text:
Translation:Ayil Meshulash/Discourse 4

This chapter contains sections 81 to 139

Section 81
The sine is half of a chord, whether great or small. The sine of an arc is then half of the chord of an arc twice as large, like so:

Here the sine of arc BC is equal to the line BE, which is half of line BD, which itself is the chord of arc BCD. This arc BCD is twice the size or arc BC.

If one wishes to know the sine of an arc one should draw a radius line from one side of the of the arc to the circle's center and draw a line meeting this radius line forming a right angle. This line is equal to the arc's sine line. In the above example, lines CF and BE are drawn from arc BC, meeting at a right angle.

If the arc is greater than a quarter or the circle [for example, arc BH] then a diameter line is drawn across the circle from one end of the arc [CH] and the line drawn at right angles from the other end of the arc [BD] is the sine.

Section 82
The line of the sine value is shared by both the arc and the remainder of the arc above the horizontal, which combined are 180 degrees. In the example above the sine line BE partners arc BC with arc BH. The same is true of the angle it creates and its remainder. In the above example angle BFC and angle BFH together equal 180 degrees. In relation to the sine the arc and angles have the same degree measure.

Section 83
The greater the arc or the angle the greater the sine line will be. This rule continues until the arc reaches a quarter or the circle or the angle becomes a 90 degree angle. From that point on if the arc continues to grow the sine line is reduced in length. Therefore, the greatest sine line to be had is the one at half the diameter of the circle, which is the line for a arc measuring a quarter of the circle or an angle that is 90 degrees, as is the line AF above, which is the sine line for arc AC and AH as well as angles AFC and AFH. The sine measurement in all its possible forms is generally divided into 100,000 discrete parts, [or 5 decimal places]. These discrete units are used to measure any arc to determine how many units of this total is the length of the sine line. Through this method a chart of all possible sine lines lengths for each degree of an arc can be measured. Then, if one knows how many degrees are in an angle or an arc he can refer to the table and look up the degree measure and find its corresponding sine line length. Conversely, if one knows the length of a sine line and wishes to know the amount of degrees in the corresponding angle or arc he need only look up the sine value to find its degree measure. If one cannot locate his specific sine line length or degree measure he can locate the next higher value and the previous value, and create a proportion of the fractional units [of the measurement he does know] that are additional to the lower value on the table in comparison to one full unit, and that proportion would be same for the value he is searching for in the corresponding column [for the measurement that he desires to know] compared to its previous and subsequent values.

Section 84
The cosine is the length of the horizontal line that is needed to reach a sine line at the 90 degree mark. For example, in the figure above line BG is the cosine to sine line BE, since arc AB added to arc BC is 90 degrees. If the arc extends past 90 degrees the cosine line is the horizontal line extending past the 90 degree point, as line BG in arc BAH above.

Section 85
A line proceeding from the center that meets the sine line at right angles is also a cosine line, as seen in line FE above, which is equivalent to line GB. The proof of this was stated in section 22.

Section 86
The squares of the sine and cosine lines are equal to the square of the hypotenuse [A^2 + B^2 = C^2]. The proof of this is that hypotenuse BF, which is equivalent to the fullest possible sine line [the radius line at the center, see section 7], is also equal to the squares of lines BG and GF, as was stated in section 75. Since line GF is also equal to line BE, which is the sine line of arc BC, as was written in a previous section, and line BG is the cosine of the sine line BE, the sum of the squares of the sine and cosine equal the square of the hypotenuse.

Section 87
As are the proportions that exist between the sines of the angles of a triangle so too are the proportions that exist between the lengths of the sides of a triangle that are opposite each of those respective angles. For example:

The proportion of angle BCD to angle CDB is equal to the proportion of line BD to line BC. The same is true for all the angles and sides. The proof of this is to draw line DC, which is equal in length to line BD, and then draw a circle around this line with a center at point D. Now line BD becomes half the diameter, creating the right triangle BCD, which has the sine line BC that relates to arc BA. In addition, line CD becomes the cosine of angle BDC, as was shown in section 85, and angle CBD is the completion of angle BDC [to 90 degrees], as was shown in section 24. If this is so, line CD is the sine of angle CBD when the triangle under consideration is a right triangle.

Section 88
If the triangle under consideration is acute then one should draw a right angle line from the base until point A, like so:

Here the proportion of angle ACB to line AB is the same as the proportion of angle ABC to line AC, as was shown in the previous section. In addition, the proportion of angle ACD to line AD is the same as the proportion of angle ADC to line AC. Now, as angle ACB and ACD are equal, since they are both right angles, and line AC is shared between the two, the remaining proportions of AB:ADC and AD:ABC are therefore equal to each other.

Section 89
If the triangle is obtuse the right angle line should be drawn outside the triangle, like so:

In this triangle, the proportion of angle ADC to line AC is equal to the proportion of angle ACD to line AD. So too, the proportion of angle ADB to line AB is equal to the proportion of angle ABD to line AD. If so, just as the proportion of angle ACB to line AB is, so is the proportion of angle ABC to line AC. Furthermore, as is the proportion of an angle to the side opposite it, so is the proportion of the other angles to the sides that are opposite them. Similarly, as is the proportion of the side to the angle opposite it, so is the proportion of the other sides to the angles opposite them.

Section 90
At this point it is clear that if one has two triangles that share the same angles the proportion of the lengths of the sides within triangle A to each other is equal to the proportion of the sides of triangle B to each other. Take, for example, these two triangles:

If angle BAC of triangle ABC is equal to angle EDF of triangle DEF, and angle ABC is equal to angle DEF, the proportion of side AB to side BC is equal to the proportion of side DE to side EF. This is true for the remaining angles and sides of these triangles. In addition, just as the proportion of a side of one triangle is equal to its respective partner in the other triangle, the same would be true for all the sides. For example, the proportion of side AB to DE is the same as the proportion of side BC to side EF, and the rest would follow the same pattern.

Section 91
From here it is understood that if a line parallel to one of the sides of the triangle was placed inside the triangle, creating a smaller triangle within the larger one, the proportion of the each of sides of the smaller triangle to its other sides is equal to the proportion of the equivalent sides of the larger triangle to its other sides.

Section 92
Therefore, if one draws a triangle above the hypotenuse of a triangle in the reverse orientation, both sharing one hypotenuse, and both being right triangles, like so,

the proportion of the sides of triangle BAC are equal to the proportion of the sides of triangle BDE, since angle BAC is equal to angle BDE, both being right angles, and angle ABC is equal to angle BED, as was explained in section 62, it then follows that angle ACB is equal to angle EBD, and the proportion of the sides of each triangle are the identical.

Section 93
When considering a triangle, if one knows two of the angles the third can then be determined, for it is the remainder to [180 degrees], as is shown in section 63.

Section 94
It is also evident regarding a right triangle that if only one of the angles is known the other can be determined, since the ninety degree angle is already known as an intrinsic property of a right triangle.

Section 95
Similarly, in a triangle with two equal length sides, only one angle is necessary to know, (since the other two are equal and add up to 180 degrees.)

Section 96
It is also clear that one does not need to know any of the angles of an equilateral triangle or a right triangle with two equal length sides, since all their angles can be determined implicitly.

Section 97
If one has a square and draws diagonal lines from each of the two top corners to the bottom corners, four right triangles are created, like so:

The proof is that angle AIB is a right angle due to the fact that the lengths of lines AB and AC are equal, and the lengths of lines BI and CI are equal. Since this is so, and line AI is shared by triangles AIB and AIC, the angles AIB and AIC must be equal to each other, and as right angles that total 180 degrees. If this so, all the angles must be right angles, including angles BID and CID.

Section 98
Though one may know the sine line measurement of a certain angle that does mean that he knows whether the angle that gave rise to it is acute or obtuse, as a sine line is the same for an angle and its supplementary angle [that total together to 180 degrees], as was shown in section 82. There are, however, ten methods to determine the correct angle that gave rise to the line:

Section 99
The first is as follows:

If the triangle is known to be a right triangle or obtuse then the remaining angle is acute, and was shown in section 64.

Section 100
Method 2)

If the unknown angle is equal to one of the other three angles they must both be acute angles, for it is impossible for them to both be obtuse, as we have previously shown. This is certainly true if all three of the angles are equal.

Section 101
Method 3)

If there is another angle in the triangle that is known to be larger than the angle under consideration then the angle is an acute angle. This will be true whether the larger angle is obtuse (as we have shown) or acute, since we know the angle under consideration to be smaller.

Section 102
Method 4)

If the two other angles together total more than 90 degrees then the angle under consideration is acute, for it is the remainder, as has been shown in section 63.

Section 103
Method 5)

If the measure of the sine line of the angle under consideration is equal to the measure of the sine line of one of the other angles they both must be acute, for it is impossible for them both to be obtuse, as we have shown; and it is likewise impossible for one to be acute and the other obtuse, for if this were so these angles would be like an acute and obtuse angle that share one sine line, the two of which already total 180 degrees without the inclusion of the third angle of the triangle, and all three angles of a triangle must total no more than 180 degrees (as was written in section 63).

Section 104
Method 6)

If the measure of the sine line of another angle is greater than the measure of the sine line of this angle then this angle must be acute. For example, in this triangle:

where angle BAD is greater than angle ABD, angle ABD must be acute for the following reason: If angle BAD is obtuse then angle ABD must be acute, and if angle BAD is acute then angle ABD must also be acute, for were it to be obtuse then its remainder, angle DBC, would have to be acute, rendering it smaller than angle BAD, which in turn would cause the total degrees of angles ABD and BAD to be more than 180 degrees, which is impossible (as we have shown).

Section 105
Method 7)

If the length of the sine lines of the two other angles are both greater than the cosine lengths of each of those two angles those angles must exceed 90 degrees when added together, and the remaining angle must therefore be acute (as was shown in section 102).

Section 106
Method 8)

If the sides that are opposite the angle under consideration are equal in length then the angle is acute, since it was already explained that a triangle with two equal length sides must have two angles that are the same. This is certainly true with an equilateral triangle, where all the angles are acute.

Section 107
Method 9)

If one side is longer than the side that is opposite the angle under consideration this angle must be acute. This is due to the fact that the proportion of the sides to each other is equal to the proportion of the sine lengths of the angles opposite these sides to each other. Therefore, if the length of the sine line of the angle opposite the longer side is greater than the length of the sine line of the angle under consideration that would make this angle acute (as was written in section 104).

Section 108
Method 10)

If the combined area of squares constructed from the two sides that are not opposite the angle under consideration is greater than the area of a square constructed from the side opposite the angle under consideration then this angle will be acute. The reason is that the larger an angle is the larger the side opposite it is. It is further explained in section 75 that a square constructed from the hypotenuse of a right triangle contains an area equal to squares constructed from the horizontal and vertical sides together. If so, in an obtuse triangle the side opposite the obtuse angle would have a square that contains more than the combined squares constructed from the other two sides.

Section 109
If one knows three quantities in any triangle the remaining quantities can be deduced. Note that a triangle has six distinct quantities, three angles and three sides. Furthermore, there are four ways to know three quantities in a triangle: 1) three known angles, 2) three known sides, 3) two known sides and one known angle, 4) two known angles and one known side. One should also know that when three angles are known the length of the sides cannot be deduced, for only their proportion to each other can be determined.

Section 110
In a right triangle there are only three necessary arrangements of quantities. Since the right angle is known only two other quantities need be known: another angle and side or two sides [or two angles which is not mentioned]. In each of these arrangements there are three possible combinations: 1) An angle and the base or the vertical or the hypotenuse. 2) Two sides - the vertical and the base or the vertical and hypotenuse or the base and hypotenuse. Each of these can be used to determine the other properties.

Section 111
If one knows the vertical and the base and wishes to know the hypotenuse one needs only to square the base and the hypotenuse and then sum the results. The square root of this total is the measure of the hypotenuse, as was explained in section 75.

Section 112
If one wishes to know one of the angles, using the following triangle as an example, where the sides AB and BC are known, and the angle BAC is unknown, the proportion of AC to BC is the same proportion of the sine of angle ABC to the sine of angle BAC. [Then a sine table can be used to find the angle's degrees].

Section 113
If afterward one wishes to know the angle BCA one should subtract angle BAC from 90 degrees and the remainder will be the degrees in angle BCA. The opposite is true as well, as the amount of degrees that need to be added to angle BCA to reach 90 degrees is the measurement of angle BAC.

Section 114
If the vertical and the hypotenuse are known, and the base is unknown the hypotenuse can be squared and then the square of the vertical can be subtracted from it. The square root of the remainder is the length of the base. The proof of this is also based on the explanation in section 75.

Section 115
Following this, one who wishes to know the angles should proceed according to the instructions in section 112.

Section 116
Another approach would be to estimate the proportion of side AC in relation to the sine of the angle opposite, for that proportion would be equal to the proportion of the side AB, which is the vertical, in relation to angle ACB. Angle BAC would then be the completion of angle ACB [to 90 degrees]. With that information one can determine that the proportion of the sine of the angle opposite line AC, which would equal the proportion of angle BAC to side BC, which is the base. [IS THIS CORRECT?]

Section 117
If the base and hypotenuse are known one could use the same two approaches outlined above for a known vertical and hypotenuse.

Section 118
If the angle at point A is known there is no need to calculate the angle at point C, as that must be the remainder that would total 90 degrees. If the height of the vertical is known, one can use the fact that as is the proportion of angle BCA to side AB so is the proportions of all the angles to the sides opposite [to determine lengths of sides]. Another approach would be to determine the length of one other side besides the vertical and the remaining side would be known by the squaring method previously mentioned. Also, if the angle and the base or hypotenuse were known the same method as used for the known vertical can be applied.

Section 119
If the base is known and the sum of the vertical and hypotenuse is known, though neither of their lengths are known, the base should be squared and divided by the combined length of the hypotenuse and vertical. When the remainder is subtracted from the combined hypotenuse and vertical, half of that result will be the length of the vertical, while the remaining amount [the remainder and the other half of the result] is the length of the hypotenuse. For example, if the base is 4, and the hypotenuse and vertical are 8 in sum: 4 squared 16. 16 divided by 8 equals 2. 2 subtracted from 8 equals 6. Half of 6 is 3. That is the length of the vertical. The length of the hypotenuse then equals 5. The proof is as follows: If the base and vertical are squared individually, the area of both these squares together equals 25. If the hypotenuse is squared its square also has an area of 25. This true because of the algebraic rule that when a small value is subtracted from a large value, and the remainder is squared, it is equal to the squares of the large and small values less two times the result of multiplying the small by the large value [(large - small)^2 = (large^2 + small^2) - (2 * (small*large))]. For example, (5 less 2) times (5 less 2) equals 9. If the 5 and 2 are squared that equals 29. 29 less (5 times 4), which equals 20, is also 9.

I am also able to express this proof in another manner, like so:

Side CI is the large side, and a square constructed from it would be ACGI. Side HI is the short side, and its square is HIJK. Line GH is the difference between the small and large sides and its square is DEGH. If the area of square HIJK is added to square ACGI, and the area of square ACDF, which the short side times the large, is removed, and finally if square EJFK is removed as well, as it is the second instance of the multiplication of the small and large sides, what remains now is the square DEGH.

So, if in the previous example the square of the hypotenuse is 8 by 8, this, added to the square of the vertical, less 2 times the product of 8 and the unknown length of the vertical is also the same as 16 times the vertical. As was previously explained in section 114, if the square of the vertical is subtracted from the square of the hypotenuse the remainder is the square of the base. Accordingly, if the square of the vertical is subtracted here the remainder is 8 times 8 less 16 times the vertical, which equals the square of the base. If one adds onto this 16 times the vertical the remainder is 8 times 8 which is equal to the square of the base plus 16 times the vertical, as was written in section 46. So in this example, if the square of the base, which is 16, is subtracted from 8 times 8 the remainder is 48. If that is then divided by 16 times the vertical the result is that the vertical measures 3. The lesson learned here is that if one wishes to know the length of the vertical one need only square the connecting line (hypotenuse), subtract from it the square of the base, divide it by the hypotenuse and half of that result is the length of the vertical. This process can be shortened by omitting the squaring of the hypotenuse, and just dividing the square of the base by the hypotenuse, with the remainder then subtracted by the hypotenuse, as is known in algebraic math. Half of this remainder is then the length of the vertical, as is shown in this formula:

((a^2)/a)- (b^2) = ((b^2)/a)-a

Section 120
All this applies to a right triangle. If the triangle is not a right triangle but an equilateral triangle there is only a need to know the measure of one side, and there is no need to know any of the angles.

Section 121
If the triangle has two equal length legs (isosceles) there are only four quantities that need be known: The length of one of the legs, the length of the third side, one of the two equal angles, and the third angle. If two of these quantities are known the other two may be deduced. This is possible through five distinct arrangements: The length of one of the legs and the two equal angles are known, the length of one of the legs and the third angle are known, the third side and one of the two equal angles are known, the length of the third side and the third angle are known, or one of the two equal angles and the third angle are known. First though, one must draw a vertical line from the third angle to the base, with the two equal angles on the far sides being acute, as was written in section 100. The figure will therefore be as so:

as was shown in section 68.

Section 122
Expanding on the above, according to the first arrangement mentioned, where the length of one of two equal sides (side AB) and the third side (side BD) are known, and a right triangle ACB is inscribed with sides AC, AB, and BC (which is half BD), the other quantities can then be determined, as was written in section 117. This goes for the triangle ACD as well, since lines AB and AD are equal, as are lines BC and CD.

Section 123
In the second arrangement, where side AB and angle ABD are known, and angle ACB is a right angle, the other quantities in triangle ACB can then be determined, as was written in section 118. The same goes for triangle ACD as it is also equivalent to the other.

Section 124
In the third arrangement, where the side AB and angle BAD are known, the angle BAC is half of angle BAD. Since this is so, the other quantities of these two triangles will be known, as is written in the previous section.

Section 125
In the fourth arrangement, where side BD and angle ABD are known, side BC is half of side BD, and angles ABC and AGB are known, allowing the other quantities to be determined, as was written in section 118.

Section 126
In the fifth arrangement, where the side BD and angle BAD are known, angle BAC is seen to be half of angle BAD, and side BC is half of side BD, and angle ACB become known. Since this is so, the other quantities can be known, as we have seen.

Section 127
If the legs of the triangle are not equal (scalene) one needs to know three of the quantities, and they can be arranged as well five different ways: If two angles and the side between them are known, if two angle and one of the sides opposite them are known, if two sides and the angle between them are known, if two sides and one of the angles opposite them is known, or the lengths of all three sides are known. In all these arrangements one needs to determine the three quantities that remain unknown.

Section 128
Method 1)

If two angles and the side between them are known, draw a right angle line from one of the known angles to the side opposite it, like so:

Here angles ABC, BAC and side AB are known. Right angle line AD is drawn. Now, since in the triangle ADB angles ABD, ADB and side AB are known, the other quantities can be determined. If so, angle BAD may be subtracted from angle BAC to determine angle DAC. Since angle ADC is known, the other quantities of triangle ADC can be determined. When the lengths of BD and DC are added together the length of BC is then known, and when angles BAD and CAD are summed the measure of angle BAC is known. This all works when the right angle falls within the triangle.

Section 129
If the vertical line falls outside the triangle, like so:

where angles ABC, BAC and side AB are known, then in triangle ADB angles ABD, ADB and side AB are known. If so, the other quantities can also be known. Since these other quantities are known, line AD is also known and angle BAD is known as well. If angle BAC is subtracted from angle BAD then the remainder is angle CAD and ADC then becomes known as well. Once this point is reached the other quantities of triangle ADC can be determined.

If side CD is subtracted from side BD the remainder is side BC. Angle ACB is then the remainder of angle ACD and side AC can then be determined.

Section 130
Method 2)

If two angles and one of the sides opposite them are known, draw a right angle line from the third, unknown angle to the side opposite it, like so,

where angle ABC, ACB and side AB are known, and vertical line AD is dawn, creating triangle ADB. Here the two angles ABD and ADB are known, as is side AB. Since this is so, the other quantities can be determined. Afterward, in triangle ADB angles ADC and ACD are known, as is side AD. If so, the other quantities can also be determined. Then the angles and sides are combined [back into the large triangle, its measurements are known,] as we have seen.

Section 131
If the vertical falls outside the triangle, like so:

a line is also drawn from the angle that is not known [straight down]. For example, if angles ABC, ACB and side AB are known, and angles ADB, ABD and side AB of triangle ADB are also known, then the remaining quantities can be determined. After this, consider triangle ACD with method 1 where the vertical falls outside the triangle and side AC can be determined as well; though this approach is not necessary, as it has already been shown that the proportion of angle ACB to side AB is the same as the sine of angle ABC to side AC [see sections 87 and 88].

Section 132
Method 3)

If two sides and the angle between them are known, draw a vertical from one of the two angles that are not known to side opposite like so:

Here sides AB, BC and angle ABC are known. The vertical line AD is drawn, creating triangle ADB. Angles ABD, ADB and side AB are now known. If so, the other quantities can now be determined. If line BD is removed from line BC the remaining line DC is known. Side AD and angle ADC of triangle ADC are known, and therefore the other quantities can be determined, as has been shown.

Section 133
If the vertical falls outside the triangle, like so, where sides AB, BC and angle ABC are known:

In triangle ADB angles ADB, ABD and side AB are known. If so, the other quantities can be determined. If line BC is then removed from side BD what remains is line CD. At this point, in triangle ACD two sides are known, AD and CD, and one angle is known, ADC. If so, the other quantities can be determined, as we have shown.

Section 134
Method 4)

If two sides and the angle opposite them are known: Draw a vertical line from the angle between the two known sides to the opposite side, like so:

Here sides AB and AC are known and angle ABC is known. Line AD is drawn forming triangle ADB. Angles ABD, ADB and side AB are known. If so, the rest can be determined. After this, the sides AD and AC and angle ADC in triangle ADC are known, and the remaining quantities can be determined, as we have shown.

Section 135
If the vertical falls outside the triangle, like so, where sides AB and AC are known, and angle ABC is known:

In triangle ABD side AB and angle ABD and ADB are known. This means that the other quantities can be determined. After that, sides AC, AD and Angle ADC in triangle ACD are known, and that enables the remaining quantities to be determined, as we have seen.

Section 136
Method 5)

If all three sides are known, draw a vertical line from one of the angles to the side opposite it, like so:

Here sides AB, AC and BC are known. The vertical AD is drawn and thereby the line BC is divided into two parts. The square of side AC is then added to the square of side BC. Then the square of side AB is subtracted from them. The remainder is divided by side BC and half of that amount is line DC. This can now be subtracted from side BC to yield line BD.

An alternate approach is to add the square of side AB to the square of side BC and then subtract from them the square of side AC. The remainder is divided by side BC and half of that amount is line BD. If that is subtracted from side BC the result is line DC. The proof of this is that the square of side AB less the square of side BD is equal to the square of the vertical line AD, as was written in section 75. Similarly, the square of side AC less the square of side DC is equal to the square of vertical AD. If so, both of these are equal to each other, as was written is section 47.

The square of side DC is equal to the sum of the square of side BC and BD less two times the product of side BC and BD, as was written in section 119. It is further shown in algebra that subtracting value A from equation D-C=B will result in equation C-B-D=A. If so, the square of side AC and twice the product of sides BC and BD, less the sum of the square of side BC and BD is equal to the square of side AB less the square of side BD. Add to either of these equivalent results the square of side BC and the square of side BD and the result is that the square of side AB plus the square of side BC is equal to the square of side AC plus two times the product of BC and BD. Through this process side BD can be determined, and the reverse would determine side DC.

Section 137
If the vertical falls outside the triangle, like so:

Here the three sides AB, AC and BC are known and vertical line drawn is AD. [In this situation] side AB is squared and the sum of the squares of sides AC and BC are subtracted from it. The remainder is divided by the length of side BC and half of that result is line CD. If this is then added to line BC the result is the length of side BD. The proof of this is that the square of side AB less the square of side BD is equal to the square of side AC less the square of side CD, as was previously shown. In addition, the square of side BD is equal to the sum of the squares of sides BC and CD plus twice the product of side BC and CD, as was written in section 75. Since this is so, the square of side AB less the sum of the squares of sides BC and CD plus twice the product of sides BC and CD is equal to the square of side AC less the square of side CD. Adding on to either of these equivalent statements the sum of the squares of sides BC and CD plus twice the product of BC and CD will equal the square of side AB, which is also equal to the sum of the squares of sides AD and BC plus the product of sides BC and CD. After this has all been demonstrated it is clear that in the two triangles ABD and ACD, where three quantities are known, the other quantities can be determined regardless of whether the vertical falls inside or outside.

Section 138
There is another approach that can be employed if the vertical falls within the triangle:

In this example, [comment H] add side AB and side AC, and subtract side AB (the smaller value) from the larger side AC. Then multiply the previous summation by the previous remainder and divide the result by side BC. Half of the result is the measure of the smaller portion of side BC, which is line BD. The reminder of BC less BD is then DC. Alternatively, one may add the result of the previous division to side BC and half of the result is equal to side DC. BC less DC is then BD. The proof of this that the square of side AB less the square of line BD is equal to the square of side AC less the square of line DC, as was shown in section 136. It is further explained via algebra that an equivalency B-C = B+A is equal to D+B = C+A, in that if D+B is added to the first equivalency the result is B+C = D+A. If C=D is then subtracted the result is D+B = C+A. accordingly, the square of AC less the square of AB is equal to the square of DC less the square of BD. In addition, it known through algebra [Comment I] that in a plane where one side's length is C+A and the other is C+A the area is (A x A) x (C x C). It can be shown through the following proof, in an example where side AB and AC have a length of A. and sides DB and CI have length of C. In the square ADIJ side AI has a length of C+A, and side AD has a length of C+A, and the square CHIJ is equal to square DBFE. If so, the sum of square AD CIH and square DBFE are equal to square ADIJ. If so, when square ABCD (which is equal to A x A) is subtracted from square FEHG (which is equal to C x C) the result is equal to square ADIJ. Since this is so, the square of AC less the square of AB is equal to the area of a plane where the length of one side is equal to AC plus AB and the second side's length is equal to AC less AB. Similarly, the square of DC [MISPRINT OF 'DB' IN HEBREW] less the square of BD is equal to a plane where the length of one of its sides is DC plus BD and the second side is DC less BD.

Here there exists a proportion: The two sides of the square plane made from AC less the square of AB may be placed at the extremes terms of a proportion and the two sides of the square plane made from DC less the square of BD may be placed in the middle terms and will be in proportion to each other, as was explained in section 44 [THAT IS, AC+AB:DC+BC = DC-BD:AC-AB, 'DC-BD' BEING THE UNKNOWN]. Now then, if the value of the square of DC less the square of BD is unknown one may multiply the two extreme terms of the proportion and divide the result by the one known middle term, as was written in section 45. Through this method the side DC less BD is known. If the result is subtracted from side BC the value is twice BD, while if the result is added to side BC the value is twice side DC. [IS THIS CORRECT?]

[FROM HEBREW COMMENTARY:

 * [H] For example, if side AC is 6, side BC is 5 and side AB is 4, 6 and 4 are summed to 10 and then 4 is subtracted from 6. This 2 that remains is multiplied by 10, equaling 20. 20 is then divided by 5, which equals 4. 4 is then subtracted from 5, equaling 1. Finally, half of 1 is the length of line BD, which is 1/2.

 * [I] [PARTIAL QUOTE] ...First I will describe what I believe to be the explanation of the text according to the author's intent and then I will add explanatory comments. This is his intent: If one is given an equivalency, such as (C-B=A) = (H-D=A) the components themselves must be equivalent. For example, C-B and H-D are equivalent, as was shown in section 47. Therefore, H-C is equal to D-B. The proof is that when one adds D-C on to both sides of the equation the result is that D-C+C-D is equivalent to D-C+H-D. The equivalency is not invalidated because the same term D-C is added to both sides, and positive C and negative C cancel each other out, for what is the difference whether C is added and then subtracted or whether both are crossed out? The positive and negative variable D also cancel each other out. At this point the remaining second term H-C is equal to the remaining first term of D-B. Accordingly, the square of side AC less the square of the side AB is equal to the square of line DC less the square of line BD. Until here is the intent of his words....

 * ...On this, the statement "it is known in algebra" until the end of the section was stated, and since the language is so brief, I will set down the text in a way that truly reflects his intent [the author's], and then I will explain further:
 * “It is known in algebra that if one side has the length C+A and second has the length C-A the plane formed is C x C - A x A. :It may also be shown in the following diagram:

 * where sides AB and AC have the length A', sides DB and CI have the length C', rectangle ADIJ has a side AI which measures C'+A', and side AD is C'-A'. The rectangle CHIJ is equal to rectangle DBFE. If so, the rectangles AFCH and DBFE together are equal to rectangle ADIJ. If square FEHG, which measures C' x C', is removed from square ABCG, which measures A' x A', the result is equal to rectangle ADIJ. If so, the square of AC less the square of AB is equal to a plane where one of its side’s measures AC plus AB while the second side equals AC less AB. Similarly, the square of DC less the square of AB is equal to a plane one of whose sides equals DC plus BD while the second side equals DC less BD. Now, if the two sides of the plane that equals the square of AC less the square of AB are placed at the extremes of a proportion and the two sides of the plane that equals the square of DC less the square of BD are placed as the middle terms they are in a correct proportion, as was written in section 44. Now if the square of DC less the square of BD is the unknown variable, the two extremes of the proportion should be multiplied and then the result should be divided by one of the known middle terms, as was written in section 45 [concerning proportions]. This method will produce the value of side DC less side BD. If this number is subtracted from side BC the result is two times side BD. If this number is instead added on to BC the result is two times DC.” Until here is the intent of his [the author's] words...]

Section 139
If the vertical falls outside the triangle, like so:

where sides AB, AC and BC are known, with vertical AD drawn. Add side AB to side AC and subtract Side AC from side AB. Multiply the subtracted result by the summed result and divide that result by side BC. From the remainder subtract side BC and half of that remainder is side CD. The proof is this is found by squaring side AB and subtracting from it square of side BD. This is equal to the square of side AC less the square of side CD, as we have seen. Since this is so, the square of side AB less the square of side AC is equal to the square of side BD less the square of side CD. If so, there is a proportion here of AB+AC:BD+CD = BD-CD:AB-AC. If the two extremes are multiplied by each other and the product is divided by BC the result is the sum of BD and CD. If BC is subtracted from this number the result is two times CD. After this calculation all the three unknown quantities in the triangle become known, as has been shown previously.

איל משולש

title: Translation:Ayil Meshulash/Discourse 4


text: Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/151

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Page:Short Stories (1912).djvu/142

Kyrle Bellew, famed actor, manager, dramatist and traveler, who had been suffering from pneumonia, died Nov. 2nd, 1911, at 5 o'clock in the morning, in apartments in the Hotel Utah, Salt Lake City.

Frank A. Connor, the actor's dearest friend and for years his inseparable companion, was the only person with him when the end came. Mr. Bellew was stricken with a cold while playing in Denver, though he attributed his indisposition to the altitude, and was apparently much improved when he reached Salt Lake. He played in the opening performance of the local engagement of his comedy, "The Mollusc," at the Salt Lake Theatre Thursday night. When arising Friday morning he did not feel well and returned to his bed. Later in the day he decided that his ailment was la Grippe; a doctor was called. He was compelled to concelcancel [sic] a luncheon engagement with former Gov. Heber M. Wells, who was an old friend and admirer, arranged for Friday noon. As he continued to grow worse, the balance of his local engagement was cancelled on the advice of his physician. From Friday Mr. Bellew's condition continued to grow more alarming, and it was apparent Tuesday afternoon that the end was but a few hours away. He passed away peacefully, seemingly without pain.

In the ringing down of a final curtain on Kyrle Bellew's career the English-American stage loses one of its most accomplished actors, and one of the most lovable, highly respected men in the profession. His generosity and broad-mindedness were bywords among his friends. While he called himself a rover, victim of

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136 impulse, he was none the less an artist. He was a writer of ability and won success as a dramatist. As his own manager several years ago he was successful. He was at all times, in all places a student capable of teaching the brightest, but ever eager to broaden his own intellect.

During his life there were times that the call of travel and adventure was compelling, more powerful than the lure of the footlights, and the success he was achieving in his chosen profession. At such times he would equip his yacht, Moonstone, for a long cruise, and with his friend Frank A. Connor set sail for some distant land. In this way he visited several times practically every country in the world except Russia, and he was planning with keen anticipation the treat he would give himself when this tour was completed by journeying through Russia.

From Rev. J. C. M. Bellew, well known in England and America as a Shakespearian reader, as well as a minister, Kyrle Bellew inherited his talent for the stage. Previous to the Oxford movement in 1869, which resulted in the resignation of Mr. Bellew's father from the Church of England, and in his entrance to the Roman Catholic Church, the minister had wished his son, Harold, to enter the ministry, but Harold preferred the Navy, following in the footsteps of his grandfather, Admiral Kyrle, and joined H. M. S. "Conway" Training Ship at Liverpool. Leaving the navy at the urgent advice of his father, a move of which he ever afterwards spoke regretfully, Kyrle Bellew set out in 1871 for Australia, which ended in an expedition to the new gold diggings at YugiltarYugilbar [sic] Reefs. For three years he led a roving picturesque existence, sometimes in affluence and oftener in poverty, trying his hand at gold digging, wood cutting, boat building, sign painting and eventually acting. He returned to England on the death of his father in 1875.

title: Page:Short Stories (1912).djvu/143


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Page:The cutters' practical guide to the cutting of ladies' garments.djvu/129

 Summary of Articles supplied at the "Tailor and Cutter" Office, details of which will be found in the pages of Chart and Catalogue, which will be sent on receipt of stamp for postage.

PATTERNS—Models.

PATTERNS—Special to Customers' measures

CUTTING ACADEMY.

Send penny stamp for our " Mode of Procedure."

SHEARS.

, with adjustable lever, spring and bolt.

TRIMMERS.

Postage 3d. extra.

Button-hole Scissors, Board Scissors, ice. of improved make at lowest trade prices.

TROUSER STRETCHER. The simplest, cheapest, and most effective Trouper stretcher yet invented

Special price to the trade 12/- per doz

Carriage forward.

STOVES.

THE NEW TAILORS' STOVE. The Big Ben—for 10 irons inside, and 10 to 12 outside. Width 31 in. Price 66/-.

Old Ben—Width 34 inches, of greater capacity. Price 75/-

The Improved Atmospheric Gas Stove—for 1 iron 9/-; 2 irons 18/-; 8 irons 27/-; 4 irons 36/-; 5 irons 45/-; 6, 54/-.

Improved pattern Gas Stove, with separate burner for each iron. To heat 1 iron 12/6; 2 irons 20/-; 4 irons 35/-; 6 irons 55/-.

IRONS. BROAD FACED TAILORS' IRONS.

SLEEVE BOARDS.

A large assortment of these boards, the wood carefully selected and the boards specially made for ourselves, are now on view at The Tailor and Cutter Office. Our Sleeve Boards are supplied in 7 different sizes as follows:—each is 27 inches long.

CRAYONS.

We supply Tailors' Crayons of the very best quality only. Price 2/- per box. Free by Parcel Post 9d. extra.

{ of a special make are also supplied. Price $12 1⁄2$d. each or 4/- per doz. Postage for one, 1d.; doz. 3d.

—Combination Crayon Holder and Tracing Wheel—a wonderful economiser, by means of which the smallest pieces of clay can be used.—Price, highly nickle plated, 2/6 ; post free,2/8.

PUBLICATIONS.

— Weekly, Price 2d., post free 24d.; annual subscription 10/-.

— Monthly. Price 1/-, post free 1/2 ; annual subscription 14/.

—Monthly. Price 9d., post free lOd. ; annual subscription 10/-.

WORKS ON CUTTING.

Send penny stamp for our Illustrated Catalogue.

PLATES OF FASHION.

, published February and August; $13 1⁄2$ by $14 1⁄2$ inches.

Price, coloured, 12/3. Uncoloured 6/3.

—Two splendid coloured Plates are now available, representing the uniforms of the British Army and Navy. Price 32/- each, post free.

The above are works of art which should appear in every Tailors' Show Boom

SQUARES.

Postage 3d. extra.

These Squares are all made of the finest materials, and have been specially manufactured for ourselves,

Postage 3d. extra, unless otherwise stated.

" ECLAIR BUTTON MAKING MACHINE. Simpler in operation, produces more perfect buttons, and is cheaper, than any Button Making Machine ever offered to the Public. Price 21/-. Moulds from 1/- per gross.

TAPES.

These Registered Graduated Tapes are supplied only at The Tailor and Cutter office. The tapes are 30 in number. Prices :

Postage 3d. extra. Each set of Tapes is accompanied by a

Which includes systems for Coats, Vests and Trousers, by Dr. Humphreys. This Treatise is a kind of, containing as it does, much useful information in practical cutting. It is sold separately at 1/-, but is given with each set of tapes, without charge.

Are still supplied at the Tailor and Cutter Office. First quality 5/-. Second quality 3/6. Postage 3d. extra. These also are accompanied by a Treatise.

Narrow Inch, 2d.

Common Inch, 1st quality, 3d.

Common Inch, brass tips, 1st quality, 4d.

Common Inch, with looped end for trousers and sleeve measuring, 4d.

The Centimetre Tape, with decimal scale.

Continental stamp, 3d.

The Right-hand Tape, with figures erect, for Cutting Board, 3d.

The Leather Tape, very excellent, 7d.

The Trouser Tape, with 2 inch brass end to fit in fork, 4d.

The Upright Tape, with small brass thumb piece, 3d.

The Assorted Dozen, including all tape measures used by the trade in the Cutting Room or in the shop, 2/-, post free 2/6.

Single tapes, postage Id. extra to above prices; 2 forl4d.; 4 for 2d.; 1 doz. 4d. extra

ADVERTISING BLOCKS. Illustrating New and Popular styles in Ladies' Gents' and Juvenile Garments from 4/6 each.


text: Short Stories (Bellew)/The Children's Graves


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/158

126 literature, art and science of the Greeks by means of the Greek or Macedonian colonies which he projected, and which Seleucus, founder of the Syrian Empire, and companion of Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, was diligent in planting; colonies which Dr. Smith describes as so many centres of civilisation and refinement. The very coins of Bactrian Kings give evidence of the attractive power of Greek influence, since their names are stamped in Greek letters, and the title often added is Philhellen (lover of the Greeks).

St. Paul's Cathedral in London—a Polyandrion of England—contains many monuments of worthies of our nation, famed for their exploits in arts and arms, while the recording stone in honour of the architect himself is wanting. But this inscription arrests the visitor in his search: "Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice." "Reader, if thou art searching for his monument, look around." So would we say to one who desires to see the monument of the Great Alexander, "look around." Seek not only one in one city, but look at many in three continents of the earth.

The coffin of gold was stolen, the coffin of glass was broken, the sarcophagus is nowhere, but his memorials abound and his memory remains imperishable for ever.


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text: Short Stories (Bellew)/God Knows

title: Short Stories (Bellew)/God Knows


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Rh In August of that year he made his first appearance on the English stage as Woodstock, supporting Helen Barry in Clancarty, a play which was re-written by his father's own friend, Tom Taylor. His repetition of Eglinton Roseleaf in the Park Theatre, London, on Oct. 16th, 1875, led to his engagement to play under Buckstone's management at the Haymarket, where he became leading man, and one of the most popular young actors in London. Except for a short engagement at the Prince of Wales, he remained three years at the Haymarket, supporting Adelaide Neilson in Anne Boleyn, Measure for Measure, The Lady of Lyons, and other plays, and appearing in the original cast of Gilbert's Engaged. Subsequently he joined Henry Irving at the Lyceum, in 1878, and Marie Lytton's Company at the Imperial, obtaining a wide command over a varied repertoire with such actors as Phelps, Farren, Brough, Vezin, Rider, and Mrs. Sterling. To his industrious study during these years he attributed his knowledge of theatrical technique, which gave him the rank in the first class of actors. At the Prince of Wales in 1884, he played Prince Philamir, in the Palace of Truth, Humphrey Goddard, in Breaking a Butterfly, Gilbert Vaughan in Called Back, and at the Olympic in 1885 he played Hubert Graham in In His Power, and Carlos Merle in Heartless.

Although Kyrle Bellew visited America in 1882, he did not appear on the American stage until 1885, when Lester Wallack engaged him as leading man. Besides repeating In His Power, and other plays, for which he was known in England, his repertoire during two seasons at Wallack's included The Rivals, The Busybody, Hoodman Blind, Valerie, Sophia, Harvest, The School for Scandal, Harbor Lights The Dominee's Daughter, Old Heads and Young Hearts, and the Romance of a Poor Young Man. This last play ended the career of the famous Wallack Company.

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text: Short Stories (Bellew)/The Blackbird

title: Short Stories (Bellew)/The Blackbird


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Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/62

The eminent French physicist, Guillaume Amontons, lost his hearing when a schoolboy, and like the philosopher of old who destroyed his eyesight for fear visual impressions should disturb his speculations, the Frenchman declined surgical and medical assistance lest the admission of common noises to his brain should interfere with his profound studies in mathematics and mechanics. He became skilled in surveying, able in architecture and distinguished in pure mathematics, and he made important improvements in the hygrometer, the barometer, and the thermometer.

Amontons constructed the first veritable air-thermometer which was not at the same time a barometer; it consisted of a narrow glass tube four feet long, open above, ending below in a large bulb connected by a U-shaped bend; in this bulb air was confined by a column of mercury so adjusted that when the apparatus was immersed in boiling water, the barometer standing at 28 inches, the mercury in the tube stood 45 inches above the level in the bulb, thus making the pressure of the heated air 73 inches. The tube was graduated from 73


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138 From 1887 onward Mr. Bellew played alternately in England and America, with extensive tours in Australia, India and other British Colonial possessions. After a short run at the Gayety, London, in Civil War, in 1887, Henry E. Abbey engaged him as leading man for Mrs. James Brown Potter, with whom he played in nearly all parts of the globe where English is understood. This tour is recalled as one of the unique events of the stage, for although other actors have traveled far and wide they have hardly met with such brilliant success.

After the production of his own Hero and Leander, at the Shaftsbury, London, in 1892, and his appearance in The Lights of Home at the Adelphi, he and Mrs. Potter played together again until 1898 in such dramas as Charlotte Corday and Fracillon. After The Jest, at the Criterion in 1898; Robespierre, at the Lyceum in 1899; and the Ghetto, at the Comedy; he spent another year in the Australian gold fields. He returned to the stage in America, however, in 1902, playing A Gentleman of France, Lady of Lyons, Romeo and Juliet, As You Like It, School for Scandal, Raffles, Sacrament of Judas, Chevalier and the Two Orphans, She Stoops to Conquer, Brigadier Gerard, The Marriage of Reason, The Thief, One Performance; with Mrs. George Gould, in the Plaza Hotel in Mrs. Van Vechten's Divorce Dance; the Builder of Bridges, The Scanday, Revival of Raffles, and the Mollusc.

In addition to his success as a romantic actor Mr. Bellew was a successful dramatist, being the author of the English version of Charlotte Corday, Hero and Leander, Yvonne, Iolande, Francillon, and others.

Mr. Bellew held a master's sailing certificate, having graduated from the New York Nautical School. He was a fellow member of the Royal Microscopal Society, the Royal Geographical Society, The Royal London Yacht Club, and a Life Member of the Actors Fund of America.

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text: Short Stories (Bellew)/A Brief Sketch of Mr. Bellew


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Page:Palestine Exploration Fund - Quarterly Statement for 1894.djvu/161

Question 1. Describe what happens when a child is horn? Is it rubbed with salt?  Is it wrapped up {swaddled)? Are any charms hung on it?  Is it washed? Are its gums rubbed with dates?

Answer. Women gather round the one going to be delivered, never a man, not even the husband may be present; it is considered indecent and unclean. They have an expert midwife who delivers the mother, and having put down the child, the father is to name it before the navel is cut; this is the usual way, but in many places they do not do it. It is now rubbed all over with salt, water, and oil; its eyes and mouth are salted, It is wrapped up so that it cannot move. All round the head and limbs it is fastened as tight as it can bear. In some places (Bethjala Christians) I have seen them add red earth to the salt and oil. The child is left thus wrapped up until the seventh day, when it is unfastened and washed again with fresh oil, and salt, and water, the same as at the birth, and then wrapped up in fresh clothes; this is repeated till the child is 40 days old. On the fortieth day the midwife, who has done all the preceding saltings, oilings, and wrappings, finally strips the child of its wraps and washes it all over with warm water and soap, and rids herself of the responsibility which has rested on her during the 40 days, putting it now in the mother's responsibility and care. As long as it is healthy no charms are put on it.

Question 2. Are the children christened?

Answer. Now and then a Moslem child is christened secretly, as it is believed by a few that christening saves from death. They generally admit that spirits dare not appear to Christians, because the christening takes away an odour peculiar to Moslems and very attractive to ghosts of all kinds. The Mared is the spirit most likely to appear. The Christian Fellahin, of course, have all their children baptised as soon as possible, the mother being obliged to remain at home till the day of christening. The godmother carries the child to be christened. The Latins and Protestants differ in nothing from the Western Churches, as having generally either European priests, or such as have been brought up and taught by European theologians. The Greek priests are generally natives, and the Greek Church Fellahin have no understanding or respect for their churches, as other Christians are expected to have. A baptismal ceremony at which I assisted in a small town was one of the most disorderly scenes I have ever witnessed. The church was crowded with noisy men and women, the women behind an enclosure, chattering away as in the


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128 open street. As we entered the church the relations were distributing candles, and every man lit his candle whilst the priest was standing talking and awaiting the beginning of the ceremony. Three or four water jars were put beside the baptismal font. The priest pulled up his sleeves and poured the water into the font, and then poured in some oil, blessing it. The child was then handed to him, quite naked, and with one hand on the face, he took it, back upwards, and dipped it in the name of the Father, then took it out and wiped its face, and, the child screaming, dipped it in the name of the Son, the bystanders discussing all the time whether the child would be suffocated, whilst the priest explained to them that his hand was placed in such a manner as to keep away the water from the nostrils and mouth. Then he dipped it in the name of the Holy Ghost, whilst the parents and godparents went round the font. But the noise being so great, the priest, before dipping the child the third time, gave it to the godmother, and rushed into the crowd with clenched fists, but was kept back by the bystanders, whereupon he threatened them, "By God, I'll curse your fathers, and you women, I'll give you dirt to eat"; and then went on chanting about Christ's baptism in the Jordan. The father, thinking the ceremony over, was going out, but the priest pulled him back, saying that the child was not yet baptised in the name of the Holy Ghost, and arguing and cursing, and with the father swearing it would hurt the child, and the godmother taking it into a niche to hide it, the third dip was finally accomplished. When the priest began to exhort them, the father said, "Be quiet, we know all about it, let us be gone; we have heard all that very often." The priest then steptstepped [sic] up to me, and with a superior look, told me, "This is a real baptism—you Westerns have no idea how it is done." I owned never to have seen the like before.

Question 3. Are any presents made when a boy or girl is born, either to the baby or to its parents?

Answer. If it is a boy all relatives assemble in the house on the very day of the birth; a dinner is made for them by the father, and they drop money,, Nukut, every man according to his means, for the benefit of the boy. Of course the money is gathered and appropriated by the parents. When it is a girl, the male relatives may give small sums of money, but are not expected to do so, and the women of the neighbourhood bring torches in the evening and oil-cakes, singing the praise of the parents, and the bride's or bridegroom's (the new born); they also "drop" coins for the benefit of the girl, and these are put away and tacked on the child later on. Friends or distant relations also bring a sacrifice; Kawad (see Quarterly Statement, 1893, p. 320). The first person giving the news of a boy's birth to the father, says,, Bshara, "Good news." , Khair in shallah, "Something good, please God," says the father. "What will be my reward?" asks the news bringer. The father, having an inkling of what it may be,


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Rh promises a certain sum of money, or some object that may please, as a handkerchief, a cap, &c., according to his means. Either a son or daughter may be announced by calling the blessing on the bridegroom or bride,, Mubarak el 'Areess, or , Mubarak el 'Arooss, "Blessed be the bridegroom or the bride." The father answers, if it is a boy, "May God bless you, or give you boys," or, "At your wedding" (rejoice),, Fi'ursak; and if it is a girl, he says the same, and may make an offer of the girl, saying, , 'Alah hahl eadak, "Upon the choice of your hand." The other may accept, and say, "I have accepted," or decline by saying, "God bless you Abu so and so." If the girl is really accepted, the betrothal is at once confirmed by bringing a sacrifice, on which the fatiha is read and the terms of the marriage conditions settled; if this is not done, the acceptation is not ratified, though people of honour may not take back their word. When Noah had a daughter, a sheikh came and brought his blessing, and Noah answered, "Upon the choice of your hand," and the sheikh accepted. A second sheikh came and did the same, and a third came and did the same, and Noah promised his daughter to three different sheikhs. When his daughter was of age, the first sheikh came and married her. Then the second sheikh came, and Noah remembered his promise, and in his distress he turned his she-ass into a girl and gave her in marriage, The third sheikh came round, and Noah turned his bitch into a girl and gave her in marriage. After some time sheikh number two came and asked Noah why he had such a stubborn, stupid daughter, whom he has to beat continually, and who eats barley and grass like a donkey. So Noah confessed his fault, and told him how he had dealt carelessly when he promised his daughter again after having promised her a first time. A few days afterwards sheikh number three complained to Noah that his wife was very ugly, would scream at him for the least thing, and even turn to eat raw meat and carcasses, so Noah had to explain and excuse himself. But up to this day three kinds of women may be distinguished: those with patches on their knees, who are descendants of the human daughter, the patches being there in consequence of the number of prayers said; those with patches on the back, from the stripes they receive, these are descendants of the she-ass daughter; and those with patches on the breast, from continual rubbing and scratching, as dogs do, they are descendants of the bitch-daughter. Women in their separation are not allowed into the presence of a woman in child-bed. Very serious illness is believed to follow such visits.

Question 4. How long is a child suckled?

Answer. Generally till the mother is again with child, but in some cases longer, and sometimes a boy may be seen sucking with his newborn sister. This is, of course, only with very fond mothers. In some


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Rh Harold Kyrle-Money Bellew was born at Prescott, England. His mausoleum is in St. Raymond's Roman Catholic Cemetery, New York.—Salt Lake City Press, Nov. 3, 1911.

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Page:Evolution of the thermometer.djvu/24

 Secondly, from our feeling a greater cold than what is observable in the weather-glass (instrumentum temperatorum). For the moisture or ponderousness of the air is to us the measure of its coldness. Thirdly, from the greater or lesser bending of a very thin board, especially if it be of a pear tree. Fourthly, from the contraction of the strings of a lute, or from hemp." (Section II, Aphorism IV, English translation by J. D., London, 1678.)

In this "aphorism" Sanctorius mentions three hygroscopes and one thermoscope. Parenthetically, I call attention to the use of burnt alum and of a balance to determine atmospheric moisture quantitatively.

The thermoscope used by Sanctorius is described by him in his "Commentaries on the first section of the first book of Avicenna," printed at Venice in 1646. In the preface to this the author says he has been engaged for fifteen years in preparing descriptions of his instruments, but the publication has been


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Page:The cutters' practical guide to the cutting of ladies' garments.djvu/115

'''A Sketch of Our Cutting Room. BY A RECENT STUDENT.'''

In issuing the New Prospectus of our Cutting Academy, our aim is to convey as vividly as possible to intending Students, what it is they enter upon and seek to accomplish, what we undertake to do for our Students, together with the daily routine of our Academy. A recent Student of a literary turn of mind, after completing his course of tuition, wrote out a little history of his observations and experience while at our Academy ; and as this was shown to us just as we were on the eve of drawing up a New Prospectus, we thought we could not do better than allow our late Student's record to accompany it, for the enlightenment of young men and others who are anticipating a Course of Lessons at our Office.

'''HOW I BECAME A CUTTER. BY A MASTER TAILOR'S SON.'''

We, that is, my father, mother, and myself, were sitting round the fire one evening in December last year, when the conversation turned upon my future ; and as I look back on that family group in my father's home, I cannot help thinking that this had formed the subject of mauy conversations between my parents, when I had little thought on the matter. "John," said my father, "it seems to me the time has arrived when you must strike out for yourself ; you have had as good a training in the practical part of the tailoring business, as I can give you, and I think it will be well for you now to go into the scientific, and so complete your education as a tailor." This took me somewhat by surprise. I had often

thought of and very much desired to become a Cutter ; I had studied the trade literature, and my imagination and ambition had even painted a scene, where I was the leading cutter in a high class tailoring trade ; and now that my father suggested the first step in this direction, I felt a flush come over my face, as I replied, " Very good, father, I shall always try to do as you wish me ; but I don't quite understand what you mean." " How should you like to spend three months at the Tailor and Cutter Academy ?" asked my father; bringing visions to my mind of numbers of young men like myself, drafting, cutting out, attending lectures, and so forth, so that I was eager and ready. In an instant my enthusiasm was aroused, and I replied, " Oh ! that would be splendid father, I should like it immensely." After a little while


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130 cases the child takes the breast without the mother awaking from sleep. Such lazy mothers are disliked by their husbands, who believe that illness and even the death of the child may be the consequence of this. They call it "dead milk," regarding a sleeping person as, in fact, the same as a dead person.

Question 5. ''When is a child named? Is there any ceremony when it is named.''

Answer. In the mountains of Judah the people are very indifferent to any ceremony except the two feast-days. But in the plains of Philistia they have rules about this. Thus the Fellahin name the child, as already mentioned, before the navel is cut, before the visitors come, and the midwife then only may tie up the navel; whilst the Egyptian settlers in Jaffa and round about give the name on the seventh day. The child is washed, and salted, then a copper basin is put above its head, which the midwife knocks with a stick, to teach the child to be fearless. If it gets frightened it will always be a coward; if, on the contrary, it is not afraid, the midwife asks the father, "What name do you call it?" The father replies, "N. or M."; then the midwife, giving a knock on the copper basin, says, "Listen! your name is Fatmé or Ehmad," or whatever it may be.

Question 6. Is the eldest son always the heir?

Answer. Sons all inherit the same share, and girls ought to receive half a share. The eldest son is only privileged as being the eldest, and if he be energetic enough he may have the lead over his brothers, but in sharing they are equal. They generally keep their lands and animals together, till the first quarrel ensues, generally on marriage, as everywhere the women do nut agree.

Question 7. How many children does one mother usually bear?

Answer. As far as I could find out from personal acquaintances, I should say 7 to 10 or 12. If you question a fellah about this, he will either laugh at your question, or "Beg pardon,", Is taghfar Allah, for meddling with God's blessing. Counting anything is sinful. In Artas, amongst some 25 families, there was one man only who had nine children living. He was married four times. His first wife brought him four children, of whom one died with the mother, too, at childbirth. His second wife bore eight children, and died with the eighth. He married a third wife, about 25 years old, when he was about 60, and had four children by her. Subsequently he married a fourth time under peculiar circumstances. When about 65 years old he chose a girl of seven for one of his sons, and made the betrothal for his son, and when the Khateeb was going to tie the nuptial knot, the father came and was himself married to the girl. Other Artas people have from three to six children living, but generally half of the children die in their first year,


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Rh often very soon after birth. A woman in Artas had a child on the way to Bethlehem, when going there with a basket of vegetables on her head. She simply wrapped up the child in her long sleeve, went on to Bethlehem, sold her vegetables, and came home. Although this woman and her husband were well made and strong, and had many children, perhaps 10, I never remember to have seen more than one live to five or six years. Usually it was a boy with amulets on head and neck who soon afterwards suddenly died.

Question 8. At what age do men and women marry?

Answer. There is no fixed age. Wealthy people marry their boys at six years of age and upwards, whilst the poor marry in early manhood. Some men remain for a considerable time without marriage, owing to want of means to pay the dowry. But it is rare for girls to remain unmarried beyond the age of 20, whilst they may marry at the age of four and upwards. Much depends (1) on beauty, (2) on wealth, and (3) on rank. The girl of seven mentioned above was married on account of her beauty, and her parents would have liked to slip in her eldest but ugly sister (like Leah). Then again, marriages being very costly, partly for economy's sake, interchanges of girls are sometimes made; a man gives his sister or daughter, for another man's sister or daughter. Age makes no difference. One girl may be 15 or 20, whilst the other is only five or so, nevertheless the marriages are concluded on one day and with the same feast.

In Jaffa I knew a fellah girl of about 17, whose father refused to give her in marriage, simply because he wanted her to carry the milk to the customers. He told me that he was putting off her marriage until a later period, his first daughter having been ill-treated by her husband.

Question 9. Does the man have more than one wife?

Answer. There is no rule. He may have one, two, three, or four wives. He may go beyond the fourth, but, in that case, must get rid of one either by divorce, or by simply separating from her. But he may not live with her in concubinage. She lives in his house, but is forbidden, Minhajara. The man must provide for her living; he must keep house even for her. Mohammedan law forbids a man to keep two wives in one house, the parents of the wife also try their utmost to have a separate house, or at least room, for their daughter, but only in very rare cases have I known this to be done. They usually live in one room. Three or four wives together is very rare, whilst two is very common. The wives call themselves, daraeer plural, and , darra singular. Naturally enough, these rivals hate each other. They are favoured by their husband according to the number of then children and whether their children are girls or boys, the mother of the boy or boys being the favourite as a rule, though there are exceptions.


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132 Two wives are a source of continual strife in the fellah home. The position of a barren wife is not enviable; barrenness is often the cause of second marriage. Ethman Jibrin, a man in Artas, had two wives, the first had three children, the second was barren. He had to divorce his first wife, Sarah Chaleel, who had been given him in marriage in exchange for his sister Sa'ada, who was given to Sleman Chaleel. But Sleman murdered Ethman, Sa'ada's uncle. After seven or eight years Sleman was released from prison, and, as a consequence of the fright he experienced when he saw the blood gushing out from his victim's throat, he the murderer, being of a scrofulous family, became afflicted with leprosy. Sa'ada, hating her husband as her uncle's murderer, and fearing the leprosy would extend to her, insisted on remaining at the house of her brother. Ethman loved his wife Sarah, but owing to these circumstances a double divorce was pronounced by instigation of Sarah, after I had done my utmost to hinder it. The murder took place on the 17th November, 1875, and the divorce on the 3rd February, 1883. Ethman Jibrin, with his people, and Sarah Chaleel, with her people, assembled in a room, all squatting around. Ethman repeated three times:—

"May the divorce be sworn three times on you, Sarah, daughter of Chaleel, that thou mayst be divorced by three swearings, and that thou mayst nut be brought back, either by law or by ascendency." This done, Sarah left the room, cursing Ethman: "May God spoil your house— and cut off your children (i.e., her own)—may He never show you mercy." She continued weeping and shouting curses until the very mountains re-echoed. Not long after she went into compact with Ethman's mortal enemy, married him, and had four children up to 1889. Though Ethman tried to get her back before she re-married, he could not. The other couple, Sa'ada and Sleman, also were divorced the same day. But the curses of Sa'ada to her husband were only feigned. A few months later she married her cousin, a young man of about 17, she being 26 or 27. She had had a child at the age of 13 by Sleman, her first husband.

Question 10. What relations are forbidden to marry each other?

Answer. A man may not marry his sister, mother, or grandmother, aunt (father's sister), brother's or sister's daughter, wife's sister, so long as the wife is alive and still married to him; after the wife's divorce he may take her sister. He may not marry a woman and her daughter as this would be considered incest. He may marry his uncle's (father's


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Rh brother) daughter. A woman may not marry her brother, father, grandfather, uncle (father's brother), brother's or sister's son, all relatives from the mother's side are considered as relatives not unlawful in marriage.

Question 11. Are all women married, or do many remain unmarried?

Answer. The Mohammedan Fellahin are all married, as far as I know them; at least I have not met with any old maid. But amongst the Christian Fellahin now and then a case may happen. This is probably owing to the system of polygamy, and the facility of divorce. Whilst the Christian fellah, bound to keep one and the same wife for life, is more disposed to "pick out" his future companion, the Moslem is allowed to divorce, and takes his cousin—though ugly or even crippled—firstly for economy's sake, and secondly because he regards the wife simply as a vessel made to bear him children. The Moslem woman, in consequence, rarely remains unmarried—no matter at what price.

Question 12. Are the women beaten by the husbands?

Answer. As a rule, yes. It is even considered a shame by many not to do it. She is considered as inferior, and has to receive a well administered flogging from time to time. But from this it does not follow that the man always absolutely commands in the house. On the contrary, the fellah-woman is just as often—virtually—the head of the family, and differs in nothing from woman in the rest of Creation. She at least influences her husband, in most cases for all things, not only in the house, but in all matters affecting their common weal. She is interested in the agricultural business—looks after the herds and herdsmen, animals and servants. I have known many fellah-women to manage everything a good deal better than the husband, and even scolding him to some degree for any mismanagement, or teaching him what to say in the men's assembly. But, notwithstanding this, she did not escape a good flogging occasionally. Yet it does not follow that the fellah-woman is to be pitied in being considered an inferior being. She enjoys her life and liberty to a certain extent, at least in many instances.

Question 13. Are the men always obliged to pay a dower for the wife?

If site misconducts herself, is the dower returned to the man when she is divorced?

Answer. As a rule they are obliged to pay, either in money, or in goods of some kind, animals, lands, or the equivalent sum—as ransom for a murdered relative—in lieu of the dower. The amount of the dower paid depends, as already remarked, on the degree of relationship; the nearer the relative the smaller the dower. So also the beauty of the bride, the age; a widow certainly is not worth as much as a maiden. Again, her rank; if her relatives are rich or from a sheikh's family, the price is higher, beginning with 2,000 piastres—£16 and up to £100 or more.


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134 Misconduct in the sense of adultery is punished by death, and nothing is given back to the husband; but if the wife for some cause or other goes away of her own consent, divorce being the consequence, the husband is entitled to receive back half the sum paid by him as (lower, though this is often delayed for many years, and finally the parties agree for a small sum, or blood feuds ensue. If the man is the divorcer, he has to bear all consequences, and receives nothing whatever. In the "Fetluh" they sometimes marry without dower, since the last few years.

Question 14. Are rings used in marriage, or any other token?

Answer. Not in the same manner as with Europeans. Here it is agreed between the parties that the bridegroom has to furnish ten or more silver rings, (Khawatem), and so many pairs of bracelets,  (Asawer), but there is no ceremony in handing them to the bride.

Question 15. Describe a peasant wedding. The processions, dances, songs, the presents made, any ordinary riddles or proverbs asked?

Answer. When the price of the bride is fixed, the first part of the sum paid means the betrothal, and a sacrifice in token of sincerity is brought and eaten by the relatives and others who may be invited, the women singing the praises of the bridegroom, father, and bride. Sweets, nuts, &c., may also be brought. The women, or one woman, generally says four lines, slightly touching her mouth and taking the hand away whilst singing. For example:—

Then the ululation follows,, and another woman says something, and a coloured wedding dress is provided for the bride. Red silk garments are given to one or more relatives of the bride. When the whole dowry, or nearly all, is paid, the wedding day is fixed generally about the full moon. For six or eight days before, the villagers assemble every evening on the roof of some house, or in the courtyard, and coffee is made, the men dancing the all-in-a-row-dance, (Sa'hje), which may continue for many hours, from nightfall to midnight. From five to twenty men stand very close to each other, and one facing them with


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Rh a sword, or club, or handkerchief in his hand, begins in a melancholy voice singing five or six notes, as follows:

and tells them what they shall presently say after him. They sing away hours and hours the same notes, but different words. Every third note is accompanied by clapping of the hands. Half the men say or sing whilst bowing and inclining to the right, then the other half sing whilst inclining to their side, the leader following very cleverly, and by his own movements showing them how far they are to bow and bend. After having repeated the same lines five or six times, he goes on to another, now hardly bowing, now almost reaching the ground. When he does this, he produces guttural tones on the letter such as are used to make a camel kneel down. The women have a merrier tone and livelier dance. One o; two dance in the middle of a circle, the whole of the dancers whirling round, now jumping with both feet at once and clapping hands, now whirling round and joining each other's hands. One singer in the middle says a line, and the others repeat—

This singing and dancing, with occasional firing of guns and drinking of coffee, goes on every evening till the wedding day. The people then assemble


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136 all in wedding apparel—the men in red silk, the women in their best, their hands red with henna, their eyes painted with Kohl. The bride is put on a horse or a camel, with her bedding; a red silk gown is put on her, and a thick red veil for the Kése, a red and white one for the Yamén, over her face, whilst four black ostrich feathers stand at four corners upright on her head. A drawn sword is put into her hand, a young relative leads the camel, and in slow procession they move towards the house of the bridegroom. For grand processions the young men ride on horses, and fire, and gallop up and down round the bridal procession, the women singing and ululating. At the house of the bridegroom the young man leading the camel does not give her over till he has received his gift, $1⁄4$ or $1⁄2$ a lira, or a silk gown. Then the young men of her kindred ask for the "scapegoat of the youths," (Sha-et-el-Shabâb). This is either paid for or given, and many others ask. The uncle, the cousin, each wants his gift, and finally battles ensue between the young men of both parties, and, if they are from different villages, the battles are serious, with clubs and drawn swords. If the bride's party is stronger they exact as much as possible, if they cannot, they leave the bride after having cursed the bridegroom and his party for taking away the girl. Finally the bride is released, and the sword taken out of her hand, and handed to the bridegroom at the house-door, A jug of water is now placed on her head as a sign of complete submission to her husband. When she steps into the house she must "call on the name of God" as she passes over the lintel because the Jân live below. The bridegroom strikes the jug as she passes, throwing it down and breaking it. In the plains of Sharon and Philistia the bride has no ostrich feathers, but instead a cactus leaf, with three or four candles. The presents are carried in front of her to her new home. As she enters the house the veil is taken off her face, and her face is "embellished," (Muzawak), with gold and silver paper stuck all over it. The sleeves of the bride and bridegroom are now tied together, whilst one sleeve of the bride is spread out across her like a sack. The invited guests now come in, and, pressing coins of from 10 paras up to pounds to her forehead, let them drop into the sleeve below, saying: This in token of friendship to so-and-so,

The female relatives standing by carefully observe how large the gift is, and sing the praise of the giver according to his gift. Whilst this is going on the men shoot at marks at a distance of 60 to 100 paces—he who hits the mark is lauded in songs of praise by the women. Meanwhile some men are busy killing and cooking the sheep, or goats and rice, according to the number of guests and the wealth of the bridegroom. By evening the food is piled up in the battieh, or circular wooden dish, and put before the guests, six to twelve men squatting on the ground around one dish. They make large balls of rice with their hands and


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Rh shove them into the mouth, as much as the mouth is capable of holding. The meat is distributed by an elderly man charged with this office according to the rank of the guests: the hind quarter is for the best guests, whilst it is humiliating to receive the fore quarter.

The first is the (Shada) the second is the  (Dra' il bagha). Coffee is served in tiny cups, after all men have washed their hands with soap and water, poured out on every individual according to rank. It is expected that every man soaping his hands passes the soap to his neighbour without letting it fall to the ground. The maladroit person who lets it fall is expected to buy a new piece. The guests now disperse, each one thanking the owner of the house,

whilst the feast-giver apologises in humble terms, as, "Everything belongs to you," or "This was only our duty," or "It is from your wealth," and receives again as answer, "God's and your arm's wealth,"

and thus the festival ends. On the day or days preceding the wedding a bard is invited, and through long hours, sometimes till morning, he sings to his fiddle the stories of old heroes, or love stories, and receives £1 and upwards for a night. I have never seen presents made at the weddings of the inhabitants of the mountains of Judah except in money, but in the plains other presents are carried before the bride, such as a mirror, copper utensils for the kitchen, a clothes box, a carpet, &c. Of riddles there is no end; some are excellent, some mediocre, some clean, some uncouth, some indifferent. The following are specimens:—

Green in the market, red in the house? Solve it, oh, ox! Understand it, oh, ass! Answer.—Henna

A bird flying; it drops unleavened bread, and every bread is as an atom? Answer.—A sieve.

The daughter of the king sitting in her palace, her hands on her waist? Answer.—The jug


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138 The proverbs also are endless, but taken as a whole better than the riddles; here is a few:—

Question 16. ''Are there any peculiar customs at weddings? Putting a shoe or a plate on the bride's head? Throwing a shoe, or rice, or corn after her? Carrying her into the house, holding a sword over her as she enters, or any other customs?''

Answer. As already stated above, I have seen them go into the house with a jug of water on the head (this means obedience to the household), the bridegroom holds the sword over her, to show his superiority, his (quality of lord or defender probably, and he also tries to break the jug.

Question 17. Do the bride and bridegroom wear crowns? Is any umbrella or canopy spread over them? Is a glass of wine broken {as among the Jews), or other such ceremony?

Answer. I have never seen the bridegroom have any peculiar clothing. In many cases, he has not even new clothes, but the bride of the "Kése" has always the red veil over her face and the red mantle on her head, with four black ostrich feathers standing upright at the four corners. The three preceding answers refer only to maiden brides. Widows' marriages are very simple; no processions, in the same veiled way, though some preparatory singing and dancing may take place. As a rule such a wedding ought to be as noiseless as possible, and, in fact, is considered a shame and an insult to the deceased husband. I have seen some men spit in the face of a widow-bride, as she was accompanied by


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 inches down in inches and lines (pouces and lignes), so that on this scale 51.5 inches were equal to 0° C., and 73 inches to 100° C. Readings were corrected by a barometer. This instrument registered the changes in the elastic force of air produced by heat, and was styled by Amontons the "universal thermometer;" but its great length, the difficulty of transporting it, and the inaccuracy due to friction of mercury in the glass tube, prevented it from being adopted.

Amontons is often credited, especially by French authors, with the discovery that the boiling-point of water is constant under like conditions as respects pressure, etc., but this cannot be sustained for it is certain that Renaldini anticipated him in proposing the boiling-point of water as a fixed point, and that Boyle and Papin demonstrated the influence of pressure long before.

The French physicist constructed a mercury thermometer provided with a double scale ascending from 49 to 59 and descending from 14 to 24; in this were the following correspondences: 59° = solidification of tallow ; 54° = cellars of the observatory, Paris; 52° = freezing of water. This instrument had no advantages over those in use.


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Rh singing women and moving towards her future house, and tell her, "Fie on thee! what would your deceased husband say to all this"! When the people have withdrawn, the bride does not quit her shoes till the bridegroom has paid a sum for "untying the shoes," (Hal il watta). Wine is never used at Mohammedan ceremonies.

Question 18. Are second marriages allowed?

Answer. This is answered under Question 9 for the men, and as for women the preceding answer solves it partially. Some women refuse second marriages, especially if they have grown-up children and lands. A young man married a widow in Artas, and whilst the women were singing and some firing was going on, the moon rose eclipsed. The men shook their heads, and one told me it was a very bad omen, "This marriage has a dark face." To the bridegroom he said he remembered another marriage being on the evening of an eclipse (which they call swallowed by a whale, (Bala' o 'hud), and it turned out very unlucky. This one also did, for the widow never had any children, and the man abandoned her. Another man, having a wife in the village of Shiukh, near Hebron, came and married a widow who had a son in Artas. This son being entitled to gardens in Artas, both mother and son never left the village, whilst the husband, usually living at Shiukh, used to come once in a while and spend eight days with his Artas wife in her own house. She had several children by her second husband; he used to leave some piastres for his family to spend, and then go away again, sometimes for months, though this happened very seldom.

Question 19. ''What is done when a man is dying? Is he ever oiled {extreme unction)? Are doors and windows opened when a man dies?''

Answer. When a man is dying he is turned in the direction of Mecca-Kibleh, and witnesses three times, saying, "I witness that there is no God but God, and Mohammed is God's apostle,". He wishes all present good-bye, and asks and receives pardon from every one. He then gives liberty to his wife to marry again, if she chooses to do so, simply by pardoning her, "I pardon you, so and so," I never heard of oiling with Mohammedans, and in Artas the dying person's room is generally filled with people; fire, and consequently smoke, fills the room. Windows, if there be any at all, and the door, are always open; the air would be suffocating without this. I do not know whether, if the case were to present itself, they would be on purpose, but they repeat the witness to God and his prophet.

Question 20. ''Is the corpse washed and dressed? Are any charms placed on it?''

Answer. A man's corpse is completely washed by the Khateeb, and all issues are then stopped with cotton, and he is well wrapped in new


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140 white shirting, (called kaffan, the shroud), and sewed over. No woman, except his sister and mother, may again look at him after the washing—a look from his own wife "on the clean," (taher), would be identical to committing adultery—for the fact of his pardoning her before death is equivalent to a divorce. Should she still have looked on him after this ablution,, the washing is useless, , and has to be done again. In the same way some of the sects are rendered unclean if they are touched by anything unclean after ablution before prayer. A woman's corpse is completely washed as above by the midwife or some other woman knowing exactly how to perform the washing, and when the corpse is sewed n) it is dealt with like a man's corpse. No charms are placed on the corpses. But in some places the kaffan, is perfumed, and henna put on it. For fearful men or such as were not very faithful to their religion a paper is put in a reed and placed on the neck with this witness written upon it for the examining angel "Sidna Rôman,", who appears as soon as the man is buried: I witness that there is no God but God and Mohammed, His prophet, and that the Ka'aba is my Kibléh, &c. But the strong-hearted need not this witness, for when the angel appears and asks him for his good and bad deeds done during his lifetime, and says, "Write down what you did," the dead man sits up as described in the Quarterly Statement, 1893, p. 317. The man says, "I have no inkstand"; (Dawa), the angel, tells him, "Your mouth is your inkstand"; the man says, "I have no pen"; the angel, "Your linger is your pen"; the man says, "I have no paper"; the angel, "Tear a piece of your wrapper". The man now proceeds to write his good and bad deeds, and is punished by Naker and Nukeer for the bad deeds. Should he omit his bad deeds, or falsely increase his good deeds, every finger, the ears, the eyes, the nose, legs, will tell him where he is wrong. When the examination, ('Hesâb), is terminated, he lies down and goes to the Well of Souls, Whilst washing the corpse, the Khateeb, in a chanting voice, sings continually:

"La illaha-ill Allah wa Muhamad Rasoul Allah Sail-Allah 'aleihi wasallam."

There is no God but God, Mohammed is the Apostle of God. God blessed him and greeted.

Question 24. ''Do the people employ hired mourners? Do they wait Do they wave cloths or handkerchiefs?'' Answer. The Fellahin do not employ hired mourners, as the townspeople do the wailing, though they have an acknowledged leader in the


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Rh mourning song (see Quarterly Statement, 1893, pp. 208, 209). I have often heard the men curse the women for wailing,. Still nobody attempts to put a stop to it. The next of kin, female relations, dishevel their hair, wave their handkerchiefs above the head, and whilst shrieking pull them out straight with their hands.

The following is a song for a man : —

Question 25. ''How soon after death are corpses buried? How long does the famiiy mourn?''

Answer. If possible the corpse is buried before sunset on the day of death, never after sunset, as the Jân are then astir. Should the person die late in the afternoon the burial is postponed to the next day,


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142 for time to get the shroud from the next market, and for the requisite washing and praying to be accomplished. The corpse is carried on the bier, or simply in a carpet, by men, all repeating, "There is no God but God," &c., in two parties. They put the corpse in the court or on the roof of the mosque; the washing usually takes place there also, the Khateeb reading passages of the Koran. When this is done, he says, "Congregation! what witness give you to your dead?" (the angels listen unseen). The people, if he was good, say, (bil Kher), "He was virtuous"; if he was bad,  (bil wail), "Woe to him." When they arrive at the grave the corpse is set down, and all the people sit down, the Khateeb praying and repeating passages of the Koran whilst the grave is made. The corpse is now placed so as to face towards the Kibléh, the legs towards the south. It is laid between two rows of stones, and a kind of ceiling is formed, so that no earth can touch the body directly; this is then covered with earth, and when this is done all the men fall on each other's necks and kiss each other, as an atonement. The women wail all the time, men never wail. At a woman's funeral in Artas I heard the men talking about her grave. Her husband loved her very much, and when they put her in the tomb the husband said it would be good to repair the roof, for the rain might penetrate to the body. One answered, "Let it be, Ibrahim, her body will be raised on Resurrection Day all the same, for, though worms eat the body, all must be reconstituted." But Ibrahim said, "I believe it is all bosh, my wife is dead, and withered as the grass, to return never more to any kind of life, either here or hereafter. I suppose," he continued, "the Khateebs and learned men, (Ulama), only tell us this for consolation, but what does it avail for thinking persons?" The women tear their hair, beat their faces, dance and jump in a circle, put away all their head-ornaments, or simply hide them by sewing rags over them, take away their bracelets, rend their garments, which for decency's sake (for the Fellahin women have mostly only one on the body) is sewed up in big stitches, but so that it is seen to have been rent, throw earth on their heads, and some blacken their faces with soot. Women only continue to mourn by not washing either body, face, or clothes, and the widow is expected to mourn one year, in that she does not marry before this lapse of time. Men do not mourn, and utterly condemn every outward and visible sign of mourning, as the bereavement is God's doing, (Amr Allah), and it is considered sinful to show any sorrow. In fact I never remarked in men the least outward show of mourning, whilst women almost always will show that they are mourning, ('Hedâd).

Question 26. ''Is there ever a ceremony of eating bread at the grave? Ir, there any feast after the funeral?''

Answer. Not at the grave; but as soon as the men have done