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Rh therefore arrange matters so that this service is merely understood to say that dinner is concluded.

From the comedor each individual adjourns to his bedroom to take the siesta and digest his dinner. So universal is the practice that from two to three the streets are deserted. Old and young, masters and servants, are alike reclining on beds and sofas. The very domestic animals at this hour are to be seen stretching themselves in the sun, and, partaking of the infection, “join the general troop of sleep.” Between three and four things begin to revive, and first one and then another, yawning, rubs his eyes, and strolls to the clock to see how time has passed during his slumbers. Towards four the comedor again becomes frequented for chocolate, after which the occupations of the day are once more resumed.

Let us then take a walk into the street and see what is passing there. The daily market is about over, and contains only a few stragglers buying at a cheaper rate the refuse of the day's sales; ten or a dozen half naked Indians are basking in the sun; three or four soldiers are reclining against the pillar of the piazzas, humming a revolutionary air; and a little further on are two or three devoted Catholics most devoutly kneeling before the image of a saint, and apparently in a state of the most perfect abstraction. In a little while the tinkling of a bell is heard, notifying the


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 ate pasar a linha da ᵱtiçā e daly navegar ao eloeste e loes noroeste diros a maluco a quall tr̃ra de maluco eu vy asentada na poma e carta que ca fez o fo de Reynell a quall nō era acabada quando caa seu pay veo por ele, e seu pay acabou tudo e pos estas tr̃ras de maluco e ᵱ este paderam se fazem todallas cartas as quaēes faz dio Ribeiro e faz as agulhas quadrantes e esperas porem no vay narmada nem q̃r mais q̃ ganhar de comeer ᵱ seu engenho. desd este cabo frio ate as Ilhas de maluco ᵱ esta navegaçam nō ha nēhūas tr̃ras asentadas nas cartas que levā praza a d’s todo poderoso que tall viajem façā como os corterrāes, e vosa alteza fique descansado. e seja senpre asy ēvejado como he de todolos prinçipes. Sen̄nor outra armada se faaz de tres navios podres peq̃nos em que vay por capitam andres ninho este leva outos dous navios pequenos lavrados em peeças dētro nestes velhos este vay a tr̃ra fyrme q̃ descobrio pe ayres, ao porto de larym e daly ha de hyr por tr̃ra xx legoas ao maar do sull donde se ha de levar ᵱ tr̃ra os navios lavrados com a enxarçeea dos velhos e armalos neste maar do sull e descobrir com estes navios mill legoas e mais nā contra o eloeste, as costas da tr̃ra q̃ se chama gataio e nestas ha de hyr por capitam moor gill głłz contador da Ilha espanhola e vam ᵱ dous anos. partindo estas armadas se faz loguo

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Rh approach of the Viaticum. ,Instantly high and low, poor and rich, are on their knees; till as its feeble sound dies in the distance, one by one they rise and pursue their way.

The costume of the street varies little from that of the house. The ladies, who in a morning are to be seen only in black, now parade the streets in dashing silk gowns, and without any covering for the head, while the fashionable beaux lounge by their sides in printed cotton jackets and Spanish cloaks, with one end carelessly thrown over the right shoulder. The shops, although generally well supplied with goods, possess no attractions. All are without windows, and nothing is displayed; the open door way being half covered with cloth to keep out the sun.

Returning to our temporary home as the evening sets in, we find the gentlemen just come back from an excursion to the suburbs, on their pacing mules or horses; each rider seated on a saddle rising three or four inches before and behind, and armed with an enormous pair of silver spurs. Before the saddle is a large skin of some shaggy coated animal, hanging down to the heavy Spanish box stirrup, or still heavier and indescribable one of iron, over which lies the long taper end of the bridle, made of narrow slips of hide twisted into a cord, and so long as to serve the


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Rh purposes of a whip. To this is affixed an enormous bit, under which the poor beast writhes and is effectually subdued.

By about seven o'clock the last gleam of twilight has disappeared, and the servants enter with the lights, reciting most devoutly the “Bendito,” which may be thus translated, “Blessed and praised be the holy sacrament of the altar for ever and ever.” In another hour the sala has assumed its evening character. Cloaks and swords occupy the corner of the room—a small table at the further end is surrounded by a party busily employed at “monte,” (a game of cards,) amidst clouds of smoke,—and at the other end some lady, regardless of the noisy tongues of the gamblers, is playing a popular air upon a wretched marimba, or still worse piano, accompanying it with her voice. The miserable light yielded by two thin, long-wicked tallow candles, in massy silver candlesticks, throws a gloom over the apartment, strangely in contrast with the light-hearted gaiety of its occupants. Formal parties are rare; friends drop in towards the evening without ceremony, amuse themselves for an hour or two, and retire generally without taking any kind of refreshment.

In some respects a strong parallel might be drawn between the domestic manners of the old families here, and those of country towns in


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Rh, about a century ago. The uncarpeted floor, the heavy clumsy furniture, the well supplied wardrobe, the stock of china, carefully exhibited, are all characteristics of those days; while the rigid habits of economy, the unbounded hospitality to strangers, unaccompanied by any thing like splendid or showy entertainments, and especially the great degree of familiarity which subsists between mistress and servants, all concur in exhibiting that less refined and simpler state of society which existed in such places at the period referred to.

In some respects however, they have made sufficient advancement, especially in the art of gambling. Their favourite game, “monte,” appears to have little attraction, besides the facilities it affords for the indulgence of this detestable vice. In families, the farthest removed from what is termed by them high players, I have seen ten and twelve pounds sterling, lost and gained by individuals, in a few hours.

In insincerity also, they are by no means behind their European brethren, since there is not probably a country in the world where words and feelings have less connexion. Mortal enemies, even where their enmity is notorious to all the world, will meet and embrace after the customs of the country, with every external appearance of intimate friendship. By this procedure nobody


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Rh is deceived. It seems to be an understood regulation, that whatever may be the workings within, nothing shall disturb the serenity of the surface, so that even in time of civil war, when factions and party spirit are at their height, and the deepest hatreds are cherished, the external quiet of society remains unmolested. Were this all it might be tolerated; but the moral effects of systematic deception, are too melancholy to make one wish to see tranquillity purchased at so high a price.

About ten o'clock the different members of the family sit down to a supper, differing little from the dinner, eat heartily of its various dishes, and with stomachs loaded to a degree that would make most people tremble for fear of apoplexy, retire to bed, and in half an hour are all soundly asleep. In the more religious families recitations of about a quarter of an hour in length, and mostly to the Virgin, are practised on those evenings when there are no visitersvisitors [sic].

The superstitious and intolerant feelings of an uneducated population are lamentably visible among the lower orders. As the archbishop passes in his carriage through the streets, the poor Indians are to be seen on either side most devoutly kneeling, and so ignorant are they of the object to which they bow, that they repeat the ceremony not only when the empty carriage


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85 rolls by, but oftentimes when some other of the few clumsy vehicles kept by the wealthier inhabitants rumble along the pavement. Of this our own experience furnished an amusing, or I ought rather to say, melancholy proof. In this instance they bent the knee quite as devoutly to a coach full of obstinate heretics, as they could have done to the pseudo successor of St. Peter himself.

Strangers or heretics, for the words with them are synonymous, seldom receive so courteous a reception, especially the ladies, who, by their dress, are more easily recognized as foreigners. At them, or rather their bonnets, stones and dirt are not unfrequently thrown, accompanied by the elegant word “cochinas,” which, being translated, signifies that respectable community, the swine.

Even the better educated are slaves to the superstitions of the church of Rome. To images of saints and to church doors every passer by takes off the hat, and at ten in the morning when the bell tolls to announce the raising of the host in the cathedral, the streets and shops, salas and kitchens, are alike filled with devout kneelers.

The etiquette connected with visiting the archbishop partakes a little of the same character. As the visitor enters, the archbishop rises to meet him, and presents his finger, on which is a valuable diamond ring called “La Esposa” the bride,


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Rh the church. This is humbly kissed by the kneeling visitant and the ceremony is renewed every time.

On his saint day crowds of beggars surround his gate for alms, and willingly afford him the opportunity to perform works of charity, numerous enough if number would suffice to merit heaven. This tribe, mostly composed of the very worst part of the population, thrive and flourish on this propitious soil. Every individual has his saint day, on which besides receiving the congratulatory visits of his acquaintance, and the trifling presents of his more intimate friends, he feels himself particularly bound to assist every drunken vagabond who appears at his gate to solicit alms. At other times one day in the week is set apart for this service, and a certain number of pensioners receive their weekly pay.

Marrying and giving in marriage here, as in other countries, is distinguished by peculiar customs. When the consent of parents has been obtained, if the lover have no previous establishment he takes a house, and the parents of the lady place in it at their own expense a handsome bed and plentiful supply of household linen. This having been done, the intended bridegroom, on the day previous to the celebration of the nuptials, sends to his future wife, dresses, jewels and ornaments in proportion to his wealth. The ceremony is


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Rh generally performed before day light on the following morning, and all attendant expenses are paid by the parents of the bride. The newly married couple then adjourn to the house of the lady's father, where they reside for fifteen or twenty days.

The other rites of the church are conducted in the same way as in other Catholic countries. Funerals are very expensive, owing not only to the number of individuals who take part in the ceremony, but also to the splendid dresses in which bodies are interred. The wealthy throw away considerable sums in the indulgence of this foolish vanity, and not unfrequently expend a sum equal to £50 sterling upon the interment of a new born infant.

The most splendid funeral I witnessed in Guatimala, was that of a rich Canonigo. The friars of the different convents, two by two, led the procession, one bearing a massy silver cross, and the others lighted wax candles, the canonigos and the doctors following in their robes. After the bier walked the priests and curas two by two, the chief of the state, the friends of the late canon, and the principal military officers. Between the house of the deceased and the place of interment, a distance of about 500 yards, were arranged at equal distances in the street, four large tables covered with black cloth, and holding six


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Rh wax candles in massy silver candlesticks On each of these the body, extended upon a splendid bier and clothed in the richest robes was placed. The procession formed around it, a mass was sung, and holy water thrown upon the body by one of the doctors, after which the whole moved on to the next resting place, where the same formalities were observed. On its arrival at the cathedral the body was placed in the middle aisle, the members of the procession ranged themselves on either side, with their lighted tapers,—crowds of spectators knelt in front, and other crowds stood in silence behind, as with one consent every voice began to sing the solemn mass. This imposing ceremony lasted for some hours, after which the corpse was deposited in one of the vaults below the cathedral.

The lower orders generally bury in the “Santo Campo,” or consecrated ground behind the cathedral, where many simple memorials to the dead have been erected. After the funeral an “almoneda,” something like an auction, takes place of the goods of the deceased. The various articles of furniture are arranged in the room, and ticketed with a small paper, on which is written the lowest number of dollars for which the article can be disposed of. An Indian is then placed at the window near the street proclaiming with a loud voice the almoneda within. The public then


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Rh enter to view the goods, and any one choosing an article at the affixed price is permitted to take it after it has been publicly exposed to the offers of a higher bidder. If after three days any of the articles remain unsold, they are re-ticketed at two-thirds of the former price.

Among the curious collections which are thus exhibited to the public eye, are to be found numbers of wretched pictures, statues of saints, devotional books, relics, and antique domestic articles of solid silver, carrying the spectator back in imagination to the time when the commonest utensils of a tradesman's house were composed of this precious metal. Such was literally the case only thirty years ago; while at the present moment so great is its scarcity, that a bankrupt and tottering government plunged in civil war, is vainly attempting to establish by the most despotic measures, a paper currency.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardèche

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardèche


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardee

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardee


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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardennes (district)


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 most advantage in the Champagne and Argonne. Wheat and oats are the predominant cereals. Potatoes, rye, lucerne and other kinds of forage are also important crops. Pasturage is found chiefly on the banks of the Aisne and Meuse and on the plateau of Rocroi in the north. Horse-raising is carried on in the neighbourhood of Buzancy in the south, and at Bourg-Fidèle in the north. Fruit-growing is confined to the west and central districts. The working of slate is very important, especially in the neighbourhood of Fumay, and quarries producing freestone, lime-stone and other minerals are found in several places. Flour-mills, saw-mills, sugar-works, distilleries and leather-works are scattered over the department, but iron-founding and various branches of metal-working which are active along the valley of the Meuse (Nouzon, &c.) are the chief industries. To these may be added wool-weaving, centred at Sedan, and minor industries such as the manufacture of basket-work, wooden shoes, &c. Coal and raw wool are prominent imports, while iron goods, cloth, timber, live-stock, alcohol and the products of the soil are exported. Various branches of the Eastern railway traverse the department. The Meuse is canalized within the department, and the Canal des Ardennes, uniting that river with the Aisne, and the lateral canal of the Aisne are together about 65 m. long. Ardennes is divided into five arrondissements: Mézières, Rocroi, Rethel, Vouziers and Sedan, with 31 cantons and 503 communes. The department forms part of the ecclesiastical province of Reims and of the circumscriptions of the appeal-court of Nancy and the VI. army corps. In educational matters, it is included in the académie (educational area) of Lille. Mézières, the capital, Charleville, Rocroi, Sedan and Rethel are the chief towns. Outside them its finest examples of architecture are the churches of Mouzon (13th century) and Vouziers (15th century). ARDGLASS (“Green Height”): a small town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, at the head of a rocky bay, in a picturesque situation between two hills, 32 m. S. by E. of Belfast on a branch of the Belfast & Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 501. Soon after the Norman invasion it became of the first importance as a port, a fact attested by the remains of no fewer than five castles in close proximity, which give the town a picturesque aspect. There are also an ancient church crowning the eastern hill, and a curious fortified warehouse (called the New Works), dating probably from the 14th century, when a trading company was established here under a grant from Henry IV. Ardglass was a royal burgh and sent a representative to the Irish parliament. The chief industry is the herring fishery. Ships of 500 tons may enter the harbour at all times. In summer Ardglass is a frequented resort of visitors; good bathing and a golf links contribute to its attractions. ARDITI, LUIGI (1822–1903), Italian musical composer and conductor, was born in Piedmont, and studied music at the Conservatoire in Milan, starting professionally as a violinist, and touring with Bottesini, the double-bass player, in the United States in 1847. He began composing at an early age, and in 1840 produced an overture, followed by an opera I Briganti in 1841, and other works. He paid frequent visits to America, conducting the opera in New York, where he produced his La Spia in 1856. In 1858 he became conductor of the opera at Her Majesty’s theatre in London, and both in London and abroad he became famous in this capacity, having the reputation of being Madame Patti’s favourite conductor. His vocal waltz Il Bacio was often sung by her. In 1896 he published his Reminiscences, and after a long and active musical life he died at Brighton on the 1st of May 1903. ARDMORE, a township and the county-seat of Carter county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., just S. of the Arbuckle Mountains, about 120 m. S. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 5681; (1907) 8759 (2122 being negroes, and 108 Indians); (1910) 8618. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, and the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé railways. Ardmore is the market-town and distributing point for the surrounding agricultural region, which is the home of a large part of the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations. It is situated 890 ft. above the sea in a cotton and grain producing region, in which cattle are raised and fruit and vegetables grown; coal, oil, natural gas and rock asphalt (which is used for paving the streets of Ardmore) are found in the vicinity. Ardmore is an important cotton market, and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, machine shops, bridge works, foundries, bottling works and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, brick, concrete, flour, brooms, mattresses and dressed lumber. At Ardmore are the Saint Agnes Academy, a Catholic school for girls, and Saint Agnes College for boys, a conservatory of music, Hargrove College, and the Selvidge Commercial College. Near Ardmore is a summer school on the (q.v.) system. Ardmore was founded in 1887, and was incorporated in 1898. ARDRES, a town of northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 10 m. by rail S.S.E. of Calais, with which it is also connected by a canal. Pop. (1906) 1269. The “Field of the Cloth of Gold,” where Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France met in 1520, was at Balinghem in the immediate neighbourhood. The town is an important market for cattle. ARDROSSAN, a seaport, burgh of barony, and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland, 32 m. from Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway, and 29 m. by the Lanarkshire & Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 6077. The rise of Ardrossan was due to the enterprise of Hugh, 12th earl of Eglinton, who began the construction of the present town and harbour in 1806. The harbour was intended to be in connexion with a canal from Glasgow to Ardrossan, but this was only completed as far as Johnstone. Owing to the costliness of the undertaking, and the death of the earl in 1819, the works were suspended after an outlay of £100,000, but his successor completed the scheme on a reduced scale at an expense of another £100,000. The dock accommodation has since been considerably extended, and the town enjoys great prosperity. Steamers run every week-day to Arran and Belfast, and during summer there is a service also to Douglas in the Isle of Man. The exports consist principally of coal and iron from collieries and ironworks in the neighbourhood; and the imports of timber, ores and general goods. Shipbuilding thrives and the fisheries are important. The town is governed by a provost and council.

(pop. 8120), a mile to the south, is a popular seaside resort, with a brisk trade, due to its proximity to Ardrossan and Stevenston; the making of salt, once a leading industry, has ceased.

Ardrossan dates from an early period. The name Arthur of Ardrossan is found in connexion with a charter dated 1226; and Sir Fergus of Ardrossan accompanied Edward Bruce in his Irish expedition in 1316, and in 1320 signed the appeal to the pope, made by the barons of Scotland, against the aggressions of England. The family of Ardrossan is now merged, by marriage, in that of the earl of Eglinton and Winton. The castle where Wallace surprised the English garrison and threw their corpses into the dungeon, grimly styled “Wallace’s Larder,” was finally destroyed by Cromwell, who is said to have used part of its masonry for the construction of the fort at Ayr; but its ruins still exist. AREA, a Latin word, originally meaning a threshing-floor, namely a raised space in a field exposed on all sides to the wind; now applied in English (1) to a plot of ground on which a structure is to be erected, (2) to the court or sunk space in the front or rear of a building, (3) to the superficial space covered by a district, country, &c., or by a building or court. ARECIBO, a city and port on the north coast of Porto Rico, at the mouth of a small stream called the Rio Grande de Arecibo, and contiguous to one of the most fertile regions of the island. Pop. (1899) 8008; of the tributary district, about 30,000; (1910) 9612. It is connected with San Juan, Mayaguez and Ponce by railway. It is a well-built and active commercial city, and has a large export trade in coffee and sugar. The harbour is an open roadstead, very dangerous to shipping in northerly winds, and the discharge and loading of cargoes is effected by means of lighters at considerable risk and expense. Arecibo was founded in 1788.

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardennes (department)


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardglass

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardglass


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arditi, Luigi


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardmore

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardmore


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardres

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardres


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardrossan

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ardrossan


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Area

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Area


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arecibo

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arecibo


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Leeds to his memory in the chancel. In 1847 a descendant of the same name at Barham, Suffolk, owned a portrait of Leedes. He married Anna (1645–1707), daughter of Thomas Curtis, rector of Brandon. His two sons, Edward and Samuel, both took holy orders. Leedes's chief works (all published in London) were: 1. 'Methodus Græcam Linguam Docendi.' 1690, 8vo; the dedication contains a list of the chief families in Suffolk of which members had been, were being, or might hereafter be educated at Bury school. 2. 'Ad Prima Rudimenta Græcæ Linguæ discenda Graeco-Latinum Compendium.' 1693. 3. 'Eruditæ Pronunciationis Catholici Indices.' 1701, 1751, &c. 4. 'Lud. Kusterus de vero usu verborum mediorum. . .' (2nd edit), 1750, 1773, &c. 5. 'Τροποσχηματολογία, maximam partem ex Indice Rhetorico Farnabii deprompta. . ..' 1717, 8to. An edition of Lucian's 'Works' of 1743 bears Leedes's name as editor; he had published a volume of selections from the same author in 1678 (Watt).

 LEEDS,. [See ]

 LEEDS, EDWARD (d. 1590), civilian, second son of William Leeds, by Elizabeth Vinall, was born at Benenden in Kent. He was educated at Cambridge, graduated B.A. 1542–3, proceeded M.A. 1545, and in 1509 was created LL.D. The date of his first degree sufficiently disproves the statement that he was a monk of Ely. On 20 June 1548 Bishop Goodrich collated him to the rectory of Little Gransden in Cambridgeshire, and in the same year he became prebendary of Ely. In 1550 he was commissary and vicar-general to the bishop, and was engaged in destroying altars and other things deemed superstitious in the diocese. In 1551 he was made rector of Newton, Ely, and served the chapelry of St. Mary-by-the-Sea; and on 12 Feb. 1551–2 he obtained the rectory of Elm in the Isle of Ely-cum-Emneth, Norfolk. He was also chancellor to Bishop Goodrich. In 1553 he resigned Little Gransden and Newton. When Bishop Goodrich died in 1554 Leeds was one of his executors. Probably he lost his prebend during Mary's reign. On 28 Feb, 1558–9 he was appointed to the eighth stall in Ely Cathedral. About the same time he was requested by Cecil to join with Pory and Parker in settling a dispute between the president and fellows of Queens' College, Cambridge. In 1559 he was one of Parker's chaplains, and at Parker's appointment to the archbishopric his name was appended to an opinion by certain civilians, added to what was known as the supplentes clause of the letters patent, affirming the validity of the confirmation and consecration. At various times he visited the dioceses of Canterbury, Rochester, Peterborough, and Ely. In 1560 he became an advocate of Doctors' Commons, and afterwards was made a master in chancery. In 1560 also he became precentor of Canterbury and master of Clare Hall, Cambridge. On 20 June 1560 he was made precentor of Lichfield, but he resigned this appointment before 16 May in the following year. He also appears to have been rector of Cottenham, Snailwell, and Littleport in Cambridgeshire, and master of St. John's Hospital, Ely. Parker employed him with Dr. Perne in 1568 to compose the differences which had arisen in Corpus Christi College. In 1570 Leeds, who had probably acquired a fortune by his practice in Doctors' Commons, purchased from Sir Richard Sackville the manor of Croxton in Cumberland. He rebuilt the manor-house, and in 1571 ceased to be master of Clare. On 14 July 1573 he became rector of Croxton. In 1580 he resigned his prebend at Ely. He died 17 Feb. 1589–90, and was buried at Croxton, where a little figure of him in brass was placed in the church with an epitaph. He founded ten scholarships at Clare, and gave one thousand marks towards the building of Emmanuel College. Edward Leeds must be distinguished from the 'Mr. Leeds' the 'pious minister' of King's Lynn, whom two men of the name of Pell libelled and otherwise annoyed in 1581.

 LEEDS, EDWARD (1695?–1758), serjeant-at-law, born about 1695, was only son of Edward Leeds (1664–1729), citizen and mercer of London, and a prominent dissenter at Hackney (will of E. Leeds the elder, registered in P. C. C. 311, Abbott; Addit MS. 5734, f. 69). On 2 May 1710 he was admitted of the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar on 29 June 1718 (Inner Temple Register and Bar Book). He became eminent as a case lawyer, and enjoyed a large chamber practice. In February 1742 he was summoned to take the coif, and in Trinity term 1748 was made a king's serjeant. During vacation he lived chiefly on his estate at Croxton, Cambridgeshire. He retired from practice in 1755, and died on 5 Dec, 1758. In 1715 he married


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310 finished craftsman, of language, and it is evident that it was the brilliant art of the Provençal's elaborated verse which delighted the Italian. In the De vulgari eloquentia Dante returned to the praise of Arnaut Daniel, as the greatest of all those who have sung of love, and Petrarch was not less enthusiastic. His invention of forms of verse (see ), in particular, dazzled the great Italians. But the seventeen sirventés which have survived scarcely sustain the traditional idea of the supremacy of Arnaut Daniel as a poet, while their lack of historical and personal allusions deprives them of general interest. Dante was curiously anxious to defend Arnaut Daniel as being a better artist than his immediate rival, Giraut de Bornelh, whose “rectitude” Dante admits, in the sense that Giraut was a singer of gnomic verses of a high morality, but prefers the poetry of Daniel; critical posterity, however, has reversed this verdict. Giraut came from the neighbourhood of Limoges, passed over into Spain about 1180, and became famous in the courts of Pedro II. of Aragon and other Spanish monarchs. He disappears about 1230. There is a curious anecdote of his having incurred the hatred or the cupidity of the viscount of Limoges, who robbed him of his library and then burned his house to the ground. Giraut laments, in his poems, the brutality of the age and the lawlessness of princes. A troubadour of the same district of south-western France was Arnaut de Mareuil, to whom is attributed the introduction into Provençal poetry of the amatory epistle. He settled at the courts of Toulouse and Beziers, where he sang, in mystical terms, his passion for the countess Adalasia, in whose affections he had a dangerous rival in the person of Alfonso II., king of Aragon. Arnaut de Mareuil fled for his life to Montpellier, where he found a protector in Count William VIII., but he continued to address his sirventés to Adalasia. As that princess died in 1199, and as no planh to her memory is found among the works of Arnaut de Mareuil, it is conjectured that by that time he was already dead.

Peire Vidal of Toulouse was the type of the reckless and scatterbrained troubadour. His biographer says that he was “the maddest man in all the world.” His early life was a series of bewildering excursions through France and Spain, but he settled down at last at Marseilles, where he made a mortal enemy of Azalaïs, the wife of Viscount Barral de Baux, from whom he stole a kiss (1180). Vidal fled to Genoa, but he continued to address the viscountess in his songs. At the entreaty of her husband, Azalaïs forgave the poet, and Peire Vidal returned to Marseilles. He committed a thousand follies; among others, being in love with a lady called Louve (she-wolf), the poet dressed himself as a wolf, and was hunted by a pack of hounds in front of the lady's castle. Starting on a crusade, he stopped at Cyprus, where a Greek girl was presented to him as being of the imperial family. He married her, assumed the title of emperor, and carried a throne about with him from camp to camp. According to a late poem, his eccentric adventures closed in Hungary about the year 1215. Folquet of Marseilles was a troubadour of Italian race, the son of a merchant of Genoa; Dante met Folquet in paradise, and gives an interesting notice of him. He was a rival with Peire Vidal for the favours of the beautiful Azalaïs; and he was one of the troubadours who gathered around the unfortunate Eudoxia, empress of Montpellier, until the close of her singular and romantic adventure (1187). He wrote a very touching planh on the death of the viscount Barral de Baux in 1192. Soon after this, disgusted with love, Folquet took holy orders, became the abbot of the rich Cistercian house of Torronet in Provence, and in 1205 became bishop of Toulouse. Here he threw in his lot with Simon de Montfort and disgraced himself by his fanatic rage against the Albigenses, of whom a contemporary says that he slew 500,000 persons, acting “more like Antichrist than like an envoy of Rome.” Folquet died in 1231 in the abbey of Grandselve, in his diocese. It is in the sirventés of Folquet that critics have seen the earliest signs of that decadence which was so rapidly to destroy Provençal poetry.

Gaucelm Faidit came from Uzerche, in the Limousin. He

seems to have been a wandering minstrel of gay and reckless habits, and to have been accompanied by a light-o'-love, Guillelma Monja, who was the object of much satire and ridicule. In Gaucelm we probably see, if we can credit his story, the troubadour at his lowest social level. He made, however, Maria of Ventadour, who was probably a scion of the princely and neighbouring house of that name, the object of his songs, and he addresses her in strains of unusual pathos and delicacy. Gaucelm Faidit ultimately proceeded to Italy, to the court of the marquis Boniface of Montferrat, a prince who greatly encouraged the troubadours and who in 1201 undertook the conduct of a crusade. Gaucelm, who was still celebrating the perfections of Maria of Ventadour, accompanied him to the East. He wrote several canzones in the Holy Land and Syria, returned safely to Uzerche, and disappears about 1240. We possess sixty of his poems. Another troubadour, Raimbaut of Vaquières, passed the greater part of his life at the same court of Montferrat; he devoted himself to the Lady Beatrix, sister of the marquis. It is believed that he died in the Holy Land in 1207. The most celebrated of the Italian troubadours was Sordello, born at Mantua, at the beginning of the 13th century, who owes his fame rather to the benevolence of later poets, from Dante to Robert Browning, than to the originality of his adventures or the excellence of his verse.

We have now mentioned the troubadours who were most famous in their own time, and on the whole modern criticism has been in unison with contemporary opinion. There are, however, still one or two names to be recorded. The English historian of the troubadours, Dr Hueffer, gave great prominence to the writings of a poet who had previously been chiefly heard of in connexion with a romantic adventure, Guillem de Cabestanh (or Capestang). This was a knight of Roussillon, who made love to Seremonda, countess of Castel-Roussillon. The lady's husband, meeting the poet out hunting, slew him in a paroxysm of jealousy and, having cut out his heart, had it delicately cooked and served to his wife's dinner. When Seremonda had eaten her lover's heart, her husband told her what she had done, and she fainted away. Coming to her senses she said: “My Lord, you have served to me so excellent a dish that I will never eat of another,” and she threw herself out of window and was killed. The importance of this story lies in the fact that the cruelty of the count of Castel-Roussillon was the cause of universal scandal in all good society. Feeling grew so strong that the surrounding nobles rose against the murderer, with Alfonso, king of Spain, at their head, hunted him down and killed him. The bodies of the lady and the troubadour were buried side by side, with great pomp, in the cathedral of Perpignan, and became the objects of pilgrimage. Doubt has, of course, been thrown on the veracity of this romantic story, but at all events it testifies to the fact that the troubadour enjoyed, or was expected to enjoy, all the privileges of toleration and exemption. A burlesque or satiric troubadour, who disregarded the laws of gallantry and wrote satires of great virulence against the ladies and their lovers, remains anonymous, and is spoken of as the monk or prior of Montaudon.

The classic period of the troubadours lasted until about 1210, and was contemporaneous with the magnificence of the nobles of the south of France. The wealth and cultivated tastes of the seigneurs, and the peace which had long surrounded them, led them into voluptuous extravagances and sometimes into a madness of expenditure. From this the troubadours reaped an immediate advantage, but when the inevitable reaction came they were the first to suffer. The great cause, however, of the decadence and ruin of the troubadours was the struggle between Rome and the heretics. This broke out into actual war in June 1209, when the northern barons, called to a crusade by Pope Innocent III., fell upon the Albigenses and pillaged Beziers and Carcassonne. Most of the protectors of the troubadours were, if not heretics, indulgent to the heretical party, and shared in their downfall. The poets, themselves, were not immediately injured, and no doubt their habits and their art kept them immune from the instant religious catastrophe,

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Rh but the darkness began to gather round them as the ruin of Languedoc became more and more complete, culminating with the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The greatest name of this period, which was the beginning of the end, is that of Peire Cardenal, of Le Puy. He was protected by Jacme I., king of Aragon, having apparently fled from Narbonne and then from Toulouse in order to escape from the armies of Simon de Montfort. He was the inventor and the principal cultivator of the moral or ethical sirventés; and he was the author of singularly outspoken satires against the clergy, continuing the tradition of Marcabrun. The biographer of Cardenal certifies that he lived to be nearly one hundred years of age. Another and a still more violent troubadour of this transitional time was Guillem Figueira, the son of a Toulouse tailor, an open heretic who attacked the papacy with extraordinary vigour, supported and protected by Raimon II. Figueira was answered, strophe by strophe, by a female troubadour, Gormonda of Montpellier. The ruin of the southern courts, most of which belonged to the conquered Albigensi party, continued to depress and to exasperate the troubadours, whose system was further disintegrated by the establishment of the Inquisition and by the creation of the religious orders. The genial and cultured society of Provence and Languedoc sank rapidly into barbarism again, and there was no welcome anywhere for secular poets.

The last of the French troubadours was Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-1294), who was born at Narbonne, and addressed his earliest poems to Phillippa of Anduza, the viscountess of that city. She does not seem to have encouraged poetry, and Guiraut Riquier left Narbonne, first appealing to St Louis, without success. He then turned to Spain, and found protection at the court of Alfonso X. the Learned. This monarch, himself a great poet, welcomed the crowd of troubadours who were now flying from the troubles of southern France. It was the ambition of Alfonso to be himself a troubadour, but the Provençal pieces which bear his name are now attributed to Riquier and to Nat de Mons; the king's genuine poems are those written in Galician. Riquier remained in the court of Castile until about 1279, when he returned to France and settled in Rodez with the count of that town, Henri II. This prince was almost the last seigneur in the south or centre of France who gathered a school of poets around him, and at Rodez the troubadours enjoyed for a few years their latest gleams of success and recognition. Riquier, in a sirventés of about 1285, gives pathetic expression to his sense of the gathering darkness, which makes it useless and almost unbecoming for a troubadour to practise his art, while of himself he mournfully confesses: “Song should express joy, but sorrow oppresses me, and I have come into the world too late.” Guiraut Riquier passed away about 1294, and left no successor behind him.

{{EB1911 Fine Print|{{small-caps|Bibliography.}} — F. Diez, Leben und Werke det Troubadours (Zwickau, 1829, 2nd ed. revised by K. Bartsch, Leipzig, l882); Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd ed., revised by K. Bartsch (Leipzig, 1883); C. Chabaneau, Les Biographies des troubadours (Toulouse, 1885). [This forms tome x. of the Histoire générale de Languedoc.} F. Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (6 vols., Paris, 1816-1821); Manuel Milá y Fontenals, Los Trovadores en España (Barcelona, 1861, 2nd ed., revised, Barcelona, 1889); Paul Meyer, Les Derniers troubadours de la Provence (Paris, 1871); Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878); A. Restori, Letteratura provenzale (Milan, 1891); C. Appel, Provenzalische chrestomathie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Joseph Anglade, Les Troubadours (Paris, 1908). Various editions of the life and works of separate troubadours have been published — Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, by A. Jeanroy (Toulouse, 1905); Bertram de Born, by A. Thomas (Toulouse, 1888); Peire Vidal by K. Bartsch (Berlin, 1857); Cercamon, by Dejeanne (Toulouse, 1905); Giraut de Bornelh, by A. Kolsen (Halle, 1907-1908); Peire of Auvergne, by Zenker (Erlanger, 1900); Sordello, by Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896); Guiraut Riquier by Joseph Anglade (Paris, 1905); Arnaut Daniel, by U. A. Canallo (Halle, 1883). Editions of Bernard de Ventadour, by M. C. Appel, and of Marcabrun, by Dr Dejeanne, had been undertaken in 1908.}} (E. G.)

TROUBRIDGE, SIR THOMAS, (c. 1758-1807), English admiral, was educated at St Paul's School, London, and entered the navy in 1773. Having seen some service in the East Indies, he was taken prisoner by the French in 1794, but his captivity was only a short one and in February 1797 he commanded his ship, the " Culloden," at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In the following July he assisted Nelson in the unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, and in August 1798, when getting into position foi the attack on the French fleet, the " Culloden " ran aground and was consequently unable to take any part in the battle of the Nile. He then served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet in 1799; from 1801 to 1804 he was a lord of the admiralty, being made a rear-admiral just before his retirement. In 1805 Troubridge was given a command in the East and he went out in the " Blenheim." In January 1807 in this ship, an old and damaged one, he left Madras for the Cape of Good Hope, but off the coast of Madagascar the " Blenheim " foundered in a cyclone and the admiral perished. His only son, Sir Edward Thomas Troubridge, bart. (d. 1852), entered the navy in 1797 and was present at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1831 to 1847 he was member of parliament for Sandwich and from 1835 to 1841 he was a lord of the admiralty. His son, Sir Thomas St Vincent Hope Cochrane Troubridge, bart. (1815-1867), entered the army in 1834, and was severely wounded at the battle of Inkerman.

TROUGHTON, EDWARD (1753-1835), English instrument maker, was born in the parish of Corney in Cumberland in October 1753. He joined his elder brother John in carrying on the business of making mathematical instruments in Fleet Street, London, and continued it alone after his brother's death, until in 1826 he took W. Simms as a partner. He died in London on the 12th of June 1835.

TROUSERS, the name given to the article of dress worn by men, covering each leg separately and reaching from the waist to the foot. The word in its earlier forms is always found without the second r, e.g. trouses, trouzes, trooze, cf. the Lowland Scots word “ trews, ” and is an adaptation of the French trousses, trunk-hose, breeches, the plural of trousse, a bundle, pack, truss, from trousser, to pack, bundle up, tuck, tie up, girth, of which the origin is doubtful. In English the word “ trousers, ” when it first appears, was used of the leg-garments of the Irish, who Wore their breeches or trunk-hose and stockings in one piece, a custom to which there are many allusions in 17th-century literature. Knee-breeches and top-boots for out-of-door wear or stockings for indoor use lasted till the beginning of the 19th century as the regular costume for men. Pantaloons, loose trousers reaching to above the ankle, were worn in Venice by the poorer classes in the 17th century (for the origin of the name see ). The characters of the Italian comedy made the style of garment familiar in France, but it was only seen in the fantastic costumes of the ballet. During the reign of Louis XVI. loose pantaloons became fashionable for the morning dishabille of men. Their adoption by the supporters of the Revolution was the origin of the name of sans-culottes applied to the revolutionaries. Beau Brummel, in England, was probably the first to make the “ Pantaloon ” popular. A striking feature of his dress were the tight-fitting black trousers reaching to the ankle, where they were buttoned. From this developed the true trousers, cut over the boot at the instep, at first open at the bottom and fastened by loops, later strapped tight under the boot. It is said that the duke of Wellington introduced this latter form after the Peninsular War. They were not recognized as correct for evening wear,

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312 and strong opposition was taken against them by the clergy and at the universities (see COSTUME). .

TROUT (Salmo trutta), a fish closely related to the salmon. Most modern ichthyologists agree in regarding the various North European forms of trout, whether migratory or not, as varieties or races of a highly variable and plastic species, to be distinguished from the sahnon by a few more or less constant characters, the most readily ascertainable of which resides in the smaller scales on the back of the caudal region of the body, these being 14 to 16 (rarely 13) in an oblique series between the posterior border of the adipose fin and the lateral line, and in the greater length of the folded anal fin as compared to the depth of the caudal peduncle. The gill-rakers are also usually fewer, 16 to 18 on the anterior bronchial arch. The young may be distinguished from salmon-parr by the greater length of the upper jaw, the maxillary bone extending beyond the vertical of the centre of the eye, and in specimens 6 in. long often to below the posterior of the eye. The young are brown or olive above, silvery or golden below, with more or less numerous black and red spots in addition to the parr marks, and, contrary to what is observed in the salmon, black spots are usually present below the lateral line. Except for the gradual disappearance of the parr marks, this coloration is retained in the form known as the brook trout or brown trout (S. fario), which is non-migratory, and varies much in size according to the waters it inhabits, in some brooks not growing to more than 8 in., whilst in larger rivers and lakes it may attain a weight of 20 ℔ or more. The coloration of the young is more strongly departed from in the races known as sea trout (S. trutta) and sewing (S. eriox or cambricus), anadromous forms resembling the salmon in habits, and assuming in the sea a silvery coat, with, however, as a rule, more black spots on the sides below the lateral line.

The principal British races of trout are the following: the northern sea trout (S. trutta, sensu stricto), silvery, losing the teeth on the shaft of the vomer in the adult, and migratory like the salmon; the southern sea trout (S. eriox or cambricus), similar to the preceding, but with the hind margin of the gill cover more or less produced, the lower bone (suboperculum) projecting beyond the end of the upper (operculum); the brown trout (S. fario), non-migratory, usually retaining the teeth on the shaft of the vomer, brown or olive with black and red spots, rarely more silvery, with numerous black spots; the Lochleven trout (S. levenensis), distinguished from the preceding by a more silvery coloration, frequent. absence of red spots and a pink or red Hesh; the estuary trout (S. gillivensis and S. orcadensis), large brown trout living in salt water without assuming the silvery coloration; the Gillaroo trout (S. stomachicus), in which the membranes of the stomach are conspicuously thicker than in the other trout, more so in adult examples than in young ones. But all these forms are ill-defined and subject to such variations when transported from one locality to another as to render their recognition a matter of insuperable difficulty. The instability of the characters on which S. levenensis is based has been conclusively shown by the experiments conducted by Sir James Maitland at Howietoun. Large specimens of migratory trout are often designated as bull-trout, but no definition has ever been given by which this form could be established, even as a race.

Other European varieties are the trout of the Lake of Geneva (S. lemanus), of the Lake of Garda (S. carpio), of Dalmatia (S. dentex), of Hungary (S. microlepis), of the Caspian Sea (S. caspius), &c. The size of trout varies much according to the waters in which they live, the anadromous forms nearly equalling the salmon in this respect, specimens of over 4 ft. and weighing up to 50 ℔ being on record.

The habitat of S. trutta extends over the whole of Europe, the Atlas of Morocco and Algeria, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor and northern Persia. By the agency of man the species has been thoroughly established in Tasmania and New Zealand, where it thrives in an extraordinary manner, and attains a very large size.

Closely allied species are found in North America, west of the Rocky Mountains, the best known being the rainbow trout (S. irideus or shasta), which has been introduced into many parts of Europe as well as the eastern states of North America, New Zealand and South Africa. It is more hardy than the English trout, and accommodates itself in almost stagnant waters, and has thus proved a success in many ponds which were regarded as fit for coarse fish only; but in many places it has caused disappointment by going down to the sea, whence it is not known ever to return. It is a handsome trout, bluish or purplish above, silvery or golden below, more or less profusely spotted with black on the body and uns, and with an orange or red lateral band. Its range extends from Alaska to North Mexico. The rainbow trout merges into a larger form, S. gairdneri, which resembles the British sea trout.

A remarkable European trout is the short-snouted trout, S. obtusirostris, a non-migratory species from Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Bosnia and Montenegro. It has a small mouth with a feeble dentition, resembling that of the grayling. A closely allied form, S. ohridanus, has recently been discovered in Macedonia.

 TROUVÈRE, the name given to the medieval poets of northern and central France, who wrote in the langue d'oil or langue d'oui. The word is derived from the French verb trouver to find' or invent. The trouvéres flourished abundantly in the 12th and 13th centuries. They were court-poets who devoted themselves almost exclusively to the composition and recitation of a particular kind of song, for which the highest society of that day in France had an inordinate fondness. This poetry, the usual subject of which was some refinement of the passion of love, was dialectical rather than emotional. As Jeanroy has said, the best trouvères were those who “ into the smallest number of lines could put the largest number of ideas, or at least of those commonplaces which envelop thought in its most impersonal and coldest form.” The trouvères were not, as used to be supposed, lovers singing to their sweethearts, but they were the pedants and attorneys of a fantastic tribunal of sentiment. This was more monotonous in the hands of the trouveres than it had been in those of the troubadours, for the latter often employed their art for purposes of satire, religion, humour and politics, which were scarcely known to the poets of the northern language.

The established idea that the poetry of the trouvères was entirely founded upon imitation of that of the troubadours, has been ably combated by Paul Meyer, who comes to the conclusion that the poetry of the north of France was essentially no less original than that of the south. The passage of Raoul Glaber, in which he says that about the year 1000 southern men began to appear in France and in Burgundy, “ as odd in their ways as in their dress, and having the appearance of jongleurs, ” is usually quoted, but although this is valuable contemporary evidence, it proves neither what these “jongleurs” brought from the south nor what the poets of the north could borrow from them. The first appearance of trouvères seems to be much later than this, and to date from 1137, when Eléonore of Aquitaine, who was herself the granddaughter of an illustrious troubadour, arrived in the court of France as the queen of Louis VII. It is recorded that she continued to speak her native language, which would be the Poitiers dialect of the langue d'oc. She was queen for fifteen years (1137–1152), and this, no doubt, was the period during which the southern influence was strongest in the literature of northern France. There is not any question that the successive crusades tended to produce relations between the two sections of poetical literature. The great mass of the existing writings of the trouvères deals elaborately and artificially with the passion of love, as it had already been analysed in the langue d'oc. But those who are most inclined to favour the northern poets are obliged to confess that the latter rarely approach the grace and delicacy of the troubadours, while their verse shows less ingenuity and less variety. The earliest trouvères, like Cuene de Béthune and Huges de Berzé, in writing their amatory lyrics, were

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 certainly influenced by what troubadours had written, especially when, like Bertrand de Born, these troubadours were men who wandered far and wide, under the glory of a great social prestige. We should know more exactly what the nature of the Provençal influence was if the songs of all the trouvères who flourished before the middle of the 12th century had not practically disappeared. When we become conscious of the existence of the trouveres, we find Cuene de Béthune in possession of the field, a poet of too much originality to be swept away as a mere imitator. At the same time, even Paul Meyer, who has been the great asserter of the independence of the poetry of northern France, is obliged to admit that if, at the end of the 12th century and throughout the 13th, several literary centres were formed where an amatory poetry, full of conventional grace, was held in high honour, it was because several princely courts in the south had set the example. In this sense it cannot be denied that the whole art of the trouvères was secondary and subsidiary to the art of the troubadours.

The poetical forms adopted by the trouvères bore curious and obscure names, the signification of which is still in some cases dubious. As a rule each poem belonged to one of three classes, and was either a rotruenge, or a serventois, or an estrabot. The rotruenge was a song with a refrain; the serventois was, in spite of its name, quite unlike the sirventes of the troubadours and had a more ribald character; the estrabot was allied to the strambotto of the Italians, and was a strophic form “ composed of a front part which was symmetrical, and of a tail which could be varied at will ” (Gaston Paris). But scholars are still uncertain as to the positive meaning of these expressions, and as to the theory of the verse-forms themselves.

The court poetry of the trouvères particularly flourished under the protection of three royal ladies. Marie, the regent of Champagne, was the practical ruler of that country from 1181 to 1197, and she encouraged the minstrels in the highest degree. She invited Ricaut de Barbezieux to her court, rewarded the earliest songs of Gace Brulé, and discussed the art of verse with Chrétien of Troyes. Her sister, Aélis or Alice, welcomed the trouvères to Blois; she was the protector of Gautier d'Arras and of Le Châtelain de Couci. A sister of the husbands of these ladies, another Aélis, who became the second queen of Louis VII. in 1160, received Cuene de Béthune in Paris, and reproved him for the Picard accent with which he recited his poetry. At the end of the 12th century we see that the refinement and elegance of the court-poets was recognized in the north of France by those who were responsible for the education of princes. A trouvère, Gui de Ponthieu, was appointed tutor to William III. of Macon, and another, Philippe of Flanders, to Philippe Auguste. The vogue of the trouvères began during the third crusade; it rose to its greatest height during the fourth crusade and the attack upon the Albigenses. The first forty years of the 13th century was the period during which the courtly lyrical poetry was cultivated with most assiduity. At first it was a purely aristocratic pastime, and among the principal trouvères were princes such as Thibaut IV. of Navarre, Louis of Blois and John, king of Jerusalem. About 1230 the taste for court poetry spread to the wealthy bourgeoisie, especially in Picardy, Artois and Flanders. Before its final decline, and after the courts of Paris and Blois had ceased to be its patrons, the poetry of the trouvères found its centre and enjoyed its latest successes at Arras. It was here that some of the most original and the most skilful of all the trouvères, such as Jacques Bretel and Adam de la Halle, exercised their art. Another and perhaps still later school flourished at Reims.

About 1280, having existed for a century and a half, the poetical system suddenly decayed and disappeared; the very names of the court-poets were forgotten. During this time the song, chanson, had been treated as the most dignified and honourable form of literature, as Dante explains in his De vulgari eloquentia. But the song, as the trouvères understood it, was not an unstudied or emotional burst of verbal melody; it was, on the contrary, an effort of the intelligence, a piece of wilful and elaborate casuistry. The poet was invariably a lover, devoted to a married lady who was not his wife, and to whose caprices he was bound to submit blindly and patiently, in an endless and resigned humility. The progress of this conventional courtship was laid down according to certain strict rules of ceremonial; love became a science and a religion, and was practised by the laws of precise etiquette.

The curious interest of the trouvères, for us, lies in the fact that during an age when the northern world was ignorant and brutal, sunken in a rude sensuality, the trouvères advanced a theory of morals which had its absurd and immoral side, but which demanded a devotion to refinement and a close attention to what is reserved, delicate and subtle in personal conduct. They were, moreover, when the worst has been admitted about their frigidity and triviality, refiners of the race, and they did much to lay the foundation of French wit and French intelligence. The trouvères have not enjoyed the advantage of the troubadours, whose feats and adventures attracted the notice of contemporary biographers. Little is known about their lives, and they pass across the field of literary history like a troop of phantoms. Close students of this body of somewhat monotonous poetry have fancied that they detected a personal note in some of the leaders of the movement. It is certainly obvious that Cuene (or Conon) de Béthune had a violence of expression which gives life to his chansons. The delicate grace of Thibaut of Champagne, the apparent sincerity of Le Châtelain de Couci, the descriptive charm of Moniot of Arras, the irony of Richard of Fournival, have been celebrated by critics who have perhaps discovered differences where none exist. It is more certain that Adam de la Halle, the hunchback of Arras, had a superb gift of versification. The rondel (published in E. de Coussemaker's edition, 1872) beginning “ A Dieu courant amourettes, Car je m'en vois Souspirant en terre estrange ! ” marks perhaps the highest point to which the delicate, frosty art of the trouvères attained. Music took a prominent place in all the performances of the trouvéres, but in spite of the erudition of de Coussemaker, who devoted himself to the subject, comparatively little is known of the melodies which they used. But enough has been discovered to justify the general statement of Tiersot that “ we may conclude that the musical movement of the age of the trouvéres was derived directly from the most ancient form of popular French melody.” A precious MS. in the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier contains the music of no fewer than 345 part-songs attributed to trouvères, and an examination of these enables a “ pitiless arranger ” to divine the air, the primitive, simple and popular melody.

The principal authorities on the poetry and music of the trouvères are: H. Binet, Le Style de la lyrique courtoise en France aux xiime et xiiime siècles (Paris, 1891); Gaston Paris, Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen âge (Paris, 1892); A. Jeanroy, Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen âge (Paris, 1889); Julian Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France; E. de Coussemaker, Art harmonique aux xiime et xiiime siècles (Paris, 1865). The works of the principal trouvères have been edited: those of Le Châtelain de Coucy by F. Michel (1830); of Adam de la Halle by E. de Coussemaker (1872); of Conon de Béthune by Wallensköld (Helsingfors, 1891); of Thibaut IV., king of Navarre, by P. Tarbé (1851).

 TROUVILLE, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of Calvados, on the English Channel, 34 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906), 5684. Trouville is situated on the slopes of well-wooded hills at the mouth of the Touques on its right bank opposite Deauville. Its fine stretches of sand and excellent bathing, a spacious casino and beautiful villas, are among the attractions which make it the most frequented French resort on the channel. Deauville is well known for its racecourse and villas, exceeding those of Trouville in luxury, but except during the race fortnight in August (la grande quinzaine) it is quiet and comparatively deserted. The port shared with Deauville and formed by the Touques is entered by a channel between jetties with a depth at high tide of 18½ ft. This leads on the one side to a tidal harbour, on the other to an outer and an inner basin. Timber, coals and cement are imported. The

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Leeke Anne (d. 1757), third daughter of Joseph Collett of Hertford Castle, formerly governor of Fort St. George, by whom he had issue two sons, Edward and Joseph, and two daughters; Henrietta (1716-1766), who on 26 April 1768 became the second wife of John Howard (1726?-1790) [q. v.] the philanthropist, and Anne, married on 31 May 1764 to John Barnardiston, solicitor (will registered in P. C. C. 374, Hutton). Cole (Addit MS. 6820, f. 66) describes Leeds as 'a heavy, dull, plodding man, but a great lover of antiquity.'

His eldest son, (1728-1803), master in chancery, born on 30 Nov. 1728, entered the Inner Temple on 22 Dec. 1743, and was called to the bar. In 1765 he was appointed sheriff for Cambridgeshire (Gent. Mag. 1708, p. 46). He owed much to the patronage of Lord Hardwicke, by whom he was made a master in chancery on 21 Jan. 1773 (, Cat. of Lords Chancellors, &c, p. 101). According to Cole (loc. cit.) Leeds was a 'most impertinent, pragmatical mortal,' and so bitter against the clergy that Cole had to remind him that his family had acquired their property entirely from the revenues of the church. Greatly to his disappointment his party persistently refused to nominate him M.P. for Cambridge, of which town he was sub-deputy-recorder. He was a candidate for the deputy-recordership, but was defeated by Charles Nalson Cole [q. v.] At length, on 31 March 1784, he was elected M.P. for Reigate, but vacated the seat in 1787. He died unmarried on 22 March 1803, and was succeeded at Croxton by his brother Joseph (Gent. Mag. 1803, pt. i. pp. 294, 379).

 LEEKE [See also .]

LEEKE, HENRY JOHN (1790?–1870), admiral, son of Samuel Leeke, a deputy-lieutenant of Hampshire, entered the navy in 1803, on board the Royal William, guardship at Spithead. It is probable that his service on board her was merely nominal, and that he did not actually go afloat till 1806, when he went out to the Mediterranean in the Iris frigate. He afterwards served in the Royal Sovereign, flagship of Vice-admiral Edward Thornbrough [q. v.], and in the Terrible with Captain Lora Henry Paulet. As midshipman of the Volontaire he commanded a boat on the night of 31 Oct. 1809, when four armed vessels and seven merchant ships were taken from under the batteries in the Bay of Rosas by the boats of the squadron. He was afterwards serving in the Persian when he was promoted to be lieutenant on 24 Nov. 1810. She brought home a large number of prisoners, who attempted one night to take possession of the ship. No one was on deck but Leeke and a quartermaster, but snatching up cutlasses, they stopped the rush of the Frenchmen, and kept them at bay till assistance arrived. He continued serving, chiefly in the Mediterranean, during the war, and was promoted to be commander on 15 June 1814. From 1819 to 1822 he commanded the Myrmidon sloop on the west coast of Africa, where he was actively employed, on different occasions, in reducing the native kings to order and obedience. For assistance rendered to a wrecked schooner he received a gold medal from the Portuguese government. In 1824 he was appointed to the Herald yacht, in which he took out the Bishops of Barbadoes and Jamaica, and thus had the opportunity of bringing home from the Havana a freight of upwards of a million dollars in specie. He was advanced to post rank on 27 May 1826. On 1 April 1835 he was knighted, in recognition of his services on the coast of Africa, and on 25 Jan. 1836 he was nominated a K.H. From 1845 to 1848 he was flag-captain to Admiral Sir John West at Devonport, and in 1852 was appointed superintendent and commander-in-chief of the Indian navy. The duties of the office were principally administrative; but when the war with Persia broke out in November 1856 he assumed the command of the squadron which convoyed the troops to the Persian Gulf, covered their landing, and on 10 Nov. drove the enemy out of Bushir in a four hours' bombardment. In March 1857, on the expiration of five years, he returned to England. He had been promoted to the rank of rear-admiral on 15 April 1854; on 1 Oct. 1858 he was nominated a K.C.B, He became a vice-admiral on 2 May 1860, and admiral on 11 Jan. 1864. He died in February 1870. He married in 1818 a daughter of James Dashwood of Parkhurst in Surrey.

 LEEKE, LAURENCE (d. 1357), prior of Norwich, was appointed prior by William Bateman (d. 1355) [q. v.], the bishop, on 24 April 1352. He was vicar-general for Bateman in 1352 and 1355, and died in December 1357. He composed 'Historiola de Vita et Morte Reverendi domini Willelmi Bateman Norwicensis episcopi,' once preserved at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, but now


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Rh London & South Western Railway Company have a daily steamboat service from Havre to Trouville in connexion with their Southampton and Havre boats. Besides trawling and the provisioning of ships, in which Deauville is also engaged, Trouville carries on boat-building and has rope and briquette works.  TROVER (O. Fr. trover, to find, mod. trouver), or “trover and conversion,” the name of a form of action in English law no longer in use, corresponding to the modern action of conversion. It was brought for damages for the detention of a chattel, and differed from detinue in that the latter was brought for the return of the chattel itself. The name trover is due to the action having been based on the fictitious averment in the plaintiff's declaration that he had lost the goods and that the defendant had found them. The necessity for this fictitious averment was taken away by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852. An action of trover lay (as an action of conversion still lies) in every case where the defendant was in possession of a chattel of the plaintiff and refused to deliver it up on request, such refusal being prima facie evidence of conversion. The damages recoverable are usually the value of the chattel converted. In an action for detention of a chattel (the representative of the old action of detinue), the plaintiff may have judgment and execution by writ of delivery for the chattel itself or for its value at his option. An action for conversion or detention must be brought within six years. The corresponding action in Scots law is the action of spuilzie. It must be brought within three years in order to entitle the pursuer to violent profits, otherwise it prescribes in forty years.  TROWBRIDGE, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 97¼ m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,526. It is unevenly built on a slope at the foot of which flows the Biss or Mere, a tributary of the Avon. The parish church of St James is a fine Perpendicular building, with a lofty spire, and a beautiful open-work roof over the nave. It was rebuilt on the original plan in 1848. George Crabbe, the poet, was rector from 1813 to 1831.

Trowbridge (Trubrig, Trobrigg, Trowbrigge) was probably mentioned in Domesday under the name of Straburg, a manor held by one Brictric together with Staverton and Trowle, now both included within its limits. The first reference to the “town” of Trowbridge occurs early in the 16th century; previous to that date mention is made of the manor and castle only. The latter, round which the town probably grew up, is said to have been built by the de Bohuns, who obtained possession of the manor by marriage with the daughter of Edward de Sarisbury. Later it passed to William de Longespée, son of Henry II., to the Lancasters, to the protector Somerset (by grant of Henry VIII.) and then to the Rutlands, and Trowbridge is now a non-corporate town. In 1200 John granted a weekly market on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday; also a yearly fair on the 24th, 25th and 26th of July, on which days it continued to be held until at the end of the 18th century it was changed to the 5th, 6th and 7th of August. The manufacture of woollen cloths has long been the staple trade of Trowbridge. It was introduced before the 16th century, for Leland, writing in the reign of Henry VIII., says: “The town flourisheth by drapery.” In 1731 the trade was of some note, and by 1813 had attained such proportions that the whole area of the castle site was sold for the erection of dyeworks, cloth manufactories and other industrial buildings.  TROWEL (Med. Eng. truel, O. Fr. truelle, Low Lat. truella, a variant of trulla, diminutive of trua, stirring spoon, ladle, Gr., from the root tar, to turn round and round; cf. , borer), a tool or implement, varying in shape according to the use to which it is put, but consisting of a blade of iron or steel fitted with a handle. The bricklayers' or plasterers trowel, used for mixing, spreading and smoothing the mortar or plaster, has a flat, triangular, oval or rectangular blade; the gardeners' trowel, for digging plants, laying or mixing mould, &c., has a semi-cylindrical blade. Highly ornamental trowels

made of, or decorated with, the precious metals are presented to royal, official or other personages who formally lay the foundation stones of buildings.  TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679-1752), French painter, was born at Paris in 1679. He received his first lessons from his father, himself a skilful portrait painter, who afterwards sent his son to Italy. There his amusements occupied him fully as much as his studies; but his ability was such that on his return he was at once made an official of the Academy, and obtained a large number of orders for the decoration of public and private buildings, executing at the same time a quantity of easel pictures of very unequal merit. Amongst the most considerable of his works are thirty-six compositions painted for the hotel of De Live (1729), and a series of the story of Esther, designed for the Gobelins whilst De Troy was director of the school of France at Rome (1738-1751)—a post which he resigned in a fit of irritation at court neglect. He did not expect to be taken at his word, and was about to return to France when he died on the 24th of January 1752. The life-size painting (Louvre) of the “First Chapter of the Order of the Holy Ghost held by Henry IV.,” in the church of the Grands Augustins, is one of his most complete performances, and his dramatic composition, the “Plague at Marseilles,” is widely known through the excellent engraving of Thomassin. The Cochins, father and son, Fessard, Galimard, Bauvarlet, Herisset, and the painters Boucher and Parrocel, have engraved and etched the works of De Troy.  TROY and TROAD. I. The Troad.—The Troad , or the land of Troy, the north-western promontory of Asia Minor. The name “Troad” is never used by Homer—who calls the land, like the city, —but is already known to Herodotus. The Troad is bounded on the N. by the Hellespont and the Westernmost part of the Propontis, on the W. by the Aegean Sea and on the S. by the Gulf of Adramyttium. The eastern limit was variously defined by ancient writers. In the widest acceptation, the Troad was identified with the whole of western and south-western Mysia, from the Aesepus, which flows into the Propontis, a little west of Cyzicus, to the Caicus, which flows into the Aegean south of Atarneus. But the true eastern boundary is undoubtedly the range of Ida, which, starting from near the south-east angle of the Adramyttian Gulf, sends its north-western spurs nearly to the coast of the Propontis, in the region west of the Aesepus and east of the Granicus. Taking Ida for the eastern limit, we have the definition which, as Strabo says, best corresponds with the actual usage of the name Troad. Ida is the key to the physical geography of the whole region; and it is the peculiar character which this mountain-system imparts to the land west of it that constitutes the real distinctness of the Troad from the rest of Mysia, Nature has here provided Asia Minor with an outwork against invaders from the north-west; and as the Troad was the scene of the struggle between Agamemnon and Priam, so it was in the Troad that Alexander won the battle which opened a path for his further advance.

Natural Divisions.-The length of the Troad from north to south—taking a straight line from the north-west point, Cape Sigeum (Yeni Shehr), to the south-west point, Cape Lectum (Babā Kale)—is roughly 40 m. The breadth, from the middle point of the west coast to the main range of Ida, is not much greater. The whole central portion of this area is drained by the Menderes (anc. Scamander), which rises in Ida and is by far the most important river of the Troad. The basin of the Menderes is divided by hills into two distinct parts, a southern and a northern plain. The southern—anciently called the Samonian plain—is the great central plain of the Troad, and takes its modern name from Bairamich, the chief Turkish town, which is situated in the eastern part of it near Ida. From the north end of the plain the Menderes winds in large curves through deep gorges in metamorphic rocks, and issues into the northern plain, stretching to the Hellespont. This is the plain of Troy, which is 7 or 8 m. long, and 2 or 3 m. broad on the average. The hills on the south are quite low, and towards the east the acclivities are in places so gentle as to leave the limits of the plain indefinite. Next to the basin of the Menderes, with its two plains, the best marked feature in the river-system of the Troad is the valley of the Tuzla (anc. Satniois). The Tuzla rises in the western part of Mt Ida, south of the plain of Bairamich, from which its valley is divided by hills; and, after flowing for many miles almost parallel with the south coast of the Troad, from which, at

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Rh Assus, it is less than a mile distant, it enters the Aegean about 10 m. north of Cape Lectum. Three alluvial plains are comprised in its course. The easternmost of these, into which the river issues from rugged mountains of considerable height, is long and narrow. The next is the broad plain round Assus, which was a fertile source of supply to that city. The third is the plain at the embouchure of the river on the west coast. This was anciently called the Halesian plain, partly from the maritime salt-works at Tragasae, near the town of Hamaxitus, partly also from the hot salt-springs which exist at some distance from the sea, on the north side of the river, where large formations of rock-salt are also found. Maritime salt-works are still in operation at the mouth of the river, and its modern name (Tuzla = salt) preserves the ancient association. A striking feature of the southern Troad is the high and narrow plateau which runs parallel with the Adramyttian Gulf from east to west, forming a southern barrier to the valley of the Tuzla. This plateau seems to have been formed by a volcanic upheaval which came late in the Tertiary period, and covered the limestone of the south coast with two successive flows of trachyte. The lofty crag of Assus is like a tower standing detached from this line of mountain-wall. The western coast is of a different character. North of the Tuzla extends an undulating plain, narrow at first, but gradually widening. Much of it is covered with the valonia oak (Quercus aegilops), one of the most valuable products of the Troad. Towards the middle of the west coast the adjacent ground becomes higher, with steep acclivities, which sometimes rise into peaks; and north of these, again, the seaboard subsides towards Cape Sigeum into rounded hills, mostly low.

Natural Products.—The timber of the Troad is supplied chiefly by the pine forests on Mt Ida. But nearly all the plains and hills are more or less well wooded. Besides the valonia oak, the elm, willow, cypress and tamarisk shrub abound. Lotus, galingale and reeds are still plentiful, as in Homeric days, about the streams in the Trojan lain. The vine, too, is cultivated, the Turks making from it a kind of syrup and a preserve. In summer and autumn water-melons are among the abundant fruits. Cotton, wheat and Indian corn are also grown. The Troad is, indeed, a country highly favoured by nature—with its fertile plains and valleys, abundantly and continually irrigated from Ida, its numerous streams, its fine west seaboard, and the beauty of its scenery. Under Turkish rule, the natural advantages of the land suffice to mitigate the poverty of the sparse population, but have scarcely any positive result.

Early History.—In the Homeric legend, with which the story of the Troad begins, the people called Troes are ruled by a king Priam, whose realm includes all that is bounded by “Lesbos, Phrygia, and the Hellespont” (Il. xxiv. 544), i.e. the whole “Troad,” with some extension of it, beyond Ida, on the north-west. According to Homer, the Achaeans under Agamemnon utterly and finally destroyed Troy, the capital of Priam, and overthrew his dynasty. But there is an Homeric prophecy that the rule over the Troes shall be continued by Aeneas and his descendants. From the “Homeric” hymn to Aphrodite, as well as from a passage in the 20th book of the Iliad (75-353)—a passage probably later than the bulk of the book—it is certain that in the 7th or 6th century a dynasty claiming descent from Aeneas reigned in the Troad, though the extent of their sway is unknown. The Homeric tale of Troy is a poetic creation, for which the poet is the sole witness. The geographical compactness of the Troad is itself an argument for the truth of the Homeric statement that it was once united under a strong king. How that kingdom was finally broken up is unknown. Thracian hordes, including the Treres, swept into Asia Minor from the north-west about the beginning of the 7th century, and it is probable that, like the Gauls and Goths of later days, these fierce invaders made havoc in the Troad. The Ionian poet Callinus has recorded the terror which they caused farther south.

Greek Settlements.—A new period in the history of the Troad begins with the foundation of the Greek settlements. The earliest and most important of these were Aeolic. Lesbos and Cyme in Aeolis seem to have been the chief points from which the Aeolic colonists worked their way into the Troad. Commanding positions on the coast, such as Assus and Sigeum, would naturally be those first occupied; and some of them have been in the hands of Aeolians as early as the 10th century It appears from Herodotus (v. 95) that about 620  Athenians occupied Sigeum, and were resisted by the Aeolic colonists from Mytilene in Lesbos, who had already established themselves in that neighbourhood. Struggles of this kind may help to account

for the fact noticed by Strabo, that the earlier colonies had often migrated from one site in the Troad to another. Such changes of seat have been, he observes, frequent causes of confusion in the topography.

The chief Greek towns in the Troad were Ilium in the north, Assus in the south and Alexandria Troas in the west. The site of the Greek Ilium is marked by the low mound of Hissarlik (“place of fortresses”) in the Trojan plain, about 3 m. from the Hellespont. Exactly at what date it was founded on the top of earlier remains is uncertain (perhaps the 7th century); but it was not a place of any importance till the Hellenistic age. When Xerxes visited the Trojan plain, he “went up to the Pergamon of Priam,” and afterwards sacrificed to the Ilian Athena (Herod. vii. 42). Ilion is mentioned among the towns of the Troad which yielded to Dercyllidas (399 ), and as captured by Charidemus (359 ). It possessed walls, but was a petty place, of little strength. In 334 Alexander, on landing in the Troad, visited Ilium. In their temple of Athena the Ilians showed him arms which had served in the Trojan War, including the shield of Achilles. Either then, or after the battle of Granicus, Alexander directed that the town should be enlarged, and should have the rank of “city,” with political independence, and exemption from tribute. The battle of Ipsus (301 ) added north-western Asia Minor to the dominions of Lysimachus, who executed the intentions of Alexander. He gave Ilium a wall 5 m. in circumference, incorporating with it some decayed towns of the neighbourhood, and built a handsome temple of Athena. In the 3rd century Ilium was the head of a federal league of free Greek towns, which probably included the district from Lampsacus on the Hellespont to Gargara on the Adramyttian Gulf. Twice in that century Ilium was visited by Gauls. On the first occasion (278 ) the Gauls, under Lutarius, sought to establish a stronghold at Ilium, but speedily abandoned it as being too weak. Forty years later (218 ) Gauls were brought over by Attalus I. to help him in his war against Achaeus. After deserting his standard they proceeded to pillage the towns on the Hellespont, and finally besieged Ilium, from which, however, they were driven off by the troops of Alexandria Troas. At the beginning of the 2nd century Ilium was in a state of decay. As Demetrius of Scepsis tells us, the houses “had not even roofs of tiles,” but merely of thatch. Such a loss of prosperity is sufficiently explained by the incursions of the Gauls and the insecure state of the Troad during the latter part of the 3rd century. The temple of the Ilian Athena, however, retained its prestige. In 192 Antiochus the Great visited it before sailing to the aid of the Aetolians. In 190, shortly before the battle of Magnesia, the Romans came into the Troad. At the moment when a Roman army was entering Asia, it was politic to recall the legend of Roman descent from Aeneas. Lucius Scipio and the Ilians were alike eager to do so. He offered sacrifice to the Ilian Athena; and after the Peace with Antiochus (189 ) the Romans annexed Rhoeteum and Gergis to Ilium, “not so much in reward of recent services, as in memory of the source from which their nation sprang.” The later history of Ilium is little more than that of Roman benefits. A disaster befell the place in 85, when Fimbria took it, and left it in ruins; but Sulla presently caused it to be rebuilt. Augustus, while confirming its ancient privileges, gave it new territory. Caracalla ( 211-217) visited Ilium, and, like Alexander, paid honours to the tomb of Achilles. In the 4th century, as some rhetorical “Letters” of that age show, the Ilians did a profitable trade in attracting tourists by their pseudo-Trojan memorials. After the 4th century the place is lost to view. But we find from Constantine Porphyrogenitus (911-959) that in his day it was one of the places in the Troad which gave names to bishoprics.

Other Ancient Sites.—Many classical sites in the Troad have been identified with more or less certainty. (For and, see separate articles. Neandria seems to be rightly fixed by F. Calvert at Mount Chigri, a hill not far from Alexandria Troas, remarkable for the fine view of the whole Troad which it commands. Cebrene has been conjecturally placed in the eastern part of the plain of Bairamich. Palaeoscepsis was farther east

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Rh on the slopes of Ida, while the new Scepsis was near the site of Bairamich itself. At the village of Kulakli, a little south of the mouth of the Tuzla, some Corinthian columns and other fragments mark the temple of Apollo Smintheus (excavated in 1866 by Pullan) and (approximately) the site of the Homeric Chryse. Colonae was also on the west coast, opposite Tenedos. Scamandria occupied the site of Eneh, in the middle of the plain of Bairamich, and Cenchreae was probably some distance north of it. The shrine of Palamedes, mentioned by -ancient writers as existing at a town called Polymedium, has been discovered by J. T. Clarke on a site hitherto unvisited by any modern traveller, between Assus and Cape Lectum. It proves to have been a sacred enclosure (temenos) on the acropolis of the town; the statue of Palamedes stood on a rock at the middle of its southern edge. Another interesting discovery has been made by Clarke, viz. the existence of very ancient town walls on Gargarus, the highest peak of Ida.
 * (R. C. J.; D. G. H.)

II. The Site of Troy.—Troy is represented now by the important ruins on and about the mound of Hissarlik which underlie those already referred to as surviving from the Hellenistic Ilion. Hissarlik is situated about 3½ m. both from the Dardanelles and from Yeni Keui, which lies on the Aegean coast north of Besika Bay. The famous academic dispute concerning the precise site, which began about 160 with Demetrius of Scepsis, may now be regarded as settled. After the full demonstration, made in 1893, that remains of a fortress exist on the mound of Hissarlik, contemporary with the great period of Mycenae, and larger than the earlier acropolis town first identified by Schliemann with Ilion, no reasonable person has continued to doubt that this last site is the local habitation of the Homeric story. The rival ruins on the Bali Dagh have been shown to be those of a small hill fort which, with another on an opposite crag, commanded the upper Menderes gorge. It is inconceivable that this fort should have been chosen by poets, generally familiar with the locality, as the scene of the great siege, while in the plain between it and the sea there had lain from time immemorial, and lay still in the Mycenaean age, a much more important settlement with massive fortified citadel.

No site in the Troad can be brought into complete accordance with all the topographical data to be ingeniously derived from the text of Homer. The hot and cold springs that lay just without the gate of “Troy” (Il. xxii. 147) are no more to be identified with Bunarbashi, which wells out more than a mile from the Bali Dagh ruins, than with the choked conduits, opened by Schliemann in 1882, to the south of Hissarlik. But the broader facts of geography are recognizable in the modern plain of the Menderes. The old bed of that river is the Scamander and its little tributary, the Dumbrek Su, is the Simois. In their fork lies Hissarlik or Troy. In sight of it are, on the one side, the peak of Samothrace (xiii. 11-14); on the other, the mass of the Kaz Dagh Ida (viii. 52). Hissarlik lies in the plain (xx. 216) less than 4 m. both from the Hellespontine and the Aegean coasts, easily reached day by day by foes from the shore, and possible to be left and regained in a single night by a Trojan visiting the camp of the Greeks (vii. 381-421).

In summarizing what has been found to exist on the mound of Hissarlik in the excavations undertaken there since 1870, it is not advisable to observe the order of the finding, since Schliemann's want of experience and method caused much confusion and error in the earlier revelations. No certainty as to the distinction of strata or their relative ages was possible till Wilhelm Dörpfeld obtained entire control in 1891, after the original explorer's death. There are in all nine strata of ancient settlement.

1. On the virgin soil of the hillock, forming the core of the mound, scanty remains appear of a small village of the late Aegean neolithic period, at the dawn of the Bronze Age, contemporary with the upper part of the Cnossian neolithic bed. This includes what were originally supposed by Schliemann to be two successive primitive settlements. Thin walls of rough stones, bonded with mud, are preserved mainly in the west centre of the mound. No ground plan of a house is recoverable, and there is no sign of an outer fortress wall. In this stratum were found implements in obsidian and other stones, clay whorls, a little worked ivory, and much dark monochrome pottery, either of a rough grey surface or (in the finer examples) treated with resin, highly hand-polished, and showing simple geometric decoration, which was incised and often filled in with a white substance.

2. Superposed on these, remains, where they still exist, but comprehending a much larger area, lies a better constructed and preserved settlement. This has been twice rebuilt. It was enclosed

by a massive fortress wall of rudely squared Cyclopean character, showing different restorations, and now destroyed, except on the south side of the mound. Double gates at the south-east and south-west are well-preserved. The most complete and most important structures within the citadel lie towards the north. These are two rectangular blocks lying north-west to south-east, side by side, of which the southern and larger shows a megaron and vestibule of the type familiar in “Mycenaean” palaces, while the smaller seems a pendant to the larger, like the “women's quarters” at Tiryns and Phylakopi (see ). Other blocks, whose plans are difficult to bring into inter-relation in their present state of ruin, are scattered over the area, but mainly in the south-west. This is the fortress proclaimed by Schliemann in 1873 to be the Pergamos of Troy. But we know that, while his identifications of Homeric topographical details in these ruins were fanciful, a much larger fortress succeeded to this long before the period treated of in the Iliad. The settlement in the second stratum belongs, in fact, to a primitive stage of that local civilization which preceded the Mycenaean; and it is this latter which is recalled by the Homeric poems. The pottery of the second stratum at Hissarlik shows the first introduction of paint, and of the slip and somewhat fantastic forms parallel to those of the pre-Mycenaean style in the Cyclades. The beaked vases, known as schnabelkannen, are characteristic, and rude reproductions of human features are common in this ware, which seems all to be of native fabrication. Bronze had come into use for implements, weapons and utensils; and gold and silver make up a hoarded treasure found in the calcined ruins of the fortification wall near one of the gates. But the forms are primitive and singular, and the workmanship is very rude, the pendants of the great diadems being cutout of very thin plate gold. Disks, bracelets and pendants, showing advanced spiraliform ornament, found mainly in 1878, and then ascribed to this same stratum, belong undoubtedly to a higher one, the sixth or “Mycenaean.” Rough fiddle-shaped idols, whorls, a little worked ivory and some lead make up a find, of whose early period comparison of objects found elsewhere leaves no sort of doubt. This treasure is now deposited in Berlin.

3, 4, 5. This primitive “Troy” suffered cataclysmal ruin (traces of conflagration are everywhere present), and Hissarlik ceased for a time to have any considerable population. Three small village settlements, not much more than farms, were successively erected on the site, and have left their traces superposed one on another, but they yielded no finds of importance.

6. The mound, however, stood in too important a relation to the plain and the sea to remain desolate, and in due time it was covered again by a great fortress, while a city spread out below. The latter has not yet been explored. The remains of this period on the acropolis, however, have now been examined. A portion of them was first distinguished clearly by Dörpfeld in 1882, but owing to the confusion caused by Schliemann's drastic methods of trenching, the pottery and metal objects, really belonging to this stratum, had come to be confused with those of lower strata; and some grey monochrome ware, obviously of Anatolian make, was alone referred to the higher stratum. To this ware Schliemann gave the name “Lydian,” and the stratum was spoken of in his Troja (1884) as the “Lydian city.”

In 1893, however, excavations were carried out on the south of the mound in the hitherto undisturbed round outside the limits of the earlier fortress; and here appeared a second curtain wall of massive ashlar masonry showing architectural features which characterize the “Mycenaean” fortification walls at Mycenae itself, and at Phylakopi in Melos. With this wall was associated not only the grey ware, but a mass of painted potsherds of unmistakably “Mycenaean” character; and further search in the same stratum to west and east showed that such sherds always lay on its floor level. The inevitable inference is that here we have a city, contemporary with the mass of the remains at Mycenae, which imported “Mycenaean” ware to supplement its own ruder products. The area of its citadel is larger than the citadel of the second stratum; its buildings, of which a large megaron on the south-west and several houses on the east remain, are of much finer construction than those which lie lower. This was the most important city yet built on the mound of Hissarlik. It belonged to the “Mycenaean” age, which precedes the composition of the Homeric poems, and is reflected by them. Therefore this is Homer's' Troy.

Its remains, however, having been obliterated on the crown of Hissarlik, almost escaped recognition. When some centuries later a third important city, the Hellenistic Ilion, was built, all the accumulation on the top of the mound was cut away and a terrace made. In this process the then uppermost strata of ruins wholly vanished, their stones being taken to build the new city. The Mycenaean town, however, which had been piled stage upon stage to the summit, descended on the south side a little own the face of the mound; and the remains of its fortifications and houses at that point, lying below the level cut down to by the Hellenistic terrace-makers, were covered by the depositing of rubbish from the crown and again built over. Thus we find them now on the southern slope of the mound only, but have no difficulty in estimating their original extent. Many tombs and a large lower city of this era will doubtless be explored ere long.

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