVERTED TO 7 U.S. TYPE 10,000 MAN DIVISIONS. /JCS HIST. PP


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240 Combines of Capital were obtaining such power as to overawe some of the smaller States of the world, and they were being used by Germany for purposes of penetration, or, in other words, to wreck the economic and social balance of rival nations. Labour could only follow suit, and also try to organise internationally. So came the idea of class warfare between the international proletariat and international capitalism. During the progress of the War we have gone to great trouble to break up the international organisation of Capital. Is Labour now to reverse all that has been achieved in this respect by persisting with an international organisation which sprang into existence for the very right purpose of fighting International Capital? No less than such a reversal is involved if the momentum of internationally organised labour becomes powerful, for a resuscitation of International Capitalism would then be inevitable. The economic war that would ensue could only end either in general Bolshevism or in the victory of one of the parties, and that party would then become the real Government of the World, a new Empire of organisers. If labour were to win, it would soon be found that Labour organisers would not differ from their Military and Capitalist predecessors in


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 55 0959 JCS PAPER TO NSC URGED U.S. TO BACK PROGRAMS NOT PERSONALITIES.

103059 SPOKESMAN OF THE VIETNAMESE ARMY DISCLOSES THAT A CAMPAIGN AGAINST COMMUNIST GUERRILLAS IN THE COUNTRY'S SOUTHERNMOST REGION, THE CAMA PENINSULA, RESULTED IN HEAVY GUERRILLA LOSSES.

1259 OSD DIRECTED CINCPAC TO PREPARE A NEW JOINT DISTRIBUTION TABLE REFLECTING TERM PHASE OUT. /ITEM 56.

1259 FIRST USE OF HELIOCOPTERSHELICOPTERS [sic] TO MOVE TROOPS. /SAIGON TO STATE 2061 1/3

020160 GVN DIRECTIVE ISSUED ORDERING CONCENTRATION ON ANTI–GUERRILLA TRAINING TACTICS.

021860 AMBASSADOR DURBROW TOLD CINCPAC CIVIL GUARD ANTI–GUERRILLA TRAINING WAS URGENT. CINCPAC HELD OUT FOR MAAG/TERM RESOLUTION RE ICC. /JCS HIST.

0360 FIRST AGROVILLE ESTABLISHED IN PHONG DINH PROVINCE.

032460 CHIEF OF STAFF ARMY TOLD THE JCS THAT THE SECURITY SITUATION IN VIETNAM HAD EADLY DETERIORATED AND THAT DIEM CONSIDERED THAT VIETNAM WAS IN ALL OUT WAR WITH THE VIETCONG.

0460 VIETCONG STRENGTH 4,000.

031760 NORTH VIETNAM PROTESTED TO THE CHAIRMEN OF THE 1954 GENEVA CONFERENCE (BRITAIN AND THE USSR) THE FORMIDABLE INCREASE OF PERSONNEL IN THE U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE ADVISORY GROUP IN SOUTH VIETNAM AND ACCUSED THE U.S. OF TURNING SOUTH VIETNAM INTO A U.S. MILITARY BASE FOR THE PREPARATION OF A NEW WAR.

043060 AN OPPOSITION GROUP OF 18, CALLING THEMSELVES THE COMMITTEE FOR PROGRESS AND LIBERTY, SENT A LETTER TO PRES. DIEM DEMANDING DRASTIC ECONOMIC, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND MILITARY REFORMS.

050560 U.S. ANNOUNCED THAT AT THE REQUEST OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH VIETNAM, THE U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE AND ADVISORY GROUP WAS TO BE INCREASED BY THE END OF THE YEAR FROM 327 TO 685 MEMBERS.

052060 THE SOVIET UNION PROPOSED TO THE UNITED KINGDOM THAT THE TWO GOVERNMENTS AS CO-CHAIRMEN OF THE GENEVA CONFERENCE, SHOULD APPEAL TO THE U.S. TO REFRAIN FROM INCREASING THE NUMBERS OF ITS MILITARY ADVISORS (MAAG) SOUTH VIETNAM AND ALSO TO CONSIDER THE QUESTION OF WITHDRAWING MAAG SOUTH VIETNAM. THEIR PRESENCE IN SOUTH VIETNAM CONTRADICTED THE SP OF THE GENEVA AGREEMENTS. THE AIM WAS TO LIQUIDATE ONE OF THE SOURCES OF UNREST AND OF STRENGTHENING PEACE IN INDOCHINA.

0660 COMMUNIST GUERRILLA ACTIVITIES IN SOUTH VIETNAM INCREASED. (JUNE–OCTOBER)

060160 MAJ.GEN. LIONEL T. MC GARR WAS APPOINTED THE HEAD OF THE U.S. MAAG.

060660 COUNTER–INSURGENCY TRAINING PROGRAM UNDER MAAG FOR THE VIETNAMESE ARMED FORCES WAS STARTED. QQ


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 54 063060 THERE WERE ONLY 25 MSU ADVISORS IN SOUTH VIETNAM.

101260 SEC.DEF. TOLD THE JCS THAT THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR TRAINING AND LOGISTICAL SUPPORT OF THE CIVIL GUARD SHOULD BE TRANSFERRED TO THE MAAG PROMPTLY AND THAT THE CIVIL GUARD SHOULD BE PUT IN THE VIETNAMESE MINISTRY OF DEFENSE, RATHER THAN IN THE MINISTRY OF INTERIOR.

122960 CIVIL GUARD WAS TRANSFERRED TO DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE FROM MINISTRY OF INTERIOR AT MAAG'S REQUEST. /JCS HIST.

0161 THE FIRST INCREMENT OF CIVIL GUARD BEGAN TRAINING UNDER THE MAAG.

013061 PRES. KENNEDY AUTHORIZED $29,400,000 TO EXPAND THE VIETNAM ARMED FORCES TO 170,000 PLUS $12,700,000 FOR THE CIVIL GUARD.

032861 MESSAGE FROM TRAPNELL TO JCS INDICATED FAILURE OF CG AND VNA TO COPE WITH VIETCONG. RECOMMENDED U.S. SUPPORT FULL 68,000 CIVIL GUARD FORCE.

040361 U.S.–VIETNAMESE TREATY OF AMITY AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS WAS SIGNED IN SAIGON. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY RATIFIED THE TREATY ON JUNE 14.

040461 PRESIDENT DIEM APPEALED TO THE ICC TO MAKE AN IMMEDIATE AND ENERGETIC INVESTIGATION OF GROWING TERRORISM AND SUBVERSION THROUGHOUT SOUTH VIETNAM.

040961 PRESIDENT DIEM AND VICE PRESIDENT THO WERE ELECTED BY AN OVERWHELMING MAJORITY IN THE VIETNAM PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS.

042961 PRESIDENT KENNEDY AUTHORIZED MAP SUPPORT FOR ALL 69,000 CIVIL GUARD. MAAG VIETNAM WAS DIRECTED TO SUPPORT AND ADVISE SDC. MAAG STRENGTH TO BE INCREASED AS NEEDED.

0561 MAAG PERSONNEL IN SOUTH VIETNAM NUMBERED 685. ABOUT HALF WERE AIRBORNE COMMANDOS.

050561 PRES. KENNEDY DECLARED AT A PRESS CONFERENCE THAT CONSIDERATION WAS BEING GIVEN TO THE USE OF U.S. FORCES, IF NECESSARY, TO HELP SOUTH VIETNAM RESIST COMMUNIST PRESSURES. HE DECLARED THAT THIS WOULD BE ONE OF THE SUBJECTS DISCUSSED DURING THE FORTHCOMING VISIT OF VICE PRESIDENT JOHNSON IN SOUTH VIETNAM.

051161 U.S. VICE PRESIDENT JOHNSON WAS IN SOUTH VIETNAM.

051361 WHILE JOHNSON WAS IN VIETNAM A JOINT COMMUNIQUE DECLARED THAT ADDITIONAL U.S. MILITARY AND ECONOMIC AID WOULD BE GIVEN TO HELP SOUTH VIETNAM IN ITS FIGHT AGAINST COMMUNIST GUERRILLA FORCES.

0661 IT WAS ESTIMATED THAT THERE WERE BETWEEN 7,000–15,000 COMMUNIST GUERRILLAS IN SOUTH VIETNAM.

0661 LOCAL MILITIAMEN IN SOUTH VIETNAM NUMBERED 50,000, SAME AS IN 1959.

060961 DIEM ASKED SUPPORT FOR AN INCREASE IN THE VIETNAMESE ARMY TO A FORCE OF 270,000. RR