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 CHAPTER VI.

(continued).

buds of the oak—those in the leaf-axils as well as those at the tips of the young shoots—are characteristically short and broad ovoid bodies, consisting of numerous overlapping brown scales covered with short, silky hairs, especially at the margins (Fig. 19). These scales are really the stipules of arrested leaves, as is shown by the proper leaf-blades being developed as well under certain circumstances, such as when nutritive materials are directed to the young buds. The same morphological fact is also shown by the position of the inflorescences and young leaves higher up in the bud, for they spring from between the scales, and not from their axils proper (see Fig. 32). It is of the highest importance to understand that a bud is simply the young state of a shoot, and that it consists of the growing-point of the shoot enveloped by closely-folded leaf structures. In the oak the buds are already formed before the end of June, and on looking closely into the axils of the leaves on the young shoots—which have by

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 CHAPTER VII.

may now suppose the young oak-plant to be rapidly developing into a tree. Technically the seedling is said to be a plant after the first year, and when it reaches the height of a few feet the young tree is called a sapling; these ideas are by no means well defined, however, and we may regard them as arbitrary terms of little or no scientific value.

The principal changes which are noticeable as the little tree grows larger are the gradual increase in the length and thickness of the stem, and in the number and spread of the branches put forth year after year. Corresponding with these increments, each spring sees a greater number of leaves than the one before, and it is easy to prove that the roots also become more numerous and complex each season.

The above simply expresses certain facts of observation, but it is more accurate to link them together as follows:

In each successive season of growth the young oak develops more leaves than it did before—in other words, the total area of the leaf-surface exposed to the air and

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/107


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66 than that nullification which formerly threatened to accomplish disunion by force." Laws of New Hamp., 1859, 2140; Ibid., 1860, 2298. References : For proceedings of the commercial conventions and southern opinion see De Bow's Review, XXII, 91, 102, 216-224; XXIII, 309-319; XXIV, 473-491, 579-606; XXV, 121, 122, 166-185, 289, 308, 491-506; XXVI, 51-66; XXVII, 94-235; Cluskey, 585-595. General accounts, DuBois, Suppression of the Slave Trade, ch. xi; Rhodes, II, 241, 367-372, 481, 482; Von Hoist, V, 484-490; VI, 313-324; VII, 262-266; Wilson, II, ch. xlviii.; Collins, Domestic Slave Trade, 54-60.

Resolved, That this Legislature, and the citizens of this State, look with surprise, mortification and detestation upon the virtual reopening, within the Federal Union, of the slave trade ; that against this invasion of our laws, our feelings, and the dictates of Christianity, we solemnly protest here, as we will protest elsewhere, and especially at the ballot-box ; that we call upon the citizens of this Union, to make common cause, in the name of religion, humanity, and as friends of principles underlying our system of government, to unite in bringing to immediate arrest and punishment, all persons engaged in the unlawful and wicked slave trade, and hereby instruct our senators and representatives in Congress to exert all lawful powers for the immediate suppression of the infamous traffic. [Resolution of transmission.] [Laws of New York, 1850, 1210.]

One manifestation of the excitement caused by the attack of John Brown on Harper's Ferry, Oct. 16, 1859, was the adoption of resolutions by several of the southern Legislatures. Georgia Nov. 14, 1859, was the first to condemn the attack and to commend the action of the federal and state authorities. (Acts of Ga., 1859, 400.) Tennessee, in the resolutions which follow, denounced Seward and the Republican party as responsible for the outbreak. (Acts of Tenn., 1859-60, 653-656.)

In response to the discussion of Federal relations by Gov. Wm. H. Gist, in his message of Nov. 29, 1859, prompted by the Harper's Ferry raid, (Jour. of the Senate of S. C., 1859, 20-23,) the Legislature adopted the subjoined resolutions. (Reports and Res. of S. C, 1859, 578, 579.) The invitation to


text: State Documents on Federal Relations/149


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Rh ministers prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the cruelty, of their masters.

These gloomy apprehensions had been already justified by the experience of the Romans. The annals of the emperors exhibit a strong and various picture of human nature, which we should vainly seek among the mixed and doubtful characters of modern history. In the conduct of those monarchs we may trace the utmost lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted perfection and the meanest degeneracy of our own species. The golden age of Trajan and the Antonines had been preceded by an age of iron. It is almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy successor's of Augustus. Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on which they were acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, the stupid Claudius, the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly Vitellius, and the timid inhuman Domitian, are condemned to everlasting infamy. During fourscore years (excepting only the short and doubtful respite of Vespasian's reign), Rome groaned beneath an unremitting tyranny, which exterminated the ancient families of the republic, and was fatal to almost every virtue and every talent that arose in that unhappy period.

Under the reign of these monsters the slavery of the Romans was accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned by their former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, which rendered their condition more wretched than that of the victims of tyranny in any other age or country. From these causes were derived, 1. The exquisite sensibility of the sufferers; and 2. The impossibility of escaping from the hand of the oppressor.

I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a insensibility race of princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, orientals their table, and their bed with the blood of their favourites, there is a saying recorded of a young nobleman, That he never


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Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/23

 of the article. Examples of typical vandalism are adding irrelevant obscenities and crude humour to a page, illegitimately blanking pages and inserting obvious nonsense into a page. No instances of vandalism were detected in any of the articles for the present study, either by standardisers or reviewers.

Step 2: Standardisation Process

Article Text:

All articles selected from Wikipedia and from other popular online alternative encyclopaedias then underwent a process of standardisation to remove visible cues as to the source of the article. This included the conversion of all article text to black Arial font with specified font sizes for the title (16 Bold), Headings (14 Bold) and Sub-headings (10). All text was single spaced and aligned to the left.

Supporting Material:

Any supporting material e.g. photographs, flow-charts and plots was pasted at the end of the document section in which they appear, one after the other, in their order of appearance in the text. They were resized to 5cm x 5cm, and captions were pasted beneath the corresponding pictures in Arial font, size 10. In cases where the picture lacked a caption, one was not added.

References and Links:

References at the end of the text were maintained in a standard list format, in black Arial font (size 8). All hyperlinks from reference lists were removed and the presence of 'notes' at the end of Wikipedia entries were placed under references and formatted accordingly. All '^ abcde' were deleted from the references when they occurred.

For articles from alternative encyclopaedia choices, a heading entitled 'Additional Information (from links)' [Arial font, black, bold, size 14] was created at the bottom of the text of the primary article in the MS Word document. All articles under the assorted references sections were read through to confirm they are not covered in the text of the primary articles. Articles whose topics were not included in the primary articles were pasted 23

title: Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/23


text:
Page:Broadcasting Act 19810068 en.pdf/2

ii

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text:
User:Chris55/Essay2/Intermediate works needing proofreading

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text:
Page:Broadcasting Act 19810068 en.pdf/56

52 (3) The advisory bodies for whose assistance the Welsh Authority may arrange under this section include—

(a) any general advisory council appointed by the IBA under section 16(1);

(b) the advisory committee for Wales so appointed under section 17;

(c) any advisory committee whose function is to give to the IBA such advice as is mentioned in section 16(2) (a) or (c);

(d) the Broadcasting Council for Wales appointed by the BBC; and

(e) any other advisory council or committee appointed by the BBC;

but the Welsh Authority shall not arrange for the assistance of an advisory body appointed by the IBA or by the BBC without the consent of the IBA or the BBC, as the case may be.

Finances of Welsh Authority and accounts, audit and reports.

52.—(1) By virtue of section 39(1) sums are payable by the IBA to the Welsh Authority for enabling the Welsh Authority to meet their reasonable outgoings.

(2) Sections 42 and 43(1) and (2) (accounts, audit and reports) shall apply in relation to the Welsh Authority as they apply in relation to the IBA.

The Broadcasting Complaints Commission.

53. The commission named the Broadcasting Complaints Commission shall continue in existence as a body corporate.

(2) The Commission shall consist of not less than three members appointed by the Secretary of State.

(3) A person shall be disqualified for being appointed, or being, a member of the Commission so long as he is—

(a) a governor, officer or employee of the BBC or a member, officer or employee of the IBA; or

(b) a person not within paragraph (a) who appears to the Secretary of State to be concerned with, or to have an interest in, the preparation or provision of programmes for broadcasting by the BBC or the IBA (including, in the case of the IBA, programmes consisting of advertisements).

(4) The Secretary of State shall appoint one member of the Commission to be chairman, and may appoint another to be deputy chairman.


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80 departed from the sultan's presence without satisfying himself whether his head was still on his shoulders. The experience of every day might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. Yet the fatal sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to have disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the Persian. The monarch's frown, he well knew, could level him with the dust; but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be equally fatal; and it was the part of a wise man to forget the inevitable calamities of human life in the enjoyment of the fleeting hour. He was dignified with the appellation of the king's slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, in a country which he had never known; and was trained up from his infancy in the severe discipline of the seraglio. His name, his wealth, his honours, were the gift of a master, who might, without injustice, resume what he had bestowed. Rustan's knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to confirm his habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for any form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the East informed him that such had ever been the condition of mankind. The Koran, and the interpreters of that divine book, inculcated to him that the sultan was the descendant of the prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; that patience was the first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience the great duty of a subject.

The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for slavery. Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and of military violence, they for a long while preserved the sentiments, or at least the ideas, of their freeborn ancestors. The education of Helvidius and Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was the same as that of Cato and Cicero. From Grecian philosophy they had imbibed the justest and most liberal notions of the dignity of human nature and the origin of civil society. The history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful crimes of Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those tyrants whom they adored with the most abject flattery. As magistrates and senators, they were admitted into the great council which


text:
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 in the 'Additional Information (from links)' section in the order that they appeared in the primary article under sub-sections named after the title of the link and formatted as per the instructions mentioned in article text above. This procedure was not carried out for Wikipedia articles.

Step 3: Anonymisation Process

All articles then underwent a process of anonymisation to remove visible cues as to the source of the article. This included the following steps:

 3.4.3 Development of the Online Review Tool

The articles and the article feedback questionnaires were uploaded onto an online review tool created using a Moodle. Moodle (www.moodle.org) is a Course Management System, also known as a Learning Management System or a Virtual Learning Environment. It is a free open source web application that educators can use to create effective online learning sites.

The objective of the online review tool was to:

24

title: Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/24


text:
Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/25

 A username and password was generated for each reviewer enabling them to log into their account online and perform the following operations:

25

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text:
Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/26

Fig. 4.1 depicts the processes relating to the coding of the data from the articles reviews, and the methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis employed.

4.1 Data Coding

Data coding was carried out for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. The individual characteristics of each article commented upon by the reviewers (known as constructs) were collapsed into the five key dimensions as follows:

Accuracy:

This dimension represents the precision and correctness of the content of the article. It is computed by averaging the scores for validity, completeness, relevance, neutrality and currency.

References:

This represents the extent to which the article is adequately researched and referenced. It is calculated by averaging the scores for breadth and quality of references.

Style/ Readability:

Style/ readability represents the style and organisation of the article and the quality of the language, grammar, punctuation and visual aids used (if any). This dimension is computed by calculating the mean of the scores on conciseness, language, spelling and grammar, readability, enjoyment, clarity and organisation, coherence, photographs and pictures. 26

title: Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/26


text:
Page:Broadcasting Act 19810068 en.pdf/57

Rh (5) Schedule 7 shall have effect with respect to the Commission.

Function of Commission.

54.—(1) Subject to the provisions of this Part, the function of the Commission shall be to consider and adjudicate upon complaints of—

(a) unjust or unfair treatment in sound or television programmes actually broadcast by a broadcasting body on or after 1st June 1981; or

(b) unwarranted infringement of privacy in, or in connection with the obtaining of material included in, sound or television programmes actually so broadcast.

(2) The Commission shall not entertain complaints not falling within subsection (1).

(3) In this Part—

 * " broadcasting body " means the BBC or the IBA;
 * " complaint " means a complaint to the Commission of any such unjust or unfair treatment or unwarranted infringement of privacy as is mentioned in subsection (1);
 * " participant " means—

(a) in the case of a sound programme, a person whose voice was heard in the programme;

(b) in the case of a television programme, a person who appeared, or whose voice was heard, in the programme;

 * " the person affected "—

(a) in relation to any such unjust or unfair treatment as is mentioned in subsection (1), means a participant in the programme in question who was the subject of that treatment or a person who, whether such a participant or not, had a direct interest in the subject-matter of that treatment;

(b) in relation to any such unwarranted infringement of privacy as is so mentioned, means a person whose privacy was infringed;

" unjust or unfair treatment " includes treatment which is unjust or unfair because of the way in which
 * " the relevant programme ", in relation to a complaint, means the programme in which the alleged unjust or unfair treatment occurred or in which, or in connection with the obtaining of material included in which, the alleged unwarranted infringement of privacy occurred;


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 Overall Judgment:

This dimension represents the overall opinion of the reviewer and is computed by averaging the scores ranking the article's citability in an academic and non-academic piece of work. Citability was chosen to represent the reviewer's overall judgment of the article, as it was believed that a reviewer who considered an article to be of poor quality would be less likely to cite the article as compared to an article that he/ she considered to be of high quality. Citability was rated as cite worthy (1) and not cite worthy (0) and the score was averaged, thereby yielding a range from 0 to 1.

Overall Quality Score:

The overall quality score summarises the reviewer's opinion on the overall quality of the article. This is obtained by averaging the scores on the preceding four dimensions, i.e. accuracy, references, style/ readability and overall judgment.

Accuracy, references, style/ readability, overall judgment and overall quality scores were calculated per reviewer per article.

4.2 Quantitative Analysis

Fig. 4.2 depicts the stages in the quantitative analysis of the data. All quantitative data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 15 licensed to the University of Oxford, UK. These various stages were carried out in order to explore the viability of arriving at findings about the overall spread of articles, and about distinct aspects of the articles (i.e. different languages and disciplines) that were specifically of interest within the study. The small scale of the present study does, it must be emphasised, mean that these detailed findings should be treated with some caution, but such tentative findings are valuable in indicating possible areas for future enquiry.

27

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Rh had once dictated laws to the earth, whose name gave still a sanction to the acts of the monarch, and whose authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, attempted to disguise their murders by the formalities of justice, and perhaps enjoyed a secret pleasure in rendering the senate their accomplice as well as their victim. By this assembly the last of the Romans were condemned for imaginary crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous citizen before the tribunal of his country; and the public service was rewarded by riches and honours. The servile judges professed to assert the majesty of the commonwealth, violated in the person of its first magistrate, whose clemency they most applauded when they trembled the most at his inexorable and impending cruelty. The tyrant beheld their baseness with just contempt, and encountered their secret sentiments of detestation with sincere and avowed hatred for the whole body of the senate.

II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, connected, however, with each other, by the general resemblance of religion, language and manners, is productive of the most beneficial consequences to the liberty of mankind. A modern tyrant, who should find no resistance either in his own breast or in his people, would soon experience a gentle restraint from the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of the Romans filled the world, and, when that empire fell into the hands of a single person, the world became a safe and


text:
The San Pedro (16 U.S. 78)

THIS cause was ordered to further proof at the last term. Further proof was produced at the present term, and the cause submitted thereon without argument.

Feb. 7th.

Mr. Chief Justice MARSHALL delivered the opinion of the court, affirming the decree of restitution in the court below, with a certificate of probable cause of seizure.

title: The San Pedro (16 U.S. 78)


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82 dreary prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether he was condemned to drag his gilded chain in Rome and the senate, or to wear out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen banks of the Danube, expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was impossible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast extent of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without being discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners and unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase the emperor's protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. "Wherever you are," said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, "remember that you are equally within the power of the conqueror."


text: Talk:Wyoming Constitution

title: Talk:Wyoming Constitution


text:
User talk:Aaronjbaylis

Rick Snyder's First Inaugural Address
- Presidentman (talk) 15:34, 3 August 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aaronjbaylis


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Rh

mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics was unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most amiable, and the only defective, part of his character. His excellent understanding was often deceived by the unsuspecting goodness of his heart. Artful men, who study the passions of princes and conceal their own, approached his person in the disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and honours by affecting to despise them. His excessive indulgence to his brother, his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of private virtue, and became a public injury, by the example and consequences of their vices.

Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been as much celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The grave simplicity of the philosopher was ill calculated to engage her wanton levity, or to fix that unbounded passion for variety which often discovered personal merit in the meanest of mankind. The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a very sensual deity; and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her side the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much sentimental delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed ignorant or insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, according to the prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace on the injured husband. He promoted


text: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Bury)/IV


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84 several of her lovers to posts of honour and profit, and, during a connexion of thirty years, invariably gave her proofs of the most tender confidence, and of a respect which ended not with her life. In his Meditations he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a wife so faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity of manners. The obsequious senate, at his earnest request, declared her a goddess. She was represented in her temples, with the attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; and it was decreed that, on the day of their nuptials, the youth of either sex should pay their vows before the altar of their chaste patroness.

The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of the father's virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he sacrificed the happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a worthless boy; and that he chose a successor in his own family rather than in the republic. Nothing, however, was neglected by the anxious father, and by the men of virtue and learning whom he summoned to his assistance, to expand the narrow mind of young Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render him worthy of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy dispositions where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful lesson of a grave philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by the whisper of a profligate favourite; and Marcus himself blasted the fruits of this laboured education, by admitting his son, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full participation of the Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards; but he lived long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the impetuous youth above the restraint of reason and authority.

Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society are produced by the restraints which the necessary, but unequal, laws of property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by confining to a few the possession of those objects that are coveted by many. Of all our passions and appetites, the love of power is of the most imperious and unsociable nature, since the pride of one man requires the submission of the multitude. In the


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loughborough


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loughrea

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loughrea


text:
Author:Imogen Casebourne

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 * Linkedin page

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Author:Chris Davies

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Author:Michelle Fernandes

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text:
Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/469

299

2. Both the seven and the seventy that gather against those of the neck—let them all etc. etc.

3. Both the nine and the ninety that gather against those of the shoulders—let them all etc. etc.

1. Let me go, O evil (pāpmán) being in control, mayest thou be gracious to us; set me uninjured in the world of the excellent, O evil.

2. Thou who, O evil, dost not leave us, thee here do we leave; along at the turning apart of the ways, let evil go after another.

3. Elsewhere than [with] us let the thousand-eyed immortal one make its home; whomsoever we may hate, him let it come upon (ṛch); and whom we hate, just him do thou smite.

Found also in Pāipp. xix. With 28. 1 and 29. 1, it constitutes RV. x. 165. ⌊MGS. ii. 17. 1 a-e is made up of our vi. 27, parts of 29. 1 and 28.3, and 28. 1: see also the

title: Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/469


text:
Author talk:Michelle Fernandes

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 * Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute bio page
 * Linkedin page]

title: Author talk:Michelle Fernandes


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Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/470

vi. 27- pratīkas in Knauer's Index.⌋ Hymns 27, 28, and 29 are employed together in Kāuç. (46. 7) against birds of ill omen (the comm. to AV. reads patatribhyas for patitebhyas of the edition of Kāuç.).

Translated: Florenz, 282 or 34; Griffith, i. 259; Bloomfield, 166, 474.

1. Seeking what, O gods, the sent dove, messenger of perdition, hath come hither, to it will we sing praises, make removal; weal be [it] to our bipeds, weal to our quadrupeds.

2. Propitious to us be the sent dove, harmless, O gods, the hawk (çakuná) [sent] to our house; for let the inspired (vípra) Agni enjoy our oblation, let the winged missile avoid us.

3. May the winged missile not harm us; it maketh its track on the hearth, in the fire-holder; propitious be it unto our kine and men; let not the dove, O gods, injure us here.

1. With the praise-verse (ṛ́ç) drive ye the dove forth (praṇódam); reveling in food (íṣ) we lead a cow about, breaking up tracks hard to go in; leaving us (our ?) sustenance shall it fly forth, swift-flying.

title: Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/470


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 25

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 25


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 26

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 26


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 27

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 27


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loughton

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Loughton


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Psychology of

EDUCATION, Psychology of. In some branches of the subject, educational psychology is differentiated clearly from the general science of psychology, while in other branches the two subjects overlap. The investigation of the laws of memory, of learning, of the determinants of attention or of individual differences in endowment, has been carried on by psychologists whose interest is in the theoretical development of the science, as well as by those whose interest is in the application of psychology to education. But even in such cases, in which there is an overlapping in subject matter, the aim of the educational psychologist, which is to discover how mental growth may most effectively be promoted, usually causes him to emphasize different questions than those upon which the pure psychologist dwells. Certain branches of educational psychology, such as the psychology of learning to read, write and spell, or the construction of tests of proficiency in the school subjects, or the technique of tests of intelligence or maturity, belong wholly to this field.

The education of the child is the product of the sum of the external influences which are brought to bear upon him, and of the reactions which he makes to these influences. The study of these reactions and of their laws is the scientific foundation for rules of practice in attempting to guide and modify them. In so far as these reactions are mental their study constitutes the subject matter of educational psychology.

The differences in the child's interests and capacities as he advances from babyhood to maturity are important factors in his reactions. For the treatment of this phase of educational psychology, see the article on.

Principles of Learning. — In the second place the child's reactions are governed by the laws of learning, — both those which are

in their application and those which depend upon the child's stage of development. The effect of practice upon skill or excellence of performance has been studied in the case of a variety of types of learning. One of the earliest and most valuable studies was made upon the growth of ability in the telegraphic language. A number of studies have been made of the somewhat allied process of typewriting. Some light has been thrown on human learning by studies of the behavior of animals in escaping from a cage or learning to find their way through a maze. In the field of sensory discrimination and the development of perception a number of studies have been made — as, for example, in learning to discriminate between tones or colors, to overcome illusions, to apprehend and draw unusual figures. The progress in learning a foreign language has been traced. Numerous studies have been made of associative learning and memorizing. Memorizing has been investigated to discover the best mode of presentation, the best way of dividing material — e.g., into large or small parts, the effect of the learner's attitude the permanence of memory under various conditions, etc. Finally the process of problem solving, as in the solution of puzzles, has been subjected to analysis.

One of the characteristic features of the study of learning is the construction of the practice curves, which represents graphically the rate of progress at different stages. The form of some practice curves indicates a rapid progress in the early stages, followed by a gradually decreasing rate until progress almost ceases. In other cases, however, the progress is nearly uniform while it lasts; while in a few the progress is slow at the beginning and more rapid later on. The difference may perhaps be explained by the varying ease with which old habits may be adapted to the new task.

There are various sorts of fluctuations in the curve of progress, some of short duration and some lasting over weeks or even months. A cessation in progress over a number of practice periods has been termed a plateau. Plateaus have been found to exist in several forms of learning. A number of explanations have been suggested. The earliest was that the learner develops first certain simple habits and later more complex ones, and that while he is perfecting the simpler habits as a preparation for the complex habits no apparent progress is made. Another explanation is that the learner either spurts and hence makes errors and becomes confused, or becomes lazy and fails to push ahead.

The extent to which practice or learning produces not simply special habits or ability but also general habits, attitudes, abilities or ideas which are operative in other fields than the one in which the training has taken place has been the subject of many experiments and much debate. It is now generally agreed that there is some transfer of the effects of practice, but the amount, the nature and conditions under which it occurs and the importance of transfer are matters of considerable divergence of opinion.

Among the factors which influence the rate of progress is the distribution of the practice time. In the case of the rather simple types of learning in reference to which this has been studied rather short periods of 10 to 15 minutes

have proved favorable, but it is unsafe to apply this rule very widely.

The importance of mental fatigue in hindering progress in learning or in impairing mental work has been variously estimated. A distinction must be made between true mental fatigue, as represented by an actual falling off in ability to do mental work, and the mere feeling of weariness, which may or may not indicate real reduction in ability. What has often been thought to be mental fatigue may be merely loss of interest or suggestion. But the modicum of true mental fatigue which remains when this illusory fatigue is allowed for, probably hinders learning and interferes with the more difficult mental operations.

Learning in the School Subjects. — The third branch into which education psychology may be divided deals with the processes of learning which are characteristic of the school subjects. Important studies have been made of reading which reveal the nature of the behavior of the eye and of the perception of reading matter. The eyes are shown to move along each line of print intermittently, the words being perceived during the pauses only. The pauses vary in number and duration according to the subject matter, the size of print and arrangement of the lines, and the training and individuality of the reader. It is probable that the increase in the scope of perception during a reading pause and the consequent reduction in the number of pauses is a close correlate of efficiency. The most important fact about perception in reading is that it is by word wholes or groups of words. Some attention to the letters must be given in the early stages of learning, but the letters are soon subordinated by their organization into words. A factor in this organization is the association of printed with spoken words, and even in silent reading there is a more or less distinct accompaniment of inner speech.

The writing movement has been studied chiefly by making records of the movements of the fingers, hand and arm as they contribute to the total movement as it appears at the pen point, and by measuring the speed of the pen movement and the pressure which it exerts. The fingers, hand, forearm and upper arm unite in various ways in different individuals to form a very complex and difficult movement co-ordination. Some diversity among individuals is desirable. Changes in pressure and in the speed of the stroke accompany the production of the particular letter forms. The speed changes determine the rhythm of writing, which is closely related to ease and good form.

In the field of number some work has been done, particularly with the early stages of learning. The child gets his abstract idea of number through such concrete experiences as counting, measurement and manipulating grouped objects, and there has been a good deal of discussion of the relative advantage of these experiences. Among other subjects of discussion are imagery types and their bearing on number operations, the nature of the mental process in calculation and the amount and conditions of improvement in reckoning. Little study has been made of the mental process in solving complex problems.

The problem of spelling has been attacked

from several angles, to determine, for example, the relative advantages of the drill method and the incidental method of learning, the best method of presentation of spelling words, the advantage of class study in comparison with individual study, etc. Elaborate studies have also been made of adult writing vocabularies in order to discover what words should be taught.

Studies of drawing have been directed chiefly toward the development of drawing ability and interest in the child. They have shown that the young child uses drawing as a language to express his ideas with a great deal of freedom, and have led to the acceptance of much crudity in his early work, in the knowledge that greater faithfulness of representation will come later.

There has been discussion of the psychology of other subjects, such as language and literature, history, geography and science, but little experimental investigation.

Tests in the School Subjects. — Besides experiments which are designed to discover the nature of the learning process in school subjects there have been in the past few years — for the most part since 1910 — many attempts to devise standard methods or tests to make possible comparable measurement of the proficiency of children in the school subjects. These tests in some cases are made by the help of “scales” or series of specimens of pupils' products in the subject in question, graded so as to represent regularly ascending degrees of excellence, with which the products to be graded may be compared. Of this sort are several handwriting scales, a scale for judging English composition and a scale for drawing. Such scales do not by any means eliminate judgment in grading, and it is found necessary to give graders training before their scoring is uniform or comparable to the scoring of other grades; but it is possible by the use of such scales to obtain more accurate comparisons of the work of different groups of pupils than without them. The handwriting scales have proved the most successful on account of the greater ease with which excellence can be defined in handwriting than in such subjects as composition or drawing.

The other type of test consists of a series of tasks which are carefully selected so as to represent essential phases of a subject of study, and which elicit responses from the pupils which can be definitely and objectively graded. The units which enter into such a test are carefully graded by preliminary application. Sometimes they are made of as nearly equal difficulty and sometimes of progressive difficulty. The latter arrangement is desirable when pupils of a wide range of ability are to be tested. Tests of this general nature have been used chiefly in the subjects of arithmetic, reading, spelling and algebra, while beginnings have been made in some of the other subjects.

Among the questions which are being vigorously attacked by the use of tests are individual differences in the attainment of pupils in their mastery of the school subjects and the accompanying large overlapping in the ability of pupils of different ages and school grades, the large variation in the results obtained in different classes, schools or school systems, the causes of these variations and the relation of

methods of teaching or of supervision to the pupil's attainments.

General Tests. — Finally a branch of educational psychology which has been energetically pursued within the past 10 years and in which there has already been considerable development both in methodology and in outcomes, consists of tests which are designed to measure some phase of a mental function of a more general sort than is involved in one of the school subjects. Tests of sensory acuity — as of vision and hearing — and of keenness of sensory discrimination have been developed and used for a much longer p u e riod than 10 years. But apart from the detection of special sensory defects, for which elaborate technique and special instruments have been devised, and from the interests of theoretical psychology, the study of these elementary mental functions has in large measure given place to the attempt to measure the higher mental processes. Exception should perhaps be made of tests of pitch discrimination, which has proven significant as a means of detecting capacity for musical education, and of some other simple processes which may be important as means of determining vocational fitness. But in general the burden of opinion is that tests which involve such processes as memory, association, reflective thought and originality in meeting problems give much more valuable insight into intellectual capacity.

The recent revival of mental tests is due in large measure to the work of the French psychologist, A. Binet. Binet was given a commission to prepare a method of selecting children from the schools of Paris who were to be put into special schools for retarded pupils. In collaboration with T. Simon he arranged a series of tests graded in difficulty and designated certain points in the series as corresponding to the capacity of children at particular stages of development. In the first revision of the series in 1908 a group of tests was chosen to represent each age from 3 to 13. A still further revision in 1911 brought some rearrangement but no change in the principle of construction.

The Binet-Simon graded tests have stimulated very extensive, trial of the series itself and very many attempts to standardize other single tests or groups of tests. The fundamental principle, which is that the child's advancement with age is accompanied by the attainment of the abiliy to perform tasks of regularly increasing difficulty and that the ability of a child to perform tasks above those which are found to be typical for his age indicates superior intelligence, while his inability to perform tasks which are typical for his age or for a lower age indicates inferior intelligence — this principle of age standards has proven to be very fruitful, although many questions of detail have arisen in the application or interpretation of the tests.

A more radical reconstruction is represented in the Yerkes-Bridges point scale which uses almost entirely Binet tests but discards the arrangement by ages. The child is given a certain number of points of credit for successfully passing each test (or partial credit for partial success) and his score is obtained by adding all his points of credit. The score is then interpreted by comparison with age, sex, etc., norms.

It is obviously of advantage to have

means of determining in an examination of an hour or less the degree of intelligence of the child. Imperfect as the methods thus far developed admittedly are, they are already very useful in selecting children for special education, either because they are retarded or advanced — and in examining delinquents in the courts to determine whether the delinquency is due primarily to intellectual defect.

The very extensive recent experimentation with single tests has resulted largely from the use of tests of the higher mental processes as already noticed and from the derivation and adoption of the more refined methods of calculating correlation. The significance of a test can only be determined by working out the relation between ability in the test and ability in some other test, or general ability as measured for example by the estimate of teachers or acquaintances. A test is useful according to the closeness of the correlation between attainment in the test and some other attainment representing the ability which it is designed to measure. Besides tests of general intelligence some attempt has been made, with only limited success up to the present, to devise tests of the special sorts of ability which are required in the various vocations. Tests of general intelligence themselves have proved to be of some value for vocational guidance.

Bibliography. — Binet, Alfred, and Simon, Th., ‘Mentally Defective Children’ (authorized trans. by W. B. Drummond, New York 1914); Ebbinghaus, H., ‘Memory’ (trans. by H. A. Ruger and Clara E. Busenius, New York 1913); Freeman, F. N., ‘Psychology of the Common Branches’ (Boston 1916); Huey. E. B., ‘The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading’ (New York 1908); Judd, C. H., ‘The Psychology of High School Subjects’ (Boston 1915); Meumann, E., ‘Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die experimentelle Pädagogik, etc.’ (Leipzig 1911-14); Monroe, Walter S., De Voss, J. C., and Kelley, F. J., ‘Educational Tests and Measurements’ (Boston 1917); Swift. E. J., ‘Mind in the Making’ (New York 1908); Terman, L. M., ‘The Measurement of Intelligence’ (Boston 1916); Thorndike, E. L., ‘Educational Psychology’ (New York 1913); Whipple, G. M., ‘Manual of Mental and Physical Tests’ (Baltimore 1914); Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, Rose S., ‘A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability ’ (Baltimore 1915).


text:
Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/4

4

title: Page:EPIC Oxford report.pdf/4


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louhans

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louhans


text: Author:Frank Nugent Freeman

title: Author:Frank Nugent Freeman


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Public School Organization

EDUCATION, Public School Organization. See ; .


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Retardation

EDUCATION, Retardation. See .


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Religious, in the United States

EDUCATION, Religious, in the United States. See .


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fasting

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fasting


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schürer, Emil


text: Index:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf

title: Index:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf


text:
Page:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf/1

 A

TO

Provide for the Authorisation of Races with Light Locomotives in Ireland.

E it enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:

1.—(1) The Council of any administrative county may, on the application of any persons or club by order declare that any roads within the county may be used for races with light locomotives during the whole or part of any days specified in order, not exceeding three days in the year.

 * (2) The order may contain such provisions as the county council may think fit for the temporary suspension and regulation of other traffic for the safety of the public, for the restriction of speed in populous places, and for other purposes incident to the proper conduct of such races.

 * (3) Public notice shall be given of the provisions of the order by placards on the roads so authorised to be used.

 * (4) No provisions of any Act, byelaw, or regulation, restricting the speed of locomotives or imposing any penalty for furious driving shall apply to any light locomotive, or the driver thereof, engaged in such races save so far as the same may be incorporated with the order.

2. The expenses incurred by a county council in carrying any order under this Act into effect shall be defrayed by the applicants, and the county council may before granting the order require the applicants to make such deposit as may in their opinion be necessary to defray such expenses. [Bill 24.]

title: Page:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf/1


text:
Page:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf/2

3. In this Act the expression "light locomotives" shall have the same meaning as in the Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896, and all other expressions shall have the same meaning as in the Local Government (Ireland) Act, 1898.

4.—(1) This Act shall extend to Ireland only and may be cited as the Light Locomotives (Ireland) Act, 1903.

 * (2.) This Act shall only remain in force until the thirty-first day of December one thousand nine hundred and three.

title: Page:Light Locomotives (Ireland).pdf/2


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/17


text: Index:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/7

 STORIES BY FOREIGN AUTHORS

ITALIAN


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/1


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/2


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/3


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/4


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/5


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/6


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/8


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/9


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/11


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/12

 {|align=center width=400
 * Edmondo De Amicis.jpg
 * EDMONDO DE AMICIS
 * }
 * }


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/10

transcluded elsewhere


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louis I. (emperor)


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/13

 STORIES BY

FOREIGN AUTHORS

ITALIAN

NEW YORK

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

1898


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schurman, Jacob Gould


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/14


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/15


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/16


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/18


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/19


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/20


text: Light Locomotives (Ireland) Bill

title: Light Locomotives (Ireland) Bill


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Propaganda

title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Propaganda


text:
Page:Best Russian Short Stories.djvu/398

114

. . . round like snakes. He saw the wire, chopped through at one end, cut the air and coil itself round three soldiers. The barbs tore their uniforms and stuck into their bodies, and, shrieking, the soldiers spun round in frenzy, two of them dragging the third, who was already dead, after them. Then only one remained alive, and he tried to push the two that were dead away from him; but they trailed after him, whirling and rolling over each other and over him; and suddenly all three became motionless.

He told me that no less than two thousand men were lost at that one wire entanglement. While they were hacking at the wire and getting entangled in its serpentine coils, they were pelted by an incessant rain of balls and grapeshot. He assured me it was very terrifying, and if only they had known in which direction to run, that attack would have ended in a panic flight. But ten or twelve continuous lines of wire and the struggle with it, a whole labyrinth of pitfalls with stakes driven in at the bottom, had muddled them so, that they were quite incapable of defining the direction of escape.

Some, like men blind, fell into the funnel-shaped pits, and hung upon the sharp stakes, pierced through the stomach, twitching convulsively and dancing like toy clowns; they were crushed down by fresh bodies, and soon the whole pit filled to the edges, and presented a writhing mass of bleeding bodies, dead and living. Hands thrust themselves out of


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/43


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/44

 The Translation by A. L. Frothingham, Jr.


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/97


text:
Page:The Oak.djvu/75

Rh 13.— Highly-magnified transverse section of wood of oak, showing three of the large pitted vessels (Gef) and a number of smaller ones. M.Str, medullary rays, of which part of a large one is shown to the left; Librf, wood-fibers; H.P., wood-parenchyma; Trach, tracheids; J.Gr, boundary of annual ring. (Kny.)

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/75


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/98

 The Translation by George McLean Harper.


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/117


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/118

 The Translation by Edith Wharton.


text: Category:Greco-Persian Wars

title: Category:Greco-Persian Wars


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/143


text: Category:History of Greece

title: Category:History of Greece


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/144

 The Translation by Edith Wharton.


text: Category:History of Persia

title: Category:History of Persia


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/189


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/190


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/191


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (Italian).djvu/192


text:
Page:Best Russian Short Stories.djvu/399

Rh it in all directions, the fingers working convulsively, catching at everything; and those who once got caught in that trap could not get back again: hundreds of fingers, strong and blind, like the claws of a lobster, gripped them firmly by the legs, caught at their clothes, threw them down upon themselves, gouged out their eyes and throttled them. Many seemed as if they were intoxicated, and ran straight at the wire, got caught in it, and remained shrieking, until a bullet finished them.

Generally speaking, they all seemed like people intoxicated: some swore dreadfully, others laughed when the wire caught them by the arm or leg and died there and then. He himself, although he had had nothing to eat or drink since the morning, felt very queer. His head swam, and there were moments when the feeling of terror in him changed to wild rapture, and from rapture again to terror. When somebody struck up a song at his side, he caught up the tune, and soon a whole unanimous chorus broke forth. He did not remember what they sang, only that it was lively in a dancing strain. Yes, they sang, while all around them was red with blood. The very sky seemed to be red, and one could have thought that a catastrophe had overwhelmed the universe—a strange disappearance of colors: the light-blue and green and other habitual peaceful colors had disappeared, while the sun blazed forth in a red flare-light.

"The red laugh," said I.

But he did not understand.

"Yes, and they laughed, as I told you before, like people intoxicated. Perhaps they even danced. There was


text:
Author:Enrico Castelnuovo

Works

 * It Snows (Nevica) (1878) translated by Edith Wharton

title: Author:Enrico Castelnuovo


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beilby, Sir George Thomas


text:
User talk:Pmurphy2360147

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Again, welcome! Beeswaxcandle (talk) 21:50, 3 August 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pmurphy2360147


text:
Page:The Oak.djvu/76

58

14.—Radial longitudinal section of wood of oak (highly magnified). M.Str, medullary rays; Trach, tracheids; Gef (to the left), smaller pitted vessels; Librf, wood-fibers; H.P., wood-parenchyma. The large mass of tracheids to the left of the center of the figure lies over one of the broad pitted vessels. J.Gr, boundary of annual ring. (Kny.)

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/76


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louis II. (emperor)


text:
Page:The Oak.djvu/77

Rh 15.— Tangential longitudinal section of wood of oak (highly magnified). To the left is a large medullary ray (M.Str), and numerous small ones are seen in various parts of the section—of course, in transverse section. Librf, wood-fibers; Gef, smaller pitted vessels; Trach, tracheids; H.P., wood-parenchyma. (Kny.)

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/77


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Belasco, David


text: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Belcher, John


text: Category:Works about Presidents of the United States


text:
Page:The Oak.djvu/84

17.—Transverse section of cortex and phloëm of oak (highly magnified). k, the periderm (cork), which has replaced the epidermis; c, collenchyma; d, cells of cortex containing crystals of oxalate of lime; s, schlerenchyma cells. All these belong to the cortex proper. Below these come the phloëm; b, b, groups of hard bast fibers; bp, phloëm-parenchyma; bs, medullary ray; e, cells containing crystals of oxalate of lime. (Luerssen.)

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/84


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louis III. (emperor)


text:
Page:The Oak.djvu/87

Rh thinner (Fig. 21), and the same is found as it tails off below; changes in structure also appear in the leaves.

The first noticeable change is the diminution in the number of wood fibers and the presence of narrow

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/87


text:
Category:Couplets

A couplet is a pair of lines of meter in poetry. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter.

title: Category:Couplets


text:
User talk:Techtri

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title: User talk:Techtri


text:
User talk:HeartofaDog~enwikisource

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Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:HeartofaDog~enwikisource


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chauncey, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chauncey, Ichabod


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chauncy, Charles


text:
Page:First Voyage Round the World.djvu/38

 powers conferred upon him: these documents are dated in the spring of 1518, more than a year before Magellan sailed; and it appears that delay was caused partly through the procrastination of the Spanish authorities in Seville, who were charged with equipping the fleet, and partly by the intrigues of the agents of the King of Portugal. These intrigues appear to have been partially successful, and to have caused delay. A final order for the departure of Magellan was given in Barcelona, April 19th, 1519. The original of this document is preserved in the Lisbon archives, and it was probably carried out with the fleet, and fell into the possession of the Portuguese in the Moluccas after Magellan's death; a translation of this order is given below, and the text is in the Appendix.

After this document, translations are given of two letters (the text of which is given in the Appendix) from Alvaro da Costa, the Portuguese ambassador in Spain, and from Sebastian Alvarez, the Portuguese factor, about the efforts made by them to prevent Magellan's expedition. M. Ferdinand Denis, in the Biographie Universelle, mentions that Alvaro da Costa is said to have pushed his zeal to the extremity of wishing to assassinate Magellan, and even his poor associate, Ruy Faleiro; this, with regard to the latter, seems hardly probable, judging from Costa's own letter. Navarrete states that the Portuguese agents succeeding in exciting the mob of Seville against Magellan on the 22nd of October, 1518, under the empty pretext that he was substituting the arms of Portugal for those of Castile in his ships. Faria y


text:
Page:First Voyage Round the World.djvu/39

 Sousa, in his Europa Portuguesa, tom. , pt., cap. , p. 543, says.


text:
Page:Memoir and correspondence of Caroline Herschel (1876).djvu/18

 to the readers of them as they have given to the Editor, they will feel that they have gained another friend in Caroline Lucretia Herschel. December, 1875.

past ninety a second memoir was undertaken, and in order to encourage her to continue it her niece, Lady Herschel, wrote to her as follows:—. . . . "Now, my dearest aunt, you must let me make an earnest petition to you, and that is, that you will go on with your memoir until you leave England and take up your residence in Hanover. How can I tell you how much my heart is set upon the accomplishment of this work ? . . . . You know you cannot be idle while you live. But indeed, if I could tell you the influence which a short account by a stranger of your labours with your dear Brother had upon me when a child, and of my choosing you (then so unknown to me) as my guiding star and example, you would understand how the possession of such a record by your own hand would make me almost believe in auguries and presentiments, and perhaps inspire some future generations more worthily, as the record would be more genuine." August 9, 1841.

May we not echo this hope, and feel indeed that "SHE BEING DEAD YET SPEAKETH." M. C. H.


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was born at Hanover on the 16th of March, 1750. She was the eighth child and fourth daughter of Isaac Herschel, by Anna Ilse Moritzen, to whom he was married in August, 1732. The family consisted of ten children, four of whom died in early childhood.

A memorandum in the handwriting of Isaac Herschel, transcribed by his daughter in the original German at the beginning of her Recollections, traces the family back to the early part of the seventeenth century, about which time, it appears that three brothers Herschel left Moravia on account of their religion (which was Protestant), and became possessors of land in Saxony. One of these brothers, Hans, was a brewer at Pirna, a little town two miles from Dresden, and the father of two sons, one of whom, Abraham by name, was born in 1651, was the father of the above-mentioned Isaac, and the grandfather of Caroline


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 Lucretia Herschel. Abraham Herschel was employed in the royal gardens at Dresden, he received commissions from various quarters on account of his taste and skill as a landscape gardener. Of his four children, Eusebius, the eldest, appears to have kept up little or no intercourse with his family after the father's death in 1718. The second child, Apollonia, married a landed proprietor, Herr von Thümer. Benjamin, the second son, died in his third year; and Isaac, the youngest, was born 14th of January, 1707, and was thus an orphan at the early age of eleven years. His parents wished him to be a gardener like his father, but a passionate love of music led him to take every opportunity of practising on the violin, besides studying music under a hautboy-player in the royal band. When he was about one and twenty he resolved to seek his fortune, and went to Berlin, where the style of hautboy playing was so little to his taste that he soon left it, and went to Potsdam, where he studied for a year under the celebrated Cappell Meister Pabrïch, the means for so doing being supplied by his mother and sister; his brother, as he quaintly remarks, contenting himself with writing him letters in praise of the virtue of economy! In July, 1731, he went to Brunswick, and in August to Hanover, where he at once obtained an engagement as hautboy-player in the band of the Guards, and in the August following he married as above stated.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chauncy, Maurice


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chavasse, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheape, Douglas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheape, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chedworth, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheeke, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheere, Henry


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo (poet)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheesman, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chefer, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheke, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cheke, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chelle, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chelmeston, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chelsum, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chenery, Thomas


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 06.djvu/90

 during the 19th century, especially after 1834 when Saxony joined the German Zollverein.

 CHEMOTAXIS (from the stem of “chemistry” and Gr. , arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on living or growing organisms or their members by chemical substances; e.g. the attraction of the male cells of ferns or mosses by an organic acid or sugar-solution.

 CHENAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the “Five rivers” of the Punjab, India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of Kashmir, enters British territory in the Sialkot district, and flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between the Rechna and the Jech Doabs. Finally it joins the Jhelum at Trimmu.

The, resulting from the great success of the Chenab Canal in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out of the three adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and Montgomery in 1892, and contained in 1901 a population of 791,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and Ravi rivers in the north-east of the Jhang district, and is designed to include an irrigated area of 2½ million acres. The Chenab Canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable perennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after Sir J. Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887–1892, which gives its name to a district created in 1904.

 CHENÊDOLLÉ, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DE (1769–1833), French poet, was born at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November 1769. He early showed a vocation for poetry, but the outbreak of the Revolution temporarily diverted his energy. Emigrating in 1791, he fought two campaigns in the army of Conde, and eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met Antoine de Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an account. He also visited Mme de Staël in her retreat at Coppet. On his return to Paris in 1799 he met Chateaubriand and his sister Lucile (Mme de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached. After her death in 1804, Chênedollé returned to Normandy, where he married and became eventually inspector of the academy of Caen (1812–1832). With the exception of occasional visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native province. He died at the château de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833. He published his Genie de l’Homme in 1807, and in 1820 his Études poétiques, which had the misfortune to appear shortly after the Méditations of Lamartine, so that the author did not receive the credit of their real originality. Chênedollé had many sympathies with the romanticists, and was a contributor to their organ, the Muse française. His other works include the Esprit de Rivarol (1808) in conjunction with F. J. M. Fayolle.

 CHENERY, THOMAS (1826–1884), English scholar and editor of The Times, was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at Eton and Caius College, Cambridge. Having been called to the bar, he went out to Constantinople as The Times correspondent just before the Crimean War, and it was under the influence there of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord Strangford) that he first turned to those philological studies in which he became eminent. After the war he returned to London and wrote regularly for The Times for many years, eventually succeeding Delane as editor in 1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly well versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Delane’s intuition for public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however, that he had meantime earned the highest reputation, his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being almost unrivalled and his gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was appointed Lord Almoner’s professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his position until he became editor of The Times. He was one of the company of revisers of the Old Testament. He was secretary for some time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned editions of the Arabic classic The Assemblies of Al-Harirī  and of the Machberoth Ithiel. He died in London on the 11th of February 1884.

 CHENG, or  (Ger. Scheng), an ancient Chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion, concertina and harmonium. The cheng resembles a tea-pot filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. It consists of a gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a swan’s neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which fit the bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouthpiece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. The construction of the free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal—gold according to the Jesuit missionary Joseph Amiot, but brass in the specimens brought to Europe—of the thickness of ordinary paper. In this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through, vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see ). The metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is covered by the finger. A longitudinal aperture about an inch long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the vibrations of the free reed. The length of the bamboo above this opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or five of the seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual method. Mahillon states that performers on the cheng in China are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces inflammation of the throat. Amiot, who gives a description of the instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia Eulh-ya, articles Yu and Ho, the Yu of ancient China was the large cheng with nineteen free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the Ho the small cheng with thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. The compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the first. Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:

E. F. F. Chladni, who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr Müller, organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the beginning of the 19th century, gives an excellent description of the instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio Ferrario’s work on costume Müller’s cheng had the same compass as Mahillon’s. Chladni’s article was motived by the publication of an account of the exhibition of G. J. Grenié’s Orgue expressif, invented about 1810, in the Conservatoire of

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 06.djvu/90


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chenery, Thomas


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chênedollé, Charles Julien Lioult de


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 the xylem consists of vessels and cells, the former developed centripetally, while the phloëm consists of sieve-tubes and cells. Any cell-tissue which may lie in the center of the axial cylinder, and surrounded by the vascular bundles, corresponds, in popular language, to pith; any that runs between the bundles corresponds to medullary rays.

We now turn to the root as a whole, and examine its behavior in the soil as the young seedling develops further, and in the light of the above anatomical facts.

Although the root-system of the young plant is regularly constituted of a series of lateral rootlets springing from the primary root, the orderly arrangement is soon disturbed when the tertiary and other rootlets begin to develop from the secondary rootlets; moreover, as the age of the tree increases, the tendency to irregularity is increased owing to the production of rootlets of the higher orders at different places, thus interfering with the acropetal succession of the younger rootlets.

At first the root-system is especially engaged in boring into the soil, and, provided the latter is sufficiently deep and otherwise suitable, the tap-root will go down a foot or more in the first year. As the roots thicken they exhibit considerable plasticity, as is especially evinced on rocky ground, where the older roots may often be found in cracks in the rocks, so compressed that they form mere flattened sheets many times broader than they are thick (Fig. 8).

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chenevix, Richard (1698-1779)


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 The root of the oak, speaking generally, is a typical root in the following respects: It consists, as we have seen, of a primary or tap root which develops secondary or lateral roots in acropetal succession, and these in their turn produce rootlets of a higher order. These secondary, tertiary, etc., rootlets arise endogenously, taking origin from the pericycle at the periphery of the strand of vascular bundles which traverse the central axis, and then bursting through the cortex to the exterior. The primary root, as well as the rootlets of all orders, are provided with a root-cap at the tips, and they all agree in being devoid of chlorophyll or stomata. From the outer layer of cells—the piliferous layer, corresponding to an epidermis—root-hairs are developed at some little distance behind the root-cap, and these superficial cellular outgrowths also rise in acropetal succession, the older ones behind dying oS as the younger ones arise farther forward. If we bear in mind all that has been shortly stated above, it will be very easy to figure the behavior of the root-system as it penetrates the ground, and the following short description of the biology of the root may render the matter clear. When the radicle commences to bore down into the soil it puts forth a large number of root-hairs from the parts a few millimetres behind the tip, and these attach themselves to the particles of soil and supply points of resistance; the tip of the radicle is protected by the slippery root-cap, and it must be borne in mind that the embryonic tissue of the growing-point consists of

title: Page:The Oak.djvu/54


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chenevix, Richard (1774-1830)


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Rh "plumbs" must have been clear to his logical mind. A plum without a stone is not unlike a grape. (10 S. vi. 7, 92).—The old custom mentioned by has obtained from time immemorial at Queen's College, Oxford, on Founder's Day and other great occasions. The grace cup, of great antiquity, is made of a large polished horn standing on eagle's claws; and the cover is formed in the shape of an eagle, no doubt in reference to the arms of the founder, Robert de Eglesfield, confessor to Queen Philippa. I am inclined to think that reference is made to this horn by Richard Braithwait, alias "Drunken Barnaby." On the eagle lectern in Queen's College Chapel is engraved "Aquila Regina Avium, Avis Reginensium."

Newbourne Rectory, Woodbridge. (10 S. v. 269).—Some information on this subject will be found in the Second Series of 'N. & Q.' Before Utterson built Beldornie Tower, in Pelham Field, he resided at Buckland Grange, which before his time had been only a farm and was known as Ryde House (this latter name was transferred to a modern house built nearer to the sea by Mr. George Player for his own occupation).

The following is an extract from The Isle of Wight Observer at the time of Utterson's death:

"This distinguished antiquary, who built Beldornie, Ryde, where he for many years resided expired on the 14th July [1852] at Brighton, in the 79th year of his age. The deceased gentleman was an uncompromising Tory of the old school, and a most implacable enemy to the system of 'retrenchment' which followed in the wake of the passing of the Reform Bill. He was one of the 'Six Clerks in Chancery,' a sinecure of great emolument which the Whigs abolished, pensioning off the then holders for life; and we believe Mr. Utterson was the last survivor of them. On the election of Mr. Dawes in 1851 on Free Trade principles, Mr. Utterson took such umbrage that he removed from Ryde and shortly afterwards his exceedingly valuable library of antiquarian literature was brought to the hammer. For several years Mr Utterson kept up a private printing office, where many scarce works were reprinted, more particularly those of the Elizabethan period. At St. Thomas', Ryde, there are tablets to the memory of Utterson and his wife."

Ryde, I.W. [There must be a mistake in the year gives for Utterson's death. The very interesting article to which he refers appeared at 2 S. i. 6, and was written by, who began his note with the words "The late Mr. Edward Vernon Utterson." The next week, however, 'N. & Q.' contained a letter from, dated "Jan. 8, 1856," saying that he was "most happy to be informed" that Mr. Utterson was then alive and well. The 'D.N.B.' article on Utterson states that he died at Brighton on 14 July, 1856, and gives a list of his reprints at the Beldornie Press.] "" v. "" (10 S. v. 469, 514; vi. 52, 90).—In the appendix to my edition of 'Lycidas' (1874) I find a note referring to a letter from in 'N. & Q.,' 29 Nov., 1873, citing a line from Daniel in 1595, "Railing rhymes were sowed," as the earliest instance of this mode of spelling. I have also found in the same poet's 'Musophilus' "the sacred relics of whose rhyme" and "this eloquence, these rhymes." But Gascoigne, a little earlier, has "these toyes in ryme" (=rime). In Donne (circ. 1610) we find. "if thou forget the rhyme," and in Carew (circ. 1620) "ballad rhime." Hence it seems that the spelling of this word with h was pretty well established before 1660. [The first line quoted is from Daniel's 'Civil Wars,' book ii., and was printed at 4 S. xii. 432. A long reply from on the spelling of rime appeared on the preceding page. Both articles are worthy of attentive consideration.] I copy the following sentence from No. 39 of The Spectator, a paper written by Addison. It is the original edition which is before me, and has the date 14 April, 1711: "I am therefore very much offended when I see a Play in Rhyme." I observe that Addison in The Spectator almost always has "Rhyme," though he sometimes has "Rhime." A much older work is also before me, Sir Henry Savile's 'Translation of Tacitus,' fifth edition, 1622. But it was first published in 1581. I there read the following: "riming harmonie of words" I am sorry to say there is a misprint in my last article; but it is my fault. In the fifth line, for "modern English" read Middle English. I mean that the word was spelt rime both in Middle English and Tudor English. But it is rhyme in modern English. (10 S. vi. 82).—Phœbe's epitaph does not state that she fought in the 5th Regiment of Foot at Fontenoy. "She served for many years as a Private Soldier in the Fifth Regiment of Foot in different parts of Europe, and in the year 1745 she fought under the command of


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 thin-walled cells full of relatively stiff protoplasm with very little water. Hence the growing-point is a firm body. The most active growth of the root takes place at a region several millimetres behind the root-cap, between it and the fixed point above referred to; hence the apex of the root is really driven into the ground between the particles of rock, etc., of which the latter is composed. This driving in is aided by the negative heliotropism, the positive geotropism, the circumnutation, and other irritabilities of the apical portions of the root, and it bores its way several centimetres downward. As it lengthens—by the addition of cells produced by the division of those of the embryonic tissue, and by their successive elongation—the older parts behind go on producing root-hairs, and thus a vertical cylinder of soil around the primary root is gradually laid under contribution for water containing dissolved salts, etc. In those parts of the root which are behind the growing region no further elongation occurs; hence the tips of the lateral rootlets (which have been developing in the pericycle at the circumference of the axial cylinder of vascular bundles) can now safely break through the cortex and extend themselves in the same manner from the parent root as a fixed base, without danger of being broken off by the elongation of the growing parts. Each of these secondary rootlets grows out at an obtuse angle from the primary root, and not vertically downward, and as it does so a similar wave of root-hairs is developed along it; thus a series of 4

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 nearly horizontal radiating cylinders of soil are placed under contribution as before. Then the secondary rootlets emit tertiary rootlets in all directions—these and the rootlets of a higher order growing without any particular reference to the direction of gravitation, light, etc.—and so place successive cylinders of soil in all directions under contribution as before. By this time, however, the symmetry of the root-system is being disturbed because some of the rootlets meet with stones or other obstacles, others get dried up or frozen, or gnawed off or otherwise injured, and the varying directions in which new growths start and in which the resistances are least, influence the very various shapes of the tangled mass of roots now permeating the soil in all directions.

These roots supply the ever-increasing needs for water of the shoot-system, the leaf-surface of which is becoming larger and larger, and as the greater volume of water from the gathering rootlets has all to enter the stem via the upper part of the main root, we are not surprised to find that the latter thickens, as does the stem; and so with all the older roots—they no longer act as absorbing roots, but become merely larger and larger channels for water, and girder-like supporting organs.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chepman, Walter


text: Notes and Queries/Series 10/Volume 6/Number 138/Beldornie Press


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cherbury, David


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chermside, Robert Alexander


text:
Index talk:Notes and Queries - Series 10 - Volume 6.djvu

I have created a page for the reply Notes and Queries/Series 10/Volume 6/Number 138/Beldornie Press, though the mainspace page for Notes and Queries/Series 10/Volume 6 hasn't been made yet, so I don't have a table of contents to add the article to. I used /Number X/ in the article name rather than a bracketed term, and propose that this be carried out for the other articles as many will have the same problem. -- xensyria T 02:24, 4 August 2012 (UTC)


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 Fig. 11) receive contributions at successive nodes, and pass down as stronger and stronger strands through about seven internodes, their lower ends losing themselves by joining to others; and, in fact, the larger bundles seen on the transverse section (Fig. 9) are larger because they consist of so many contingents running parallel, or nearly so, down the stem.

It results from this that all the vascular bundles in the stem are simply composed of strands which run into the leaves on the one hand, and down the internodes on the other; and, as further comparison will show, all these bundles are continuous in the stem, since the lower ends of the strands are joined on to other strands.

Moreover, as an examination of the diagrams and figures shows, the main course of these bundles in the stem is approximately parallel—they run side by side down from the leaf insertion through two, three, or more internodes, and only bend aside to any great extent when they pass out into a leaf or to join with others. In the section (Fig. 9), for instance, all the little bundles at the angles and outside the ring are cut at levels where they have abandoned the larger bundles and are bending outward through the cortex to the leaves; lower down we should find them joining to the larger bundles at various levels, and running down with them, just as strands from leaves at higher levels are now conjoined to make up these larger bundles. The group of vascular bundles which passes into the

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 stem from the insertion of a leaf is spoken of collectively as the "leaf-trace." Hence we see the leaf-trace of the oak consists of five bundles—one median, two lateral median, and two lateral; and since the phyllotaxis of the oak is two fifths, there will be twenty-five bundles in various stages of separation or conjunction coming down in the five internodes between any one leaf and the leaf vertically above it, as well as the parts of bundles from other leaves which are still continuing their course for a short time.

Now, since the main lengths of the course (in the stem) of these bundles is nearly vertically downward, with slight swerves to one side or another as the strands join, it is obvious that on the transverse section of the stem the bundles will appear arranged in a series round the center—in fact, they will form on the whole a more or less regular ring of bundles dividing off the pith from the cortical portions of the stem. Even in the very young condition (Fig. 9) we see bundles or groups of strands thus surrounding the pith, only the "ring" which they make is a sinuous one, so that the pith is five-rayed—a characteristic point in the oak. At a slightly later stage, as we shall see, this ring of bundles becomes more nearly circular from the gradual filling up of irregularities.

Before proceeding further it is necessary to make clear one or two other points. Since all the vascular bundles in the oak-stem are bundles which are common to the stem and leaf, they are termed "common

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 ." We have seen that a given strand or bundle may run for part of its course simply side by side with another and separate from it; at other parts of the course the bundles may be united with others. In the case of the oak it will be clearly borne in mind that the individual or separate bundles of the leaf-trace pass into the stem at the node of insertion of the given leaf, and then run down side by side at a practically constant distance from the surface of the epidermis on the one hand, and the longitudinal axis of the pith on the other. At different levels below, at or very near nodes, these bundles turn aside laterally—i.e., in the tangential plane, and hence, still keeping their mean distance from the epidermis and pith, join with others.

This being understood, it is also obvious that on the whole the collection of vascular bundles in a young branch form a nearly cylindrical trellis-work or mesh-work symmetrically disposed between the pith and the cortex, and that the latter (cortex and pith) are in connection through the meshes between the interpectinating and concomitant vascular bundles. These radial connections of the pith and cortex are the primary medullary rays.

It will now be clear why we observe on transverse sections of the young stem taken across an internode the arrangement shown in Fig. 9. The vascular bundles are grouped in a ring round the pith, separating it off from the cortex and its covering the epidermis, and with

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 those primary medullary rays which happen to have been cut running between the bundles.

If we now trace the vascular bundles of the leaf-trace in the other direction—that is, up into the leaf—their course is simple enough, as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The five bundles run through the midrib and the stronger lateral ribs to the tips and edges of the leaf, first breaking up into several strands in the petiole and midrib, and then becoming finer and finer as they give off the lateral strands. The median bundle does little more than run directly through the leaf as the midrib, becoming finer and finer as it nears the apex. The two lateral median bundles behave in a somewhat curious way. We have already seen how large and flat they are at the leaf insertion (Fig. 10). Soon after entering the petiole they break up into several strands, two of which converge and take a course along the dorsal side of the midrib, thus nearly completing a cylinder of bundles inclosing a pith; moreover, the xylem portions of these bundles are all turned inward towards the pith.

The lateral bundles, coming obliquely into the leaf insertion, pass up the midrib side by side with the above, and, like them, break up into parallel strands. Before entering the midrib they give off small bundles (fst in Fig. 10) to the pair of minute stipules which flank the petiole. As the strands pass along the midribs and chief lateral ribs they interosculate in various degrees, and give off smaller side branches into the mesophyll of the leaf (see Chapter VI).

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 The veins which spring from the chief lateral ribs run towards one another and anastomose, giving off smaller veins which form a network in the area included by them. In the neighborhood of the leaf-margin, however, the smaller veins curve towards one another, and make arches convex towards the margin. In the finer meshes individual minute branches run to the center of a mesh and end there. Round the extreme edge of the leaf is a single vascular bundle; this receives small bundles from the above-mentioned arches, and also receives the ends of the midrib and the chief lateral ribs (cf. Fig. 1).

The vascular bundles of the axillary bud, which will eventually, of course, form a system like that already described on their own account, pass down and join the bundles of the parent axis as follows:

The bundles of each lateral half of the bud (Fig. 11, a a) pass down together between the bundles of the leaf-trace of the leaf from whose axil the bud arises, and the next lateral bundles of the stem with which the leaf-trace bundles are conjoined; the common strand formed by the bundles of each side of the bud then joins with a bundle coming down from another leaf. A few of the strands may also join to the bundles of the leaf-trace itself.

At the back or top side of the bud—i.e., the side next the stem which bears it—a few vascular bundles pass from the bud to the nearest strand (Fig. 11, z) this is the middle strand coming down from the leaf

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