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576 UMBER, a brown mineral pigment consisting of hydrated iron and manganese oxides. The finely-powdered mineral is known as raw umber; when calcined the beauty of the colour increases and the pigment is known as burnt amber. It was probably first obtained from Umbria in Italy, but it occurs in many localities, notably in Cyprus (Turkey umber); large quantities of English amber are mined in Devonshire and Cornwall. (See .)

 UMBRA (Lat. for shade or shadow), in astronomy, the completely dark portion of the shadow of a heavenly body, filling the space within which the sun is entirely hidden. The body being supposed spherical, the umbra is a cone circumscribing both the sun and the body that casts the shadow. The term is also given to the interior and darkest part of a sunspot. (See

 UMBRELLA, a portable folding protector from rain (Fr. parapluie), the name parasol being given to the smaller and more fanciful article carried by ladies as a sunshade, and the en-tout-cas being available for both purposes. Primarily the umbrella (ombrella, Ital. dim. from Lat. umbra, shade) was a sunshade alone—its original home having been in hot, brilliant climates. In Eastern countries from the earliest times the umbrella was one of the insignia of royalty and power. On the sculptured remains of ancient Nineveh and Egypt there are representations of kings and sometimes of lesser potentates going in procession with an umbrella carried over their heads; and throughout Asia the umbrella had, and still has, something of the same significance. The Mahratta princes of India had among their titles “ lord of the umbrella.” In 1855 the king of Burma in addressing the governor-general of India termed himself “ the monarch who reigns over the great umbrella wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries.” The baldachins erected over ecclesiastical chairs, altars and portals, and the canopies of thrones and pulpits, &c., are in their origin closingly related to umbrellas, and have the same symbolic significance. In each of the basilica churches of Rome there still hangs a large umbrella.

Among the Greeks and Romans the umbrella (σκιάς, σκιάδειον, umbraculum, umbella) was used by ladies, while the carrying of it by men was regarded as a sign of effeminacy. Probably in these southern climes it never went out of use, and allusions by Montaigne show that in his day its employment as a sunshade was quite common in Italy. The umbrella was not unknown in England in the 17th century, and was already used as a rain protector. Michael Drayton, writing about the beginning of the 17th century, says, speaking of doves:—
 * "And, like umbrellas, with their feathers
 * Shield you in all sorts of weathers."

Although it was the practice to keep an umbrella in the coffee-houses early in the 18th century, its use cannot have been very familiar, for in 1752 Colonel Wolfe, writing from Paris, mentions the carrying of them there as a defence against both rain and sun, and wonders that they are not introduced into England. The traveller Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786, is credited with having been the first Englishman who habitually carried an umbrella.

The umbrella, as at first used, was based on its Eastern prototype, and was a heavy, ungainly article which did not hold well together. It had a long handle, with ribs of whalebone or cane, very rarely of metal, and stretchers of cane. The jointing of the ribs and stretchers to the stick and to each other was very rough and imperfect. The covering material consisted of oiled silk or cotton, heavy in substance, and liable to stick together in the folds. Gingham soon came to be substituted for the oiled cloth, and in 1848 William Sangster patented the use of alpaca as an umbrella covering material. One of the most notable inventions for combinin lightness, strength and elasticity in the ribs of umbrellas was tie “ Paragon ” rib patented by Samuel Fox in 1852. It is formed of a thin strip of steel rolled into a U or trough section, a form which gives great strength for the weight of metal. Umbrella silk is chiefly made at Lyons and Crefeld; much of it is so loaded that it cuts readily at the folds. Textures of pure silk or of silk and alpaca mixed have better wear-resisting properties.

 UMBRIA, the name of an ancient and a modern district of Italy.

1. The ancient district was bounded in the period of the Roman supremacy by the Ager Gallicus (in a line with Ravenna) on the N., by Etruria (the Tiber) on the W., by the Sabine territory on the S. and by Picenum on the E. The Via Flaminia passed up through it from Ocriculum to Ariminum; along it lay the important towns of Narnia (Narni), Carsulae, Mevania (Bevagna), Forum Flaminii, Nuceria Camellaria (Nocera) and Forum Sempronii; and on the Adriatic coast Fanum Fortunae (Fano) and Pisaurum (Pesaro). To the east lay Interamna (Terni), Spoletium (Spoleto), Fulginium (Foligno — on a branch of the Via Flaminia which left the main road at Varina and rejoined it at Forum Flaminii) and the important town of Camerinum on the side of the Apennines towards Picenum. On the side towards Etruria lay Ameria (Amelia) and Tuder (Todi), both on the direct road from Rome to Perusia, Iguvium, which occupied a very advantageous position close to the main pass through the Apennines, and Hispellum (Spello). Not far off was Assisium (Assisi), whilst far to the north in the mountains lay Sarsina. Under the empire it formed the sixth region of Italy. In earlier times it embraced a far larger area. Herodotus (IV.49) describes it as extending to the Alps, and the ascribed to Scylax (a treatise which embodies material of the 4th century  or earlier) makes Umbria conterminous with Samnium. Furthermore, place-names of undoubted Umbrian origin abound in Etruria and are also found in the Po valley. Thus in the early days of Italian history Umbria may be taken as having extended over the greater part of northern and central Italy.

The name Umbria is derived from the Umbri, one of the chief constituent stocks of the Italian nation. The origin and ethnic affinities of the Umbrians are still in some degree a matter of dispute, but their language proves them to have been an Aryan people closely allied with the Oscans and in a remoter degree with the Latins. Archaeological considerations further show with approximate certainty that the Umbri are to be identified with the creators of the (q.v.), and probably also of the  (q.v.), culture in northern and central Italy, who at the beginning of the Bronze Age displaced the original Ligurian population by an invasion from the north-east. From the time and starting-point of their migrations, as well as from their type of culture, it may be provisionally inferred that the Umbrians were cognate with the Achaeans of prehistoric Greece. Pliny's statement (III.13, 19) that they were the most ancient race of Italy may certainly be rejected.

The process by which the Umbrians were deprived of their predominance in upper and central Italy and restricted to their confines of historic times cannot be traced in any detail. A tradition declares that their easternmost territory in the region of Ancona was wrested from them by the Picentes, a branch of the Sabine stock. It may also be conjectured that they were partly displaced in the valley of the Po by the Gaulish tribes which began to pour across the Alps from about 500 But their chief enemies were undoubtedly the Etruscans. These invaders, whose encroachments can be determined by archaeological evidence as proceeding from the western seaboard towards the north and east, and as lasting from about 700 to 500, eventually drove the Umbrians into that upland tract athwart the Apennines to which the name of Umbria belonged in historical times. In the course of this struggle the Etruscans are said to have captured 200 Umbrian towns. Nevertheless the Umbrian element of population does not seem to have been eradicated in the conquered districts. Strabo records a tradition that the Umbrians recovered their ground in the plain of the Po at the expense of the Etruscans, and states that the colonies subsequently founded in this region by the Romans contained large Umbrian contingents. In Etruria proper the persistence of the Umbrian stock is indicated by the survival of numerous Umbrian place-names, and by the record of Umbrian soldiers taking part in Etruscan enterprises, e.g. the

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Works

 * The Harṣa-carita of Bāṇa (tr. 1897)
 * The Harṣa-carita of Bāṇa (tr. 1897)
 * The Harṣa-carita of Bāṇa (tr. 1897)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rh attack on Cumae in 524 Indeed it is not unlikely that the bulk of the population in Etruria continued to be of Umbrian origin, and that the Romanization of this country was facilitated by the partial absorption of the Etruscan conquerors into the Umbrian multitude.

Against the Romans the Umbrians never fought any wars of importance, a fact which may be explained partly by the remoteness of their position, but chiefly by the common hostility of the two nations to the Etruscans. After the downfall of the Etruscan power they made a belated attempt to aid their Samnite kinsmen in their decisive struggle against Rome (308 ); but their communications with Samnium were impeded by the foundation of a great Roman fortress at Narnia (298 ), and at the great battle of Sentinum (295 ), which was fought in their own territory, the Umbrians are not reported to have lent the Samnites any substantial help. It is perhaps on account of this defection that in 200 they received from the Romans a portion of the Ager Gallicus reconquered from the Senonian Gauls. They offered no opposition to the construction of the Via Flaminia through the heart of their country, and in the Second Punic War withheld all assistance from Hannibal. In the Social War (90‑89 ), they joined the rebels tardily and were among the first to make their peace with Rome. Henceforth the Umbrians no longer played an independent part in Italian history.

The material prosperity of Umbria, in spite of its unfavourable position for commercial intercourse, was relatively great, owing to the fertility of the numerous small valleys which intersect the Apennine system in this region. The chief products of the soil were olives, vines and spelt; the uplands harboured the choicest boars of Italy. In Pliny's time there still existed in Umbria 49 independent communities, and the abundance of inscriptions and the high proportion of recruits furnished to the imperial army attest its continued populousness. Among its most famous natives were the poets Plautus (b. at Sarsina) and Propertius (b. at Assisi).

Of the Umbrians' political and municipal organization little is known. In addition to the city (tota) they seem to have had a larger territorial division in the tribus (trifu, acc.) as we gather from Livy (XXXI.2, "per Umbriam quam tribum Sapiniam vocant"; cf. XXXIII.37) and from the Eugubine Tables ("trifor Tarsinates", VI.B.54). Ancient authors describe the Umbrians as leading effeminate lives, and as closely resembling their Etruscan enemies in their habits (Theopompus, Fragm. 142; Pseudo-Scymnus, 366‑368). It is almost certain that each race influenced and modified the other to a large extent. There is conclusive proof of strong Etruscan influences in Umbria. For instance, they undoubtedly borrowed their alphabet and the art of writing from the Etruscans. Their writing ran from right to left. The alphabet consisted of nineteen letters. It had no separate symbols for O, G, Q; the aspirates and X were wanting; likewise the Etruscan f (8). It also had a symbol peculiar to itself for expressing the sound of palatal k when followed by either e or i. The fact that it is only in towns on the side next Etruria, e.g. Tuder and Iguvium, that a coinage is found indicates that they borrowed the art of minting from that quarter. The Umbrians counted their day from noon to noon. But whether they borrowed this likewise from the Etruscans we do not know (Pliny II.79). In their measuring of land they employed the vorsus, a measure common to them and the Oscans (Frontinus, De Limit. p. 30), 3⅓ of which went to the Roman jugerum.

(M. O. B. C.)

2. The modern territorial division is situated in the middle of the peninsula, between Tuscany and the Marches on the N. and E., and Rome and the Abruzzi on the S. and W., and comprising the one province of Perugia, with an area of 3748 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 675,352. Umbria and the two provinces of Ancona and Pesaro and Urbino taken together form an area slightly more extensive than that of the sixth region of Augustus. The surface is mountainous, but affords good pasture, and there are numerous fertile valleys. Many treasures of art and architecture are preserved, and Umbria is in this respect one of the most interesting regions of Italy (see ). Modern Umbria formed down to 1860 a part of the States of the Church.

Two main lines of railway run through the territory. That from Florence to Rome skirts the borders of the province on the west, running north and south, while the Rome-Ancona runs across the province from north-east to south-west. The cross communication is given by three branch lines. In the north a narrow gauge line from Arezzo to Fossato passes through Gubbio.c Perugia, the capital of the province, stands on the line from Terontola to Foligno, while on the extreme south a line passing through Rieti and Aquila, and ultimately reaching Sulmona, starts from Terni on the Rome-Ancona. (Author:Thomas Ashby)

 UMFRAVILLE, the name of an English baronial family, derived from Amfreville in Normandy. Members of this family obtained lands in Northumberland, including Redesdale and Prudhoe, from the Norman kings, and a later member, Gilbert de Umfraville (d. 1245), married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, earl of Angus, and obtained this Scottish earldom. Gilbert's son, Gilbert, earl of Angus (c. 1244-1307), took part in the fighting between Henry III. and his barons, and in the Scottish expeditions of Edward I. His son, Robert, earl of Angus (1277-1325), was taken prisoner by the Scots at Bannockburn, but was soon released, though he was deprived of the earldom of Angus and of his Scottish estates. His son and heir, Gilbert de Umfraville (1310-1381), claimed the earldom, which he hoped to gain by helping Edward Baliol to win the Scottish crown, but he failed, and on his death without issue the greater part of his English estates passed to his niece, Eleanor, the wife of Sir Henry Talboys (d. 1370), while others, including Redesdale, Harbottle and Otterbourne, came to his half-brother, Sir Thomas de Umfraville (d. 1386). Sir Thomas's son, another Sir Thomas de Umfraville (1362-1 391), left a son, Gilbert¥de Umfraville (1390-1421), who fought on the Scottish border and in France under his warlike uncle, Sir Robert de Umfraville (d. 1436). Although not related in blood he appears to have inherited the estates in Lincolnshire of the Kyme family, and he was generally known as the earl of Kyme, though the title was never properly conferred upon him. In 1415 he fought at Agincourt; he was afterwards sent as an ambassador to Charles VI. of France, and arranged an alliance between the English and the Burgundians. He was killed at the battle of Baugé on the 22nd of March 1421. His heir was his uncle Sir Robert, who died on the 29th of January 1436, when the male line of the Umfraville family became extinct. The chronicler John Hardyng was for many years in the service of Sir Robert, and in his Chronicle he eulogizes various members of the family.

 UMPIRE, the term used, like “referee,” for a person appointed by consent to settle disputes arising between opposing parties, and particularly one chosen to see that the rules of a game are obeyed. The word itself stands for the Middle English nompere or noumpere, “a numpere” becoming “an umpire.” The earlier form represents the Old French nompere, nonpair, i.e. not equal, odd. The Latin impar, unequal, was similarly used in the sense of “arbitrator.”

 UMRA KHAN, of Iandol (c. 1860-1903), a Pathan chief on the north-western frontier of India, who was chiefly responsible for the Chitral Campaign of 1895. He was the younger son of the khan of Jandol; but he killed his elder brother, seized the throne, and made himself a power on the frontier. In 1894 he held undisputed sway over almost the whole of Bajour, when his restless ambition caused him to interfere in the internal affairs of Chitral. He instigated Amir-ul-Mulk, a half-withed brother of the Chitral chief, to murder his brother Nizam-ul-Mulk, and then threw over the fratricide and supported the claims of his uncle Sher Afzul to the throne. The government of India intervened and ordered Umra Khan to leave Chitral. When he refused, the Chitra] Expedition was dispatched (see ); Umra Khan was driven into exile in Afghanistan, and died there in 1903.

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Rh UNAO, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of the United Provinces. The town is 10 m. N.E. of Cawnpore, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901), 13,109.

The has an area of 1792 sq. m. It consists of a flat alluvial plain, lying north of the Ganges. Rich and fertile tracts, studded with groves, alternate with stretches of waste land and plains of barren user, the whole being intersected by small streams, used for irrigation. The Ganges is the only navigable river in the district, while the Sai forms its north-eastern boundary. The temperature varies from about 75° to 103° in the hot season and from 46° to 79° in the cold season. The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. Pop. (1901), 976,639, showing an increase of 2.4% in the decade. The principal crops are barley, wheat, pulses, rice and millets, with some cotton, sugar-cane and poppy. The district is crossed by the main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway.

During the Mutiny of 1857-58 Unao was the scene of several severe engagements between General Havelock's little army and the rebels on his march to relieve Lucknow. On the death of Raja Jasa Singh, one of the leading rebels, and the capture of his two sons, the family estates were confiscated, and the villages either restored to their former owners or given to other landholders for their loyalty.

 UNCLE, the brother of a person's father or mother, also the husband of one's aunt (i.e. the sister of a father or mother). The French oncle, which appears in Anglo-French as uncle, comes from a Late Latin unculus, a shortened form of the Latin avanculus, a maternal uncle, the brother of one's mother. The word is a diminutive of avus, grandfather. The Latin for a paternal uncle is patruus. “Aunt” comes through the Old French aunte, ante, corrupted into the modern tante, from Latin amita, a father's sister, a paternal aunt, the maternal aunt being called matertera.  UNCTION (Lat. unctio, anointing, ungere, unguere, to smear with ointment, to anoint; cf. “ointment,” O.Fr. oignement, from oigner, mod. oindre, to anoint), the act of pouring, or rubbing oil, ointment or salve over or on to a person or object. The term is particularly used of the ceremonial practice of anointing with oil or unguents (see ). The sacrament of the anointing of the sick in the Roman church is treated under . The use of the term for religious fervour in speech has degenerated into its common meaning of exaggerated sentiment.  UNDER-CROFT, in architecture, a synonym for (q.v.), a vaulted chamber under ground.  UNDERWRITER, one who insures ships and their cargoes from loss and damage, so called from his writing his name under the document or policy of insurance. A request to an underwriter to insure is termed the offering of a “risk,” and the word risk in marine insurance is equivalent to the liability of an underwriter under a contract. When the risk is divided up among several underwriters, each signs his name individually, putting opposite thereto the amount for which he accepts liability. Each signature has the effect of making a separate contract, in the terms of the policy, for the amount set opposite the name of the underwriter. (See : Marine.)  UNEMPLOYMENT, a modern term for the state of being unemployed among the working-classes. The social question involved is intimately bound up with that of relief of the poor, and its earlier history is outlined in the article. It is more particularly within the 20th century that the problem of unemployment has become specially insistent, not by reason of its greater intensity—for it is open to considerable doubt whether, comparatively speaking, there was not more unemployment in the organized industrial communities of the early middle ages—but because the greater facilities for publicity, the growth of industrial democracy, the more scientific methods applied to the solution of economic questions, the larger humanitarian spirit of the times all demand that remedies differing considerably from those of the past should at least be tried. In most civilized countries attempts

have been made to solve this or that particular phase of the problem by improved methods. There is, however, always a great difficulty in knowing the extent of unemployment even in any one particular country. No census has ever been taken in any country of those of the whole population who were employed and unemployed on any particular day, and even if it were possible to take such a census modern conditions of industry might render its results valueless almost immediately after. It would be complicated, too, by having of necessity to include the shiftless and unemployable sections of the population, as well as those on the borderland of employment (those who are worth some sort of wage in times of pressure), while at the same time it would be necessary, to make the census of practical value, to obtain returns of the demand for labour, in order to value the true character of the supply. Such statistics are obtainable possibly only in theory, but every country makes an endeavour to obtain statistics of a sort. In England the Board of Trade, for example, has compiled valuable memoranda on the percentages of unemployment in the more important trade union groups of trades, which may be taken as a measure of unemployment in the more highly organized industries; while other memoranda throwing light on the subject deal with the amount of time lost by workpeople through want of employment and other causes; with cyclical trade depressions; the extent to which female labour has displaced adult male labour of late years; seasonal industries and industries carried on by casual labour; emigration and immigration, &c., all intimately bound up with the study of the problem. The statistics issued by the Labour Bureaus of many of the states in the United States are of considerable value, in particular, those of Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut and Wisconsin. Germany, France and Belgium also publish statistics, but like the figures of other countries, they far from represent the actual state of unemployment.

The actual causes of unemployment in any one country will always remain to a certain extent controversial, as will the comparative weight to be assigned to each cause. Putting aside the much disputed theories of economists as to the causes of cyclical depressions of trade, there are certain well-observed facts which present themselves in connexion with the question of unemployment, and to each one of them some contributory

portion of blame may be assigned. These facts may be classified as (a) those over which the worker has no control, and (b) those which may be said to lie in the worker himself. Some of those under (a), of which it is impossible to give more than the more obvious examples, have, of course, been operating, especially in the United Kingdom, sometimes potently, sometimes slowly and almost unnoticed, over a long range of years. They are seasonal industries and industries carried on by casual labour. There are many industries affected by certain states of the weather or by the changes of the seasons, as the building and allied trades, the furriers' trade, confectionery trades, &c. But more important are those industries which depend largely in times of pressure on casual and unskilled labour, such as port and riverside work of all kinds, construction works and to a certain extent the iron and steel industries. Then there are a number of skilled trades which have about them continually a fringe of casual labour, for which employment is very intermittent.

To quote from the report of the British Royal Commission on the Poor Laws (1909):—

“The class of under-employed includes not merely the whole of the men in such occupations as dock and wharf labour and market porters, and a waxing and waning share of the lower grades of the building operations, but also a very extensive fringe of men more or less attached to particular industries, and working at them only by way of brief and casual jobs. “To go in” for one half-day, one day, two, three, four or five days out of the five and a half is common to boot making, coopering, galvanizing, tank-making, oil pressing, sugar boiling, piano-making, as it is to dock-labouring, stevedoring, crane-lifting, building. Some trades, like that of the London bakers, regularly employ more men on one or two days of the week than on others. In London a large body of men is always required for the Friday night baking when the work in preparation for Saturday and Sunday is we are told, exceedingly heavy. The usual hours of

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Rh  of the council in June 1592. On 15 Aug. following he was accused by Colonel Stewart of having resetted [i.e. harboured] the turbulent Earl of Bothwell [see, fifth ]. Spynie offered to fight the accuser, but this the king would not permit, and after a day had been appointed for the trial, Stewart was committed to Edinburgh (, v. 174) or Blackness Castle (, p. 96), and Spynie to Stirling Castle (ib.) At the trial the accuser failed to proceed to probation; and when after postponement he again declined to proceed, Spynie was set at liberty. Stewart's accusation had, however, so disturbed the king—who was always in mortal dread of being betrayed to Bothwell—that Spynie never regained his entire confidence. When, on 24 July of the following year, Bothwell made his appearance before the king at Holyrood Palace, Spynie was one of those who interceded for him (, v. 256;, p. 103). On 27 Dec. 1593–4 he was denounced for not appearing to answer charges touching ‘certain treasonable practices and correspondence’ (Reg. P. C. Scotl. v. 114); and on 24 Feb. following proclamation was made against holding intercourse with him and ‘other adherents of Bothwell’ (ib. p. 132). Not long after he made his peace with the king, and on 27 Nov. 1595 was present at a meeting of the privy council (ib. p. 234), but their relations were never again quite cordial. On 18 Nov. 1599 he had to promise the council to present Sir Walter Lindsay of Balgavie [q. v.], a papal emissary, before the presbytery of Edinburgh, and was ordered to reside where they directed him until he satisfied them in reference to his religion (ib. vi. 33). In 1600 ‘ane greit trouble’ fell out between Lord Spynie and the Ogilvies which, though the council did its utmost to settle it, ultimately resulted on 30 Jan. 1602–3 in a night attack by the Master of Ogilvie and his brother on the house of Lord Spynie at Kinblethmont. After blowing up the principal gate with a petard, the assailants searched the house for Lord Spynie and his wife to ‘murder them.’ Finding they had escaped, the Ogilvies spoiled the mansion of its furniture and plate (ib. pp. 519–20). On the revival of the ancient bishopric of Moray in 1605, Spynie, at the request of the king, resigned the temporalities, but the patronage of the living was reserved to the family. While, on 5 June 1607, at the foot of the stair of his lodgings in the High Street of Edinburgh, ‘recreating himself after his supper,’ Spynie was witness to an encounter between his kinsmen, the Master of Crawford, and the younger Lindsay of Edzell. He endeavoured to interpose to prevent bloodshed and was slain by the young laird of Edzell by ‘a pitiful mistake.’ The incident, with much distortion of fact, is narrated in the old ballad of ‘Lord Spynie.’ According to Spotiswood, Spynie's death ‘was much regretted for the good parts he had, and the hope his friends conceived that he should have raised again that noble and ancient house of Crawford to the former splendour and dignity’ (History, Spotiswood Society, 3rd edit. p. 191).

By his wife, Jean Lyon, Spynie had two sons—Alexander Lindsay, second lord [q. v.], and John, who died young—and two daughters: Anne, married to Sir Robert Graham of Invermay, and Margaret, to John Erskine of Dun.

 LINDSAY, ALEXANDER (d. 1639), bishop of Dunkeld, was the younger son of John Lindsay of Evelick, Perthshire, member of a younger branch of the Lindsays, earls of Crawford. For some time he was regent in St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews, and on 7 Sept. 1591, he was ordained minister of St. Madoes, Perthshire. When the general assembly in May 1602 resolved to appoint certain of their number to wait on the popish earls to endeavour to convert them to protestantism, Lindsay was one of the two chosen to deal with the Earl of Errol (, vi. 116; Reg. P. C. Scotl. vi. 380). In January 1606–7 he was appointed constant moderator of the presbytery of Perth, but they refused to accept him until 7 March, and various ministers were subsequently prosecuted for continued contumaciousness in the matter (ib. vii. 385–390). In October 1607 the bishopric of Dunkeld was bestowed on Lindsay after it had been refused by James Melville. He was a member of the ecclesiastical high commission appointed in 1610 (ib. viii. 419). He took part with several other bishops in the coronation of Charles I at Holyrood in 1633. He opposed the introduction of the service-books in 1638 (, Memorialls, i. 88), but together with other bishops was in the same year deposed by the general assembly, the special accusation against him being that he was avaricious, and that he had been guilty of a variety of ecclesiastical irregularities (for particulars see, Scots Affairs, ii. 145). Thereupon on 7 Dec. he sent to the


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Rh obtaining employment; gild labour registries or associations of employers (mainly small employers) for the promotion of the interests of the trade in which they are engaged; agricultural labour registries maintained in different parts of Germany by the chambers of agriculture; employers' labour registries, established as a counter move against the trade union registries—they are chiefly in industries employing large capital, particularly the metal industries; and public labour registries, established either by voluntary associations or by municipalities. These latter have been very successful and have provided the model for the English registries. In Austria labour registries have also been established on the German model by many district and municipal authorities, those of Vienna and Prague bein especially successful. Switzerland has a few registries established by public authorities, notably those at Basel, Bern, Schaffhausen and Zurich. In Belgium there are a considerable number of public registries, some established by associations, some philanthropic, some political, some organized by employers, some by employees, some jointly by employers and emplo ed. Some of these registries are in receipt of subventions granted by municipalities, while in a few cases the municipalities themselves have started registries. In France labour registries are of many types. There are the ordinary registry offices, carried on for gain, and requiring a licence from the municipal authorities. They are very numerous and according to returns to the French Labour Department fill over 1,000,000 situations yearly in various occupations. There are also registries maintained by trade gilds, by individual trade unions, by a number of trade unions jointly, by joint associations of employers and employed, by associations of employers, by friendly societies, by philanthropic institutions and b municipalities. These last are being rapidly increased, and will without doubt eventually supersede all the others. In the United States the states of Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, West Virginia and Wisconsin have established free public employment offices, and in many of the other states the private registries are under strict supervision and licensing.

The second permanent remedy is that of insurance against unemployment. Certain schemes have been tried in Switzerland, notably the voluntary municipal scheme of against Berne, the compulsory municipal scheme of St Gall and a trade union scheme at Basel, while there is in Germany a system of insurance against sickness, accident and incapacity (see). Much attention has been devoted in England to the possibilities of insurance against unemployment, and in 1910 a scheme was being worked out by the government with a view to its discussion by parliament in 1911. The lines on which such a scheme must work were clearly laid down by Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, the permanent secretary to the Board of Trade, in his presidential address to the Economic Science and Statistics section of the British Association at Sheffield in September 1910.

“ The crucial question from a practical point of view,” said Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, “ is whether it is possible to devise a scheme of insurance which, while nominally covering unemployment due to all causes other than those which can be definitely excluded, shall automatically discriminate as between the classes of unemployment for which insurance is or is not an appropriate remedy. We can advance a step towards answering this crucial question by enumerating some of the essential characteristics of any unemployment insurance scheme which seem to follow directly or by necessary implication from the conditions of the problem as here laid down.

“ 1. The scheme must be compulsory; otherwise the bad personal risks against which we must always be on our guard would be certain to predominate.

“ 2. The scheme must be contributory, for only by exacting rigorously as a necessary qualification for benefit that a sufficient number of weeks' contribution shall have been paid by each recipient can we possibly hope to put limits on the exceptionally bad risks.

“ 3. With the same object in view there must be a maximum limit to the amount of benefit which can be drawn, both absolutely and in relation to the amount of contribution paid; or, in other words, we must in some way or other secure that the number of weeks for which a workman contributes should bear some relation to his claim upon the fund. Armed with this double weapon of a maximum limit to benefit and of a minimum contribution, the operation of the scheme itself will automatically exclude the loafer.

“ 4. The scheme must avoid encouraging unemployment, and for this purpose it is essential that the rate of unemployment benefit payable shall be relatively low. It would be fatal to any

scheme to offer compensation for unemployment at a rate approximating to that of ordinary wages.

“ 5. For the same reason it is essential to enlist the interest of all those engaged in the insured trades, whether as employers or as workmen, in reducing unemployment, by associating them with the scheme both as regards contribution and management.

“ 6. As it appears on examination that some trades are more suitable to be dealt with by insurance than others, either because the unemployment in these trades contains a large insurable element, or because it takes the form of total discharge rather than short time, or for other reasons, it follows that, for the scheme to have the best chance of success, it should be based upon the trade group, and should at the outset be partial in operation.

“ 7. The group of trades to which the scheme is to be applied must, however, be a large one, and must extend throughout the United Kingdom, as it is essential that industrial mobility as between occupations and districts should not be unduly checked.

“ 8. A state subvention and guarantee will be necessary, in addition to contributions from the trades affected, in order to give the necessary stability and security, and also in order to justify the amount of state control that will be necessary.

“ 9. The scheme must aim at encouraging the regular employer and workman, and discriminating against casual engagements. Otherwise it will be subject to the criticism of placing an undue burden on the regular for the benefit of the irregular members of the trade.

“ 10. The scheme must not act as a discouragement to voluntary provision for unemployment, and for that purpose some well-devised plan of co-operation is essential between the state organization and the voluntary associations which at present provide unemployed benefit for their members. Our analysis, therefore, leads us step by step to the contemplation of a national contributory scheme of insurance, universal in its operation within the limits of a large group of trades-a group so far as possible self-contained and carefully selected as favourable for the experiment, the funds being derived from compulsory contributions from all those engaged in these trades, with a subsidy and guarantee from the state, and the rules relating to benefit being so devised as to discriminate effectively against unemployment which is mainly due to personal defects, while giving a substantial allowance to those whose unemployment results from industrial causes beyond the control of the individual. Is such a scheme practicable? This is a question partly actuarial, partly administrative, and partly political. I may say that so far as can be judged from such data as exist (and those data are admittedly imperfect and rest on a somewhat narrow basis) a scheme framed on the lines I have indicated is actuarially possible, at least for such a group of trades as building, engineering and shipbuilding.”

In addition to insurance against unemployment by the state, there are various voluntary associations, such as friendly societies and trade unions, which make a feature of grants to their members when out of employment.

In September 1910 the first International Conference on Unemployment was convened in Paris, the subjects of statistics of unemployment, labour registries and state insurance being the chief topics. The outcome of the conference was the formation of a society to study all phases of the problem, and to keep in touch with public and private bodies and the various governments.

.—Report of Royal Commission on Labour (1894); Report of House of Commons Committee on Distress from Want of Employment (1895); Report of Royal Commission on Poor Laws (1909); Report of the Massachusetts Board to Investigate the Subject of the Unemployed. The following recent books will be found useful: P. Alden, The Unemployed (1905); W. H. Beveridge, Unemployment: A Problem of Industry (1909); N. B. Dearle, Problems of employment in the London Building Trades (1909);]. A. Hobson, The Problem of the Unemployed (1904); F. W. Lewis, State Insurance a Social and Industrial Need (1909); D. F. Schloss, Insurance Against Unemployment (1909); F. I. Taylor, A Bibliographiy of Unemployment and the Unemployed (1909).

 UNGAVA, an unorganized territory of the Dominion of Canada, including the north-western side of the peninsula of (q.v.), bounded by Hudson Bay on the W. as far S. as East Main River; Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay on the N.; and with indefinite boundaries toward Quebec on the S., and the coast strip of Labrador belonging to Newfoundland on the E. The area is estimated at 354,961 sq. m. Ungava includes much of the lower portion of Labrador, with a rim of recent marine deposits along its western coast, but the interior has the usual character of low rocky hills of Archean rocks, especially granite and gneiss, with a long band of little disturbed iron-bearing rocks, resembling the Animikie, or Upper Huronian of the Lake Superior region, near its eastern

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Rh assembly ‘in write his simple submission’ (, Letters and Journals, i. 153), abjuring episcopacy (see The Recantation and Humble Submission of two Ancient Prelates of the Kingdom of Scotland, subscribed by their own Hand, and sent to the General Assembly; the Bishop of Dunkeld his Recantation, the Bishop of Orkney his Recantation, 1641). He was deposed from his bishopric, but allowed to retain his parochial charge of St. Madoes. He died in October 1639, aged about seventy-eight. By his wife, Barbara Bruce, who died in October 1626, he had two sons—Alexander, who succeeded to the estate of Evelick, and William, who succeeded to that of Kilspindie—and two daughters: Catherine, married to John Lundie of Lundie, and Helen, to Sir Patrick Hay of Balfour.

 LINDSAY, ALEXANDER, second (d. 1646), was the eldest son of Alexander, first lord Spynie [q. v.], by his wife Jean Lyon. He was still a minor at the time of his father's murder in 1607; but when, in 1609, the trial of his father's murderer was not proceeded with on account of the absence of a prosecutor, a protest was made on his behalf and that of the other infant children that their ultimate right of prosecution should not be invalidated. Spynie, however, after he came of age, agreed to waive his right of prosecution, on Lindsay of Edzell, the murderer, affirming ‘by his great aith’ that the slaughter was accidental, and undertaking to pay a sum of eight thousand merks, and make over to him and his sister the lands of Garlobank, Perthshire. Edzell, on 7 March 1617, obtained a remission for the slaughter under the great seal.

Spynie was one of the Scottish lords who attended the funeral of James I in Westminster Abbey in 1625 (, Annals, ii. 118). On 2 June 1626 he was made commander-in-chief in Scotland for life. Having raised a regiment of three thousand foot for the king of Denmark (ib. p. 154), he served with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus. In 1628 he threw himself into Stralsund, then held by Sir Alexander Leslie [q. v.] against Wallenstein, and rendered him aid of prime importance, his regiment being chosen to make a sally against an attacking party of the enemy, which drove them back on the main body. After his return to Scotland, his appointment as commander-in-chief was confirmed 28 June 1633.

In the dispute with the covenanters, Spynie supported the king. He joined Montrose at Perth after the battle of Tippermuir in September 1644 (, Memorialls, ii. 404), and with him on the 14th entered Aberdeen (ib. p. 408), but when Montrose two days afterwards vacated the city he was taken prisoner, and finally sent south to Edinburgh (ib. pp. 410, 416). He died in March 1646.

He married first, Joanna Douglas, and secondly, Lady Margaret Hay, only daughter of George, first earl of Kinnoul [q. v.] By his first wife he had no issue, but by his second he had two sons—Alexander, master of Kinnoul, and George, who succeeded him as third lord—and two daughters: Margaret, married to William Fullarton of Fullarton, and Anne, who died unmarried.

 LINDSAY, ALEXANDER, second and first  (1618–1659), born 6 July 1618, was eldest son of David, first lord Balcarres, son of John Lindsay, lord Menmuir [q. v.], by Lady Sophia Seton, third daughter of Alexander, first earl of Dunfermline, lord high chancellor of Scotland. The first Lord Balcarres, created 27 June 1633, devoted much attention to the study of alchemy and kindred sciences, and left in manuscript several volumes of transcripts and translations from the works of the Rosicrucians. He also possessed keen literary tastes, and was a correspondent of Drummond of Hawthornden and Scot of Scotstarvet. His ecclesiastical sympathies were with the covenanters, and the son was educated at the school of Haddington under the superintendence of David Forret, afterwards a well-known minister of the kirk. Succeeding his father in March 1641, he was one of the noblemen present at the meeting of the estates in July, and served on various committees. In 1643 he was appointed to the command of the troops levied in Fife, Kinross, Aberdeen, and Forfar (, Memorialls, ii. 294). He was at Marston Moor in July 1644. On 26 Feb. 1645 he was sent north with his horse-regiment to Aberdeen to await the arrival of Major-general Baillie from Perth, and he took part in the strategic movements that followed. About the 20th, his regiment while lying near


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Rh Coupar Angus, was surprised and routed by men under Forbes of Skellater and Lord Gordon. At Alford on 25 July, his precipitate attack on the enemy caused his regiment to be driven from the field by Lord Gordon before the main battle commenced, but he nevertheless received the thanks of parliament for his ‘worthy carriage and good service’ (, Annals, iii. 295). No better fortune awaited him and Baillie at Kilsyth on 15 Aug., but their disastrous defeat may fairly be attributed to the fact that their counsel was rejected by the committee of estates. Balcarres, who was again in command of the horse, fled to West Lothian, and came that night to Colinton with only ten or twelve horsemen. On 13 July 1646 he was chosen one of the committee of estates. When King Charles intimated his intention of delivering himself up to the Scottish army at Newark, Balcarres was sent by the Scottish parliament to the king to induce him to come to terms with the kirk, but the negotiation proved fruitless (see memorandum in Letters and Journals, ii. 514–5). On 20 July 1647 the king nominated Balcarres keeper and captain of Edinburgh Castle. He took part in the ‘engagement’ for the rescue of the king in the following year, thus severing his connection with the covenanting party (see An Account of any accession the Earl of Balcarres had to the late Engagement: with a Justification of the Letter written by his lordship to the Committee of Estates, 1649, reprinted in 1833 in Fragments relating to Scottish History). Notwithstanding his support of the engagement, he was in July 1649 admitted to parliament (, Annals, iii. 413). On 5 July 1650 he was named a commissioner of the exchequer (ib. iv. 78), and on the 20th appointed one of the committee for the king's coronation (ib. p. 123). He strongly opposed the intolerant attitude of the western covenanters, and proposed that the letter sent them by parliament should not be ‘sent as a letter but as ane order’ (ib. p. 192).

The catastrophe to the covenanting army at Dunbar tended greatly to strengthen the influence of the moderate party, and of this party Balcarres now became the recognised head. On 9 Jan. 1651 he was created Earl of Balcarres, and about the same time appointed hereditary governor of Edinburgh Castle. When the king passed south into England, Balcarres was appointed one of a committee of estates for the defence of the northern part of the kingdom. Already he had been obliged to sell his plate for 2,000l., and in the interests of the king he now mortgaged his estates for 6,000l. more. After the king's defeat at Worcester in December, Balcarres capitulated at Forres (see ‘The Artickells of Capitulatione between Alexander, lord Balcarres, and the English in December 1651’ in Annals, iv. 345–6). In November 1652 he settled with his family at St. Andrews. After the recall of Monck, Balcarres joined the uprising in the highlands under Glencairn; and at the king's special request he shortly afterwards proceeded to France to advise with him as to the methods of rehabilitating the royal cause. In accordance with his recommendation, Middleton was despatched to Scotland, but the coalition was soon broken up by internal discord. In May 1654 Balcarres and Sir Robert Moray were sent to France to give the king an account of affairs in Scotland, and to submit to him certain proposals (see Proposals submitted to his Majesty King Charles II by the Right Hon. Alex. Earl of Balcarres, 1654). The chief recommendation of the Scottish royalists was that Charles should land in the highlands and advance southwards: and the king seems to have approved of the recommendation (see Instructions from his Majesty King Charles II to the Right Hon. Alex. Lindsay, Earl of Balcarres, 1654), although it was soon discovered that meantime the scheme was not feasible. The estate of Balcarres having been sequestrated, he did not return to Scotland, but continued to reside at the court of Charles. Although the representations of Clarendon on one occasion led to his dismissal, he was soon restored to favour, and he enjoyed much of the exiled king's esteem and confidence. He died at Breda in August 1659, according to Robert Baillie, of grief at the ill success of the rising of that year (Letters and Journals, iii. 437). After the Restoration he was buried at Balcarres on 12 June 1668.

According to Richard Baxter, he was ‘of excellent learning, judgment, and honesty, none being praised equally with him for learning and understanding in all Scotland’ (Reliquiæ, pt. i. p. 121); and his wisdom, justice, courage, and piety, are also highly eulogised in a commemorative poem by Cowley. By his wife, Anna Mackenzie, daughter and coheiress of Colin Mackenzie, first earl of Seaforth, who, according to Baxter, had marched with him and lain out of doors with him on the mountains, or as Cowley puts it ‘did all his labours and his cares divide,’ he had two sons—Charles Lindsay, second earl, and Colin Lindsay [q. v.], third earl, of Balcarres—and three daughters: Anne, who became a nun; Sophia, married to the Hon. Charles Campbell, third son of the ninth Earl of Argyll; and Harriet, married to Sir


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Rh side. Along Hudson Bay shore there is a strip of similar rocks, and a long row of small islands of the same age, with great sheets of trap or diabase forming the tops of the hills. The iron formation is widely spread. There is evidence that Ungava, like the rest of Labrador, has risen several hundred feet since the Ice Age, marine beaches being found up to 700 ft. on the Hudson Bay side; and it is interesting to find seals like those of the adjoining seacoasts in the Seal Lakes 100 m. inland and 800 ft. above the present sea-level. Owing to its northerly position a large part of Ungava is treeless, and belongs to the barren grounds where caribou roam and feed on the so-called caribou moss, a greyish lichen.  UNGULATA, the name of an order of placental mammals in which the terminal joints of the toes are usually encased in solid hoofs or covered with broad hoof-like nails, while the molar (and not infrequently some or all of the premolar) teeth have broad tuberculated crowns adapted for crushing vegetable substances. The teeth (when all are present) are differentiated into the usual four series; and milk-teeth, not completely discarded till the full stature is attained, are invariably developed. All the existing members of the group are eminently adapted for a terrestrial life, and in the main for a vegetable diet. Though a few may in some circumstances kill living creatures smaller than themselves for food, none are habitually predaceous. In none of the existing, and in but few of the extinct types, are collar-bones, or clavicles, developed; and the scaphoid and lunar bones of the carpus are separate. The typical ungulates are the members of the suborders and  (q.v.), in both of which the bones of the foot articulate with each other by means of groove-and-tongue joints, whence the name of Diplarthra (equivalent to Ungulata Vera), which has been proposed for these two groups collectively, as distinct from the other representatives of the order. The remaining and less typical sub ordinal groups—sometimes ranked as orders by themselves—include among living animals the Proboscidea, or elephants, and the Hyracoidea, or hyraxes, and among extinct groups the Amblypoda, Ancylopoda, Barypoda, Condylarthra, Litopterna and Toxodontia. The characteristics of these groups will be found under their respective headings, with the exception of the Barypoda and Condylarthra, for which see and.

In the great majority of the Subungulata the bones of the upper and lower rows of the wrist-joint, or carpus, retain the primitive or more typical relation to each other (see fig., and contrast with, fig. 1); the os magnum of the second row articulating mainly with the lunar of the first, or with the cuneiform, but not with the scaphoid. On the other hand in the Diplarthra, the group to which the vast majority of modern Ungulates belong, the second or lower row has been shifted altogether towards the inner side of the limb, so that the magnum is brought considerably into relation with the scaphoid, and is entirely removed from the cuneiform, as in most existing mammals.

In the typical Ungulata or Diplarthra, the feet are never plantigrade, and the functional toes do not exceed four—the inner digit being suppressed, at all events in all forms which have existed since the Early Eocene period. The os magnum of the carpus articulates freely with the scaphoid. The allantois is largely developed, and the placenta, so far as known, is nondeciduate, the chorionic villi being either evenly diffused or collected in groups or cotyledons (in Pecora). The testes descend into a scrotum. There is never an os penis. The uterus is

bicornuate. The teats are usually few, and inguinal, but may be numerous and abdominal (as in Suina), although they are never solely pectoral. The cerebral hemispheres in existing Ungulates are well convoluted.

 UNICORN (Lat. unicornis, for Gr., having one horn; Fr. licorne; Ital. alicorno), a fabulous beast, usually having the head and body of a horse, the hind legs of an antelope, the tail of a lion (sometimes horse's tail), sometimes the beard of a goat, and as its chief feature a long, sharp, twisted horn, similar to the narwhal's tusk, set in the middle of its forehead. The earliest description is that of Ctesias, who (Indica opera, ed. Baehr, p. 254) states that there were in India white wild asses celebrated for their fleetness of foot, having on the forehead a horn a cubit and a half in length, coloured white, red and black; from the horn were made drinking cups which were a preventive of poisoning. Aristotle mentions (Hist. anim. ii. 1; De part. anim. iii. 2) two one-horned animals, the oryx, a kind of antelope, and “the so-called Indian ass.” In Roman times Pliny (N.H. viii. 30; xi. 106) mentions the oryx, the Indian ass, and an Indian ox as one-horned; Aelian (De nat. anim. iii. 41; iv. 52), quoting Ctesias, adds that India produces also a one-horned horse, and says (xvi. 20) that the Monoceros was sometimes called Carcazonon, which may be a form of the Arabic Carcadān, meaning rhinoceros (see Rev. W. Haughton, “On the Unicorn of the Ancients,” in Annals and Mag. of Natural History for 1862, p. 363). Strabo (lib. xv.) says that in India there were one-horned horses with stag-like heads. The origin of all these statements is probably to be found partly in the rhinoceros, which was well known to the ancients, and partly in the narwhal, specimens of the long tusk of which were probably brought home by travellers. The theory of a one-horned oryx would probably be drawn from the remembrance of a passing glimpse of an antelope in silhouette, or even of one which had broken one horn off short in fighting, and E. Schrader (Sitzungsberichte d. kgl. preuss. Akad. zu Berlin, 1892, pp. 573–581, and pl. 5) traces the idea of a one-horned ox to the sculptures of Persepolis and other places, which Ctesias would probably have seen, in which the ox, represented in silhouette, has apparently only one horn. As India became better known, and it was realized that the unicorn was not found there, its place of abode was changed to Africa.

The medieval conception of the unicorn as possessing great strength and fierceness may have been partly due to the fact that in certain passages of the Old Testament (e.g. Num. xxiii. 22; Deut. xxxiii. 17; Job xxxix. 9–10) the Hebrew word R’ēm, now translated in the Revised Version “wild ox,” was translated in the Septuagint, in the Vulgate unicornis or rhinoceros, and in the Authorised Version “ unicorn,” though in Deut. xxxiii. 17 it obviously refers to a two-horned animal. The early commentators applied to this beast the classical attributes of the (e.g. Isidore xii. 2, 12 tells how the unicorn has been known to worst the elephant in combat). There is also the passage in Aelian xvi. 20 which says that though as a rule savage and quarrelsome, even with females, the unicorn at mating time becomes very gentle to his mate, which is supposed to have given rise to the medieval idea that the unicorn is subdued to gentleness at the sight of a virgin, and will come and lay his head in her lap, which is the only means by which he can be caught on account of his swiftness and ferocity. This story is illustrated in the tapestry figured in Plate II. Fig. 10 of, also on Pisanello's medal of Cecilia Gonzaga (see J. de Foville, Pisanello el les médailleurs italiens, 1909, p. 40), on the reverse of which is a young girl with a unicorn lying by her side, the unicorn here being represented as a beautiful long-haired goat, with the long horn in the middle of his brow. The idea was widely spread in the middle ages, and Lauchert (Geschichte des Physiologus, 1889) gives instances of its allegorical use, as typical not only of Christ and the Virgin, but also of the softening influence of love upon the fiercest of men, and a symbol of purity. As a decoration of drinking cups it symbolized the ancient belief in the efficacy

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Rh of the Flying Cloud, but as a triumph of the United States upon the sea. One of the New York papers in the course of an editorial remarked: "Such a passage as this is more than a local triumph, and inures to the reputation not alone of the builder of the ship and her enterprising owners, but of the United States. It is truly a national triumph, and points clearly and unmistakably to the preeminence upon the ocean which awaits the United States of America. The log of the Flying Cloud is now before us. It is the most wonderful record that pen ever indited, for rapid as was the passage, it was performed under circumstances by no means the most favorable."

The Challenge arrived October 29th, 108 days from New York—a fine passage, certainly, but not what her friends had hoped or expected. She had on this voyage a large but very poor crew—incompetent and mutinous—indeed, some of them were among the most desperate characters that ever sailed out of the port of New York. It was only after the ship had passed Sandy Hook and the pilot had been discharged that Captain Waterman began fully to realize what a gang of ruffians he had to deal with. He seriously considered taking the ship back to New York for another crew, and a less resolute man probably would have done so; but he realized that it would mean a heavy expense to the owners, as each of the crew had received three month's advance wages, which would have to be paid over again to another crew, besides other expenses and loss of time and disappointment to the

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Rh Duncan Campbell, baronet of Auchinbreck. In 1671 the Dowager-countess of Balcarres married Archibald Campbell, ninth Earl of Argyll [q. v.] who was beheaded in 1685.

LINDSAY, ALEXANDER, sixth (1752–1825), eldest son of James, fifth earl of Balcarres, by Anne Dalrymple, youngest daughter of Sir Robert Dalrymple of Castletown, was born on 18 Jan. 1752. His father, the son of Colin Lindsay, third earl [q. v.], commanded a troop of gentlemen on the side of the Pretender at Sheriffmuir, but receiving pardon from the government on the ground of his youth, obtained a commission in the army. Although he specially distinguished himself at the battle of Dettingen on 10 June 1743, George II refused him promotion, on the ground that he had previously ‘drawn his sword in the Stuart cause.’ He thereupon quitted the army, and in his retirement, besides devoting much attention to the science of agriculture, compiled a family history, which was largely made use of by Douglas for his ‘Scottish Peerage,’ and by Lord Lindsay for his ‘Lives of the Lindsays.’ The son, at the age of fifteen, entered the army as ensign in the fifteenth foot then stationed at Gibraltar. After succeeding to the peerage on the death of his father on 20 Feb. 1768, he went to Germany, where he studied for two years at the university of Göttingen. In 1771 he was appointed by purchase captain in the 42nd highlanders, and in 1775 major of the 53rd foot, then under orders to sail for Canada on the outbreak of the American war. In the following year he obtained the command of a battalion of light infantry. At the battle of Ticonderoga on 7 July 1777, though thirteen bullets passed through his clothing, he had the good fortune to receive only a slight wound in the left thigh. At the head of his battalion he stormed the heights of Huberton. On 7 Oct. following, while the position of the army was most critical and dangerous, he, by the death of General Frazer, became brigadier-general. He had strongly fortified his own battalion, in view of possible eventualities, and receiving within his entrenchments the other routed battalions, he was able to frustrate the attack of the American army under General Arnold. On account, however, of the convention made by Burgoyne at Saratoga on 13 Oct., he was compelled to surrender, and did not obtain his liberty till 1779.

While a prisoner in America he had been appointed lieutenant-colonel of the 24th regiment, and in February 1782 he was raised to the rank of colonel, and made lieutenant-colonel, commanding the second battalion of the 71st foot. In 1784 he was chosen representative peer for Scotland, and the same year made a forcible speech in supporting the bill for the restoration of forfeited estates, which passed on 18 Aug. He was chosen a representative peer at succeeding elections up till his death. On 27 Aug. 1789 he was made colonel of the 63rd foot, retaining the command till his death, and in 1793 he was gazetted major-general. On the outbreak of the war in the latter year he was appointed to the command of the forces in Jersey, and in the following year became governor of Jamaica. There he manifested great energy as well as tact in the suppression in 1795 of a rebellion of the Maroons, and the House of Assembly acknowledged his exceptional services by subscribing seven hundred guineas to present him with a sword. He remained in Jamaica through a period of great difficulty till 1801. In 1798 he was made lieutenant-general, and in 1803 was raised to the full rank of general. After his return to England he resided chiefly at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, Lancashire, the inheritance of his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Charles Dalrymple of North Berwick. On being introduced by George III to the American general Arnold, he is said to have exclaimed ‘What, the traitor Arnold?’ A duel resulted. After Arnold fired Balcarres walked away. ‘Why don't you fire, my lord?’ exclaimed Arnold. ‘Sir,’ replied Balcarres over his shoulder, ‘I leave you to the executioner.’ He died at Haigh Hall on 27 May 1825. On the death of George, twenty-second earl of Crawford, in 1808, he became de jure twenty-third Earl of Crawford, but did not claim the title, which by decision of the House of Lords was adjudicated to his son, the seventh Earl of Balcarres, on 11 Aug. 1848.

He had four sons—James, twenty-fourth earl of Crawford; Charles Robert, collector of taxes at Agra, India; and Richard and Edwin who died young—and two daughters: Elizabeth Keith, married to R. E. Heathcote, esq., of Longton Hall, Staffordshire; and Anne, to Robert W. Ramsey of Balgarvie, Fifeshire.

The sixth earl completed the ‘Memoirs of the Lindsays’ begun by his father, Earl


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 James. He also left in manuscript ‘Anecdotes of a Soldier's Life.’ A selection from his correspondence during the Maroon war is published in the appendix to Lord Lindsay's ‘Lives of the Lindsays.’

LINDSAY, ALEXANDER (1785–1872), general, colonel-commandant royal (late Bengal) artillery, son of James Lindsay, was born in 1785, and at the age of nine received an ensigncy in the old 104th (royal Manchester volunteers) regiment of foot, in which he became lieutenant in 1795. The regiment was disbanded in the same year, and Lindsay remained on half-pay as a reduced officer to the end of his long life. He entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and passed out in 1803, as a cadet for the Bengal artillery, and received his first Indian commission as first lieutenant (on augmentation) 14 Aug. 1804. He became captain on 26 March 1813, major on 30 June 1820, lieutenant-colonel on 1 May 1824, colonel and colonel-commandant on 2 July 1835. He served with the Bengal foot artillery at the siege of Gohud in 1806; at the sieges of Komanur and Gunnowrie and other affairs in Bundelkund in 1807–8. While with the Dinapore division of Ochterlony's army in the Nepâl campaigns of 1814–16, he was very severely wounded at the siege of Harriarpore in 1816, a musket-ball shattering the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, and entering the right hip-joint. He took part, however, in the siege of Hattras in March 1817, and in the operations against the Pindarrees in 1817–18. He was subsequently superintendent of telegraphs between Calcutta and Chunar, and agent for the manufacture of gunpowder at Allahabad, until disqualified by promotion. He commanded the artillery of General Morrison's division engaged in Arracan during the first Burmese war. He became a major-general in 1838, lieutenant-general in 1851, general in 1859, was transferred to the royal army as a colonel-commandant with the Bengal artillery in 1860, and was made K.C.B. in 1862. He had the East Indian Company's war medal, with clasps, for Nepâl and Ava. Lindsay married in 1820 the daughter of Captain Donald Mackenzie of Hartfield, Applecross, Ross-shire; she died in 1863. Lindsay died at Earlybank, Perth, on 22 Jan. 1872, aged 87.

LINDSAY, ALEXANDER WILLIAM CRAWFORD, twenty-fifth  and eighth  (1812–1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumberland, on 16 Oct. 1812. He was eldest son of James Crawford, earl of Crawford and Balcarres, by Maria Margaret Francis Pennington, daughter of John, first baron Muncaster. He was educated at Eton, where he began his career as a book collector, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was created M.A. in 1833. He spent his life in studious pursuits, in the collection of a magnificent library, and in travel. He became learned in genealogy and history, and when his father laid claim in 1845 to the earldom of Crawford, which was decided in his favour in 1848, Lord Lindsay assisted in preparing the case. In 1850 he assisted in prosecuting the family claim to the dukedom of Montrose, which was, however, not admitted. On 15 Sept. 1869 he succeeded to the earldoms of Crawford and Balcarres. Through life he was sincerely religious, and he devoted his last years to the study of religious history; his sympathy with its artistic side resulted in his best work, ‘Sketches of the History of Christian Art.’ Crawford's health was not good, and in November 1879 he visited Egypt. The following April he removed to Florence, where he died 13 Dec. 1880. His body was buried in the family vault at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire. On 2 Dec. 1881 it was found that the tomb had been broken open and the corpse stolen. The affair created considerable excitement, and in March 1882 a party of spiritualists unsuccessfully attempted to solve the mystery. On 18 July 1882 the body was found near the rifled tomb by the confession of Charles Suter or Soutar, who was arrested and sentenced to five years' penal servitude as an accessory. It was conveyed to Haigh Hall, near Wigan, Lancashire, and reinterred there. The earl married, 23 July 1846, Margaret, eldest daughter of Lieutenant-general James Lindsay of Balcarres (1793–1855), who was grandson of James, fifth earl of Balcarres. By her he had James Ludovic, the present earl, and five daughters.

The Crawford library, which the earl took many years in bringing together, was housed at Haigh Hall, but at the time of his death he was constructing for it a new building at Dunecht. He endeavoured to make it representative of the literatures of all nations. He always tried to procure the first and the best editions of a book. Much of the cataloguing he did himself. Where he was unable to understand the language, he often had abstracts prepared for his use


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 by competent scholars. Part of this magnificent collection was sold by Messrs. Sotheby during ten days, beginning 13 June 1887, and included, among other valuable editions of the bible, early romances, &c., the celebrated Mazarin bible, which realised 2,650l., and the ‘Biblia Latina,’ printed in 1402, which brought 1,025l.

Crawford's chief works were:
 * 1) ‘Lives of the Lindsays,’ privately printed in 1835, published 1840; 2nd ed. 1849, 3 vols. 8vo.
 * 2) ‘Letters on Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land,’ 1838, 2 vols. 8vo; 5th ed. 1852; a popular book of travel advancing theories of religion which he elaborated in later works.
 * 3) ‘Letter … on the Evidence and Theory of Christianity,’ 1841.
 * 4) ‘Ballads translated from the German,’ privately printed, Wigan, 1841.
 * 5) ‘Progression by Antagonism,’ 1846.
 * 6) ‘Sketches of the History of Christian Art,’ 1847, 3 vols.; 2nd ed. 1882.
 * 7) ‘Reports of the Montrose Claim,’ 1856, 4to.
 * 8) ‘Scepticism a Retrogressive Movement in Theology and Philosophy,’ 1861.
 * 9) ‘The Theory of the English Hexameters,’ 1862.
 * 10) ‘Memoir of Anna Mackenzie, Countess of Balcarres’ (wife of Alexander, first earl of Balcarres), 1868.
 * 11) ‘Conservatism: its Principle, Policy, and Practice,’ 1868, 8vo.
 * 12) ‘Etruscan Inscriptions Analysed …,’ 1872.
 * 13) ‘Argo: the Golden Fleece, a Metrical Tale,’ 1876.
 * 14) ‘The Earldom of Mar in Sunshine and Shade during Five Hundred Years,’ Edinburgh, 1882.

LINDSAY, ANNE (1700–1825), authoress of 'Auld Robin Gray,' [See .]

LINDSAY, COLIN, third (1654?–1722), was the second son of, first earl of Balcarres [q. v.], by his wife, Lady Anna Mackenzie, daughter and coheiress of Colin, first earl of Seaforth. He succeeded to the earldom, while still a child, on the death, at the age of twelve, of his brother Charles, second earl, 15 Oct. 1662. In 1670 at the age of sixteen, he was presented at court by his cousin the Duke of Lauderdale, when Charles II, partly because he conceived a liking for him personally, and partly in recognition of his father's services, gave him command of a select cavalry troop manned by gentlemen in reduced circumstances. Not long afterwards he was married to Mademoiselle Mauritia de Nassau, sister of Lady Arlington and the Countess of Nassau, and daughter of Louis de Nassau, count of Beverwaert and Auverquerque in Holland; but at the ceremony he, by mistake, placed a mourning instead of a wedding ring on the finger of the bride, who took the evil omen so much to heart that she died within a year. After her death he went to sea with the Duke of York, under whom he distinguished himself at the battle of Solebay, 28 May 1672. In 1673 he married Lady Jean Carnegie, eldest daughter of David, earl of Northesk, and thereby incurring the king's displeasure, was forbidden to appear at court. Retiring to the country he occupied his leisure in study. On the death of his wife, six years afterwards, he was permitted to return to court, and on 3 June 1680 was made a privy-councillor and in 1682 sheriff of Fife. Along with Claverhouse he took active measures against the covenanters in Fife, and in January 1685 obtained a commission to hold with him a justiciary court for their trial (, Hist. Notices, p. 602).

After the accession of James II Balcarres was, on 3 Sept. 1686, appointed a commissioner of the treasury, and in 1688 was made lord-lieutenant of Fife. So much was he trusted by the king, that when the scheme for the descent of the Prince of Orange became known, the chancellor, Lord Perth, was ordered to rely on his advice and that of the Earl of Cromarty in the measures to be adopted for the defence of Scotland. Lord Melfort, secretary of state, however, who was jealous of Balcarres's influence, rejected his suggested plan of defence as too expensive, and it was determined instead to send the forces then available in Scotland southwards. Balcarres, meanwhile, was sent by the Scottish privy council to England to receive further instructions, and succeeded in reaching London. After the king's return from Faversham, Balcarres, along with Dundee, waited on him on the morning of 17 Nov. in his bedroom at Whitehall. At the request of the king they accompanied him on a walk in the Mall, when, having expressed his final determination to leave the country, he stated that on his arrival in France he would send Balcarres a commission to manage his civil affairs, and Dundee one to command the troops in Scotland. After the flight of the king Balcarres waited on the Prince of Orange, to whom he was previously known through his first wife, the prince's cousin. While expressing his respect for the prince, Balcarres declined to act against the king, whereupon the prince warned him of the danger he ran if he transgressed the law. Along with Dundee, Balcarres was permitted to return to Scotland, and they arrived in Edinburgh about the end of February 1689. The Duke of Gordon was already negotiating


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 the surrender of the castle, when Balcarres and Dundee waited on him, and persuaded him to hold out till he saw what the convention of estates intended to do (, Memoirs, p. 24). On the capture of a messenger from Ireland with letters to Balcarres from the king, Balcarres was seized and confined in his own lodging (Letter of Balcarres 27 June 1689 in Leven and Melville Papers, p. 92). His request for permission to live in England (ib.) was refused, and on account of further compromising letters sent to him by Melfort, he was confined for four months in the common gaol of Edinburgh (Memoirs, pp. 37–8). Soon after his release he became connected with the Montgomery plot for James's restoration, and on its discovery in 1690 he left the country. He landed at Hamburg, and while journeying to Holland, through Flanders, was seized by a party of banditti, who, however, agreed to free him on payment of a hundred pistoles, which he succeeded in obtaining from the jesuits at the catholic college of Douay. He proceeded to St. Germains, where he was well received by James, to whom he presented his ‘Memoirs touching the Revolution.’ On account of the misrepresentations of Melfort and others, he, however, found it necessary, after six months at St. Germains, to leave the court, and went to the south of France. Thence he sent an expostulatory letter to James. Ultimately the exiled king invited him to return; but he deemed acceptance of the invitation injudicious while the old favourites were in power, and after a year's sojourn in France finally settled with his family at Utrecht. Here he made the acquaintance of Bayle, Leclerc, and other learned men.

Ultimately, through the interposition of Carstares and the Duke of Queensberry, who wrote of him pityingly, as an ‘instance of the folly of Jacobitism’ (Carstares State Papers, p. 620), he was permitted towards the close of 1700 to return to Scotland. He was now in greatly impoverished circumstances, and although the Duke of Marlborough, an old friend and companion, obtained for him a rent-charge of 500l. a year for ten years upon the crown lands of Orkney, he was compelled by his necessities, before the ten years expired, to sell his rights there. In his extremity he wrote to Queen Anne, asking for the restoration of his pension of 1,000l. a year, of which he had been deprived at the revolution, and in all probability some allowance was made him. He was appointed a privy councillor in April 1705, and supported the union with England in 1707. But in 1715 he was unable to resist the invitation to join the Jacobite prince's standard, and he was one of the most zealous of his supporters. On the collapse of the rebellion, it was arranged, owing to the friendly interposition of Argyll and Marlborough, that on his surrendering he should be sent to his own house at Balcarres. He remained a prisoner there under the charge of one dragoon till the indemnity. He spent in retirement there the remainder of his life, finding a solace for his misfortunes in his love of art and letters. He had latterly so recovered his pecuniary position as to be able to purchase several good pictures by the Dutch masters and others, to add considerably to his library, and also to found the village which he named after himself Colinsburgh (, History of Fife). He died at Balcarres in 1722, and was buried there in the private chapel of the family.

Macky describes him in 1700 as ‘a gentleman of very good natural parts,’ with ‘abundance of application, handsome in his person, very fair, and towards fifty years old’ (Memoirs, p. 245). Circumstances were adverse to the useful employment of his undoubted abilities, but had the folly and infatuation of James II been less, he might have been successful with Dundee in retrieving the Jacobite cause. His ‘Memoirs touching the Revolution in Scotland,’ published originally in 1714, reprinted 1754, and again, more correctly by the Bannatyne Club, in 1841, are invaluable as a narrative of the proceedings and negotiations of the supporters of the king in 1688–90.

By his second wife, Lady Jean Carnegie, Balcarres had a daughter Anne, married to Alexander, first earl of Kellie, and afterwards to James, third viscount Kingston. By his third wife, Lady Jean Ker, only daughter of William, earl of Roxburgh, he had a son Colin, lord Cumberland, master of Balcarres, who died unmarried in 1708, and a daughter Margaret, who married John, earl of Wigton. By his fourth wife, Lady Margaret Campbell, eldest daughter of James, second earl of Loudoun, he had seven children, of whom four survived him—two sons, Alexander (d. 1736), fourth earl of Balcarres, and James, fifth earl, who fought with the Jacobites at Sheriffmuir, and afterwards under George II at Dettingen, and died 20 Feb. 1768, and two daughters, Eleanor, married to the Hon. James Fraser of Lonmay, Aberdeenshire, third son of William, eleventh lord Saltoun, and Elizabeth, who died unmarried. [Lord Lindsay's Lives of the Lindsays; Preface by Lord Lindsay to Balcarres's Memoirs (Bannatyne Club);


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182 shippers of cargo, so he decided to protect every one but himself and kept the ship on her course.

The crew of the Challenge consisted of 56 men before the mast, supposed to be able seamen, and 8 boys. Of the men in the forecastle only two were Americans, the remainder representing most of the maritime countries of Europe. So soon as Captain Waterman decided to continue the voyage, he made his plans quickly. After giving some orders to Mr. Douglas, his chief officer, he called all hands aft and manufactured a speech in which, among other things he said that the men would find that they were on board of a good comfortable ship, with plenty to eat and very little work to do; but when the officers gave them orders they must obey willingly and quickly; that he hoped none of them had brought spirits or weapons on board, as such things were apt to make trouble at sea. This camp-meeting discourse occupied perhaps fifteen or twenty minutes, during which the mates, carpenter, sailmaker, and boatswain were employed in the forecastle breaking open chests and boxes, emptying bags, and gathering up bottles of rum, knuckle-dusters, slingshots, bowie-knives, and pistols which they threw over the side. After the watches were chosen, each man was made to lay his knife on the main hatch, where the carpenter broke the point of the blade off square.

It was found that only six men among the crew could steer the ship properly; these were made quartermasters and did nothing else during the passage except to lend a hand making and taking in sail. Fully one half of the crew who had shipped

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 Carstares State Papers; Leven and Melville Papers (Bannatyne Club); Lauder of Fountainhall's Historical Notices; Napier's Memorials of Viscount Dundee; Lindsay Pedigree, by W. A. Lindsay, in the College of Arms; Douglas's Scottish Peerage (Wood), i. 169–71.]

LINDSAY, DAVID, first  (1365?–1407), born between 1360 and 1365, was son of Sir Alexander Lindsay, third son of Sir David Lindsay of Crawford, by his wife, Catherine, daughter of Sir John Stirling of Glenesk. He succeeded his father in the barony of Glenesk in 1382. He married about 1384 a daughter of Robert II, called in the earliest genealogies Catherine, but by subsequent writers Elizabeth and also Jean. With her he obtained the barony of Strathnairn, Inverness-shire. He is chiefly celebrated for his successful tournament with Lord Welles at London Bridge on 6 May 1390, described in great detail in Wyntoun's ‘Cronykil.’ When he had Lord Welles at his mercy, instead of slaying him he helped him to rise and presented him to the queen. Afterwards, at the request of Richard II, he remained for three months in England, enjoying the splendid hospitality of the nobles, and engaging with ardour in their sports. Wyntoun also describes a combat some years afterwards between Lindsay and a cateran of the Clan Donichie, who were encountered by the Lindsays and Ogilvies while ravaging Glenisla.

On the death of his cousin-german, Sir, ninth lord of Crawford [q. v.], in 1397, he succeeded to the barony of Crawford, and on 21 April 1398 he was, at a parliament held at Perth, invested with the earldom of Crawford. He is said to have erected after his return from England the chapel of St. Nicholas on a rock at the mouth of the harbour of Dundee (Genealogy of 1623 quoted in Lives). It was he also who formed the town residence or ‘lodging’ of the Earls of Crawford in the Nethergate, the south front of which, standing till comparatively recent times, bore the legend ‘David, Lord Lindsay, Earl of Crawford.’ Crawford had a safe-conduct for a meeting with English commissioners, dated 22 Sept. 1398 (Rotuli Scotiæ, ii. 142). It was on this occasion that he made his famous repartee (narrated by Wyntoun) to Sir Harry Percy, who had explained his appearance in armour by saying that it was not for fear of the Scots but of the English horsemen. ‘Ah! Sir Harry,’ he said, ‘you have been more sorely bestead by Scotsmen (alluding to Otterburn) than you have ever been by English horsemen.’ On 1 Jan. 1401–1402 Crawford gave a letter of service to Louis, duke of Orleans, and for about three years afterwards seems to have been engaged in enterprises on behalf of France. In February 1405 he addressed a letter to Henry IV of England in reference to the capture of some merchantmen of St. Andrews by the English in violation of a truce. On 5 March 1405–6 he was appointed deputy chamberlain north of the Forth (Exchequer Rolls, iii. 613). He died in February 1407 at his castle of Finhaven, which he is said to have founded, and was buried in Greyfriars Church, Dundee.

Crawford erected the church of Lethnot into a prebend of the cathedral of Brechin in 1384 (Reg. Episc. Brechin. i. 21), and endowed a chaplainry in its chapel of St. Beternan (, Lives of the Lindsays). He had four sons: Alexander, his successor, David of Newdosk, Gerard, and possibly Ingelram, bishop of Aberdeen; and two daughters, Marjory, married to Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, and Elizabeth, married to Sir [q. v.] Marshal of Scotland.

LINDSAY, DAVID, fifth and first  (1440?–1495), born about 1440, was eldest son of, fourth earl [q. v.], by his wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Sir David Dunbar. He succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father in 1454. For some time he was held in captivity by James, earl of Douglas, and on 24 Feb. 1458–9 he gave a grant of certain lands to Herbert Johnstone of Dalibank for abducting him from the earl. During his minority he was placed under the care of his paternal uncle Walter Lindsay of Beaufort, but in February 1459 he became the ward of, first lord Hamilton (d. 1479) [q. v.], on being married to his daughter Elizabeth. Some time before his minority expired he was in 1461 permitted to enter into possession of the barony of Crawford-Lindsay, Lanarkshire. Crawford was one of a commission appointed on 28 Nov. 1465 to meet with the English ambassadors on 4 Dec. following (Cal. Documents relating to Scotland, vol. iv. entry 1362). On 11 March following he obtained a safe-conduct to pass through the English king's dominions of England or elsewhere for three years (ib. 1366), and on 21 Feb. 1466–7 he obtained a safe-conduct for two years to pass between Scotland and England (ib. 1368). On 28 Nov.


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 of the unicorn’s horn against poison, which in England remained even in the time of Charles II., though Sir E. Ray Lankester (Science from an Easy Chair, London, 1910, p. 127) mentions that a cup made of rhinoceros horn was then handed over to the Royal Society for experiment, with the result of entirely disproving the superstition. In the court ceremonial of France as late as 1789 instruments of “unicorn’s” horn were still used for testing the royal food for poison. So-called unicorns’ horns, or articles made of unicorn’s horn, have always been sought after as “curiosities”; some of them, like the cup mentioned above, were of rhinoceros horn; others, like the horn seen at Windsor by Heutzner, a German traveller, in 1598 (see E. Phipson, Animal-lore of Shakespeare’s Time, p. 456), were probably narwhals’ tusks. Another medieval legend about the unicorn is that when it stooped to drink from a pool its horn, dipping into the water, purified and rendered it sweet. The traditional rivalry of the lion and the unicorn, which is generally considered to date at earliest from the Union of England and Scotland, when the lion and the unicorn appeared as the supporters of the royal arms, is referred to, curiously enough, in Spenser’s Faery Queene, ii. 5.

 UNIFORMS. The word “uniform” (Lat. unus, one, and forma, form), meaning adjectively homogeneous, is specifically used as a substantive for the distinctive naval and military dress, which serves, in its various styles, to give homogeneity to the several services, regiments and ranks. Although in ancient history we occasionally meet with uniformed soldiers, such as the white and crimson Spanish regiments of Hannibal, it was not until the beginning of large standing armies that uniforms were introduced in modern times. Before this, armed bodies were of two sorts, retainers and mercenaries, and while the former often wore their master’s livery, the latter were dressed each according to his own taste or means. The absence

of uniforms accounts very largely for the significance attached to the colours and standards, which alone formed rallying points for the soldier and his comrades, and thus acquired the sacred character which they have since possessed. A man who left the colours wandered into the terrifying unknown, for there was nothing to distinguish friend and foe. Even if the generals had ordered the men to wear some improvised badge such as a sprig of leaves, or the shirt outside the coat, such badges as these were easily lost or taken off. The next step in advance was a scarf of uniform colour, such as it is supposed was worn by the “green,” “yellow” and other similarly-named brigades of the Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus. This too was easily removed, as in the example of the squire who at Edgehill put on the orange scarf of the parliamentarians and with no more elaborate disguise succeeded in recapturing the lost royal standard from the hands of Essex’s own secretary. By this time, in France at least, the general character of the clothes and accoutrements to be worn on various occasions was strictly regulated by orders. But uniformity of clothing was not to be expected so long as the “enlistment” system prevailed and soldiers came and went, were taken in and dismissed, at the beginning and 'end of every campaign. The beginnings of uniform are therefore to be found in truly national armies, in the Indelta of Gustavus, and the English armies of the Great Rebellion. In the earlier years of the latter, though the richer colonels uniformed their men (as, for instance, the marquess of Newcastle’s “Whitecoats” and the king’s own “Bluecoats”), the rustics and the citizens turned out for war in their ordinary rough clothes, donning armour and sword-belt. But in 1645 the parliament raised an army “all its own” for permanent service, and the colonels became officials rather than proprietors. The “new model” was clothed in the civilian costume of the date—ample coat, waistcoat, breeches, stockings and shoes (in the case of cavalry, boots)—but with the distinctive colour throughout the army of red and with regimental facings of various colours. The breeches were grey. Soon afterwards the helmet disappeared, and its place was taken by a grey broad-brimmed hat. From the coat was evolved the tunic of to-day, and the hat became the cocked hat of a later generation, which has never altogether disappeared, and has indeed reverted to its original form in the now familiar “slouch-hat.”

For service in Ireland the red coat was exchanged for one of russet colour, just as scarlet gave way to khaki for Indian service in the 19th century. The cavalry, however, wore buff leather coats and armour long after the infantry had abandoned them; the Austrians (see Plate I., line 1, No. 2), on account of their Turkish wars, retained them longer than any.

Thus the principle ever since followed—uniform coat and variegated facings—was established. Little or nothing of sentiment led to this. By choice or convenience the majority of the corps out of which the new model was formed had come to be dressed in red, with facings according to the colonel’s taste, and it is a curious fact that in Austria sixty years afterwards events took the same course. The colonels there uniforming their men as they saw fit, had by tacit consent, probably to obtain “wholesale” prices, agreed upon a serviceable colour (pearl grey), and when in 1707 Prince Eugene procured the issue of uniform regulations, few line regiments had to be reclothed. The preferences of the colonel were exhibited in the colour of the facings (Plate I., line 1, fig. 3). In France, as in England and Austria, the cavalry, as yet rather led by the wealthy classes than officered by the professional, was not uniformed upon an army system until after the infantry. But in 1688 six-sevenths of the French cavalry was uniformed in light grey with red facings; and about half the dragoon regiments had red uniforms and blue facings. Louvois, in creating a standing army, had introduced an infantry uniform as a necessary consequence. The native French regiments had light grey coats, the Swiss red, the German black and the Italian blue, with various facings. The French grey was probably decided upon, like the Austrian grey, as being a good “service” colour, which could be cheaply manufactured (Plate I.,

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Proclamation 8927

At a time of deep division nearly 50 years ago, a booming voice for justice rang out across the National Mall, reverberated around our country, and sent ripples throughout the world. Speaking to thousands upon thousands rallying for jobs and freedom, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech, challenging America to take up the worthy task of perfecting our Union. Today, we celebrate a man whose clarion call stirred our Nation to bridge our differences, and whose legacy still drives us to bend the arc of the moral universe toward justice.

By words and example, Dr. King reminded us that "Change does not roll in on the wheels of inevitability, but comes through continuous struggle." Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, he mobilized multitudes of men and women to take on a struggle for justice and equality. They braved billy clubs and bomb threats, dogs and fire hoses. For their courage and sacrifice, they earned our country's everlasting gratitude.

A half-century later, the march of progress has brought us closer than ever to achieving Dr. King's dream, but our work is not yet done. Too many young people still grow up in forgotten neighborhoods with persistent violence, underfunded schools, and inadequate health care, holding little hope and few prospects for the future. Too many Americans are denied the full equality and opportunity guaranteed by our founding documents. Today, Dr. King's struggle reminds us that while change can sometimes seem impossible, if we maintain our faith in ourselves and in the possibilities of this Nation, there is no challenge we cannot surmount.

Every year, Americans mark this day by answering Dr. King's call to service. In his memory, let us recall his teaching that "we are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly." In keeping with Dr. King's example, let us embrace the belief that our destiny is shared, accept our obligations to each other and to future generations, and strengthen the bonds that hold together the most diverse Nation on earth.

NOW, THEREFORE, I, BARACK OBAMA, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim January 21, 2013, as the Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Holiday. I encourage all Americans to observe this day with appropriate civic, community, and service projects in honor of Dr. King and to visit [www.MLKDay.gov www.MLKDay.gov] to find Martin Luther King, Jr., Day of Service projects across our country.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this eighteenth day of January, in the year of our Lord two thousand thirteen, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and thirty-seventh.

title: Proclamation 8927


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Rh

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Proclamation 8926

Foremost among the rights Americans hold sacred is the freedom to worship as we choose. Today, we celebrate one of our Nation's first laws to protect that right -- the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Written by Thomas Jefferson and guided through the Virginia legislature by James Madison, the Statute affirmed that "Almighty God hath created the mind free" and "all men shall be free to profess . . . their opinions in matters of religion." Years later, our Founders looked to the Statute as a model when they enshrined the principle of religious liberty in the Bill of Rights.

Because of the protections guaranteed by our Constitution, each of us has the right to practice our faith openly and as we choose. As a free country, our story has been shaped by every language and enriched by every culture. We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus, Sikhs and non-believers. Our patchwork heritage is a strength we owe to our religious freedom.

Americans of every faith have molded the character of our Nation. They were pilgrims who sought refuge from persecution; pioneers who pursued brighter horizons; protesters who fought for abolition, women's suffrage, and civil rights. Each generation has seen people of different faiths join together to advance peace, justice, and dignity for all.

Today, we also remember that religious liberty is not just an American right; it is a universal human right to be protected here at home and across the globe. This freedom is an essential part of human dignity, and without it our world cannot know lasting peace.

As we observe Religious Freedom Day, let us remember the legacy of faith and independence we have inherited, and let us honor it by forever upholding our right to exercise our beliefs free from prejudice or persecution.

NOW, THEREFORE, I, BARACK OBAMA, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim January 16, 2013, as Religious Freedom Day. I call on all Americans to commemorate this day with events and activities that teach us about this critical foundation of our Nation's liberty, and show us how we can protect it for future generations at home and around the world.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this sixteenth day of January, in the year of our Lord two thousand thirteen, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and thirty-seventh.

title: Proclamation 8926


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