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Lee the county of Tipperary (ib. c. 52). On the other hand, Archbishop Loftus admitted he had with his twenty-four horsemen ' done more good service than anyone captain in this land' (ib. lxxxviii. 26). In February 1583 Lee's band was discharged, but it was found that the horses and their equipment were his own 'proper goods' (ib. xcix. 74), and Fenton, when commending him to Walsingham for further employment, did more than hint that he was not so much to blame as Ormonde wished to make out, 'though it may be,' he added, 'he is not without his portion of that common and secret envy which biteth most of us that serve here' (ib. c. 52). He had already greatly added to his possessions in the county by the purchase of custodians and other interests, including the castle of Reban, which he bought outright from the Baron of Reban, Sir Walter Fitzgerald, usually called Sir Walter de St. Michael (ib. Dom. Eliz. ccxxviii. 33), and he petitioned in April 1583 to have a grant of the castle in fee-farm at a reasonable rent (ib. Ireland, Eliz. ci. 47). At the same time he offered, if he might have twenty-five horsemen and fifty footmen, to defend the county 'from the incursions and spoils of the rebels,' &c. (, Cal. Pat. Rolls, ii. 44). His petition was favourably received. The queen expressed her willingness to grant him the fee-farm of the lands he solicited, and commended his offer to the lords justices. Neither Loftus nor Wallop at first thought much of his plan (State Papers, Ireland, Eliz. cvii. 26), but a few months later the former confessed that Lee had certainly 'deserved what he asked for, having done better service than could have been expected. . . and hath so weeded those parts of that lewd sort of people as the inhabitants of their own report find great quiet and better security of their lives, goods, and cattle than of many years they have had' (ib. cix. 56, 57). In the winter of 1584–5 he served 'chargeably, with loss of horses to his great hindrance' (ib. cxv. 89), under Sir H. Bagenal and Sir W. Stanley, in the north of Ireland against Sorley Boy MacDonnell [q. v.] After a brief visit to England, he was in the autumn of 1585 employed by the lord deputy, Sir John Perrot, to prosecute Cahir Ore Kavanagh, 'a notable traitor.' Following Cahir into county Kilkenny, Lee was met by the sheriff, who 'grew to words, and so to blows, with the said Lee.' In the skirmish Lee managed to capture the sheriff and killed several of his men. Perrot acknowledged that he had only done his duty, but Lee, fearing the consequences of having offended two such powerful noblemen as Ormonde and Kildare, appealed directly to Walsingham for his support, especially against the former, 'of old being mine ancient foe' (ib. cxix. 11, 15). In October 1587 it was reported that a plot of Lee's against Walter Reagh, the head of the bastard Leinster Geraldines, had been frustrated through the treachery of Mrs. Lee, and that Lee had in consequence separated from her (Cal. State Papers, Ireland, iii. 428). There appears to have been little truth in the allegation, for Lee, having for some obscure reason shortly afterwards incurred Perrot's displeasure, and been by him deprived of his company and imprisoned for eight weeks in Dublin Castle (State Papers, Dom. Eliz. ccxxviii. 33), sent his wife over to England to plead his cause at court (Cal. State Papers, Ireland, Eliz. iv. 57, 62). Mrs. Lee's mission appears to have been in some measure successful, for in 1593 Lee, although no favourite of the lord deputy, Sir William Fitzwilliam, was actively employed in the expedition against Hugh Maguire,and was warmly commended for his bravery, not only by Tyrone (ib. v. 166), with whom he was supposed to be suspiciously intimate, but also by Sir H. Bagenal (ib. p. 172). In March 1594, when Archbishop Loftus, Sir Richard Gardiner, and Sir Anthony St. Leger were engaged in negotiating with Tyrone, Lee, owing to his intimacy with him, proved a useful intermediary (ib. pp. 222, 225, 226). At this time he evidently believed in Tyrone's protestations of loyalty, and it was doubtless in consequence of representations made by him to this effect that he was summoned to England. Fitzwilliam, who cordially hated Lee, did his utmost to damage his credit with Burghley, representing him to be 'indigent and desperate,' and desiring that 'he should be barred all access to her royal sacred person, sith her majesty may know otherwise all he can say' (State Papers, Ireland, clxxiv. 88). For the rest Fitzwilliam utterly denied his statement that Tyrone had been driven into rebellious courses by incursions into his country, 'unless haply he mean the service in Fermanagh and Monaghan' (ib. clxxv. 5). It was probably on this occasion that Lee wrote his 'Brief Declaration of the Government of Ireland.' Shortly after his return to Ireland he again, in September 1595, fell into disgrace, for what Sir Henry Harrington described as his 'cruel murder' of Kedagh MacPhelim Reagh and the 'sore wounding' of his brother Dermot, 'who had led the draught for taking' Walter Reagh (Cal. State Papers, Ireland, v. 397). In consequence he was again, for a time, imprisoned in Dublin Castle (ib. p. 432). His detention was apparently of short duration, for in March 1596 he accompanied the


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Lee lord deputy, Sir W. Russell, against a party of Scots and Connaught rebels in O'Madden's country (ib. pp. 490-1). On 1 April he addressed a letter to Burghley on the situation of affairs in Ulster, urging a conciliatory policy in regard to the Earl of Tyrone, who he declared would go to England if he had a safe-conduct direct from the queen (ib. p. 506, and Sir R. Cecil's reply Cal. Carew MSS. iii. 180). In December the deputy reported that Lee had sent in the heads of seventeen traitors (Cal. Carew MSS. iii. 263), and in April 1597 he was created provost-marshal of Connaught (ib. p. 258; Cal. of Hants, Eliz. No. 6072). In the following month he commanded the party that killed Feagh MacHugh O'Byrne among the Wicklow mountains (Cal. Carew MSS. iii. 259). Apparently, however, about the time when when Tyrone defeated Bagenal at the battle of the Yellow Ford (August 1598), Lee was again imprisoned in Dublin Castle, this time on suspicion of holding treasonable communication with Tyrone. Lee denied the charge, and attributed his imprisonment to the malice of Thomas Jones (1550 ?-1619) [q. v.], bishop of Meath (, Apology, Addit. MS. 33743). The situation of the kingdom was, however, so desperate that, after a detention of about twenty weeks, he was liberated, and by his own account did good service in revictualling the castle of Maryborough and in prosecuting Phelim MacFeagh O'Byrne and the rebels who invested the Pale. The allusions in his 'Apology' to his service against Tyrone and his relations with Robert, earl of Essex, are obscure, but it would appear that about the time of Sir Conyers Clifford's defeat (August 1599) he consented, at Tyrone's request and with the cognisance of Sir Christopher Blount, to visit Tyrone. He found the earl 'quite changed from his former disposition, and possessed with insolency and arrogancy' (ib. f. 181); and having vainly endeavoured to induce him to submit, left him and cursed the day that ever he had known him. When Essex left Ireland in September 1599, Lee either accompanied him or followed shortly afterwards. During the interval that elapsed before his arrest he wrote his 'Discovery and Recovery of Ireland, with the Author's Apology.' He was arrested on 12 Feb. 1601 on a charge of attempting to procure the release of the Earls of Essex and Southampton by force. At his trial the following day he denied the construction put upon his words by the attorney-general, but spoke boldly in defence of Essex, who it appears had written to commend him to Lord-deputy Mountjoy. He admitted that 'it was ever my fault to be loose and lavish of my tongue,' but 'he had lived in misery and cared not to live, his enemies were so many and so great.' As a favour he begged that his son 'might have no wrong, and that he might have that little that he had got together and should leave behind him.' He was executed next day at Tyburn, dying 'very Christianly' (, State Trials, i. 1403-10;, Annales; Cal. Carew MSS. iv. 37).

Lee wrote: 1. 'A Brief Declaration of the Government of Ireland. Opening many Corruptions in the same. Discovering the Discontentments of the Irishry, and the Causes moving those expected Troubles, and shewing means how to establish Quietness in that Kingdom honourably, to your Majesty's profit, without any encrease of Charge. This tract was first published by Lodge in 'Desiderata Curiosa Hibernica,' i. 87-150, Dublin, 1772, from a manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin, and was subsequently reprinted in 'Review of the Civil Wars in Ireland,' App. i. 2. 'The Discouerye and Recouerye of Ireland, with the Author's Apologye.' written in 1599-1600. Several copies of this tract, which has never been printed, are known to be in existence. One is in the possession of Viscount Dillon at Dytchley in Oxfordshire, another in that of Lord Calthorpe, and a third in the British Museum, Additional MS. 33743. Lee professed to be a plain, outspoken soldier, and his writing reflects the character of the man. It is vigorous and often abusive, but there is a substantial substratum of useful matter in it for the historian of Ireland in the latter years of Queen Elizabeth's reign.

 LEE, WILLIAM (d. 1610?), inventor of the stocking-frame, a native in all probability of Calverton, Nottinghamshire, where he is said to have been heir to 'a pretty freehold,' was matriculated as a sizar of Christ's College, Cambridge, in May 1579. Subsequently he removed to St. John's College, and proceeded B.A. in 1582-3. It is probable that he commenced M.A. in 1586 (, Athenæ Cantabr. iii. 38). In 1589 he was either curate or incumbent of Calverton, and invented the stocking-frame there. One of the traditions is that he acquired an aversion to hand-knitting because a young woman to whom he was paying his addresses at or near Calverton seemed,


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Lee when he visited her, to be always more mindful of her knitting than of his presence. He taught his brother James and others to work under him, and for two years practised his new art at Calverton. He then removed the machine to Bunhill Fields, St. Luke's, London, and Queen Elizabeth, to whose notice it had been brought by Lord Hunsdon, came to see it in action. She was, however, disappointed by the coarseness of the work, having hoped that he would make silk stockings, and refused to grant the patent of monopoly which Hunsdon asked. Lee now altered the machine, and in 1596 produced a pair of silk stockings, which he presented to the queen. But both Elizabeth and James I feared that the invention would prejudice the hand-knitters, and it was consequently discouraged. Henry IV invited Lee to settle in France, promising him great rewards. Accordingly, he, his brother, and nine workmen established themselves with as many frames at Rouen, where they carried on the manufacture of stockings with success and approbation, under the king's protection. The assassination of Henry IV and the troubles which ensued in France disappointed Lee's hopes of obtaining promised privileges; and he died of grief at Paris in or soon after 1610. Uponhis death seven of his workmen returned to England, and they, with one Aston of Calverton, who had been Lee's apprentice, laid the foundation of the manufacture in this country.

In the Stocking Weavers' Hall, Red Cross Street, London, there was formerly a picture, by Balderston, representing a man in collegiate costume in the act of pointing to an iron stocking-frame, and addressing a woman who was knitting with needles bynand. It bore this inscription: 'In the year 1589 the ingenious William Lee, A.M., of St. John's College, Cambridge, devised the profitable art for stockings (but being despised, went to France), yet of iron to himself, but to us and to others of gold; in memory of whom this is here painted.' The original picture seems to be lost. An engraving from it is in the 'Gallery of Portraits of Inventors, Discoverers, and Introducers of Useful Arts in the Museum of the Commissioners of Patents at South Kensington.'

The 'Origin of the Stocking-Loom' formed the subject of a painting by Alfred Elmore, A.R.A., exhibited in 1847 at the Royal Academy. The picture has been engraved by F. Holl.  LEE, WILLIAM (1688–1754), judge, was second son of Sir Thomas Lee, hart., of Hartwell, Buckinghamshire, by Alice, daughter of Thomas Hopkins, and brother of Sir George Lee [q. v.] His grandfather, (d. 1691), was created a baronet on 16 Aug. 1660, and sat in parliament as M.P. for Aylesbury from 1661 to 1681, as M.P. for Buckinghamshire in the Convention parliament, and as M.P. for Aylesbury in William III's first parliament until his death in February 1690-1. He was a well-known parliamentary debater in Charles II's reign, and, although often voting with the opposition, was credited with taking bribes from the court (cf., Satires, ed. Aitken, pp. 31,83, 183; , Own Time; , Extinct Baronetage). The judge's father, the second baronet, was M.P. for Aylesbury in the Convention parliament and from 1690 to 1698, when he was unseated on petition. He was re-elected in 1700 and 1701. William, born at his father's seat, Hartwell, I on 2 Aug. 1688, entered in 1703 the Middle Temple, where he was afterwards called to the bar. He spent some time, but without graduating, at Oxford, and in 1717 removed to the Inner Temple, of which he was elected a bencher in 1725. He appears to have practised at first chiefly in the courts of petty and quarter sessions in his native county, and in 1717 distinguished himself by the manner in which he argued a knotty point of law arising in a case of pauper settlement removed thence into the court of king's bench. It is noticeable that on this occasion he was opposed by Yorke, afterwards lord Hardwicke (Rex v. Inhabitants de Ivinghoe, 1 Strange, 90). In the following year he was appointed recorder of Wycombe, and in 1722 he succeeded William Denton [q. v.] as recorder of Buckingham. From 1718 to 1730 he held the office of Latin secretary to the king. On 17 Aug. 1727 he entered parliament, in the whig interest, as member for Chipping Wycombe. In 1728 he was made a king's counsel, and about the same time attorney-general to the Prince of Wales. In 1729 he was one of the prosecuting counsel in Castell v. Bambridge [see under ], but failed to obtain a conviction, although displaying great ability in his arguments. Lee's reputation as a thorough lawyer was now established,


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Lee and he was designated for the next vacant judgeship. Accordingly, on the removal of Keynolds to the exchequer [see, 1686-1739] he was called to the degree of serjeant-at-law 5 June 1780, and the next day sworn in as a puisne judge of the king's bench. He declined the customary honour of knighthood, and only accepted it on his elevation to the chiefjusticeship of his court, in succession to Lord Hardwicke, 8 June 1737, when he was sworn of the privy council Though not exactly a great judge, he proved himself able, patient, and impartial. As long as Lord Hardwicke presided in the king's bench, Lee's functions were almost entirely reduced to expressing his concurrence with the decisions of his chief; it was only as chief justice that he had scope to display to full advantage his thorough and minute knowledge of the common law and his strict judicial integrity. His name is associated with few cases of public interest. He decided, however, that a female householder is entitled to vote for, and eligible to serve as, the sexton of a parish, and thus laid the foundation of the parochial and municipal franchises of women ; and by a series of decisions he did much to place the law of pauper settlements on a satisfactory basis. He presided over the special commission which sat at St. Margaret's, Hill Street, Southwark, in July 1746, to try the Jacobite rebels, and in the course of these trials decided four important points of law : (1) that a commission in the army of a foreign state does not entitle the holder, being an Englishman, to be treated as a prisoner of war; (2) that no compulsion short of present fear of death will excuse participation in a rebellion ; (3) that Scotsmen born in Scotland were not entitled under the Act of Union to be tried in Scotland ; (4) that the acceptance of, and acting under, a commission of excise from the Pretender was an overt act of treason. His direction to the jury in the case of William Owen, tried before him at the Guildhall on 6 July 1752 for seditious libel, has been seriously criticised, but was the result of a strictly legal, if somewhat narrow, view of the respective functions of judge and jury. Owen had published a pamphlet animadverting on the conduct of the House of Commons in the case of the Hon. Alexander Murray [q. v.], and Lee, in summing up, directed the jury in effect that it was not for them to determine whether the pamphlet was or was not libellous, that being a matter of law ; but if they were satisfied that it had been published by the defendant, they ought to find him guilty. The jury, however, refused to take the law from the chief justice, and, though there was no doubt of the fact of publication by the defendant, acquitted him. Upon the death of Henry Pelham, 6 March 1754> Lee was appointed chancellor of the exchequer ; but merely ad interim, and without a seat in the cabinet. Lee died of an apoplectic stroke on 8 April following. He was buried on the 17th in Hartwell Church, where a monument was placed to his memory.

Horace Walpole calls Lee a creature of Lord Hardwicke. This appears to be altogether unfair; although his intimate Mendship with the chancellor probably helped his advancement, his abilities were very highly esteemed by better judges than Walpole. Lord Hardwicke, writing shortly after his death, characterises him as 'an able and most upright magistrate and servant of the crown and public.' His reporter, Burrow, after ascribing to him almost every private virtue, adds that on the bench ' the integrity of his heart and the caution of his determination were so eminent that they never will, perhaps never can, be excelled.' The 1744 edition of the ' Reports of Sir John Comyns 'is dedicated to him in very flattering terms. He was a correspondent of Zachary Grey [q. v.], and a friend of Browne Willis [q. v.], the celebrated antiquary. Some excerpts from his note-books and almanacks, published in the 'Law Magazine.' vols, xxxviii. and xxxix., under the title 'Jotting Book of a Chief Justice,' show that he had read widely and carefully beyond the limits of his professional studies, and was well versed in moral and metaphysical science. His unpublished commonplace book, still preserved at Hartwell, in more than a hundred volumes, attests the assiduity and method with which he prosecuted his studies. He was of a genial and even jovial temperament ; thought good cheer and 'a merry, honest wife the best sort of medicine, and hospitality the best sort of charity. He never spoke in parliament, but steadily supported by his vote the principles of the revolution. For this he would never give any but the humorous reason that he came in with King William (meaning that he was born in the year of that monarch 8 accession), and so was Dound to be a good whig.

Lee married twice : first, Anne, daughter of John Goodwin of Bury St. Edmunds, who died in 1729; secondly, on 12 May 1738, Margaret, daughter or Roger Drake, and widow of James Melmoth, described as 'an agreeable young lady of 25,000l. fortune.' She died in May 1752, and was buried in Hartwell Church". By his first wife Lee had issue an only son, William, who succeeded to the manor of Totteridge, which Lee had purchased in 1748. He had no issue by his


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 another aqueduct, still longer, was superimposed above that of the 17th century, forming part of the system conveying water from the river Vanne to Paris. The two together reach a height of about 135 ft. Bleaching, and the manufacture of bottle capsules, patent leather and other articles are carried on at Arcueil; and there are important stone quarries. ARCULF, a Gallican bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who visited the Levant about 680, and was the earliest Christian traveller and observer of any importance in the Nearer East after the rise of Islam. On his return he was driven by contrary winds to Britain, and so came to Iona, where he related his experiences to his host, the abbot Adamnan (679–704). This narrative, as written out by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith the Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about 701, and came to the knowledge of Bede, who inserted a brief summary of the same in his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, and also drew up a separate and longer digest which obtained great popularity throughout the middle ages as a standard guide-book (the so-called Libellus de locis sanctis) to the Holy Places of Syria. Arculf is the first to mention the column at Jerusalem, which claimed to mark the exact centre of the Inhabited Earth, and later became one of the favourite Palestine wonders. Besides a valuable account of the principal sacred sites of Judaea, Samaria and Galilee as they existed in the 7th century, he also gives important information as to Alexandria and Constantinople, briefly describes Damascus and Tyre, the Nile and the Lipari volcanoes, and refers to the caliph Moawiya I. ( 661–680), whom he pictures as befriending Christians and rescuing the “sudarium” of Christ from the Jews. Arculf’s record is especially useful from its plans, drawn from personal observation by the traveller himself, of the churches of the Holy Sepulchre and of Mount Sion in Jerusalem, of the Ascension on Olivet and of Jacob’s well at Sichem. It is also a useful witness to the prosperity and trade of Alexandria after the Moslem conquest: it tells us how the Pharos was still lit up every night; and it gives us (from Constantinople) the first form of the story of St George which ever seems to have attracted notice in Britain.

ARDASHIR, the modern form of the Persian royal name (q.v.), “he whose empire is excellent.” After the three Achaemenian kings of this name, it occurs in Armenia, in the shortened form Artaxias (Armenian, Artashes or Artaxes), and among the dynasts of Persia who maintained their independence during the Parthian period (see ). One of these, (1) or. (in his Greek inscriptions he calls himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias II. 25, iv. 24), became the founder of the New-Persian or Sassanian empire. Of his reign we have only very scanty information, as the Greek and Roman authors mention only his victory over the Parthians and his wars with Rome. A trustworthy tradition about the origin of his power, from Persian sources, has been preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari (Th. Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari, 1879). He was the second son of Pāpak (Bābek), the offspring of Sassan (Sāsān), after whom the dynasty is named. Pāpak had made himself king of the district of Istakhr (in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen to ruins). After the death of Pāpak and his oldest son Shapur (Shāhpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made himself king (probably 212), put his other brothers to death and began war against the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had conquered a great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king Artabanus IV. interfered. But he was defeated in three battles and at last killed ( 236). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of the whole empire of the Parthians and called himself “King of Kings of the Iranians.” But his aspirations went farther. In Persis the traditions of the Achaemenian empire had always been alive, as the name of Ardashir himself shows, and with them the national religion of Zoroaster. Ardashir, who was a zealous worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate connexion with the magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian creed as the official religion of his new kingdom, persecuted the infidels, and tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the Achaemenids had extended over the whole of Asia from the Aegean Sea to the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts and tried to create a strong concentrated power. His empire is thus quite different in character from the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacids, which had no national and religious basis but leant towards Hellenism, and whose organization had always been very loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole race of the Arsacids, with the exception of those princes who had found refuge in Armenia, and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian tradition shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia. The Parthian capital Ctesiphon (q.v.) remained the principal residence of the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national metropolis Istakhr, which was too far out of the way to become the centre of administration. Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir restored Seleucia under the name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which he was repelled by Alexander Severus ( 233). Before his death ( 241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son Shapur, who successfully continued his work.

Under the tombs of Darius I. at Persepolis, on the surface of the rock, Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god Ahuramazda (Ormuzd or Ormazd). Both are on horseback; the god is giving the diadem to the king. Under the horse of the king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian king Artaban; under the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Ahriman, with two snakes rising from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and Pahlavi), Ardashir I. calls himself “the Mazdayasnian [i.e. “worshipper of Ahuramazda”] god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes (Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Pāpak the king.” (See Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels (1821–1822), i. 548 foll.; Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J. C. Andreas, Persepolis, pl. 116; Marcel Diculafoy, L’Art antique de la Perse, 1884–1889, v. pl. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a rock near Gur (Firuzabad) in Persia. On his coins he has the same titles (in Pahlavi). We see that he, like his father and his successors, were worshipped as gods, probably as incarnations of a secondary deity of the Persian creed.

Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire, that of Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with legends; like Cyrus he is the son of a shepherd, his future greatness is predicted by dreams and visions, and by the calculations of astronomers he becomes a servant at the court of King Artabanus and then flies to Persia and begins the rebellion; he fights with the great dragon, the enemy of god, &c. A Pahlavi text, which contains this legend, has been translated by Nöldeke (Geschichte des Artachshīr i Pāpakān, 1879). On the same tradition the account of Firdousi in the Shahnama is based; it occurs also, with some variations, in Agathias ii. 26 f. Another work, which contained religious and moral admonitions which were put into the mouth of the king, has not come down to us. On the other hand the genealogy of Ardashir has of course been connected with the Achaemenids, on whose behalf he exacts vengeance from the Parthians, and with the legendary kings of old Iran.

(2) (379–383). Under the reign of his brother Shapur II. he had been governor (king) of Adiabene, where he persecuted the Christians. After Shapur’s death, he was raised to the throne by the magnates, although more than seventy years old. Having tried to make himself independent from the court,

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Lee second wife. His posterity died out in the male line in 1825, and the elder branch of the family having become extinct in 1827, both Hartwell and Totteridge Park are now vested in the representatives of the lord chief justice in the female line [cf. under, 1783–1866.]

 LEE, WILLIAM (1809–1865), water-colour painter, born in 1809,, was for many years a member and secretary of the Langham Sketching Club, All Souls Place, London, W. He was known as a painter in water-colours of English rustic figures and of scenes on the French coast. In 1845 he was elected an associate of the Institute of Painters in Water-colours, and he became a full member in 1848; he was a regular contributor to their exhibitions. Lee died in London on 22 Jan. 1865, aged 55, after a long and painful illness. A drawing by him, 'French Fisherwomen.' is in the South Kensington Museum.

 LEE, WILLIAM (1815–1883), archdeacon of Dublin, born on 3 Nov. 1815 at Newport, co. Tipperary, was son of William Lee, then curate of Newport, but afterwards rector of Mealiffe in the diocese of Cashel, by Jane, daughter of Richard White of Green Hall, co. Tipperary. In 1825 he was sent to the endowed school of Clonmel, whence he proceeded in 1831 to Trinity College, Dublin, and obtained the first (classical) scholarship in 1834. In August 1835 his father died, leaving to him the care of his mother and five young brothers and sisters. At his degree examination in 1836 he obtained the first senior moderatorship in mathematics, in 1837 the Law mathematical prize, in 1838 the Madden fellowship premium, and in 1839 he was elected a junior fellow. In 1841 he received holy orders. In 1857 he was created D.D., and chosen professor of ecclesiastical history in the university of Dublin, and in 1862 he was appointed Archbishop King's lecturer in divinity, and at the same time rector of the college living of Arboe in the diocese of Armagh. Towards the close of 1863 Dr. Trench, archbishop of Dublin, made him his examining chaplain, and in 1864 preferred him to the archdeaconry of Dublin and the rectory of St. Peter in that city. He became a prominent member of the house of convocation, and subsequently of the general convention, but when it was proposed to give the laity a share in legislating on matters of doctrine and discipline, he entered a strong protest and ceased to attend. In February 1870 he was elected a member of the New Testament Revision Company. He died on 11 May 1883. By his marriage to Anne, daughter of William English of Farmley, Castleknock, co. Dublin, he left two sons and three daughters.

Lee was a learned theologian, of strong conservative convictions. His influence was great as a lecturer and preacher. In private life few men were more fascinating. His more important writings are: 1. 'The Inspiration of Holy Scripture: its Nature and Proof.' 8vo, London, Dublin [printed], 1854; 5th edit. 1882. 2. 'Suggestions for Reform in the University of Dublin,' 8vo, Dublin, 1854. 3. 'Three Introductory Lectures on Ecclesiastical History.' 8vo, Dublin, 1858. 4. 'On Miracles: an Examination of the Remarks of Mr. Baden Powell on the Study of the Evidence of Christianity, contained in the volume entitled "Essays and Reviews,"' 8vo, London, 1861 (republished in 'Faith and Peace.' edited by G. A. Denison, 8vo, 1862). 5. 'Commentary on the Revelation of St. John,' 1882, forming the last part of the last volume of 'The Speaker's Commentary on the Holy Bible.' 6. 'University Sermons, with part of an Essay on Natural Religion.' edited by G. Salmon and J. Dowden, 8vo, Dublin, 1886.

He also published pamphlets on the 'Episcopal Succession in Ireland' and on the 'Position and Prospects of the Church of Ireland.' 1867.

 LEECH, LEICH, or LEITCH, DAVID (fl. 1628–1653), poet, was probably a native of Cheshire, and younger brother of John Leech [q. v.], the epigrammatist. He was appointed regent of King's College, Aberdeen, in 1628, and sub-principal in 1632 (, ii. 403, 405), and became minister of Ellon, Aberdeenshire, in 1638. He declined to take the national covenant, and fled to England, but returned to Aberdeen in 1640, preached two 'penitentiall' sermons, the first being found


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Leech unsatisfactory, and 'gave obedience to the kirk'. He was at Ellon till 1648, when he went to England as chaplain to the Scottish army, became chaplain to Charles II, and returned to be minister of Kemnay, Aberdeenshire, in January 1660. In 1653 he was created D.D. by Aberdeen University, and in October of the same year was deprived of his living for deserting his parish, the presbytery of Edinburgh reporting (16 May) that he 'had a church on the roadway, not far from London' (Presbytery Records). No known record of his death exists.

In 1648 the church of Scotland officially expressed a wish to have certain versified additions to the Psalter, and the commission of assembly' desired Mr. Johne Adamson to revise Mr. David Leitch's papers of poecie, and give his opinion to the commission thereof (Minutes of Commission, p. 806;, Letters, iii. 664). Shortly after this the commission informed the presbytery of Ellon that Leech was 'employed in paraphrasing the songs of the Old and New Testaments' in Edinburgh (Minutes, p. 362). His sonzs do not seem to have been printed. In April 1636 he pronounced a Latin funeral oration on the death of Bishop Patrick Forbes of Aberdeen, and this, with a Latin poem, is printed in the Spottiswoode Society's edition of Forbes's 'Funeral Sermons.' &c. In 1637 he published an academical oration, 'Philosophia Ulachrymans.' and in 1667 a volume of Latin poetry, entitled 'Parerga' (London, 12mo). He is described as ' a most fluent poet in the Latin tongue, an exquisite philosopher, and a profound theologian.

 LEECH, HUMPHREY (1571–1629), Jesuit, born in 1571, not, as Wood states, at Allerton, but at Drayton in Hales, Shropshire, was matriculated as a member of Brasenose College, Oxford, on 13 Nov. 1590 (Oxford Univ. Register, ed. Clark, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 180). On the premature death of his parents he went home, and subsequently he continued his studies at Cambridge, where he proceeded B.A. and M.A. Returning to Oxford, he was there incorporated in the degree of M.A. on 23 June 1602 (, Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. 298). For a short time he was vicar of St. Alkmond's Church, Shrewsbury, and on going back to Oxford he was appointed one of the chaplains or petty-canons of Christ Church. A sermon which he preached concerning precepts and evangelical counsels gave great offence to the university, and he was summoned before the pro-vice-chancellor, Dr. Leonard Hutton, as a favourer of Roman catholic doctrine. The result was that he was silenced from preaching, and suspended from his commons and function in the college for three months (, Annals, ed. Gutch, ii. 294, 297). After appealing ineffectually to the Archbishop of Canterbury, he proceeded to the college of English Jesuits at St. Omer, and renounced protestantism. Subsequently he resided for some time at Arras. In 1609 he entered the English College at Rome, as an alumnus, in the assumed name of Henry Eccles, and on 2 May 1610 he took the college oath. He was ordained priest on 21 April 1612, left Rome for England on 22 April 1618, and in the same year entered the Society of Jesus (, Records, i. 642, vi. 254). In 1621 he was at the English Jesuit college at Liège, and in the following year he was labouring on the English mission in the 'College of St. Aloysius,' or Lancashire district. For some time he resided, as chaplain, with Mr. Massey of Hooton, Cheshire, where he died on 18 July (O.S.) 1629.

He was the author of: 1. 'The Triumph of Truth. Or Declaration of the Doctrine concerning Evangelicall Counsayles, lately delivered in Oxford. . . With relation of sundry occurrents, and particularly of D. King, the Vicechancellour, his exorbitant proceedings,' with three appendices [Douay], 1609, 12mo; this was answered by Daniel Price of Exeter College, Oxford, in his 'Defence of Truth,' and by Dr. Sebastian Benefield of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in his appendix to 'Doctrinæ Christianæ sex capita,' 1610. 2. 'Dutifull Considerations addressed to King James concerning his premonitory Epistle to Christian Princes,' St. Omer, 1609, 4to. According to Dr. Oliver, Robert Parsons [q. v.] had the chief hand in the composition of this book.

 LEECH or LETTCH (), JOHN (fl''. 1623), epigrammatist, an elder brother of David Leech [q. v.] the poet, was probably also related to John Leech [q. v.]


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Leech the schoolmaster, and although he describes himself as 'Scotus,' was doubtless connected with the Leech family of Carden in Cheshire (Harl. MS. 2119; cf., History of Cheshire, 1882, ii. 701). He describes in one of his epigrams the difficulties which beset him as a student of philosophy at Aberdeen in 1614, in which year ne graduated M.A. at that university (Fasti Aberdonenses, p. 604), and it appears from another, concluding 'Charior est annuo Scotia fusca, meo,' that he was in France in 1620, after which it is probable that he resided for some time in dependence upon the patronage of the Scottish nobility resident at the court of James I; but nothing further seems known definitely of his career. It is possible, however, as Hunter suggests, that he is identical with the Mr. Leech described in the list of subscribers to Minsheu's Spanish Dictionary 'as secretary to the Earl of Pembroke, lord chamberlain. If so, he is doubtless the 'Mr. Leech' who in 1621 'was going over to view the country (of Virginia) and to pitch upon a proper place of settlement for the famous and munificent William, earl of Pembroke; who had undertaken, with his associates, to plant thirty thousand acres of land, and consequently to transport six hundred persons' (, Hist. of Virginia, 1747, p. 193).

Leech published: 1. ‘Jani sperantis Strena, Calendis Jan. anno Dom. 1617, authore Joanne Leochæo Celurcano Scoto,’ Edinburgh, 1617; a curious composition in Latin hexameters, dedicated to Sir Thomas Hope [q. v.], ‘in supremo Scotorum senatu patronus,’ and consisting chiefly of a number of elaborate puns upon his name (hence the title). 2. ‘Nemo, Calendis Maii,’ Edinburgh, 1617; dedicated to James I, a panegyric of the same elaborate character as the foregoing, containing some lines to the author by David Leochæus. 3. ‘Lachrymæ in Augustissimi Monarchæ Jacobi I, Magnæ Britanniæ, Franciæ, et Hiberniæ regis, recessu de patria sua in Anglorum fines, ex Tho. Finlason’ (king's printer), Edinburgh, 1617. 4. ‘J. Leochæi Scoti Musæ priores sive Poematum pars prior;’ dedicated to Charles, prince of Wales, and consisting of ‘Eroticon libri sex,’ dedicated to William Herbert, earl of Pembroke; ‘Idyllia sive Eclogæ,’ dedicated ‘Gulielmo Alexandro Menstræo equiti … Regis libellorum supplicum magistro;’ ‘Epigrammatum libri quatuor,’ dedicated to James Hay, first earl of Carlisle [q. v.], London, 1620, 8vo. The absence of printer's or bookseller's name from this volume suggests that it was issued privately. 5. ‘Joannis Leochæi Epigrammatum libri quatuor. Editio tertia, prioribus multo emendatior. London. ex Bernardus Alsopus,’ 1623, 4to. Also dedicated to James Hay. Wood is clearly in error in attributing this to Leech's namesake, the schoolmaster, as, apart from the fact that it is dedicated to Hay, and is full of reference to Scottish persons and affairs (cf. the epigram ‘In Edinum, vel Edinburghum urbem Scotiæ primariam’), it also contains several of the epigrams included in ‘Musæ Priores’ (Athenæ Oxon. ed. Bliss, ii. 352). Some Latin verses by John Leech are prefixed to the ‘Alvearie, or Quadruple Dictionarie’ of John Baret [q. v.]

To the epigrammatist is also dubiously assigned by the British Museum Catalogue, against the opinion of Anthony à Wood, ‘A Sermon preached before the Lords of Council in King Henry the seventh's Chappell on 23 Sept. 1607, at the Funerall of the most excellent and hopefull Princesse, the Lady Marie's Grace (on Job xvii. 14 and 2 Cor. v. 1). At the signe of the Bull Head, 1607,’ with an elegy in English. The author of this sermon was more probably a third John Leech, who also wrote ‘The Trayned Souldier; a Sermon before the Society of the Captaynes and Gentlemen that Exercise Armes in the Artillery Garden,’ London, 1619, 8vo (, Catalogue).

‘The Relation of John Leech, who was carried twelve miles in the Ayre by two Furies, and also of his sad and lamentable Death,’ 1662, 4to (Brit. Mus. Cat. and, Cat. ii. 944), was by yet another ‘John Leech of Ravely, near Huntingdon.’

 LEECH or LEACHE, JOHN (1565–1650?), schoolmaster, son of John Leache of the old Cheshire family of that name (see Harl. MS. 4084), matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford, 29 Nov. 1582, aged seventeen, and was elected a fellow, while still an undergraduate, in 1584. His father was probably the John Leache from whom a curious begging letter to Sir Robert Throgmorton is preserved among the Lansdowne MSS. (No. 99). In this ne sets forth that though he had been 'Scholemaister unto all the Duke of Northumberlands childre, and also unto th' Earle of Essexe. . . my Lorde of Leicestre and my Lorde of Warwicke,' 'hard necessitie' drove him to address himself to the 'crebrous phame ' of his correspondent. 'By the rude hand of your servant, if it shall please you, J. Leache, alias ποθων,' n.d. John Leech the younger graduated B.A. 13 June


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 1586, and M.A. 4 Nov. 1589. It is highly probable that he is identical with the vicar of Walden mentioned by Strype (Life of Sir Thomas Smith, p. 6), who combined the occupations of his cure with the ushership of Walden school He was certainly a school-master, and according to Wood took great delight in that employment, and educated many generous youths and others.' We are told by the same authority that his labours were greatly encouraged by [q. v.], archdeacon of Leicester and founder of several schools in the eastern midlands. To Johnson Leech directed one of the Latin epistles in his 'Grammar Questions.'

In 1628 was published what Wood thinks was the second edition of Leech's 'Book of Grammar Questions,' dedicated to George Digby, son of the author's former pupil, Sir, afterwards first earl of Bristol [q. v.] The first edition must have appeared before 1622, as in that year [q. v.], in the valuable catalogue raisonné of existing grammars, appended to his 'Consolation for our Grammar Schooles,' says, 'For the chief rules of the Syntax shortly comprized … take Maister Leeches Dialogues' (p. 62). A fourth edition appeared in 1650 under the title ' A Booke of Grammar Questions for the help of Yong Scholars, to further them in the understanding of the Accidence and Lilies Verses, divided into three parts. Now the fourth time imprinted, corrected, and somewhat amended, set foorth for the ease of Schoolmasters and Young Scholars' (Brit. Mus. Library). To the volume is appended 'Four Little Dialogues or Colloqvies in Latine. Now verbally translated … but long since gathered … London, at the Black Spread Eagle in Duck-lane.' These 'Dialogues,' between 'Georgius' and 'Edvardus,' are noticed by Wood under the title 'Praxis totius Latinæ Syntaxeos in quatuor Dialogis comprehensa,' 1629, 8vo, and the English text of them is included in the 'Dux Grammaticus' set forth by John Clarke of Lincoln in February 1633 under the title 'Second Praxis Dialogicall of the Latin Syntax.' Leech the schoolmaster has been confused with other Leeches of the same christian name [see or, fl. 1623].

 LEECH, JOHN (1817–1864), humorous artist, was born in Bennett Street, Stamford Street, London, on 29 Aug. 1817, his father, also John Leech, being proprietor of the London Coffee-house on Ludgate Hill. He was baptised on 15 Nov. at Christ Church, Blackfriars Road. Of Irish extraction, the elder Leech was a man of much natural ability, a good Shakespearean scholar, and a draughtsman of more than ordinary accomplishment. If tradition is to be believed, his son was by no means slow to follow in his footsteps, and Flaxman, who found him drawing at a very early age on his mother's knee, is said to have recommended that so precocious a genius should be permitted to follow its own bent, advice which he practically repeated a few years later. When very young, Leech was sent to the Charterhouse, to the distress of his mother, of whom the pretty story is told that she hired a room in the vicinity of the school from which, unknown to her son, she could watch him in his play hours. His Charterhouse career was not brilliant. Fond of games of skill and of open-air exercises generally, he seems to have had little aptitude for the studies of the place, and the chief memory connected with his sojourn there is the friendship he formed and maintained through life with Thackeray. It is possible, however, that as the future author of 'Vanity Fair' was six years his senior, their boyish connection, like that of Addison and Steele, has been exaggerated. At sixteen, after nine years of 'Grey Friars,' he began, by his father's desire, to study medicine at St. Bartholomew's, where he made the acquaintance of Albert Smith, Percival Leigh, and Gilbert à Beckett, all of whom were subsequently to earn distinction with the pen rather than the scalpel. At St. Bartholomew's Leech was most distinguished for the excellence of his anatomical drawings. His father had intended to place him with Sir George Ballingall of Edinburgh. But his monetary affairs had not prospered, and young Leech left the hospital to follow the instructions of a certain Mr. Whittle of Hoxton, who combined a very moderate business as a doctor with a great deal of pigeon-fancying, and the kind of athletics in favour with strong men at fairs. His portrait, not greatly caricatured, is drawn at length, under the name of Rawkins, in Albert Smith's 'Adventures of Mr. Ledbury,' 1844, which Leech afterwards illustrated during its progress through 'Bentley's Miscellany,' perhaps also supplying his old colleague at Bartholomew's with the leading points of the character itself. Leaving Mr. Whittle, Leech passed to Dr. John Cockle, the son of the inventor of Cockle's pills. But already he was gravitating towards his true vocation, and becoming known among his fellows as a humorous artist. When at length his father's failing


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OR, THE

UNITED PROVINCES OF

IN 1827-8;

BEING

Sketches and Memorandums

MADE DURING

A TWELVE MONTHS' RESIDENCE

IN THAT REPUBLIC.

NEW YORK:

G. & C. CARVILL, BROADWAY.

1828.


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Leech fortunes practically collapsed, and he had to relinquish medicine, it was to art that he turned for a livelihood.

His first essays were in the then popular direction of drawing on stone, and his earliest production was a series of street characters entitled ' Etchings and Sketchings by A. Pen, Esq..' 1835. It was a modest pamphlet of four quarto sheets, '2s. plain, 3s. coloured.' and it consisted of sketches of 'cabmen, policemen, street musicians, donkeys, broken-down hacks, and many other oddities of London life.' After this he seems to have tried political caricatures, and he was also employed upon 'Bell's Life in London.' In 1836 he was one of the unsuccessful competitors for Seymour's place as illustrator of the 'Pickwick Papers' (a copy of his design is published in the Victoria edition of 1887); and he illustrated Theodore Hook's 'Jack Brag.' 1837. But his first popular hit was an adroit pictorial parody of the inappropriate design which Mulready prepared in 1840 for a universal envelope. Leech's imitation (copied in, Leech, 1883, p. 16) was very funny, and his assumption upon it of the device (a leech in a bottle) which he afterwards made so well known, gave rise to a curious misunderstanding on Mulready's part, of which Frith gives an account (Leech's Life, 1891). In the same year (1840) Leech produced, in concert with his old friend Percival Leigh [q. v.] ('Paul Prendergast'), a 'Comic Latin Grammar.' which was followed, also in 1840, by a 'Comic English Grammar,' and four plates entitled 'The Fiddle-Faddle Fashion Book and Beau Monde à la Française.' In 1841 came the lithographed 'Children of the Mobility' (a skit upon a then fashionable publication dealing with the children of the aristocracy), in which Percival Leigh was again his collaborator. This, a series of seven drawings in a wrapper, was elaborately reproduced in 1875. Besides the above, Leech was employed in 1840 on the 'London Magazine, Charivari and Courrier des Dames.' and he began to supply illustrations to 'Bentley's Miscellany.' But the great event of 1841 was the establishment, in August of that year, of his connection with 'Punch.' then about three weeks old. His contributions began at the fourth number, and, oddly enough, looking to his lifelong connection with the periodical, his first drawing seriously affected the sale. In those days the subdivision of blocks was unknown, and Leech's sketch, being larger than usual, took so long a time to cut that the number in which it appeared was not ready for publication at the date appointed. This was his only drawing in the first volume, and he did not make many for the second. But with the third he began that regular succession of sketches which, collected afterwards under the title of 'Pictures of Life and Character,' 1854–69, and frequently reproduced, constitute the main monument of his genius. From this time until his death in 1864 he was the chief pictorial pillar of 'Punch;' and he is said to have received from this source alone about 40,000l., and to have executed for it some three thousand drawings, of which at least six hundred are cartoons. But he continued at the same time to supply etchings and woodcuts to many separate works. Among others he illustrated, in 'Bentley's Miscellany,' the 'Ingoldsby Legends,' 'Stanley Thorn,' 'Richard Savage,' 'Mr. Ledbury' above mentioned, the 'Fortunes of the Scattergood Family,' the ' Marchioness of Brinvilliers,' 'Brian O'Linn,' &c. He also supplied etchings or cuts for the 'New Monthly Magazine,' 1842–4, Hood's 'Comic Annual,' 'Jack the Giant Killer,' 1843, the 'Illuminated Magazine,' 1843–5, and 'Shilling Magazine,' 1845–8, the 'Comic Arithmetic,' 1844, the 'Christmas Stories of Dickens' 1843–8, Jerrold's 'Story of a Feather,' 1846, and 'Man made of Money,' 1849, Gilbert à Beckett's 'Comic History of England,' 1847, and 'Rome,' 1852, 'Christopher Tadpole,' 1848, Forster's 'Goldsmith,' 1848 (two illustrations), 'Bon Gualtier's Ballads,' 1849, the sporting novels of Mr. R. Scott Surtees, 1853–65, S. W. Fullom's 'Great Highway,' 1854, and 'Man of the World,' 1856, the 'Little Tour in Ireland of Dr. Hole,' 1859, the 'Newton Dogvane' of Mr. Francis, 1859, 'Once a Week,' 1859–64, Pennell's 'Puck on Pegasus,' 1861, and a number of other works, including many designs for the 'Illustrated London News' and Punch's ' Pocket Books,' for the names of which the reader is referred to the 'Bibliography' issued in 1892 by Mr. C. E. S. Chambers.

Many of the etched plates to the foregoing, e.g. the sporting novels and the comic histories, were effectively tinted by hand, after patterns prepared by the artist himself. Though essentially a worker in black and white, Leech, as it often happens, had a strong desire to try his skill at colours. In 1862 he essayed a series of so-called 'sketches in oil,' which were exhibited at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, in June and the following months. These consisted of copies of a selection of his 'Punch' drawings, which had been ingeniously enlarged, transferred to canvas, and coloured lightly in oils. As the artist advanced with this process he considerably improved it in detail, and his exhibition was a great pecuniary success (it brought him nearly


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Rh and added slowly and mordantly a coarse oath. "I'll smash your snouts, you rabble!"

The doctor broke away from the soldier, and advancing towards him, cried chokingly:

"I will have you court-martialled, you scoundrel! To prison with you! You're hindering my work! Scoundrel! Brute!"

We pulled them apart, but the soldier kept on crying out for a long time: "Rabble! I'll smash your snout!"

I was beginning to get exhausted, and went a little way off to have a smoke and rest a bit. The blood, dried to my hands, covered them like a pair of black gloves, making it difficult for me to bend my fingers, so that I kept dropping my cigarettes and matches. And when I succeeded in lighting my cigarette, the tobacco smoke struck me as novel and strange, with quite a peculiar taste, the like of which I never experienced before or after. Just then the ambulance student with whom I had travelled came up to me, and it seemed to me as if I had met with him several years back, but where I could not remember. His tread was firm as if he were marching, and he was staring through me at something farther on and higher up.

"And they are sleeping," said he, as it seemed, quite calmly.

I flew in a rage, as if the reproach was addressed to me.

"You forget, that they fought like lions for ten days."

"And they are sleeping," he repeated, looking through me and higher up. Then he stooped don to me and


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Leech 5,000l.), to which a friendly notice by Thackeray (Times, 21 June) not a little contributed. But from an art point of view the experiment could scarcely be regarded as unassailable, and the modest artist was right in saying that his efforts had 'no claim to be regarded, or tested, as finished pictures.' Some of the technical obstacles he victoriously overcame, and the work brought out conspicuously his gift for the picturesque. Nevertheless, the enlargement of drawings, originally conceived on a smaller scale, is scarcely ever effected without loss, and those who remember these pictures also remember that, full of spirit, life, and humour as they were, they were often raw in colouring and thin in execution. An illustrated catalogue, containing all the original blocks from 'Punch.' was issued in 1862. Not long after his connection with 'Punch' had become established, Leech married Miss Ann Eaton. He had two children, a boy and a girl, the former of whom, John George Warrington Leech, who inherited some of his father's artistic gifts, was drowned at South Adelaide in 1876. Leech himself was a man of singularly handsome presence, being over six feet high and extremely well built. He had considerable distinction of manner and much personal charm. By his friends and associates he was praised for his genial, kindly temper, his fund of humorous observation, and his ready sympathy with pain and sorrow. His tenderness and devotion to his family were remarkable even in a naturally amiable man. He is said to have been a good singer of a melancholy song, and affected much the 'King Death' of Procter ; and he occasionally figured, though without enthusiasm, in the amateur theatricals of Dickens, playing Master Matthew in 'Every Man in his Humour* at Miss Kelly's Theatre, Dean Street, Soho (now the Royalty), in 1845. His chief amusement, however, was the hunting-field, and to his runs with the Puckeridge or the Pytchley we owe many of the subjects of his sporting sketches. But though he was a brave man and a bold rider, he was of extremely nervous temperament, which increased as time went on, and one result of the tension caused by the ceaseless application involved by his vocation was an exceptional sensibility to street noises of all kinds, and street music in particular. Indeed this affliction maybe said to have precipitated, if it id not actually bring about, his too early death. In a letter to Michael Thomas Bass, M.P., when bringing in a bill relating to street music, Mark Lemon did not hesitate to trace Leech's ultimately fatal malady, angina pectoris, or breast pang, to the disturbance of his nervous system caused by ' the continual visitation of street-bands and organ-grinders.' It is possible, however, that its real origin, as Dr. John Brown suggests, may have been a strain in hunting. He died on 29 Oct. 1864, at No. 6 The Terrace, Kensington, at the age of forty-seven, and was buried on 4 Nov. at Kensal Green, divided but by one tomb from his old school-fellow and friend Thackeray, who had preceded him in December 1863. A likeness of him by Sir John Millais, R.A., was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1855, and there is a statuette by the late Sir J. E. Boehm, R.A. A collection of 170 of his designs and etchings was issued by Bentley in 1865 in 2 vols, folio.

The period of Leech's pictorial activity (1840-64) covers the middte of the century. He comes, for practical purposes, between Cruikshank and Du Maurier, and in that order plays an indispensable part in the progressive transformation of humorous art from the broad brutalities of the earlier men to the gentler and more subdued satire now in vogue. As Cruikshank refines upon Gillray and Rowlandson, so Leech refines upon Cruikshank, but to a much greater extent. His humour is to the full as keen, his sense of fun as marked ; but it is less grotesque, less boisterous, less exaggerated, nearer to truth and to ordinary experience. It is thoroughly manly, hearty, and generous. It delights in domestic respectabilities; in handsome, healthy womankind ; in the captivating caprices and makebelieves of childhood. It detests affectations, pretensions, social deceptions of all sorts ; but it has a compassionate eye for eccentricities which are pardonable, and vanities that inj ure no one. Being honest and manly, it is also exceptionally pure in tone, and never depends for its laugh upon dubious equivocations. Its pictures of social dilemmas, of popular humours, of national antipathies, are of the most graphic and mirth-provoking kind, and yet the raillery is invariably good-humoured. In these days, when photography has multiplied the opportunities of accuracy, and the employment of the model prevails to an extent wholly unknown to Leech and his predecessors, it is impossible to contend that his drawing is always academic, or to rebut the charge that it is frequently conventional. But his gift for seizing fugitive expression and for mentally registering transitory situation was extraordinary. Long practice had made it unerring in its way, and Leech perhaps wisely concentrated his attention upon these points. Yet he possessed, like Eeene, a marvellous faculty for landscape, and in many cases the


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 and having executed some of the grandees, he was deposed after a reign of four years.

(3) (628–630), son of Kavadh II., was raised to the throne as a boy of seven years, but was killed two years afterwards by his general, Shahrbaraz.

ARDEA, a town of the Rutuli in Latium, 3 m. from the S.W. coast, where its harbour (Castrum Inui) lay, at the mouth of the stream now known as Fosso dell’ Incastro, and 23 m. S. of Rome by the Via Ardeatina. It was founded, according to legend, either by a son of Odysseus and Circe, or by Danae, the mother of Perseus. It was one of the oldest of the coast cities of Latium, and a place of considerable importance; according to tradition the Ardeatines and Zacynthians joined in the foundation of Saguntum in Spain. It was the capital of Turnus, the opponent of Aeneas. It was conquered by Tarquinius Superbus, and appears as a Roman possession in the treaty with Carthage of 509, though it was later one of the thirty cities of the Latin league. In 445 an unfair decision by the Romans in a frontier dispute with Aricia led, according to the Roman historians, to a rising; the town became a Latin colony 442, and shortly afterwards it appears as the place of exile of Camillus. It had the charge of the common shrine of Venus in Lavinium. It was devastated by the Samnites, was one of the 12 Latin colonies that refused in 209 to provide more soldiers, and was in 186 used as a state prison, like Alba and Setia. In imperial times the unhealthiness of the place led to its rapid decline, though it remained a colony. In the forests of the neighbourhood the imperial elephants were kept. A road, the Via Ardeatina, led to Ardea direct from Rome; the gate by which it left the Servian wall was the Porta Naevia; a large tomb behind the baths of Caracalla lay on its course. The gate by which it left the Aurelian wall has been obliterated by the bastion of Antonio da Sangallo (Ch. Hülsen in Römische Mitteilungen, 1894, 320).

The site of the primitive city, which later became the citadel, is occupied by the modern town; it is situated at the end of a long plateau between two valleys, and protected by perpendicular tufa cliffs some 60 ft. high on all sides except the north-east, where it joins the plateau. Here it is defended by a fine wall of opus quadratum of tufa, in alternate courses of headers and stretchers. Within its area are scanty remains of the podium of a temple and of buildings of the imperial period. The road entering it from the south-west is deeply cut in the rock. The area of the place was apparently twice extended, a further portion of the narrow plateau, which now bears the name of Civita Vecchia, being each time taken in and defended by a mound and ditch; the nearer and better-preserved is about ½ m. from the city and measures some 2000 ft. long, 133 ft. wide and 66 ft. high, the ditch being some 80 ft. wide. The second, ½ m. farther north-east, is smaller. In the cliffs below the plateau to the north are early rock habitations, and upon the plateau primitive Latin pottery has been found. In 1900 a group of tombs cut in the rock was examined; they are outside the farther mound and ditch, and belong, therefore, to the period after the second extension of the city.

ARDEBIL, or, chief town of a district, or sub-province, of same name, of the province of Azerbaijan in north-western Persia, in lat. 38° 14′ N., and long. 48° 21′ E., and at an elevation of 4500 ft. It is situated on the Baluk Su (Fish river), a tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which flows northwards to the Aras, and in a fertile plain bounded on the west by Mount Savelan, a volcanic cone with an altitude of 15,792 ft. (Russian triangulation), and on the east by the Talish mountains (9000 ft.). Ardebil has a population of about 10,000, and post and telegraph offices. Its trade, principally in the hands of Armenians, is still important, but is chiefly a transit trade between Russia and Persia by way of Astara, a port on the Caspian 30 m. north-east of Ardebil. It is surrounded by a ruinous mud wall flanked by towers; a quarter of a mile east of it stands a mud fort, 180 yds. square, constructed according to European system of fortification. Inside the city are the famous sepulchres and shrines of Shaikh Safi ud-din and his descendant Shah Ismaïl I. (1502–1524) the first Shiah shah of Persia and founder of the Safavi dynasty. Plans and photographs of the shrines were taken in 1897 by Dr F. Sarre of Berlin and published in 1901 (Denkmäler Persischer Baukunst; 65 large folio plates).

European and Chinese merchants resided at Ardebil in the middle ages, and for a long time the city was a great emporium for central Asian and Indian merchandise, which was forwarded to Europe via Tabriz, Trebizond and the Black Sea, and also by way of the Caucasus and the Volga. Since the beginning of the 16th century, when Persia fell under the sway of the Safavis, the place has been much frequented by pilgrims who come to pay their devotions at the shrine of Shaikh Safi. This shrine is a richly endowed establishment with mosques and college attached, and had a fine library containing many rare and valuable MSS. presented by Shah Abbas I. at the beginning of the 17th century, and mostly carried off by the Russians in 1828 and placed in the library at St Petersburg. The grand carpet which had covered the floor of one of the mosques for three centuries was purchased by a traveller about 1890 for £100, and was finally acquired by the South Kensington Museum for many thousands. This beautiful carpet measures 34 ft. by 17 ft. 6 in., and contains 380 hand-tied knots in the square inch, which gives over 32,500,000 knots to the whole carpet (W. Griggs, Asian Carpet Designs).

ARDÈCHE, an inland department of south-eastern France, formed in 1790 from the Vivarais, a district of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 347,140. Area, 2145 sq. m. It is bounded N.W. by the department of Loire, E. by the Rhone which divides it from Isère and Drôme, S. by Gard and W. by Lozère and Haute-Loire. The surface of Ardèche is almost entirely covered by the Cévennes mountains, the main chain, continued in the Boutières mountains, forming its western boundary. Its centre is traversed from south-east to north-west by the Coiron range which extends from the Rhone to the Mont Mézenc (5755 ft.), the highest point in the department, and the oldest of its many volcanoes. These mountains separate the southern half of the department, which comprises the basin of the Ardèche, from the northern half which is watered by numerous smaller tributaries of the Rhone, the chief of which are the Érieux and the Doux. A few rivers belong to the Atlantic side of the watershed, the chief being the Loire, which rises on the western borders of the department, and the Allier, which for a short distance separates it from Lozère. Nearly all the rivers of the department are of torrential swiftness and subject to sudden floods. The scenery through which they flow is often of great beauty and grandeur. Natural curiosities are the Pont d’Arc, over the Ardèche, and the Chaussée des Géants, near Vals. The climate in the valley of the Rhone is, in general, warm, and sometimes very hot; but westward, as the elevation increases, the cold becomes more intense and the winters longer. Some districts, especially in summer, are liable to sudden alterations in the temperature. Rye, wheat and potatoes are the chief crops cultivated. Good red and white wines are grown in the hilly region bordering the Rhone valley, the white wine of St Péray being highly esteemed. The principal fruits are the chestnut, which is largely exported, the olive and the walnut. In the rearing of silk-worms, Ardèche ranks second to Gard among French departments, and great numbers of mulberry trees are grown for the purposes of this industry. The many goats and sheep of Ardèche make it one of the chief sources of supply of skins for glove-making. Mines of coal, iron, lead and zinc are worked, and the quarries furnish hydraulic lime (Le Teil) and other products. Besides flour-mills, distilleries and saw-mills, there are important silk-mills and leather-works and paper-factories. Annonay is the principal industrial town. The department exports wine, cattle, lime, mineral waters, silk, paper, &c. Hot springs are numerous, and some of them, as those of Vals, St Laurent-les-Bains, Celles and Neyrac, are largely resorted to. Ardèche is served by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway and has some 43 m.

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 Southern District of New York, ss.

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the thirty-first day of July A. D. 1828, in the fifty third year of the Independence of the United States of America, G. & C. Carvill of the said District, have deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit:

In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled "An Act for the encouragement of Learning by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled "an Act, supplementary to an act, entitled an Act for the encouragement of Learning, by assuring the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints."

FRED. J. BETTS,

Clerk of the Southern District of New York.

Printed by Vanderpool & Cole.


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Journey from England to the City of Guatimala, by the bay of Honduras.


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58 'MAN AND ARM BOATS' Many things are impressive and not a few terrifying in the Fleet, but the most impressive sight of all is the swift casting-forth from the trim black sides of the instruments and ministers of death. They vary hourly, according to the taste and fancy of the speller. A wisp of signals floats from the Flagship. Our little cruiser erupts—boils like a hive—and some one takes out a watch. There is a continuous low thunder of bare feet, a clatter, always subdued, of arms snatched from the racks, a creaking of falls and blocks, and the noise of iron doors opening and shutting. Of a sudden the decks stand empty; the Maxims have gone from the bulwarks, and the big cutters are away, pulling mightily for the Flagship. From each one of our twelve neighbours pour forth the silent crowded boats. They cluster round the Flag, are looked over, and return. They are not merely boats with men in them. They are fully provisioned; the larger ones have boat-guns, the smaller Maxims, with a proper allowance of ammunition and spare parts, medical chests, and all the hundred oddments necessary for independent action. All or any one of them can be used at once for patrol work or for landing parties, can be switched off from the main system, as a light engine is switched off up a siding. Each unit is complete and self-contained. In ten minutes the boats are back again, the Maxims replaced, the rifles stacked and racked, the provisions and water returned to store. The ordinary routine of 'man and arm boats' is over.

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 {| align=center width=100% ! !|PAGE
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 * Iguana,—Gualan,—Town,—Morals,—Customs,—Intolerance,—Superstition,—Education,—Prison, &c.
 * 46
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 * San Pablo,—Ampú,—Simplicity of the Inhabitants, Chimalapa,—Sulphureous Springs,—Entrance into Guatimala.
 * 54
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 * align=center|The City,—Its Manners, Customs, &c.—Population,—Police,—Moral and Religious State, &c. &c.
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 * Former Sites of the City,—Its present Situation and advantages,—Public Buildings,—Streets,—Houses, &c.
 * 63
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 * Customs and Manners,—Tobacco,—Morning Calls,—Occupations of a domestic Man,—Scenes in the Plaza,—Evening Parties,—Gambling,—Superstitions,—Marriages and Funerals,—Almoneda or Auction
 * 76
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 * Population,—Its characteristics,—Public Morals,—Police,—Political offences,—Prison,—Lawsuits,—Education,—Schools, &c.
 * 90
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 * Amusements,—Theatre,—Bull Fights,—Literature,—Newspapers,—Booksellers,—Fine Arts, &c
 * 106
 * }
 * Former Sites of the City,—Its present Situation and advantages,—Public Buildings,—Streets,—Houses, &c.
 * 63
 * align=center|
 * Customs and Manners,—Tobacco,—Morning Calls,—Occupations of a domestic Man,—Scenes in the Plaza,—Evening Parties,—Gambling,—Superstitions,—Marriages and Funerals,—Almoneda or Auction
 * 76
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 * Population,—Its characteristics,—Public Morals,—Police,—Political offences,—Prison,—Lawsuits,—Education,—Schools, &c.
 * 90
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 * Amusements,—Theatre,—Bull Fights,—Literature,—Newspapers,—Booksellers,—Fine Arts, &c
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 * 106
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Rh {| align=center width=100% ! !|PAGE
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 * Religious Processions,—Masked Dancers,—Clergy Regular and Secular,—Ecclesiastical Quarrels,—Low state of true Piety,—Extracts from a Journal.
 * 112
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 * Climate,—Temperature,—Rainy Season,—Thunder Storms,—Earthquakes,—Debility,—Diseases,—Small Pox.
 * 143
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 * Suburbs,—Villages,—Bee Hives,—Cochineal Plantations,—Grazing Farms,—Bathing Places,—Trip to the Antigua or old Guatimala
 * 156
 * align=center|
 * align=center|History of the Revolution,—Trade and Commerce,—Sketch of Natural History,—Aboriginal Inhabitants.
 * align=center|
 * State of Guatimala before the Revolution,—Causes which produced that Event,—Declaration of Independence,—Junction with Mexico,—General Congress,—Publication of the Constitution,—Resources,—Struggle between the Aristocracy and the People,—Financial difficulties,—War of San Salvador,—Resignation of the President,—Probable results
 * 167
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 * Early Commerce,—Manufactures,—Harvests of Indigo,—Cochineal,—Tobacco,—Sugar,—Balsams,—Cotton,—Coffee,—Hides,—Productions of the
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 * align=center|History of the Revolution,—Trade and Commerce,—Sketch of Natural History,—Aboriginal Inhabitants.
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 * State of Guatimala before the Revolution,—Causes which produced that Event,—Declaration of Independence,—Junction with Mexico,—General Congress,—Publication of the Constitution,—Resources,—Struggle between the Aristocracy and the People,—Financial difficulties,—War of San Salvador,—Resignation of the President,—Probable results
 * 167
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 * Early Commerce,—Manufactures,—Harvests of Indigo,—Cochineal,—Tobacco,—Sugar,—Balsams,—Cotton,—Coffee,—Hides,—Productions of the
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 * State of Guatimala before the Revolution,—Causes which produced that Event,—Declaration of Independence,—Junction with Mexico,—General Congress,—Publication of the Constitution,—Resources,—Struggle between the Aristocracy and the People,—Financial difficulties,—War of San Salvador,—Resignation of the President,—Probable results
 * 167
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 * Early Commerce,—Manufactures,—Harvests of Indigo,—Cochineal,—Tobacco,—Sugar,—Balsams,—Cotton,—Coffee,—Hides,—Productions of the
 * }
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V LANDING PARTIES

Another signal (see Note IV.) will turn out, transport, land, embark, and disembark three thousand armed men, with twenty-one field guns, in the inside of three hours; leaving six thousand men in the ships to carry on if necessary the work of a bombardment; or you can vary the programme and load a mere thousand or so into eight identical double-funnelled fifteen-knot steam launches—one from each battleship—and play miniature Fleet-manœuvres to your heart's content. They are as used to performing evolutions together as are their big parents. They can tow half-a-dozen cutters a-piece and work in four feet of water. As an experiment you can land your twenty-one-field guns with sufficient men to throw up earthworks round them; or you can yoke men to the guns and drag them up the flanks of mountains. Or, as in mining operations, you can turn loose all hell with a string to it—pay it out and swiftly drag it back again. One never wearies of watching the outrush and influx of the landing parties; the swift flight of the boats; the minute's check at the beach; the torrents of blue and red pouring over the bows; and the loose-knit line of mingled red and blue winding away inland among the boulders and heather.

Long practice so perfectly conceals Art that the thing presents no points of the picturesque; makes no noise; calls for no more comment than the set of the waves before a prevailing wind. Only when you go over certain MS. books, giving the name, station,

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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/The Development of a New Method of Research


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/The College of the West


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/A Question of Preference in English Spelling


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/Alumna's Children


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following sketches have been published chiefly from the conviction that Central America is in great measure unknown ground.

In order to insure the correct statement of historical events, the author requested the late British Consul, as well as the Consul General of the Low Countries, to examine this MS. The former was occupied in doing it a few days before the melancholy event happened which occasioned his death; and to the friendship of the latter gentleman, in whose company he made the tour, which forms the last part of this book, the author is indebted for many valuable communications.

He is aware that there are individuals who will complain of his work not being more exclusively religious. To such he can only reply that piety was intended to sanctify, not to exclude the business of the world; and in his opinion, in order to do good in any country, it is necessary to know it, not merely in a moral and religious point of view, but politically and statistically.


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/On the Study of Physics


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viii Considerable trouble has been taken in order to procure a map for insertion, but after a careful examination of all those which have yet been published, the idea has been laid aside, because it was found impossible to obtain one, which on account of numerous and important errors, was not more calculated to mislead than to inform.


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/English Herbals


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JOURNEY FROM ENGLAND TO THE CITY OF NEW GUATIMALA BY THE BAY OF HONDURAS.

Voyage to the Bay of Honduras,—Sun set,—Night at sea,—West India Islands,—Jamaica,—English Quay.

voyage across the Atlantic cannot of necessity be very rich in incident. Each succeeding day bears the features of its predecessor, and its events are only varied by perhaps a sail in the distance, or the appearance of some one of the various inhabitants of the deep. In the absence of all the artificial excitements of society every object acquires an interest, and the wonders of nature in one department at least are for a time rescued from the neglect to which they are generally condemned.

After losing sight of the shores of England, if the winds be favourable, the voyager soon finds himself rolling in the restless bay of Biscay. We entered it in the month of January.


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Rh Its dark blue waves heaved heavily—a few wandering sea gulls roamed over the face of the deep, and the sun beamed upon the waters with a warmer and a brighter ray.

From hence to the Islands the traveller must content himself with the few objects of natural history, which present themselves. To watch the grampus, the porpoise, or perhaps the great white shark playing around the vessel and darting before its bow as if offering to guide its course through the trackless deep, are the daily amusements of every landsman in these seas; and with a few flocks of stormy petrels, a wandering albatross, or that most beautiful of all the finny tribe the dorado, relentlessly pursuing its unhappy victim the flying fish, they constitute almost the only novelties.

But at sea the every day occurrences of nature seem to exhibit themselves in new forms, and acquire a freshness which clothes them with a new interest. Oftentimes will the sun set with a peculiar splendour, pouring a flood of glory over the whole horizon, and as he dips beneath the waters the reflection of his beams clothe the western clouds in a thousand different hues, abundantly supplying to the fancy golden lakes and palaces adorned with all the magic tints of a fairy creation. Nor is night without its charms. A large vessel with all her sails set, gliding gently over the bosom of the ocean. Her canvass scarcely swelled by the light


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/The Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia


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60 and duties of every man aboard under all conceivable contingencies, do you realise how wheel works within wheel to the ordered, effortless end.

SUPERIOR AND ADEQUATE PERSONS

You can disarrange the clockwork as much as you please, but the surviving cogs and rachets will still go on and finish the job; for I do honestly believe that, if any accident removed from the Fleet every single Commissioned Officer, the Warrant and Petty Officers would still carry on with resource and fertility of invention till properly relieved. The public is apt to lump everything that does not carry the executive curl on its coat-sleeve as some sort of common sailor. But a man of twenty-five years' sea experience—cool, temperate, and judgmatic, such an one as the ordinary Warrant Officer—is a better man than you shall meet on shore in a long day's march. His word is very much law forward. He knows his men, if possible, better than the officers. He has seen, tried, approved, and discarded hundreds of dodges and tricks in all departments of the ship. At a pinch he can wring the last ounce out of his subordinates by appeals unbefitting for an officer to make, by thrusts at pride and vanity, which he has studied more intimately than any one else. Hear him expounding his gospel to a youth who does not yet realise that the Navy is his father and his mother and his only Aunt Jemima; go out with him when he is in charge of a cutter; listen to him in the workshop; in the flats forward; between the pauses of practice-firing, or up on the booms taking stock of the boats,

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Rh breeze, and her track illuminated by the faint phosphoric light of myriads of animalculæ, is a most imposing sight; while the awful stillness which prevails over the vast expanse of sea and sky, only broken by the light splash of the white billows against the sides of their disturber, seems sufficient to calm the most agitated spirit.

At length however new objects present themselves, and the cry of “Land” awakens curiosity. With us it announced Colon's Deseada or the desired island. The appearance of this little spot is rocky and uninviting, and it is almost uninhabited. The next morning at sunrise we were amongst the islands and close to Montserrat, one of the most beautiful of them; its western side declines gently towards the sea and is covered with fruitful plantations, while the cedar and palm shade and adorn its mountains. How lamentable that nine tenths of its inhabitants should he slaves.—From this point Antigua, Nevis, St. Kitts and Guadaloupe, are seen faintly exhibiting their outlines on the horizon, and the whole forms a striking and not uninteresting picture.

A few more days and we had passed the south side of the island of Jamaica. Its appearance from the sea is singularly romantic: blue mountains encircled by clouds and clothed with verdure to the very summits form the back ground, while richly cultivated sugar


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Rh plantations interspersed with the cedar and cocoa nut, line the hills and spread along the shore. Nature here at once presents herself in her forms of wild sublimity and luxuriant beauty.

The third of March brought us in sight of English Quay, one of those beautiful little islands which adorn the entrance to the bay of Honduras; and by the afternoon of that day we had anchored in Belize roads.


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 CHAPTER II.

view of the town from the roadstead is interesting, and some parts of it highly picturesque. Its principal street stretches along the shore for a considerable distance, and consists of tolerably good houses built of wood, the lower stories occupied as stores and the upper as dwellings: cocoa nut trees interspersed among the buildings relieve the prospect, and give to the whole the character of West Indian scenery. The bay derives its chief interest from the number of pleasure boats doreys and pit pans, passing and repassing on its still waters. The latter, a species of long narrow canoe propelled by paddles, are novel to an European eye.

This settlement contains between five and 6000 souls, consisting of about 2400 slaves,


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Rh 1400 free negroes, 1000 coloured creoles, and from 3 to 400 whites.

The slaves are chiefly employed up the rivers in the cutting and trucking of mahogany, and are generally well treated. Their owners are probably afraid of harshness from the many opportunities the negroes have of escaping to the neighbouring Guatimalian territory and becoming free. The free negroes are only remarkable for their excessive indolence and pride. The moral effects of slavery are but too visible in their character. The coloured Creoles of the country, descendants of Europeans by African women, carry on mechanical trades, or keep small stores in the back streets. Many of these possess considerable property. The white population consists of merchants and their clerks, and of individuals employed in civil or military capacities by the governor. The internal regulations of the settlement are confided to the Superintendent appointed by his


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/The Royal Prussian Academy of Science and the Fine Arts: Berlin III


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Rh Britannic majesty and seven magistrates annually elected by the settlers. The market is generally ill supplied. The want of energy is so great that although every kind of fruit and vegetables would grow almost spontanteously, there is often a considerable scarcity. Turtle is procured in abundance, but like every thing else very dear.

The trade of the place is considerable; employing annually about 16000 tons of British shipping. The neighbouring Spanish provinces are supplied with British manufactures; and cedar, fustic, hides, indigo, logwood, cochineal, mahogany, sarsaparilla, tortoise shell and specie are exported: commerce is also carried on with Omoa, Truxillo, and the Golfo Dulce.

The soil is generally good, an abundance both of heat and moisture, favouring the putrefaction of a mass of organic substances, while it often proves the cause of disease, produces a stiff deep loam, capable of bringing to perfection all kinds of European vegetables, as well as the productions of the torrid zone. The difficulty of obtaining labourers is the only obstacle to the production of every thing calculated to administer to the comforts or luxuries of life. “The cactus, upon the leaf of which the cochineal insect subsists, grows spontaneously in the woods; the cotton tree, the indigo plant, the palma christi or castor oil plant, and the sugar cane all thrive on the soil, and


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Rh might be cultivated advantageously.” But the free negro will not work. With a hook and line he can in half an hour provide sustenance for himself and family for the day, and with this he is content. No stimulus will arouse him. He will undertake no employment but at an exorbitant rate of wages, and even then he is careless about finishing what he commences.

Considerable quantities of land are covered with pine of a superior quality. Where these abound the soil is sandy and not so productive; it would, however, be well adapted to the cultivation of the coffee plant.

The neighbouring woods are rich in objects of natural history, and it is much to be regretted that a field which promises so much should so long have remained untrodden.

Belize, like many other settlements similarly situated, abounds with insects, which by their number and venomous properties, become a complete pest. Swarms, or rather myriads of ants, darken every household utensil, and leave no corner of any dwelling free from their intrusions; hundreds of cockroaches (the Blatia Americana) appear in the evening, in almost every apartment; the very chambers of the houses are not free from the unwelcome visits of lizards, centipedes, and scorpions, to say nothing of the mosquito, or of that most fruitful of all the insect tribe, the


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardashir

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardashir


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Rh nigus. This last diminutive little worm exercises its malignant powers chiefly upon the black population, who are always without shoes or stockings; it enters the foot between the cutis and the cuticle, where it breeds with the greatest rapidity. The only remedy is to pick them out with a needle, and pour oil into the wound.

The climate is, on the whole, more favourable than that of the West India islands. The average heat is from 82° to 85° Fahrenheit, in the shade. Europeans chiefly suffer from remitting and intermittent fevers, caused probably by the numerous swamps which surround the settlement. The ravages of small pox are not great, as vaccination is now universally practised. In the year 1826, great numbers of children were carried off by the measles, but this disease has not since that time made its appearance. Hooping cough prevails much among the younger part of the community, and dysentery and rheumatism are not unfrequent among the full grown negroes; yet, on the whole, they may be esteemed healthy, and sometimes attain to a great age. The strong sea breeze, which blows freely nine months in the year, contributes mainly to the health of the inhabitants.

Still the heat is by far too great to make any part of this province desirable as a place for emigration; and had the memorable cacique of Poyais, McGregor, had any intention of colonizing,


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Rh (which there is little reason to believe,) it is very problematical how far he could have succeeded. The miserable condition of the unhappy wretches who were deluded by his golden promises, is but too well known, and it is but justice to say, that they received, in the hour of their distress, every kindness from the settlers in Belize.


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Black Population,—Character,—Amusements,—Morals,—State of Religion,—Inhabitants of the Mosquito Shore,—Coronation of their King,—Customs, &c.

slavery must necessarily have a lowering and degrading influence on the character of the slave is self-evident: but it is requisite to live among such, in order to know and feel the extent of the degradation. The moral effects of this evil, not the growth of a day or a year, but of ages, are so deep, as at first sight, almost to seem indelible. In proportion as the avarice of man has tightened the chain around his victim, has its degrading and depressing influence infused itself into his principles and habits, withered all his energies, and impeded the growth of every thing noble and elevated in his character.

If any thing could lessen our sympathy in the unhappy fate of the negro, it would be to view his debasing character, apart from the causes which have induced it. Indolent and unprincipled, he will never work, excepting when under the eye of a


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Rh superior. Fawning in the extreme, when in dread of punishment, he is tyrannical and overbearing if clothed for a moment in temporary power. His only wisdom is a species of low cunning. His only virtues belong to the brute creation,—an instinctive love of his offspring, and a species of attachment to the tyrant who rules him.

Nor is the freed African one degree raised in the scale of being. Under fewer restraints, his vices display themselves more disgustingly. Insolent and proud, indolent and a liar, he imitates only the sins of his superiors, and to the catalogue of his former crimes adds drunkenness and theft.

Such is the poor child of Africa, after centuries of subjection to the enlightened sons of Europe. The thought of what he might have been, had the same efforts been used to improve, which have been exercised to degrade, makes one shudder at the awful responsibility of those who have made him what he is.

The favourite amusement of the negroes here, as in other parts of the West Indies, is dancing. It surprises an European to observe the regularity with which these nightly entertainments are conducted; the graceful step of the dancers to the sound of the gumby, the expensive refreshments provided, and the air of display that pervades the whole performance. The same passion manifests itself at their funerals, which are conducted in as


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/May 1904/The Progress of Science


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Rh showy a style as possible. On these occasions they dress themselves in imitation of Europeans, and gratify their vanity by displaying all the finery they can raise. Their most joyous period is Christmas, when every slave claims a kind of temporary freedom for two or three weeks, and during this time, the settlement is in a state of riot. Dancing about the streets, night and day, is their chief employment till the accustomed period has elapsed; during this season, the militia, consisting of all the white inhabitants, is kept constantly under arms.

Crimes of a serious nature are of rare occurence. The prison, which is large, and has its cells commodious and airy, is very thinly tenanted. In the month of March 1827, it contained only six or seven prisoners, confined for petty thefts, or similar trifling offences, and it is by no means uncommon to see its doors open.

But although crimes which come under the cognizance of the law, are not frequent, the moral state of the population is nevertheless at the lowest ebb. With few exceptions, the institution of marriage is totally disregarded. The coloured population, considered by the whites as a degraded caste, feel themselves shut out of European Society, and consequently lose self respect. The females generally live in a state of concubinage with the whites, under the name of housekeepers,


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v and you will concede that he is a superior and an adequate person.

'Yes, I suppose it's all very nice,' said one of them, while I applauded and admired some manœuvre that he did not trouble to raise an eyelid for, 'but just think what we could do if we had the men all together for three years steady! As it is, we're practically a Training Squadron. When we get back to Plymouth they'll snatch a hundred of our best men an' turn 'em over to the Mediterranean, and we'll have to take up a lot of new ones. The Mediterranean have got the better trained men, but they haven't our chances of working together.'

'But the men are trained when you get 'em, surely?'

'Yes; but you get the same lot in one ship all through her commission, and you put a polish on 'em.'

'P.Q. 2,' cried a signalman. That was a well-known message. It meant: 'Get into your boats as fast as you know how and pull round the Fleet.' The men leaped on to the nettings and fell outboard like dolphins.

'That shows it,' said the Warrant Officer with a sniff. 'Look at that man crawlin' into his place' (to me he seemed to be flying). 'Our first boat ought to be away in fifteen seconds' (it was quite thirty before the last drew clear). 'There go the Arrogants.' His face darkened. Was it possible that that tip-tilted, hog-backed cruiser had——

'We're well first away,' said a Lieutenant.

'Hum! We ought to have been more previous,' said the Warrant Officer. 'The Arrogants nearly

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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/June 1904/The Total Solar Eclipse of August 30 1905


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62 beat us. We love the Arrogant, but we do not allow her to lead if we can help it.'

A TALE WORTH TELLING

Another time we were not so lucky. The tale is worth telling to show (a) how one is at the mercy of one's subordinates, and (b) how there is no excuse in the Navy. At odd hours, chiefly in the black night, the Admiral, feeling lonely, calls up one boat from each ship to his gangway, and the signal, which we will label T.V.K., reads: 'Cutter to Flagship from each ship; third-class cruisers to send whaler.' Warned by experience, the First Lieutenant, whom it is not easy to catch napping, had the whaler's crew sleeping all handy by, where one order would send them out like fly-stung cattle. A cutter requires about three times as many men, and on a small cruiser one cannot keep these together. Enter, then, at 11.45 p.m., a zealous signalman with the words: 'Cutter to the Flagship.' In his haste he had omitted to read the conclusion of the signal vouchsafing us the whaler, and (this was his black error) told no one that it was ' T.V.K.,' which would have explained the situation. No, he needs must say 'cutter'; so cutter it was. After the men had been variously dug out of their hammocks and the heavy boat got away, the Flagship wanted to know why we were several scandalous minutes behind our time. It was a direct reflection on the ship and its smartness; a galling and unanswerable wigging that makes men dance and swear with rage. We could only have said that the signal was misread, which would not

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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 65/June 1904/Copernicus