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Lexicon Technicum/Cover

LEXICON TECHNICUM

Or, An UNIVERSAL

English Dictionary

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES:

EXPLAINING

Not Only the TERMS of ART, but the ARTS Themselves.

VOL. II

BY

JOHN HARRIS, D.D. late Secretary to the Royal Society and Chaplain to the Lord High Chancellor of GREAT BRITAIN.

The SECOND EDITION.

LONDON:

Printed for D. BROWN, J. WALTHOE, J. KNAPTON, B. and S. TOOKE, D. MIDWINTER, B. COWSE, T. WARD, E. SYMON, E. VALENTINE, AND J. CLARKE.

MDCCXXIII

TO THE

RIGHT HONOURABLE

WILLIAM Lord COWPER

Baron of WINGHAM

AND

Lord High-Chancellor

OF

GREAT BRITAIN

MY LORD,

THE great Honour and Advantage which the former Volume of this Work receiv'd from the Patronage of His Royal Highness, the late Prince George of Denmark, encourages me to Dedicate This to Your Lordship; as I am also oblig'd in Duty and Gratitude to do, for the many Favours I have receiv'd from You; and especially for the great Honour and Happiness of having been so long known, and so near to You: For this, my Lord, will save me from the Fate of those Dedicators, who attempt Characters above Panegyrick: The Publick Part of Your Lordship's all the World knows and admires; and tho I see every Day That which renders Your Lordship the Instruction, as well as the Delight of all that have the Honour of Your Conversation, yet I can no more describe it, than I dare attempt it. I shall therefore, my Lord, entirely forbear; fearing as much doing Violence to Your Modesty, as Injustice to Your Merit.

I am,

My LORD,

Your Lordship's

Most Dutiful, and

Most Humble Servant,

JOHN HARRIS.

title: Lexicon Technicum/Cover


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Higher, in the United States

EDUCATION, Higher, in the United States. In the transit of civilization from the Old World to the New, higher education played

an early and conspicuous part. The proportion of university men among the colonists of Massachusetts Bay was large. Between 90 and 100 English university men were among the emigrants prior to 1648, or 1 in each 200 or 250 of the total population of the colonies. Seventy were graduates or former students of Cambridge, 20 of them from the able Puritan foundation, Emmanuel College, and had there learned the love of truth and sense of duty that signally characterized their later lives.

These men became the leaders in church and public affairs in New England, and one of their earnest desires was the creation of a new Cambridge University near Boston. It was only six years after the founding of Boston that their dream had partial realization in the founding of Harvard College, for on 28 Oct. 1636, the General Court “agreed to give 400 pounds towards a school or colledge.” “After God had carried us safe to New England,” writes the chronicler, “and wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our liveli-hood, rear'd convenient places for God's worship and settled the Civil Government: One of the next things we longed for and looked after was to advance learning and perpetuate it to Posterity; dreading to leave an illiterate Ministery to the churches, when our present Ministers shall lie in the Dust.” Two years later John Harvard, a clergyman who had been a year in the colony, died and bequeathed one-half of his estate and his precious library of 300 volumes to the enterprise. This, with other gifts, enabled Harvard College to open.

Founding of the First Colleges. — Attempts to found a college in Virginia began before the Mayflower sailed to Plymouth, in the grant of 10,000 acres for a university made by the Virginia Company, but it was not until 1693 that the planters, suffering from sickness, poverty and massacre, were able to obtain sufficient aid from England to found their “place of universal study.” The entire population of the colony, if gathered together from the scattered plantations, would hardly have filled a sizable city, and the college could hardly have prospered without the liberal aid which it received as a child of the Church of England: aid to which the dissenting colleges of the northern colony could not appeal. Had the English sovereign and the High Churchmen who lent substantial assistance been able to foresee the infant college becoming the mother of rebellion and the “training ground of democracy,” inspiring the students, Jefferson, Monroe, Tyler and Marshall and their colleagues with faith in the inalienable rights of man, and granting Washington his surveyor's license, they had perhaps been less prompt with their gifts.

Tradition has it that the third American college, Yale, had its origin in the bundles of books which the founders are reputed to have carried to Branford as endowment for the little collegiate school that held its commencement at Saybrook. A child of Harvard, the school was founded in 1701, that the youth may “be instructed in the Arts and Sciences, who. . . may be fitted for Publick employment both in Church and Civil State.” The college found a permanent home in New Haven after more than a decade of migratory existence. It

firm foundation in the liberality of Gov. Elihu Yale, a wealthy English colonial official born in Boston and resident in London, who shipped consignments to be sold for the benefit of the college and gave also many books to the college library. Equally generous was the great English philosopher, George Berkeley, who gave nearly 1,000 volumes, “the finest collection of books ever brought to America at one time” as well as the “Dean's” farm which he had occupied in Rhode Island. The colonists gave from time to time as they were able, sometimes land, sometimes books, material, labor or physical apparatus, and the general assembly appropriated annually £100 or £200 besides special appropriations. Successful foundation came to Yale, as to all the other colonial colleges, only at the price of common sacrifice, and liberal public policy at home, and generous aid from England.

Benjamin Franklin in his ‘Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania’ laid the framework of the future University of Pennsylvania. The narrow curriculum of the New England college and the Latin and Greek declamations and recitations seemed insufficient to Franklin. “It would be well,” he wrote, “if they (the pupils) could be taught everything that is useful and everything that is ornamental. But. . . their time is short. It is therefore proposed that they learn those things that are likely to be most useful and most ornamental, regard being had to the several professions for which they are intended.” Twenty-four citizens of Philadelphia undertook to establish an academy of the type suggested and to lay foundation for posterity to erect a more extensive and suitable seminary. In January 1751 the academy formally opened. It embraced an English, a Latin, and a mathematical school with wide range of studies.

William Smith, author of a broad plan of education for an Utopian college of “Mirania,” was chosen provost of Franklin's academy, and guided the institution through its notable, if tumultuous, early history. He bitterly disappointed Franklin, quarreled with the provincial assembly, and was believed a Tory at heart, but he built into fact enough of his own and Franklin's early ideals to make the college of Philadelphia a model for all later American colleges.

Princeton, founded in 1746 as the College of New Jersey, had for predecessor the Log College of William Tenant, near Philadelphia, a college of the simplest type where, with Tenant's four sons, future clergymen of the Presbyterian Church received instruction and council. Princeton influence was active in the foundation of Brown University in the Rhode Island colony, organized by the Philadelphia Baptist Association under the agency and presidency of the Rev. James Manning, a graduate of the New Jersey College.

Kings College in New York (now Columbia) owes its origin to the joint interest of the colonial assembly and Trinity Church. The assembly declared its belief that a proper and ample foundation for the regular education of youth would greatly tend to the welfare and reputation of the colony and voted an annual appropriation of £500, in addition to

lotteries, believing “so good and laudable a design must readily incite the inhabitants to become adventurers in a lottery.” Trinity Church offered “any reasonable quantity of the church farm” for the college buildings on condition that the president be forever a member of the Church of England and that the liturgy and collect of the Church be used. Bitter dispute ensued between the Episcopal party and the minority who seem to have had in mind the erection of a non-sectarian university under the direct control of the assembly. If the plan for the new college was not as liberal as the minority wished, it was in practice less sectarian than any college yet erected.

Dartmouth, established by the Rev. Eleazer Wheelock in 1769, was an outgrowth of Moor's Indian Charity School. Ten thousand pounds were collected for it in England. Situated on the frontier of the Indian country, remote from populous towns and white settlements, it early worked out a rough sort of vocational training that was prophetic of a later day.

Rutgers, established by royal charter as Queens College, in New Jersey in 1766, completes the list of the nine living colonial colleges. Twelve were founded in the colonies prior to the Revolution, but the others did not survive.

The colonial colleges were not mere copies of English prototypes. Each has an individuality of its own. Each smacks of the soil of its own primitive community. Each retained permanent characteristics given by the groups of able and independent men that founded and presided over them. Their achievement is a great one. They realized the hopes of their founders that learning might not perish in the new world and that able leaders in church and civil affairs might not be wanting, but they did more.

They furnished the leadership in the great debate with England in legislature, in pamphlet and newspaper that preceded the Revolutionary War; they furnished a notable proportion of military leaders and soldiers in the terrible struggle, and they supplied largely the practical statesmanship that joined the discordant colonies into united resistance and later into one nation. Without the colleges the Revolution could not have succeeded or would have been deferred for a generation.

The colleges paid the price. All but one or two were forced to close their doors for a time. For a time Harvard's dormitories resounded with the heavier footsteps of provincial troops. Washington took command within a few rods of the college yard and occupied the president's house as his headquarters. The scientific apparatus was removed to Andover and instruction was given in Concord. Yale found her work interrupted and resumed for a season a migratory life. Her president was subjected to indignities and the students suffered from shortage of food.

Princeton was the scene of a crucial battle of the war: Nassau Hall still bears the scars of battle and gave shelter in turn to provincial and British troops. Brown's Hall was used as a barracks and hospital. Kings students drove the Tory president into exile, but the college buildings were later occupied by British troops and no commencement was held

1777 and 1786. William and Mary was used by Washington as a hospital, and Queens College was forced to remove to the north branch of the Raritan to escape active hostilities. Remote Dartmouth alone seems to have continued undisturbed in her scholastic pursuits, but suffered the loss of her Indian students, allies of the British. These colleges all, however, survived the struggle and before the century closed their number was increased by 17 new foundations, among which were Hampden-Sidney (1776), Washington and Jefferson (1787), Dickinson (1783), Georgetown (1791), Williams (1793), Bowdoin (1794), Union (1795), University of North Carolina (1789), University of Vermont (1791), and Middlebury (1800).

Government Aid — Although generally founded as independent, self-governing corporations closely related with some religious denomination, practically all the early colleges received generous aid from the colonial or home government either in gift of money, grant of land, lottery, privilege or special tax. he provision was, however, pitiably small. The total property of the colleges at the end of the 18th century has been estimated as not in excess of $1,000,000 in value. The present properly of the colleges and universities is nearly 800 times as great. The equipment of the early colleges was of necessity of the simplest. A few books were the first essential, as the gifts of John Harvard, Elihu Yale and Bishop Berkeley abundantly indicate. Food and dormitories for the students, a house for the president, simple apparatus for those colleges which offered courses in natural philosophy and astronomy, and an unpretentious college hall were the other usual requisites. William and Mary had for the time a notable building designed by Sir Christopher Wren. Nassau Hall was esteemed one of the finest buildings in the colonies. College Hall in New York was “exceedingly handsome, the most beautifully situated of any college in the world.” But these were the exceptions. The president's house often served as place of recitation. He was often the sole member of the faculty, teaching all the subjects of the curriculum. The faculty and tutors were always few in number.

A New Era. — The close of the Revolution ushered in a new educational era. Some of the colleges, as Kings, were virtually defunct and required refounding. Others had suffered so severely that larger appropriations were needed than the impoverished States could well afford. But chiefly significant is the new patriotism that preferred education at home to education in Europe and the new conception of education as not primarily a church function but as an instrument of national spirit and national life. The new impulse came in part from France and was in part the natural result of newly-won national independence.

The University of the State of New York was founded 1784-87 to ensure an organized system of higher schools adequate to the needs of the State. The State of Georgia provided in 1784-85 that all public schools instituted or to be supported by funds or public money shall be considered as parts or members of the University of Georgia. Thomas Jefferson

profoundly in the new educational faith. As press of other duties permitted, he concerned himself with the project of developing in Virginia, as a model for all the States, a true organized system of schools crowned and controlled by a State university. The plan was proposed in 1779 and partly carried out in 1796. It was not until his old age that he found time to incarnate his idea in the foundation of the University of Virginia. Jefferson founded in the university a new type of institution. The purpose of a State university he considered to be (1) To form statesmen, legislators and judges; (2) to expound the principles and structure of government, the laws which regulate the intercourse of nations and a sound spirit of legislation; (3) to promote industry, agriculture, manufacturing and commerce; (4) to develop the reasoning faculties of the youth, enlarge their minds, cultivate their morals and instil in them the precepts of virtue and order; (5) to enlighten them with mathematics and physical sciences.

Washington in his plan for a national university was moved by the same impulse. He thought a national foundation the surest way to establish an American education equivalent to that formerly sought by many American youths of good family in the English universities, and he believed that the gathering of students from all the colonies into one institution would foster a common national spirit. The plan of Washington has never yet been realised but has found support in the opinion of many of our wisest Presidents and most experienced educators.

So strong was the democratic impulse and the influence of Jefferson's university that private foundations came to be viewed with something like distrust. In some States the legislature vainly sought to obtain control of existing colleges by offer of financial support. In three States, at least, the colleges were for a brief period converted into public institutions, but soon reverted to their original character. The famous Dartmouth College Case put an end to this attempt, it being decided that the charters granted educational foundations were inalienable. The effort had greater success in the States where private and church foundations had not a firm foothold. Provision was made in the constitutions of most of the new States for the establishment of State colleges or universities to crown the system of public schools. The national government laid substantial foundation in land grants. The grants of the Continental Congress in 1787 reserved perpetually two entire townships to the States to be erected in the Ohio country for the purpose of a university. One or two townships of public land were granted each of the newer States for education and were usually devoted to the establishment of a State university. The Morrill act granted public land for instruction in agricultural and mechanical subjects in proportion to population: 30,000 acres for each member of Congress representing the State. By the acts of 1890 and 1907, $50,000 was given each State annually for the same purpose, and by acts of 1887 and 1906 $30,000 annually was granted each State for Agricultural Experiment Stations, which were usually made part of the State university or agricultural college. The

effect of these grants was to stimulate the growth of State institutions and to broaden their curriculum. The great universities of California, Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, among others, owe their origin to the Morrill act. In other States agricultural colleges were established, as in Massachusetts, Michigan and Iowa; and in others the proceeds were devoted to the maintenance of departments in connection with existing institutions. The effect of the national policy, joined to liberal State appropriations, was the creation of “the most comprehensive university foundation the world has ever seen” in the newer Western States. The annual appropriation of several exceeds $1,000,000 each for current expenses. In some States the proceeds of a permanent mill-tax assures a fixed minimum of income. Generally no tuition fee is charged residents of the State, in no case is the fee more than nominal except for professional study. These institutions are coeducational. Of the 100,000 women attending colleges and higher schools about 30,000 are in State universities. The State universities are maintained as an integral part of the State system of public schools and graduates of standard high schools are admitted without examination. Thus the States provide a democratic system of education aiming to make available to each of its future citizens as complete a training as the mental equipment of each makes possible.

Recently the State universities have taken upon themselves much greater tasks. They have attempted to see to it that the expert knowledge of which they are the accredited custodians shall become embodied in the practical affairs and industry of the State: that the current practice of agriculture shall apply the expert knowledge of the agricultural sciences; that actual government shall embody the principles of political and social science; that actual teaching shall embody the principles of pedagogy and hygiene.

They further interpret their obligations to the State to include not only the student body in the university but all residents of the State with intellectual interests and aptitudes. The attempt is made to extend the university over the entire State and carry knowledge directly to the people. University centres are organized wherever a sufficient number of people can be interested and instruction and lectures are given far from the campus by members of the university staff. Instruction is given by correspondence and an information service is operated by which any resident may consult the experts of the university in reference to his practical difficulties. The intelligent discussion of public questions is fostered, music, pageants and libraries are made available to any community.

Recently “surveys” have been made of several State universities. A survey is a thorough-going but sympathetic and constructive examination of the equipment, administration, standards, methods and ideals of the institution to determine the relative efficiency of its organization, the value of its service to the community and the potency of its ideals. Surveys may at times degenerate into “investigations,” but when true to their mission are practical and constructive. The State universities investigated not only have stood fairly well the test of the

searching examination of the survey experts, but have been quick to adopt their suggestions for securing a greater “return” from the educational plant. A survey may extend, to the entire educational resources of a State, and suggest a new alignment of educational institutions.

The Municipal University. — A type of college of recent development, akin in spirit to the State university, is the municipal university. The most conspicuous and purest examples are the College of the City of New York and the University of Cincinnati. The College of the City of New York was organized as an “Academy or College” in 1847. Under the presidency of John H. Finley it was developed into a great institution of collegiate standards supported by direct appropriation from the municipality. Nearly $6,000,000 was appropriated for new buildings, grounds and equipment and the annual appropriations are over $600,000. The college is distinctly city minded, and takes as its chief function the task of producing a higher type of citizen for the great city-state.

The University of Cincinnati is organized more closely after the pattern of the new State university. Its relation to the city government is very close. The political science department of the university conducts a municipal reference bureau in the city hall; the college for teachers uses the public schools for the training of students and co-operates with the superintendent of schools in the supervision of teachers and in investigations and reports. The department of psychology co-operates with the schools in the study of backward children. The department of social science co-operates with the city department of charities and the courts. The college of medicine conducts a free dispensary, maintains milk supply stations and sends out visiting nurses. It also conducts the laboratory of pathology of the City Hospital. The engineering college conducts a city testing bureau and co-operates with the various city departments doing engineering work. These are a few typical co-operative activities. Students study in the university and do practical paid work in city departments and manufacturing plants in alternate weeks. Eighty-five per cent of the men and 30 per cent of the women earn the whole or part of their own support. They participate in the things they are studying. The university conducts evening and external courses, and makes every effort to reach the larger number of men and women who but for the university would be debarred from an adequate education.

The rapid growth of city universities is evidenced by the organization in 1914 of a national association of urban universities consisting of 14 institutions. Seven of these are properly public municipal colleges.

There are now nearly 100 State and municipal colleges and universities. In them are educated approximately 40 per cent of the college and professional students of the United States. Sixty per cent still attend colleges of private foundation, of which there are 474 offering instruction of college grade or higher as measured by the United States Bureau of Education.

European Influence. — The evolution of the

college of private foundation has been as phenomenal as the evolution of the State university. The colonial college has developed into the modern university chiefly under European influence. German influence in American higher education began with George Ticknor, Edward Everett and George Bancroft who were students at Göttingen early in the 19th century. They were followed by an increasing number of American students who pursued advanced studies at the great universities, especially at Berlin, Göttingen and Leipzig. On their return to America these men introduced the new methods of research into their advanced classes and through the influence of their students profoundly affected the methods, structure and ideals of the American university. The lecture system was developed. Productive scholarship became the common aim. The University of Michigan was remodeled in 1852 on the continental plan. Johns Hopkins was in its fundamental ideas founded on foreign practice and many of its professors were foreign trained. It was primarily a graduate school devoted to the development of research and publication, in science, history and medicine.

Organization and Work. — The chief marks of a complete university are (1) that it is a place of universal studies representing the entire field of knowledge; (2) that it is devoted primarily to research or the training of men for research from which follows (3) that it is devoted largely to experimentation and the elaboration of methods of research and the technique of the science; (4) that it offers the highest possible training for the great professions, law, medicine, theology and engineering. The university thus becomes a “centre of free inquiry,” a “seat of true learning,” a place where “thought is freed from all fetters,” where “life takes cognizance of science to the advancement of both.”

The international character of the higher learning is reflected in the development of international exchange of professors. Harvard and Berlin entered into such reciprocal relations in 1904. Harvard and the Sorbonne began a similar exchange in 1911, followed by Columbia and Berlin and The University of Chicago and Göttingen.

“On the maintenance of the university,” says Daniel Gilman, former president of Johns Hopkins University, “modern civilization depends. No tradition, no dogma, no hypothesis and no theory can escape from scrutiny, and none can long survive if it is found to rest upon false premises, imperfect knowledge or fallacious reasoning. The universities are the discoverers and explorers of new domains. They are the modern judges of the world. The very processes they employ in ascertaining the truth are favorable to the development of critics and the education of acute and independent intellects. . . . Rare minds will first perceive the truths, and then will teach others. In due time the advanced positions of the philosophers and scholars will be occupied by the multitude and onward will go the forces of the universities to make new conquests in the dark continents of ignorance and uncertainty till there are no new fields to conquer.”

The Association of American Universities represents fairly those institutions that have

approached to the requisite facilities for universal studies and the advancement of learning. The Association includes 22 institutions, one-half of which are State universities. The universities of private foundation holding membership are Johns Hopkins, Columbia, Harvard, Cornell, Chicago, Yale, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, Leland Stanford, Clark and the Catholic University of America. These great endowed universities make and maintain the highest intellectual and scientific standards of the present. The higher degrees granted by the universities are usually the M.A. degree and the Ph.D. degree. The M.A. degree usually represents one year of graduate work and passing of a general examination and the writing of a brief thesis. The Ph.D. degree represents three or more years of graduate study, one, at least in residence, the passing of an extended examination and the writing of a dissertation based on individual research and constituting a contribution to knowledge. In 1861 the first doctorate was conferred; in 1914 over 500.

The richer private institutions have established numerous scholarships and fellowships. In this policy they have been influenced by the desire to make the private college a real democracy of talent as the State universities do by free tuition. The University of Chicago reports over 1,000 scholarships and fellowships, Yale over 400, Harvard 600, the University of Pennsylvania nearly 700. The State of New York has established a comprehensive system of State scholarships, yielding each $100 for four years in the approved colleges of the State, awarded to those who obtain the college-entrance diploma with highest rank. Seven hundred and fifty scholarships are awarded each year, making 3,000 in force, at a cost to the State of $300,000 a year. The motive in this important legislation is the same that influenced the Western States in the establishment of State universities.

The general establishment of graduate and professional schools has placed the college proper in a position of real danger. The development of the university has complicated its problem and confused its status. Many colleges are in organization not colleges but low grade universities. Properly speaking the college has its place between the high school and the graduate university or higher professional school. It may be an independent institution or one of the several schools forming a university group. A college of standard grade requires for admission the equivalent of eight years' elementary school work and four years of high school work. It requires for the bachelor's degree a four-year course or its equivalent. This brings the normal student to the higher professional school or graduate school at an age of 22 or 23, and delays the practice of his profession to the age of 26 or 27. There has been constant complaint of the length of the educational sequence and repeated efforts have been made to save time somewhere in the process. Differentiation between a junior college and senior college, by which college work may be ultimately limited to two years and university work begun in the senior college, is an interesting experiment. A three-year college course has been tried, and in some institutions a system of “combined” courses permits professional work in the fourth college year, but defers the granting of the

bachelor's degree until the end of the fourth year.

Course of Study. — The influence of the university has operated to introduce into the college a greatly modified curriculum. Until 1870 most colleges provided a four-year course of prescribed studies. So rapid was the growth of the sciences, natural, social, political and applied, as well as history and philology, that the old course of study did not serve to orient the student into the modern world of thought. The problem was met by the multiplication of courses, the multiplication of professors and instructors and the introduction of a greater or less liberty of election between courses. The larger colleges offered in 1914 10 or perhaps 20 different courses for every one offered in 1875. The extreme elective system is generally recognized to have been a failure in the college as it has been a success in the university. The present tendency is to prescribe those subjects which are regarded as essential to a liberal education, to permit election between groups of related courses rather than between individual courses and chiefly in the last two years of the college course. Much has been done to introduce a greater degree of unity, continuity, breadth and system into the curriculum. A promising venture was the establishment of the perceptorial system at Princeton and since adopted in part by a number of colleges. The preceptors enter into close relationship with small groups of students, guide their reading, give personal attention to their difficulties and are able to influence their choice of studies from personal knowledge of individual aptitudes and deficiencies. Honors courses are provided in some colleges for students desiring to attain high rank in carefully selected sequences of courses. A general examination is sometimes substituted for term examinations and tests a more permanent deposit of knowledge.

The position of the college, however, is not yet secure. Its final articulation with the high school below and the graduate and professional school above has not been finally determined. That it is destined to have a permanent place in the educational system seems certain, and the solution of the crucial time problem may come with a real unification of the educational process now arbitrarily divided into four distinct and different educational stages and four types of schools, elementary, secondary, college and university.

Professional and Technical Schools. — There is space but for a few brief sentences concerning the professional and technical schools. During the colonial period many American-born lawyers sought a legal education in the English inns of the court. Equal interest in jurisprudence was not manifested after the Revolution for even the great ability of James Kent failed to attract students to Columbia University after his first year of service in 1794, The Harvard Law School was not successful until Justice Joseph Story in 1830 lent the enterprise the influence of his great name. Not until after 1890 was it firmly established that the apprenticeship system of legal education was inadequate to the increasing volume and complexity of the law, and that adequate preparation could be had only in the better law schools connected with the large universities. There are now approximately 122 law schools with over 20,000

students. Not more than one in four of these students has taken a college degree, although many have had the one or two or three years required for admission by some of the better schools.

Medical education did not attain a high standard until the founding of the medical school of Johns Hopkins University in 1893. There are now about 100 medical schools with about 17,000 students, of whom approximately one in six hold collegiate degrees. The course is usually four years. The efforts of the Carnegie Foundation and other institutions to raise the minimum standard of medical education has resulted in a considerable decrease in the total number of medical colleges and of medical students. Some of the weakest institutions have been eliminated. In 1900 there were over 150 medical schools; in 1914, 100. In 1900 there were 25,000 students; in 1914 not quite 17,000. In addition there are 50 schools of dentistry with about 9,000 students; 72 schools of pharmacy, with nearly 6,000 students, and of more recent establishment 1,250 schools for nurses with 36,000 students. The theological faculty is not as generally developed in the American university as in the German, but schools of theology abound. In 1914 there were 176 theological schools with 11,000 students and nearly 2,000 graduates annually. Less than 50 were integral parts of colleges and universities. About half the schools require a college degree for admission, and the length of the course is usually three years.

Education in engineering begins with the foundation of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1824. The creation of the Lawrence Scientific School in 1847 at Harvard and Sheffield Scientific School at Yale a little later brought a much higher standard. The influence of the National Land Grant Law in 1862 on engineering education was profound. Able schools are connected with most of the larger State universities. The leading school is the Massachusetts Institute of Technology affiliated with Harvard University. Most technical schools require four years of residence and grant degrees of like time-value with the B.A. and B.S, degree.

There are more than 200 public training schools and colleges for teachers with over 90,000 students, but in only a few of the States are the requirements for admission sufficiently high to permit their classification as of college or university grade. In addition there are 46 private normal schools with nearly 6,000 students and a few teachers' colleges of high grade, of which the most notable are at Columbia University and at the University of Chicago. The rapid advance in the application of pedagogical principles to educational practice is due in considerable part to these teachers' colleges.

The deep popular interest in higher education has tangible expression in private gifts to various institutions. In the decade from 1890-1900 an amount was given equal to the entire estimated value of the college property and productive funds in 1890, or $115,500,000. In 1914 gifts from private sources aggregated $31,357,398. Nearly $600,000,000 have been given since 1870.

Mention has been made of the fact that State universities are almost universally coeducational. Most of the colleges of private foundation in the Central and Western States

also admit women in equal terms with men. Oberlin Collegiate Institute, now Oberlin College, admitted women from its opening in 1833. In the Eastern and Southern States colleges for women grew from the female seminaries founded in large numbers before the Civil War. Elmira College in New York was the first institution for women to receive a college charter in 1855. Vassar began a notable history in 1865. Wellesley received recognition as of college grade in 1877. Smith College opened in 1875. There were in 1915 nearly 19,000 undergraduates attending women's colleges.

The problem of military education has frequently demanded the attention of the Congress, the colleges and the people of the United States. Out of the experience of the Revolutionary War and the recommendation of Washington came the military academy at West Point, founded in 1802, now a college and engineering school of the highest type for the training of officers for the United States army. The Naval Academy at Annapolis, founded in 1845 by George Bancroft, the historian, performs a like purpose for naval officers. The number of cadets is strictly limited by Congressional and Presidential appointment. The present law (1916) provides for the designation of three midshipmen to each member and delegate of Congress, and in addition 10 at large and 15 from the enlisted men of the navy to the Naval Academy. Appointment to West Point will be on the basis of two cadets to each member and delegate of Congress, four from each State at large, 80 from the United States at large. The President may appoint, in addition, not to exceed 180, from the enlisted men in the army. The government maintains in addition a number of special military schools for the training of soldiers in various branches of the service.

Out of the early experience of the Civil War came the provision of the Morrill act requiring military drill at the “land-grant colleges.” The National Defense Act of 1916 reorganized the provisions for military education at the State universities and agricultural colleges. Reserve officers liable for service in case of war are to be trained in reserve officers' training corps units by United States army officers detailed as professors of military science and tactics. Adequate instruction in military science as part of the regular course of study is provided. The college training is supplemented by the six weeks' summer training camps conducted by the War Department. Similar provision is made for private colleges which agree to maintain at least a two-year course of military training. College regiments or batteries exist at many universities either as independent organizations or as units of the State militia. The demand for more adequate recognition of military science and military practice by the colleges has its origin largely in the student body and is receiving much attention from the college faculties. The introduction of an element of military discipline into the free life of the college is looked upon with favor by many college presidents.

In the history of higher education in America the first 15 years of the present century represent an area of criticism and reconstruction. Out of this era our universities and colleges emerge confident, potent, alert, with a quickened sense of their high responsibilities, a

clearer vision of their mission and an immensely increased knowledge of educational methods. A new world epoch in educational history will doubtless begin with the close of the European War. What the characteristics of the new epoch will be no one can foretell, but it is a reason for confidence that America can enter the new era with great universities and noble colleges reshaped and strengthened by 15 years of thoughtful self-examination and wise experimentation.

Bibliography. — Angell, J. B., ‘Selected Addresses’ (New York 1912); Association of American Universities, ‘Proceedings of the Annual Conferences’ (Cambridge); Blackmar, F. W., ‘History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States’ (United States Bureau of Education, Circulars, 1890, No. 1, Washington 1890); Boone, R. J, ‘Education in the United States’ (New York 1894); Butler, N. M., ed., ‘Education in the United States,’ includes ‘The American College,’ by A. F. West, ‘The American University’ by E. D. Perry (New York 1910); Cattell, J. M., ‘University Control’ (New York 1913); Dexter, E. G., ‘History of Education in the United States’ (Part II, Higher and Special Education, New York 1904); Draper, A. S., ‘American Education’ (Boston 1909); Flexner, A., ‘The American College: A Criticism’ (New York 1908); Foster, W. T., ‘Administration of the College Curriculum’ (Boston 1911); Gilman, D. C, ‘University Problems in the United States’ (New York 1898); Harper, W. R., ‘The Trend in Higher Education’ (Chicago 1905); Kingsley, C. D., ‘College Entrance Requirements’ (United States Bureau of Education, 1913, No. 4, Washington 1913); MacLean, G. E., ‘Present Standards of Higher Education in the United States’ (United States Bureau of Education, 1913, No. 4, Washington 1913); National Association of State Universities in the United States of America, ‘Annual Transactions and Proceedings’; Risk, R. K., ‘America at College’ (London 1908); Snow, L. F., ‘College Curriculum in the United States’ (New York 1907); Thwing, C. F., ‘History of Higher Education in America’ (New York 1906), ‘College Administration’ (New York 1900) and ‘The American College, what it is and what it may become’ (New York 1914); United States Bureau of Education, ‘Annual Reports’ (Vol. I, 1867-68 date, Washington); United States Bureau of Education, ‘Contributions to American Educational History’ (edited by Herbert B. Adams, written by various authors, Nos. 1-36, 1887-1903, Washington); West, A. F., ‘Short Papers on American Liberal Education’ (New York 1907).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, Patrick


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, Roger


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, Samuel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, William (1746-1799)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curtis, William (1752-1829)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curwen, Hugh


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curwen, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curwen, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Curzon, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cusack, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cust, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cust, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cutcliffe, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cuthbert (d.687)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cuthbert (d.758)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cuthburh


text:
Author:Frank Leland Tolman

Works

 * Frank L. Tolman. “The Study of Sociology in Institutions of Learning in the United States. A Report of an Investigation Undertaken by the Graduate Sociological League of the University of Chicago. (Part 2).” American Journal of Sociology 8 (1902): 85-121.

title: Author:Frank Leland Tolman


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cuthred


text:
Lexicon Technicum/Introduction

The Design of an INTRODUCTION to a Book, being to lead the Reader into it, and to acquaint him what it contains; I shall observe that Method here.

He is therefore to understand, that when I first began this Work, I foresaw the Design could not be accomplish'd in One Volume; but however, I thought it more proper to Publish one Volume first, than to defer Printing any thing at all of it till the Whole was finished: For as it is easy to see, that new Matter will continually occur in a Design of this Nature, and, consequently, that there can be no such thing as a Perfect Book of this Kind; so I thought it better to send out an Imperfect one than none, and to afford some Help to Men's Improvement in Philosophy and Mathematical Studies, rather than leave them to stay four or five Years for a more Compleat one. And the unprejudic'd Part of the Learned World have been so kind, as to take my Endeavours as I meant them; and by taking off almost Two Impressions of the former Volume, and numerously subscribing to this, make me hope, the Pains I have taken, and the Time I have employed this Way, may be of some Use and Benefit to Mankind, and to the Improvement of Solid and Substantial Philosophy.

title: Lexicon Technicum/Introduction


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Melba, Madame

MELBA, MADAME [] (1859-), British singer (see ), was the organizer of many charitable efforts during the World War, and collected considerable sums for war charities. In 1918 she was created D.B.E.


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meighen, Arthur

MEIGHEN, ARTHUR (1874-), Canadian statesman, was born June 16 1874 at Anderson, Perth co., Ontario. After studying law, he practised for some years in Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. He was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in the general election of 1908, and was reëlected in 1911 and 1917. In 1913 he was appointed Solicitor-General in the Borden administration and in 1915 was sworn of the Privy Council for Canada. He became Secretary of State and Minister of Mines in 1917, and the same year was made Minister of the Interior and Superintendent-General for Indian Affairs. In 1918 he went to England with the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, to attend the Imperial Conference. Following the retirement of Sir Robert Borden in 1919 he was chosen to succeed him as leader of the Union Government. He became Prime Minister and Secretary of State for External Affairs July 10 1920, and was appointed a member of the King's Privy Council in October of the same year. He attended the conference of Prime Ministers in London in June 1921. But he resigned office on the heavy defeat of his party at the elections in December.


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mehta, Sir Pherozeshah Merwanji

MEHTA, SIR PHEROZESHAH MERWANJI (1845-1915), Indian Moderate leader and municipal reformer, was the son of a Bombay merchant. Educated at the Elphinstone College, he

was the first Parsi M.A. of Bombay University, and coming to London to read at Lincoln's Inn was also the first Parsi to be called (1868) to the bar. With Dadabhai Naoroji he founded the organization which grew into the present East India Association. Returning to Bombay he rapidly made a name as an advocate and built up a fortune at the bar. Appointed in 1869 as Justice of the Peace, to participate in municipal affairs, he eagerly promoted the reform of civic administration begun in 1872, from which date he served on the new Bombay Corporation till his death. Through these 43 years he exercised wisely an extraordinary personal ascendency in that body and was four times president. He was also the dominant non-official figure in the Bombay Legislature, where he served for over 30 years. He represented its non-official members on the Supreme Legislature for three triennial terms to 1902, when he made way for G. K. Gokhale. One of the founders of the Indian National Congress, he presided at the Calcutta session of 1890. A stout opponent of violent methods, he did perhaps more than anyone else to stave off the complete triumph the extreme section in the Congress secured soon after his death. Most influential in the affairs of the Bombay University, he was in the last few months of his life vice-chancellor. A great orator, with remarkable gifts for managing men, his steadfast devotion to local and provincial reform and progress, while not irresponsive to wider calls, had a most valuable influence in moulding nascent Indian public life. Created a C.I.E. in 1894, he was advanced to the knighthood of the Order 10 years later. In the last year of his life, in spite of declining health, he threw his great influence strongly on the side of full Indian coöperation with the rest of the Empire in the World War. He died in Bombay Nov. 5 1915.

(Author:Frank Herbert Brown)


text:
Lexicon Technicum/A

ABACUS

ABACUS. Besides the former Account of the Abacus, I find that Mauclerc, in the Ionick Order, designs what the Workmen call and O.G. with a Fillet over it for the Abacus: Which Fillet is half the Breadth of the O.G. and he calls it the Fillet of the Abacus'. In the Corinthian Order, he describes the Abacus as a seventh Part of the whole Capital. Palladio calls the Plinth about the Boultin (or Eckinus) the Abacus: Which from its Form, saith he, is commonly called Dado, or the Dye; and this is of the whole heighth of the Capital.

Scamozzi calls a certain Hollow of Casement, which is the Capital of the Pedestal of the Tuscan Order, by his Name Abacus.

ABASE

ABASE, in the Sea Language, is to Lower or Take in. To Abase the Flag, is to take in the Flag.

ABBACY

ABBACY, is the Government of a Religious House, with the Revenues and Persons subject to an Abbat.

title: Lexicon Technicum/A


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/78

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Rh

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/78


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title: Template:Process-stub


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Translation:Shulchan Aruch/Orach Chaim/62

One who was not precise with reading the Shema or did not make an audible sound

''' מי שלא דקדק בקריאת שמע או לא השמיע לאזנו '''

Paragraph 1 — Even though it is a mitzvah to be precise with the individual letters of the Shema, one who reads without being precise has fulfilled his obligation.

סעיף א — אף על פי שמצוה לדקדק באותיותיה קראה ולא דקדק בהן יצא:

Paragraph 2 — One may read the Shema in any language, but one should be careful to avoid mistakenly saying other words in that language and be precise just as if it was in Hebrew.

סעיף ב — יכול לקרותה בכל לשון ויזהר מדברי שיבוש שבאותו לשון וידקדק בו כמו בלשון הקודש:

Paragraph 3 — One must be able to hear the words of the Shema coming out of the mouth, but if one does not hear them, one has nevertheless fulfilled the obligation as long as the words have been said

סעיף ג' — צריך להשמיע לאזנו מה שמוציא בפיו ואם לא השמיע לאזנו יצא ובלבד שיוציא בשפתיו:

Paragraph 4 — If due to illness or another mitigating factor one read the Shema silently one has fulfilled his obligation. Rem"a: And one does this from the start if one is in a place that is not completely clean and one cannot clean it up due to various factors one thinks about the Shema in his heart. And this is only if the place is not completely filthy because it is is forbidden to ponder matters of Torah in filthy places (Beit Yosef Chapter 25)

סעיף ד — אם מחמת חולי או אונס אחר קרא קריאת שמע בלבו יצא.
 * הגה: ואף לכתחלה יעשה כן אם הוא במקום שאינו נקי לגמרי ואינו יכול לנקותו משום אונס יהרהר בלבו. ובלבד שלא יהא מקום מטונף לגמרי דאסור להרהר בדברי תורה במקום הטינופת (בית יוסף סימן כ"ה)

Paragraph 5 — The person leading prayer must make his voice heard with "Shema Yisrael" in order that the congregation will hear and will glorify Hashem together.

סעיף ה — צריך שליח צבור להשמיע קולו בשמע ישראל כדי שישמעו הקהל וימליכו שם שמים יחד:

 * }


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text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/79

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Rh

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/79


text: Talk:Maps of Old London

title: Talk:Maps of Old London


text:
Wikisource:Maintenance of the Month/201209 Help workflow

Our help pages need to be improved. Many functions on Wikisource are either poorly explained or not explained at all. These range from simple things beginners need to know to advanced subjects that will rarely come up but need to be documented for those occasions when they do.

This page is to help co-ordinate users assisting with the Maintenance of the Month task to create and improve our help pages.

Any user of any experience level can work at any point in this process. Experienced users may find it easier to create pages while novice users, or those with little experience in specific areas, are ideal for the review stage.

This help page workflow is a four-stage process should allow as many people as possible to work together on help page creation. Pages will generally move down the workflow, from suggestions to construction to review to completed pages. At the review stage, some pages may move back up the workflow to the expand and improve section.

Stage 1 – Suggestions
What needs to be explained? What does not have adequate documentation? Ideas and suggestions should be added here as bullet points. Users may choose to create a stub based on one or more of the comments or suggestions listed here. Strike out bullet points once help pages have been started.

 * Use of hyphenated word start and hyphenated word end when proofreading.
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 * One page which describes everything to be done on en.WS (yes, you Help:Proofreading) is overwhelming. 7 +/- 2 is the magic number. Section off and split off processes into separate pages. Use summary style to tie everything together.
 * There are strikeouts 1.1 above which is an area I was reading not long ago and consider important. We here who work with .PDF Files need to know how to clean them before moving to WS and how to work with text layers which many of us do not know and are constantly asking others to do these things for us. There are administrators and non-administrators here who do not know. There are some who do know. The process often has to consider what programs we at home already have and how to use that particular function, i.e. Adobe Acrobat and which version, &c., &c. —  William Maury Morris II  Talk 12:49, 3 September 2012 (UTC)

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 * Help:Digitising texts and images for Wikisource — The section about digitising images needs help (I don't know enough about the topic). Is there a good page on Commons that we could link to (or copy here and modify)? — Sam Wilson ( Talk • Contribs ) … 07:51, 5 September 2012 (UTC)
 * I have re-written most of this page (except the file creation section, with which I have little experience). - AdamBMorgan (talk) 19:27, 8 September 2012 (UTC)
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 * Help:Footnotes and endnotes—Out of date. I put some expansion suggestions on the talk page a while back, but haven't had a chance to come back to it. Beeswaxcandle (talk) 08:20, 5 September 2012 (UTC)
 * As above, I have re-written this help page. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 23:21, 26 September 2012 (UTC)
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 * Help:ProofreadPage extension - split from Help:Proofread, re-written, updated and expanded. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 21:28, 30 September 2012 (UTC)
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text:
Help:LibriVox

LibriVox is an online digital library of free public domain audiobooks, read by volunteers. The LibriVox objective is "to make all books in the public domain available, for free, in audio format on the internet."

Searching LibriVox
At the LibriVox Catalog enter the title and author (if known) of the text you wish to access. You may specify that the audio file need be complete/incomplete/other if you so wish by adjusting the status box.

Downloading from LibriVox

 * 1) Either
 * 2) * Download from LibriVox or the Internet Archive
 * 3) * Use the URL2Commons tool
 * 4) Upload to Wikimedia Commons if possible; if not, upload it to Wikisource.
 * 5) Create a category if necessary

Wikimedia Commons is not entirely compatible with LibriVox's use of the public domain but Wikisource is. Wikimedia Commons adds an additional policy on top of United States law: Commons does not accept files that are not in the public domain in their home country. LibriVox and Wikisource both use the minimum legal requirement of United States law, so only the public domain status in the United States is relevant. Wherever possible upload LibriVox recordings to Wikimedia Commons; otherwise, upload them directly to Wikisource.

Which file format?
Librivox has audio files available in MP3 and Ogg formats. However, MP3 files should not be uploaded to Wikisource or Commons. Therefore, you should choose the Ogg format. This may require that you click the Internet Archive link on the Librivox audiobook page under the Links heading. You will then find the Ogg files listed at the Internet Archive.

Adding audio files to works
listen in header

media on author and/or portal pages

Editing LibriVox files
LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. They may be re-edited in any way. If it is necessary to edit a recording:
 * 1) Make sure the original has been uploaded to either Wikimedia Commons or Wikisource.
 * 2) Edit the file with audio editing software.
 * 3) Upload your edited version to either Wikimedia Commons or Wikisource.  Make a note on both this file and the original to link them together (for example, you can use the   field of the Information template.)

title: Help:LibriVox


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/80

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/80


text:
Author:Geraldine Edith Mitton

Works

 * Chelsea, The Fascination of London (1902)
 * A Bachelor Girl in Burma (1907)
 * Maps of Old London (ed. 1908)
 * Cornwall (1915), illustrated by G. F. Nicholls
 * Scott of the Shan Hills (1936)

title: Author:Geraldine Edith Mitton


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalewala

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalewala


text: Kinship and social organisation/Lecture II


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lönnrot, Elias


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/81

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/81


text: United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense/I. B. The Character and Power of the Viet Minh


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/82

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive I. B.

One of the recurrent themes of criticism of U.S. policy in Vietnam has been that from the end of World War II on, there was a failure to recognize that the Viet Minh was the principal vehicle for Vietnamese nationalism and that it, in fact, was in control of and effectively governing all of Vietnam. Evidence on issues like popularity and control is always somewhat suspect—especially when dealing with an exotic country like Vietnam at a time when what Americans knew about it was largely dependent on French sources. Nonetheless, some generalizations can be made and supported.

First, the Viet Minh was the main repository of Vietnamese nationalism and anti-French colonialism. There were other such groups promoting Viet independence but none were competitive on a country-wide scale. It is also true that the disciplined, well-organized, and well-led Indochinese Communist Party was the controlling element in the Viet Minh. The ICP was not, however, in the numerical majority either in total membership or in leadership posts held. This gap between control and numbers can be explained by two factors: (a) ICP strategy was to unify nationalist elements to achieve the immediate objective of independence; and (b) the other components of the Viet Minh were sizable enough to fractionalize the whole movement. In other words, from World War II on, the ICP was strong enough to lead, but not to dominate Vietnamese nationalism.

Second, the Viet Minh was sufficiently popular and effective to turn itself into a Vietnam-wide government that could have extended its authority throughout the country after World War II—except for the obstacle of reasserted French power, and, to a lesser degree, of indigenous political opposition in Cochinchina. The Viet Minh was always more powerful in Tonkin and Annam than in South Vietnam. However, it seems likely that in the absence of the French, the Viet Minh through its governmental creation, the DRV, would have overridden indigenous tribal, religious, and other opposition in short order.

Vietnamese nationalism developed three types of political parties or movements:

. Narrowly based among the small educated Vietnamese elite, these parties made little pretense at representing the masses of the peasantry—except in the ancient mandarinal sense of Rh

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/82


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Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/83

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive paternal leadership. In general, they advocated reform of the relationship between France and Vietnam to establish an independent and united nation, but would neither sever beneficial bonds with the metropole, nor alter drastically the Vietnamese social structure. Members included many men of impeccable repute and undoubted nationalist convictions—among them Ngo Dinh Diem—but also a number of known opportunist and corrupt Vietnamese. The reformist parties were further discredited by collaboration with the Japanese during World War II. These parties formed the basis for the "Bao Dai solution" to which France and the U.S. gravitated in the late 1960's.

. In Cochinchina—and almost exclusively there—during the 1930's there emerged religious sects commanding firm loyalties of hundreds of thousands of peasants. Two of these—the Cao Dai and the Hoa Hao—aspired to temporal as well as spiritual power, fielded armed forces, and formed local governments. They opposed both French political and cultural hegemony, and domination by other Vietnamese parties. Some elements collaborated openly with the Japanese during 194O–1945. Because these parties were of local and religious character, any parallel with other Viet political organizations would be inexact. These movements account in large measure for the distinctive character of South Vietnamese nationalism as compared with that of Annam or Tonkin.

. The numerous remaining Vietnamese political parties fall into the revolutionary category: they advocated Vietnam's independence from France and some degree of radical reorganization of the Viet polity. Their political coloration ranged from the deep red of the Saigon-centered Trotskyites (who advocated anti-imperialist revolution throughout the world, and within Vietnam, expropriation for the workers and peasants) through the less violent hues of communism and Kuomintang-styled nationalism, to the indistinct, eclectic nationalism of the Binh Xuyen criminal fraternity (another Saigon phenomenon). Only two of these movements developed a Vietnam-wide influence: the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), and the Vietnam Nationalist Party (VNQDD). Both these parties were troubled throughout their history by factionalism, and by repeated (French police) purges. Both aspired to politicizing the peasants; neither wholly succeeded. Of the two, the ICP consistently demonstrated the greater resiliency and popularity, attributable to superior conspiratorial doctrine and technique, and to more coherent and astute leadership. Both the ICP and the VNQDD figured in peasant uprisings in 1930–1931, and 1940–1941. Each played a role in the Vietnamese resistance against the Vichy French and the Japanese during World War II: the ICP as the nucleus of the Viet Minh, and the VNQDD as the principal component of the Chinese Nationalist-sponsored Dong Minh Hoi.

The Viet Minh—, League for the Independence of Vietnam—came into being in May, 1951, at the 8th Plenum of the Indochinese Communist Party, held in South China. It was formed as a "united front" organization with Ho Chi Minh at its head, and was Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive initially composed of the ICP, Revolutionary Youth League, the New Vietnam Party, and factions of the Vietnam Nationalist Party (VNQDD). Membership was held open to any other individuals or groups willing to join in struggling for "national liberation." The announced program of the Viet Minh called for a wide range of social and political reforms designed mainly to appeal to Viet patriotism. Emphasis was placed on an anti-Japanese crusade and preparation for "an insurrection by the organization of the people into self-defense corps," not on communist cant.

Though a Kuomintang general originally sponsored the Viet Minh, Ho soon became suspect, and in 1942 was jailed by the Chinese. While he was in prison, probably to offset the Viet Minh's growing appeal, and to assure tighter Chinese control of the Vietnamese, the KMT fostered a rival Viet "popular front," the Vietnam Revolutionary League (Dong Minh Hoi), which was based on the VNQDD, the Great Vietnam Nationalist Party (Dai Viet), and a number of smaller groups, but was supposed to include the Viet Minh. In fact, however, the Dong Minh Hoi never acquired more than a nominal control over the Viet Minh. In 1943, Ho was released from prison and put in charge of the Dong Minh Hoi—a status apparently conditioned on his accepting overall Chinese guidance and providing the allies with intelligence. But as the war progressed, Ho and the Viet Minh drew apart from the Dong Minh Hoi, and the latter never succeeded in acquiring apparatus within Vietnam comparable to the Viet Minh's.

During the war, some Vietnamese political parties collaborated with the Japanese or the Vichy French. These were put at a disadvantage during and after the war in competition with the ICP, the Viet Minh, or the Dong Minh Hoi—all of which developed an aura of unwavering faith to resistance against all foreign domination. But only the ICP and the Viet Minh established their reputations by extensive wartime operations among the people of Vietnam. In Cochinchina, up until surfacing in April 1945, the ICP continued to operate largely underground and without much regard for the Viet Minh mantle; in Annam and Tonkin, however, all ICP undertakings were given Viet Minh identity. Throughout Vietnam, the ICP initiated patient political action: the dissemination of propaganda, the training of cadres, the establishment of a network of cells down to hamlet level. The ICP was during the war the hard core of the Viet Minh, but the bulk of the Viet Minh membership were no doubt quite unaware of that fact: they served the Viet Minh out of a patriotic fervor.

The American O.S.S. during World War II dealt with the Viet Minh as the sole efficient resistance apparatus within Vietnam, depending upon it for reliable intelligence, and for aid in assisting downed allied pilots. However, the Viet Minh itself assigned priority to political tasks ahead of these military missions. The first permanent Viet Minh bases were established in 1942–43 in the mountains north of Hanoi. Only after its political network was well established did it field its first guerrilla forces, in September 1943. The first units of the Viet Minh Liberation Army came into being on December 22, 1944, and there is little Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive evidence of large scale, concerted guerrilla operations until after March 1945.

At the end of 1944, the Viet Minh claimed a total membership of 500,000, of which 200,000 were in Tonkin, 150,000 in Annam, and 150,000 in Cochinchina. The Viet Minh political and military structure wee significantly further developed in North Vietnam. In May 1945, a Viet Minh "liberated zone" was established near the Chinese border. As the war drew to a close the Viet Minh determined to preempt allied occupation, and to form a government prior to their arrival. The Viet Minh ability to do so proved better in the north than in the south. In August 1945, Ho Chi Minh's forces seized power from the Japanese and Bao Dai in North Vietnam, forced the emperor to abdicate, and to cede his powers to Ho's Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). In Cochinchina, however, the Viet Minh were able to gain only tenuous control of Saigon and its environs. Nonetheless, when the allies arrived, the Viet Minh were the government in both North and South Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh and his DRV in Hanoi, and an ICP-dominated "Committee of the South" in Saigon.

On 12 September 1945, the British landed a Gurkha battalion and a company of Free French soldiers in Saigon. The British commander regarded the Vietnamese government with disdain because of its lack of authority from the French and because of its inability to quell civil disorder in South Vietnam. Saigon police clashed with Trotskyites, and in the rural areas, fighting broke out between Viet Minh troops and those of Cao Dai and Hoa Hao. Spreading violence rendered futile further attempts to draw together the Vietnamese factions, and prompted the French to importune the British commander to permit them to step in to restore order. On the morning of 23 September, French troops overthrew the Vietnamese government after a tenure of only three weeks. The official British account termed the French method of executing the coup d'etat "unfortunate" in that they "absolutely ensured that countermeasures would be taken by the [Vietnamese]...." Vietnamese retaliation was quick and violent; over one hundred Westerners were slain in the first few days, and others kidnapped; on 26 September, the U.S. commander of the O.S.S. in Saigon was killed. Thus, the first Indochina War began in Cochinchina in late September, 1945, and American blood was shed in its opening hours.

At that juncture, the ICP in Cochinchina was in a particularly vulnerable position. The ICP had permitted the Viet Minh to pose as an arm of the Allies; and had supported cooperation with the British and amnesty for the French. The Party had even undertaken, through the Committee of the South, to repress the Trotskyites. But violence undermined its advocacy of political moderation, of maintaining public order, and of negotiations with the French. Further, the ICP in Saigon was assured by French communists that they would receive no assistance from Party brethren abroad. The French coup d'etat thrust conflict upon the Vietnamese of Cochinchina. The question before the communists was how to respond; the ICP leadership determined that violence was the sole Rh

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 or a child; but nature has no pity. By an awful law, but for some blessed purpose, she is allowed to have none; and she will strike alike the child in its cradle, the strong man or woman. I wish to God someone had pictorial power to set before the mothers of England what that means—100,000 (?) preventable deaths! Oh be in earnest. Remember that, as a live dog is better than a dead lion, so one of those little children in the kennel out there is worth saving. Try to remember that it is not the will of our Father that one of these little ones should perish."

103, Milton St., Dorset Sq., August 14th, 1859.  .

I hope you haven't thought me unkind, which indeed I haven't meant to be, but only very busy, as assuredly I do mean to be all my life long, if I can contrive it. Thanks for your sweet and welcome letters. You will have received the French lines, without accents. I will neither vouch for spelling nor grammar, but you must treat them as if they were exercises in Chapsall.

The event of my life since I last saw you has been, as you know, an expedition last Sunday of which I would wish to speak reasonably and calmly if I can succeed. Indeed it was glorious! I never saw a better friendship than that between the men and him (Mr. Furnivall). I'm a little weary of thinking over the Sunday question, and yet—lest you cast me off utterly, and Mr. Durrant ceases to send me kind messages, and Mary be shocked indeed—I must tell you a little how we stand here about it Of course I told Mr. F. that I should never


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Page:Dr. James Naismith's Original 13 Rules of Basket Ball.jpg

E present to our readers a new game of ball, which seems to have those elements in it which ought to make it popular among the Associations. It fills the same place in the gymnasium that foot ball does in the athletic field. Any number of men may play at it, and each one get plenty of exercise; at the same time it calls for physical judgment, and co-ordination of every muscle, and gives all-around development. It can be played by teams from different Associations, and combines skill with courage and agility so that the better team wins.

The ground is the gymnasium floor cleared of apparatus (it may be shoved behind the side lines), though it could be played in the open air, at a picnic, etc. When there is a running track around the gymnasium, the ground might be marked out just under the track, and the baskets hung up, one at each end on the railing. All outside of this line is then out of bounds. When there is no running track, the ends may be cleared of apparatus, and the goals fixed on the wall, then a line may be drawn along the sides of the gymnasium about six feet from the walls, or enough to clear the apparatus. Across these lines would be out of bounds.

The goals are a couple of baskets or boxes about fifteen inches in diameter across the opening, and about fifteen inches deep. These are to be suspended, one at each end of the grounds, about ten feet from the floor. The object of the game is to put the ball into your opponents' goal. This may be done by throwing the ball from any part of the grounds, with one or both hands, under the following conditions and rules:—

The ball to be an ordinary Association foot ball.  The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.

The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands (never with the fist).

A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man who catches the ball when running at a good speed if he tries to stop.

The ball must be held in or between the hands, the arms or body must not be used for holding it.

No shouldering, holding, pushing, tripping, or striking in any way the person of an opponent shall be allowed; the first infringement of this rule by any player shall count as a foul, the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made, or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game, no substitute allowed.

A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violation of Rules 3, 4, and such as described in rule 5.

If either side makes three consecutive fouls, it shall count a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the mean time making a foul).

A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the grounds into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edges, and the opponent moves the basket, it shall count as a goal.

When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field of play by the person first touching it. In case of a dispute, the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower in is allowed five seconds, if he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on that side.

The umpire shall be judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.

The referee shall be judge of the ball and shall decide when the ball is in play, in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made, and keep account of the goals with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.

The time shall be two fifteen minutes, halves, with five minutes' rest between.

The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner. In case of a draw, the game may, by agreement of the captains, be continued until another goal is made.

This game is interesting to spectators as well as to the players, and may be made quite scientific by good judgment combined with good co-ordination. Several good points have been scored by two or three players working together. The number composing a team depends largely on the size of the floor space, but it may range from three on a side to forty. The fewer players down to three, the more scientific it may be made, but the more players the more fun, and the more exercise for judgment.

The men may be arranged according to the idea of the captain, but it has been found advantageous to have a goal paper, two guards, three center men, two wings, and a home man stationed in the above order from the goal.

It shall be the duty of the goal keeper and the two guards to prevent the opponents from scoring. The duty of the wing man and the home man is to put the ball into the opponents' goal, and the center men shall feed the ball forward to the man who has the best opportunity, thus nine men make the best number for a team.

It is well suited for boys. Director Finch has introduced it in his boys' classes with apparent success. We wish that the physical directors would try the game, and report any points that might be amended.

It is intended that this game should be free from much of the reputed roughness of Rugby, and in the framing of rules this has been kept strictly in view. If some of the rules seem unnecessarily sever, it will remembered that the time to stop roughness is before it begins.

A gymnasium is bounded by hard walls, and has a pretty solid floor, and for that reason, any shoving that would injure a person must be stopped, e.g., when a man raises his arms to throw the ball, another might give him the shoulder, and disable him, but if this is stopped there will be an understanding that is it not allowed. It is for the benefit of the physical director that no man be hurt in his gymnasium, so that any director who tries it should make every man conform to the rules strictly at first, and then he would soon get accustomed to playing ball instead of trying to injure his neighbor, when it is nothing but a friendly tussle in which they are taking part.

The very men who are rough in playing will be the very first ones to oppose the game on this account, for there is that in man's nature which will retaliate, and the rough player generally gets the worst of the roughness. If there is need for such a game, let it be played as any other game of science and skill, then men will value it. But there is neither science nor skill in taking a man unawares, and shoving him, or catching his arm and pulling him away, when he is about to catch the ball. A dog could do as much as that.

There seemed to be now way of compensating the opponents for a foul made. A free throw was thought of, but, after a little practice, a good thrower could convert it into a goal almost every time, because of the limits of the ordinary gymnasium. Then the idea was that three fouls would count as a goal, and would be a deterrent to the making of them. This is true, for when a team finds that another foul would count a goal against them, the extra foul is hardly ever made, showing that it is possible to play the game without making fouls.

If men will not be gentlemanly in their play, it is our place to encourage games that may be played gentlemen in a manly way, and show them that science is superior to brute force with a disregard for the feelings of others. The umpire will thus be responsible for much of the roughness if he lets it go unchecked, but if he is firm and impartial in his ruling he will gain the respect even of those who suffer at the time.

We would advise the director to keep a good firm grasp on the ruling for a while at first.


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 dream of entering into a plan involving habitual absence from church; tho' I didn't tell him how much I can sympathise with the spirit of some people who do. He goes with the men every Sunday; they, some of them at least, remain at home to go to church each alternate Sunday; but that is no part of his plan. His own faith is just as deep and living as ever; but he has evidently been disappointed with the amount or kind of union the church gives. They go regularly and very happily all together; he is ever ready to sympathise and enter into all kinds of happiness from the greatest to the least. He showed me where they walked, he told me when we were coming to the loveliest groups of trees, when to the creek where they bathe, how the park looked at moonlight, and how they all enjoyed it. He wants us to join them in an excursion to Leith Hill or Box Hill in September. I asked if it must be a Sunday, and he thought much about it, but says the men can't get holidays. He talked about Rossiter, told me he heard one of my sisters was down with Durrant. He amused me vastly by saying, "Hoets, whom you saw at Cambridge, wants people to go and see his wife and children, as he's thinking of going to Australia." As if one could go and call on Mrs. Hoets without introduction, on such a plea! Oh, Minnie, but it was so glorious! As we walked through the park at Richmond at night, we sang hymns, "No! never part again," "There is a happy land," "Here we suffer grief and pain." In the chorus of the last, a number of working, or rather loitering, men in Richmond joined very earnestly. We saw the pictures at Hampton Court with which I was much pleased. The men were very nice; they are so learned about flowers, etc., so respectful, so thoroughly happy. Several of our own pupils were there; everyone behaved well.


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 103, Milton Street, Dorset Square, August 20th, 1859. .

I hope that you will, in your great kindness, forgive my troubling you by asking whether you can give me a few words of advice on questions that are troubling me practically very much indeed.

1st. I have been very much impressed by the good and joy Mr. Furnivall's Sunday excursions seem to be giving to the men and to their wives, sisters, and friends, who from time to time accompany them. I have rarely seen a more respectful, intelligent, and happy party than they. Of course I shouldn't approve of members of the Church missing service habitually; but that doesn't seem to me to be at all necessary to the plan. I know some people, to whom such a refreshment after their week's work would be an inestimable good. It would give me a great delight to accept invitations for them; and have this opportunity of seeing them, and helping them; nor can I see any rule which can make it right for me to go and see my friends on Sunday, or go into the country, and yet makes it wrong for them to go all together. Ought I to give up my only day for seeing relations and friends? I shouldn't have hesitated about it, but that I imagine, perhaps incorrectly, that you disapprove of those excursions. May I ask if it is so? I have been trying to enter into the full purpose of Sunday, as you told me, quite giving up work, and, as you told me, everything that was an effort (except writing to my sisters, which ought to be none), and I do at last understand Sunday as a duty as well as privilege; but is not refreshment by seeing friends and change of scene right?


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 I wanted to ask two still more difficult questions but really ought not to trouble you more. Oh that you were in London that I might ask you! No! I am glad you are resting. And truly too, I don't depend on your advice, but I know our Father has thousands of ways to teach me, if only my stubborn will and foolish fancies don't blind me.

God bless you all. I hope Mrs. Maurice is better. Please don't answer if you are busy or tired. Is it really difficult to tell what is right? Or is it only that one will not see the truth? Or does one not pray trustfully enough?

The classes are going on steadily and well. I am very well too; and dear Mama and Minnie are having happy holidays. I am all alone.

.

I cannot attempt to express the thankfulness I feel for your kindness in answering my letter, perhaps most of all for the first words, "You should never apologise for asking my opinion," because it seems as if it might be understood to have reference to our baptism; and although I quite feel the help you would give to everyone to be the most precious, and don't want any special right to more than you would give to others, yet I often feel as if I very much wanted to be sure that I was not wrong in asking you questions about our own life, which I do not feel wise enough, or old enough, to decide myself, and which I cannot trust, though I sometimes do leave, to the decision of others. It is not about questions referring to faith that I feel this most. I know always about this to Whom I can go, and thank God! for some years (until this


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 question of Sunday) have felt His help all sufficient; and it has been, except for my own sin and weakness, but one long blessed revelation of His love, of the meaning of prayer and sacraments. It was not about them that I feel as if I wanted any more help than I have; seldom now (tho' most deeply when I feel it at all) about home-life; for we have learnt a good deal now about where we have been wrong about it; it is principally about the application of principles to other social questions; it is all very well for people to tell me not to trouble myself about them, but they are involved in every action of daily life. Earnest thought, life itself, and some words of your own and others, for whom I have a great respect, have led me to convictions which, as I say, would lead me to actions differing widely from yours, and, I suppose, proceeding from some difference in principle. Sometimes I act for a little while on my own convictions, and am very happy, till the recollection of how wrong I was, and how sure I was about other things which you have taught me, principally by advising my giving up a course of action and adopting another, or some partial failure, make me think I am arrogant and self-willed; and yet when I take the other course I am oppressed with a sense of neglected duties, fear of my own honesty, and confusion about how far I ought to trust people, and you specially. This produces inconsistency in action; tho', on the whole, I adopt the latter course for the questions relating principally to work at the College; I feel my position there implies very complete obedience. When I can see you (but that is so seldom now), I so try (indeed I try always) to understand the grounds on which you act; and I own myself fairly puzzled. It was to this I referred.


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 Your letter has shown me a much deeper meaning in Sunday than I had ever perceived in it; and I see the difficulty about the excursions very clearly, as not speaking to people as spiritual beings, called to full rest in trust in God: I am not sure that I do not think that, after the Church service has done this, the rest of the day would not be better passed among God's works in the country, and in friendly intercourse; but I am less sure of having entered into the teaching of the Bible on the subject, than of setting a sufficient value on mere cessation from toil and recreation; and so I shall decidedly give up these excursions, till I have thought more about them. And even then I hope I am not wrong in feeling that I do not think, especially as College people are concerned, I could feel it right to go to them, when you feel as you do about it.

I am afraid this letter will give you the impression that I am trusting far too much to you, far too little in God; tho' I have stated very frankly (it reads to me almost unkindly), how fears that you may be wrong about some things mingle with my sure knowledge how wonderfully you have been proved right about others. I accept both reproaches. I am often tempted to trust too much to you; not, I think, to believe your wisdom, and gentleness, and patience, and faith to be greater than they are, but to think too much that I was to trust to them in you, instead of in God, because I have not felt Him to be an ever-present guide, not only into the mysteries of His own Love, not only into the meaning of past wants, but into the grounds of all right and all wise action. This and this only has confused me; all has been ordered to teach me, all to strengthen me; and I alone am wrong. Only with these thoughts others mingle; I must not, in order to recover faith in a


text: Basket Ball

title: Basket Ball


text:
Author:James Naismith

Works

 * Basket Ball (1892)

title: Author:James Naismith