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Rh has a sanction, express or implied; and, in our case, it is both necessarily implied and expressly given. An attempt by force of arms to destroy a government, is an offence, by whatever means the constitutional compact may have been formed; and such government has the right, by the law of self-defence, to pass acts for punishing the offender, unless that right is modified, restrained, or resumed, by the constitutional act. In our system, although it is modified in the case of treason, yet authority is expressly given to pass all laws necessary to carry its powers into effect, and under this grant provision has been made for punishing acts which obstruct the due administration of the laws.

It would seem superfluous to add anything to show the nature of that union which connects us; but as erroneous opinions on this subject are the foundation of doctrines the most destructive to our peace, I must give some further development to my views on this subject. No one, fellow-citizens, has a higher reverence for the reserved rights of the States, than the magistrate who now addresses you. No one would make greater personal sacrifices, or official exertions, to defend them from violation; but equal care must be taken to prevent on their part an improper interference with, or resumption of, the rights they have vested in the nation. The line has not been so distinctly drawn as to avoid doubts in some cases of the exercise of power. Men of the best intentions and soundest views may differ in their construction of some parts of the Constitution; but there are others on which dispassionate reflection can leave no doubt. Of this nature appears to be the assumed right of secession. It rests, as we have seen, on the alleged undivided sovereignty of the States, and on their having formed in this sovereign capacity a compact which is called the Constitution, from which, because they made it, they have the right to secede. Both of these positions are erroneous, and some of the arguments to prove them so have been anticipated.

The States, severally, have not retained their entire sovereignty. It has been shown that in becoming parts of a nation, not members of a league, they surrendered many of their essential parts of sovereignty. The right to make treaties—declare war—levy taxes—exercise exclusive judicial and legislative powers—were all of them functions of sovereign power. The States, then, for all these important purposes, were no longer sovereign. The allegiance of their citizens was transferred in the first instance, to the government of the United States—they became American citizens, and owed obedience to the Constitution of the United States, and to laws made in conformity with the powers it vested in Congress. This last position has not been, and cannot be denied. How then can that State be said to be sovereign and independent, whose citizens owe obedience to laws not made by it, and whose magistrates are sworn to disregard those laws when they come in conflict with


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 that he became one of the most popular and universally respected of the leading men at the antipodes. When he passed away in March, 1877, at the patriarchal age of eighty-three, all Sydney turned out to honour his remains with a public funeral. He was succeeded by his brilliant young coadjutor. Dr. Vaughan, whose episcopal career in Sydney, though short, was distinguished for bounding ecclesiastical progress and the greatly-increased influence of Catholicism in the land. Dr. Moran, Bishop of Ossory, Ireland, was called to be the third occupant of the primatial see of Australia, and on him the present Sovereign Pontiff, Pope Leo XIII., has conferred the highest of honours, the dignity of the Cardinalate. His Holiness, by that generous act, lifted the young Church of Australia to the same level with those great historical churches of the old world, that can gaze back through long centuries of growth and vicissitude, of faith and fidelity, of triumph and toil.

As the Catholic population of New South Wales increased, three provincial sees were constituted—Maitland, which is governed by the Eight Rev. James Murray, formerly private secretary to the late Cardinal Cullen, in Dublin; Goulburn, which continues to be administered by its first diocesan, Dr. Lanigan, from Cashel, Tipperary; and Bathurst, which was organised by the late Dr. Matthew Quinn, and is now presided over by the Right Rev. Dr. Byrne, one of its pioneer missionaries.

One of the first duties that Dr. Polding discharged on his arrival in Sydney was the dedication of a church to St. Patrick at Parramatta. Finding intemperance to be lamentably prevalent amongst the colonists, the Bishop availed himself of this opportunity to preach a powerful sermon on the subject. In the name of their glorious St. Patrick, he

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Rh health of the victim.

Article 3 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention), has been interpreted by distinguishing the concepts primarily by the degree of suffering inflicted. The European Commission of Human Rights (European Commission) described inhuman treatment as that which "causes severe suffering, mental or physical, which in the particular situation is unjustifiable" and torture as "an aggravated form of inhuman treatment. The European Court of Human Rights (European Court) found the difference between torture and inhuman treatment in the fact that the former attaches "a special stigma to deliberate inhuman treatment causing very serious and cruel suffering." The Court also categorised degrading conduct as that which aroused in its victims feelings of fear, anguish and inferiority leading to humiliation and debasement and possible breaking of their physical or moral resistance. The same Court distinguished between inhuman and degrading punishment in Tyrer v United Kingdom, and held that suffering had to reach a certain level before punishment could be characterised as inhuman. In a case where a juvenile had been sentenced to three strokes of the birch, the Court found that although that level had not been reached, the birching of the minor nevertheless amounted to degrading punishment.

The Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America (Eighth Amendment) as well as Article 12 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Canadian Charter) prohibit "cruel and unusual punishment." In Furman v Georgia, Brennan J postulated criteria in the assessment of what amounts to cruel and unusual

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 entreated his people to show forth the power and the purity of their faith in the propriety of their conduct, to shun all excess and drunkenness as most offensive to the Almighty, derogatory to the memory of a saint distinguished for his abstemiousness, and degrading to the descendants of those noble men whose holy lives obtained for Ireland that most cherished title of the Island of Saints. This advice was urgently needed, for the free immigrants who were constantly arriving were in great danger of being demoralised by the scenes of debauchery they were compelled to witness in the streets of Sydney. But, fortunately, the best friends and protectors of the Irish Catholic immigrant were simultaneously making their presence felt in the now growing community. Dr. Ullathorne, who assumed the office of Vicar-General on the arrival of Dr. Folding, made several voyages to the home country, and returned on each occasion with a further supply of Irish missionary priests, several of whom were destined to fill high places in the Church of the future. Thus it was that, wherever a settlement was formed, the priest was soon on the spot, collecting the Catholic people together, building a modest little church, and establishing a school for the young ones. Many now prosperous and populous cities and towns in New South Wales, having large and wealthy congregations and numerous Catholic institutions, began life in this humble fashion under the presiding care of a pioneer Irish missionary priest.

One of the young clergymen, into whom the untiring Dr. Ullathorne infused some of his own abounding enthusiasm for the promotion of the cause of Catholicity in the colonies, was the Rev. James Alipius Goold, a member of an old Cork family, who had been educated for the priesthood on the continent. Meeting him one day on the steps of the church

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16 Again, how perfect is the image, how effective the development of the third line; how the melody of the last blends with its selected epithets to place the object entire and whole before the mind; how free is the quatrain from any self-intrusion of the poet! But here, too, the method of appeal is very different from Shakespeare's, as in the lines on Yorick's skull: "Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft." The difference in mood between these two only emphasizes the difference in method. Enough has been said, however, in description and exemplification of the two kinds of art. Either is sufficient for its ends, nor would any one desire to dispense with that which has resulted in work so admirable as has been quoted from Landor. The distinctively romantic poets do not consign the classical style to disuse. In the presentation of images, Keats has frequent recourse to it, as in his picture of Autumn lying

So Wordsworth, in expressing ideas, is sometimes more bald than the least imaginative of the classics. But such poets do not


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 lieve, two to his one.’ Harris's workmanship was superior to Smith's, but it may be inferred from the decision at the Temple that the tone of his organs was less powerful or poorer in quality. Harris also shared court patronage with his rival, and supplied the private chapels of James II with organs (Moneys received and paid for Secret Services, Camden Soc., pp. 144, 169, 180, 196). Certain advertisements in the ‘Post Boy,’ 12 and 30 April 1698, point to the continued rivalry between the two masters. Here Harris announces the demonstration at his house, Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, of the ‘division of half a note into fifty gradual and distinguishable parts, and’ (this experiment having been successful) ‘into one hundred parts, not mathematically, but purely by the ear.’ Smith, with others who had declared these feats to be impracticable, was specially invited to attend the first display. The suggestion that Harris should build an organ for St. Paul's Cathedral (Spectator, 3 Dec. 1712) came to nothing. In later life Harris retired to Bristol and followed his business there until his death about 1715.

Rimbault (History of the Organ, p. 127) gives a list of thirty-nine organs built by Harris, in four of which—those at Salisbury, Gloucester, and Worcester cathedrals, and St. Sepulchre's—he assisted his father. Harris supplied organs to the church of St. Sepulchre, Snow Hill, 1670; St. Botolph, Aldgate; St. Dunstan, Stepney; St. Nicholas, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1676; All Hallows Barking, Great Tower Street; Chichester Cathedral, 1678; Lambeth Old Church, 1680; Winchester Cathedral and College Chapel, 1681; St. Michael, Cornhill, 1684; Bristol Cathedral, 1685; Hereford Cathedral and King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 1686; St. Lawrence, Jewry, 1687; St. James's, Piccadilly (intended for Whitehall Catholic Chapel, but given by Queen Mary to the church), 1687; St. Mary, Ipswich, and Christchurch, Newgate Street, 1690 (formerly in Whitehall, now at St. Michael Royal); All Hallows, Lombard Street, 1695; St. Andrew Undershaft, 1696; St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, 1697; St. Andrew, Holborn (this was part of the rejected Temple organ), 1699; St. John's Chapel, Bedford Row, 1703; St. Giles, Cripplegate, 1704; St. Clement, Eastcheap, 1709; Salisbury Cathedral, 1710; St. Bride, Fleet Street; Ely Cathedral; Jesus College, Cambridge (now in All Saints); Wolverhampton Collegiate Church (part of Temple organ); Norwich Cathedral (attributed to Harris); St. John's, Clerkenwell; Bideford Church, Devonshire; Cork Cathedral (probably finished by John Harris); St. Mary's, Dublin (these nine without date); and lastly St. Mary's, Whitechapel, 1715. For the organ in Bristol Cathedral Harris was paid 550l., for that at Hereford 700l., and for that at St. Andrew Undershaft 1,400l. There is a rare print of the organ built for Salisbury Cathedral in 1710. For full particulars of repairs, &c., of the Magdalen College, Oxford, organ, see Bloxam's ‘Registers of Magdalen College, Oxford,’ ii. cxxvi et seq., 289, 347 et seq.

Harris had two sons, (fl. 1737) and Renatus (d. 1727?), both organ-builders. The younger, Renatus, who died early, made the organ for St. Dionis Backchurch, 1724. John had the care of the Magdalen College organ until 1737; in the following year he was living in Red Lion Street, Holborn, and had a partner named Byfield, who married his daughter. Harris and Byfield's organs were supplied to the churches of St. Mary, Shrewsbury, 1729; Grantham, Lincolnshire, 1736; St. Mary, Haverfordwest, 1737; St. Alban, Wood Street, 1738; St. Bartholomew Change and Doncaster parish church, 1740. At Bristol they built organs for St. Mary Redcliffe, St. Thomas, and St. James; the organ now in the church of St. Thomas Southover, Lewes, Sussex, was said to have been made by them for the Duke of Chandos, and removed from Canons in 1747.

HARRIS, RICHARD, D.D. (fl. 1613), theologian, a native of Shropshire, was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of B.A. 1579–80, and acted the character of the ‘Nuntius’ in Dr. Legge's tragedy of ‘Richardus Tertius,’ which was performed in his college. In 1580 he was admitted a fellow of the college. He commenced M.A. in 1583, proceeded B.D. in 1590, and was elected one of the college preachers. He was admitted a senior fellow 11 June 1593, and was created D.D. in 1595. He became rector of Gestingthorp, Essex, 11 Dec. 1597, and rector of Bradwell-juxta-Mare in the same county, 16 Feb. 1612–13. He probably died soon afterwards.

He wrote ‘Concordia Anglicana de primatu Ecclesiæ regio adversus Becanum de dissidio Anglicano,’ London, 1612, 8vo, translated under the title of ‘The English Concord, in answer to Becane's English Jarre, with a reply to Becane's Examen,’ London, 1614, 4to.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wundt, Wilhelm Max

WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832-1920), German philosopher (see ), died at Leipzig Sept. 1 1920. His principal work was done before 1907. At the outset of the World War he published an address justifying Germany, and his Die Nationen und ihre Philosophen (1915) eulogizes German thought and culture whilst belittling those of England and France.


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 Harris [q. v.] was his elder brother. Robert Harris entered the navy in January 1822, and, serving almost continuously in the Mediterranean, was a midshipman of the Euryalus frigate during the little war with Algiers in 1824, and of the Cambrian at the battle of Navarino, 20 Oct. 1827, and when she was wrecked at Carabusa on 31 Jan. 1828. After his return to England early in 1829 he was borne on the books of the Royal George yacht, during which time he was really serving on board the Onyx and Pantaloon, tenders, on the coast of South America, in the West Indies, on the coast of Spain and Portugal, or in the Channel and on the coast of Ireland. On 21 May 1833 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and the following December was appointed to the Excellent, then recently established as a school of gunnery, at Portsmouth, under the command of Captain Thomas Hastings (1790–1870) [q. v.] From her he was appointed in January 1836 to be gunnery-lieutenant of the Melville with Captain Douglas, and, later on, with Richard Saunders Dundas [q. v.], under whose command he served in China, and was specially promoted to the rank of commander on 8 June 1841 for his services in the Canton river, and particularly at the capture of the Bogue forts on 26 Feb. 1841. During 1842, while on half-pay, he studied at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth; and from September 1844 to May 1846 commanded the Flying Fish on the west coast of Africa. In March 1848 he was appointed commander of the Ganges in the Channel fleet with Captain Henry Smith, and from her was promoted to the rank of captain on 19 Oct. 1849. In March 1851 he was appointed to the Prince Regent, also in the Channel fleet, as flag-captain to Commodore William Fanshawe Martin, but left her in May 1852 on Martin's being relieved by Rear-admiral Corry. It is interesting to trace these details of his service under such officers as Hastings, Dundas, and Martin, as explaining and illustrating his peculiar fitness for the appointment which he received in January 1854 to the Illustrious, then commissioned as training ship for landsmen entered into the navy, according to a plan of Sir James Graham's, and who consequently became generally known as ‘Jemmy Graham's novices.’ In his discharge of this new and exceptional duty Harris displayed such ability and resource that when, in 1857, it was determined to give effect to a long-mooted scheme for improving the elementary education and training of young officers, the execution of it was entrusted to Harris, in the first instance on board the Illustrious, from which, on 1 Jan. 1859, he and the cadets were moved to the Britannia, then in Portsmouth harbour, but in November 1861 sent to Portland. Harris continued to hold this difficult and important post till October 1862, during which time the system of education of naval cadets took form, and was permanently established on its present basis. He had no further employment, and died at Southsea, 16 Jan. 1865. Harris married in 1843 Priscilla Sophia, daughter of Captain Penruddocke of the Fusilier guards, and left issue a son, Robert Hastings, now a captain in the navy, and two daughters.

 HARRIS, SAMUEL (1682–1733), first professor of modern history at Cambridge, was born on 9 Dec. 1682, entered Merchant Taylors' School on 11 Sept. 1694, and proceeded to Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. 1703, M.A. 1707, and was elected fellow. He was Craven scholar of the university in 1701. In October 1724 he was admitted first regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. The professorship was founded by George I in the previous May. Harris's inaugural lecture (in Latin) was printed. He died on 21 Dec. 1733 (Gent. Mag. 1733, p. 663).

Harris was author of a very curious and learned commentary on the 53rd chapter of Isaiah, which his widow Mary issued after his death in 1735 (London, 4to), and dedicated to Queen Caroline.

 HARRIS, THOMAS (d. 1820), proprietor and manager of Covent Garden Theatre, came of a respectable family, and was brought up in trade. In the autumn of 1767, in connection with George Colman the elder [q. v.], Rutherford, and William Powell, he purchased from John Beard [q. v.] the patent of Covent Garden Theatre, which that actor had held since the death of his father-in-law, Rich. The theatre opened 14 Sept. 1767, with the ‘Rehearsal,’ in which Powell spoke an occasional prologue by Whitehead, containing the lines: For Brentford's state two kings could once suffice, In ours behold four kings of Brentford rise. Colman undertook the management; a violent quarrel between Harris and Colman arose during the first season in consequence of the pretensions of Mrs. Lessingham, an actress with whom Harris lived. Colman,


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 with whom Powell sided, barricaded the theatre, and Harris, supported by Rutherford, broke it forcibly open. Legal proceedings and a pamphlet warfare [for which see ] followed. On 23 July 1770 a legal decision of the commissioners of the great seal reinstated Colman as acting manager, subject to the advice and inspection, but not the control, of his fellows. Powell meanwhile had died 3 July 1769. On the resignation, 26 May 1774, by Colman of his post, Harris undertook the duties of stage-manager, which he discharged until his death. He was accused of sacrificing to spectacle the best interests of the drama. He behaved liberally to actors, however, and maintained a good reputation and some personal popularity. A daughter died in 1802, aged 15, and a son, George, lived to be a captain in the royal navy. A sister of Harris married into the family of the Longmans, the well-known publishers, and in the present possession of the Longman family is a portrait of Harris by Opie, showing him a fresh-complexioned, cultivated-looking man. A large number of documents—mortgages to his brother-in-law Longman of Harris's share in Covent Garden and the like—are also in the hands of the Longmans, and, while throwing little light on the life of Harris, are curious as regards the history of Covent Garden. Harris died on 1 Oct. 1820 at his cottage near Wimbledon, and was buried in his family vault at Hillingdon, near Uxbridge.

HARRIS, WALTER, M.D. (1647–1732), physician, born in Gloucester in 1647, was a scholar of Winchester College, and thence went to New College, Oxford, of which society he was elected a fellow in 1666. He took his B.A. degree on 10 Oct. 1670. Soon after he joined the church of Rome, resigned his fellowship, and went to study medicine in France. He graduated M.D. at Bourges on 20 July 1675, and settled in London in 1676. Three years later, during the commotions about a popish plot, he published ‘A Farewell to Popery,’ 1679, and soon after was incorporated M.D. at Cambridge. He was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians 30 Sept. 1682, was five times censor, four times (1699, 1707, 1713, and 1726) Harveian orator, and treasurer from 1714 to 1717 inclusive. From 1710 to 1732 he delivered the Lumleian lectures at the College of Physicians. His first medical book was published in 1683, ‘Pharmacologia Anti-Empirica, or a Rational Discourse of Remedies both Chymical and Galenical,’ and gives a popular account of the six great remedies, mercury, antimony, vitriol, iron, bark (quinine), and opium, with explanations of the nature of several superstitious remedies, such as broth in which gold had been boiled for consumption, amulets, and charms. A very empty essay on the causes of gout is intercalated, with no discoverable reason but that the Duke of Beaufort, to whom the whole work is dedicated, was threatened with attacks of that disorder. Harris was physician in ordinary to Charles II in 1683, and soon after the revolution he was appointed physician to William III, and in 1694 attended Queen Mary in her last illness. He has described (Observations on several grievous Diseases) the stages and appearances of the hæmorrhagic eruption of small-pox, of which she died, and mentions that he sat up with her throughout the night succeeding the sixth day of her disease. She died two days later, and he was present at the post-mortem examination of her body. King William took him with him to Holland on his campaign there, and probably talked to him of gardening, as on his return Harris published ‘A Description of the King's Royal Palace and Garden at Loo,’ London, 1699. While in Holland he published at Amsterdam (1698) ‘De morbis acutis Infantum,’ a work which acquired a reputation beyond its merits, was translated into English (1742), French (1730), and German (1713), and was not supplanted by any other work in England till the publication in 1784 of the much more valuable treatise of Michael Underwood [q. v.] It is written in imitation of Sydenham, whom Harris knew and admired, but it lacks the sound basis of long clinical observation which makes Sydenham's work of permanent value. When Harris asked Sydenham for advice as to his medical studies, the great physician is said to have told him to read ‘Don Quixote,’ meaning that he should learn from Cervantes how accurate a knowledge of man may be gained by observation. (Dr. Johnson tells the same story of Richard Blackmore [q. v.], who also applied to Sydenham for advice.) Harris did not possess sufficient ability to profit by Sydenham's counsel. In 1707 he printed his Harveian oration, and in 1720 published in London ‘De morbis aliquot gravioribus Observationes,’ of which the most interesting part is his account of Queen Mary's illness and death. ‘De Peste Dissertatio,’ London, 1721, and ‘Dissertationes Medicæ et Chirurgicæ habitæ in amphitheatro collegii regalis medicorum Londiniensium,’ 1725, are his remaining medical works. The dissertations are his Lumleian lectures, and con-


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Rh employ this style alone; they are characterized by the modern manner; they give us those "sweet views" which in the ancient mode "can never well be seen." Landor droops below his great contemporaries, not by merely adopting the classical method, but by adopting it exclusively. Whether this choice was entirely free, or partly determined by natural incapacity, is doubtful. Violent and tempestuous as his nature was, with all his boyish intensity of indignation, his boyish delicacy of tenderness, he seems to possess temper rather than true passion. In the verses to his poetic love, Ianthe, there are many fine sentiments, graceful turns; there is courtliness of behavior; but the note of passion is not struck. Ianthe is only another poetic mistress of the cavalier school, and in the memory her name is less, both for dignity and pathos, than Rose Aylmer's. Without passion, of course, a poet is condemned to the classical style. Passion is the element in which the romantic writer fuses beauty and wisdom; it is the means by which personality pervades literary work with most ease, directness, and glow. In the great modern poets it is the substance of their genius. But just as neither by a


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Württemberg

WÜRTTEMBERG (see ). Pop. according to 1919 census, 2,518,773. During 1910-1921 the constitutional question in Württemberg passed through decisive developments. The constitution dating from Sept. 20 1819 was one of the oldest in Germany. Created by a contract between the King and the Assembly of Estates, it was based upon the people's will and could, for that very reason, be maintained almost without alteration for close upon a century.

The first alteration of any importance was made in 1906, when Württemberg introduced, before any other German state, the proportional system of election for the Second Chamber of

the Diet. The result of the elections of 1906 was such that the two Liberal parties on the one side and the Catholic Centre and the Conservatives on the other were equally strong, so that the Social Democrats held the balance. The elections of 1912 brought about a fresh grouping of parties. The Conservatives and the Catholic Centre (forming together the so-called “Black-and-Blue bloc”) returned as many deputies as all the other parties together, with the consequence that very keen opposition developed between the Right and the Left. The composition of the Ministry, it is true, was not affected by the constellation of parties, as the government of Württemberg was not on the parliamentary system. The Weizsäcker Ministry remained in office and continued to conduct its policy on the liberal lines which had always been followed in Württemberg. The demand for the appointment of parliamentary ministers, which had been vigorously prosecuted by the Democratic (non-Socialist) party during the World War, was rejected by the Weizsäcker Ministry, notwithstanding its liberal tendencies, until the change in the constitution of the Empire under Prince Max of Baden's chancellorship in Oct. 1918 compelled the Württemberg Government to give way. The Weizsäcker Ministry resigned. A new Ministry was formed, containing a member of each of the four parties, the Catholic Centre, the National Liberal, the Democrats and the Social Democrats. The Democrat Liesching was made president of the Ministry. This new Ministry was going to meet on Nov. 8, but on Nov. 9 the revolution broke out in Stuttgart and on Nov. 10 the Liesching Cabinet resigned. A provisional Government was formed, consisting at first entirely of Social Democrats. The most extreme members of this Government, however, were ejected on Nov. 11, and a member of each of the three parties, the Centre, the Democrats and the National Liberals, entered the Cabinet. After the disturbances which broke out in Jan. 1919 the Independent Socialists left the Ministry, and its composition then remained unaltered until the general election of the year 1920.

The King, William II. (born 1848), had abdicated on Nov. 30 1918 and retained only the title of Duke of Württemberg. He subsequently lived mostly at Bebenhausen Castle in the Black Forest, where he died on Oct. 2 1921. The headship of the family passed to Duke Albrecht of Württemberg. The abolition of the monarchy in Württemberg was solely a consequence of the fall of the Hohenzollern monarchy in the empire. The King of Württemberg himself had enjoyed great popularity, which extended into the ranks of the Social Democrats. The democratic tendencies which had always prevailed in Württemberg had, after the revolution, the favourable effect of enabling the Territory (Land) to settle down with comparative rapidity, and the coöperation of the so-called “bourgeois” (i.e. non-Socialist) parties with the Social Democrats took place without any serious friction.

After Nov. 9 1918 Württemberg experienced no further political convulsion of a serious character. The disturbances of Jan. 1919 were quickly suppressed. The attempt of the extremists among the working classes to cause disturbances by a general strike was frustrated by the action of the railway officials in paralysing the communications with Stuttgart. The Bavarian Communist insurrection produced no effect in Württemberg; it was, on the contrary, suppressed with the aid of Württemberg troops before it could spread across the border. During the so-called Kapp “Putsch” (March 1920) the Government of the Reich and the National Assembly removed for a short time from Berlin to Stuttgart because they felt that they would be safest in the capital of Württemberg.

The provisional Government of Württemberg issued on Nov. 2 1918 regulations for the election of a Representative Assembly which should meet and vote the new constitution. The elections of Jan. 12 1919 resulted in the return of 52 Social Democrats, 38 Democrats, 31 members of the Catholic Centre, 25 Conservatives and 4 Independent Socialists. The Assembly first confirmed the Government in office and then proceeded to deal with the new constitution. It was voted on April 26 against a minority of nine by the whole of the rest of the House. Most of the

were amongst the majority; the minority consisted of a few Conservatives and the Independent Socialists. Württemberg was the second state of the Reich which deduced the consequence of the revolution by setting up a new constitution; Baden alone preceded it. The constitution of Württemberg naturally resembles that of Baden in many respects, but also differs from it in several important particulars. Moreover, the constitution which came into force on May 23 1919 was not definitive. As the constitution of the Reich had considerably restricted the rights of the separate states which composed it, a reconsideration of the constitution of Württemberg became necessary and large sections of it were eliminated. On Sept. 25 1919, exactly 100 years after the adoption of the first Württemberg constitution, the new constitution was finally voted.

The constitution of Württemberg could not fail to resemble that of the other German states, since the constitution of the Reich prescribes for all the states that they must be republics and have a parliamentary government. The powers of the state in Württemberg proceed from the people and are transferred by the people to the Diet; the people can, however, resume the powers of the state by dissolving the Diet or by giving a popular vote (Volksabstimmung) on a law. Such a vote may be passed either upon a referendum or upon a popular initiative. In contrast to Baden, there is no compulsory referendum.

The Diet transfers the executive power to the Government. At the head of the Government there is the Minister-President, who has the title of President of the State (Staatspräsident); but in Württemberg, as in Baden, there is no head of the state independent of the Diet. The Ministry is formed by the Diet's electing the President of the State, who selects the Ministry in accord with the Diet. (The same procedure is followed in Bavaria and Baden.) The administration, however, is not conducted by the Ministry as a whole, but by individual ministers. A peculiarity of the Württemberg constitution is that councils (Beiräte), formed from the different classes according to occupations (Berufsstände), are attached to the ministries. Elections for the Diet take place every four years. No provision is made for a dissolution of the Diet except that, as already mentioned, the Diet can be dismissed by a vote of the people.

The constitution of Württemberg was framed by those parties which restored order in the country after the revolution—the Social Democrats, the Democrats and the Catholic Centre. At the elections of June 1920 these parties, particularly the Social Democrats and the Democrats, were considerably weakened, while the parties to the Right and the Left of them gained. As in the Reich the result of the general elections compelled the Government to resign; the Württemberg Government took this course, although there was no absolute necessity. The new Government of Herr Hieber was composed of members of the Democratic and the Catholic Centre parties, but was nevertheless supported by the German People's Party (former National Liberals) and the Social Democrats. The change of government did not entail any essential alteration in the policy of Württemberg. (Author:Wilhelm von Blume)


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 tain much praise of Sydenham, but very little original observation. In 1727 he published a short theological treatise, ‘The Works of God.’ He died on 1 Aug. 1732 at his house in Red Lion Square, London.

HARRIS, WALTER (1686–1761), Irish historiographer, born in 1686, was son of Hopton Harris of Mountmellick in Queen's County, Ireland, who served as a lieutenant of the Williamite militia in the Irish wars of 1690–1. Walter Harris entered Kilkenny school in 1701, was admitted in 1704 to Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained a scholarship in 1707, but was soon after expelled for having joined with other students in a disturbance; afterwards, in 1753, he received the honorary degree of doctor of laws. He was called to the bar in 1713, and in November 1716 married Elizabeth, daughter of the Rev. Thomas Waye of Killree, co. Kilkenny. She died in the following month, and Harris subsequently married Elizabeth Ware, a great-grandchild of Sir James Ware. From this connection appears to have originated the design, which occupied him for many years, of publishing an English edition of the Latin works of Sir James Ware relating to Ireland. In 1748 Harris received a pension of 100l. from the Irish government to enable him to continue his historical researches; in 1755 he presented a petition to the House of Commons at Dublin, praying for assistance to enable him to publish a history of Ireland. The parliamentary committee on the petition reported that the publication of Harris's collection of materials for the history of Ireland would be highly serviceable to the public, and that the cost of printing 750 copies would amount to a sum not exceeding 2,660l. The scheme was not carried out, but Harris's transcripts were subsequently purchased by parliament, and given into the custody of the Dublin Society. Harris died at Dublin on 26 July 1761. He was appointed vicar-general of the protestant bishop of Meath in 1753.

Before Harris began his labours on Ware's Latin works, some of them had appeared in an inaccurate English translation in London in 1705. Harris issued, in 1739, a folio volume illustrated with engravings and entitled ‘The whole works of Sir James Ware concerning Ireland, revised and improved. Volume I., containing the history of the bishops of that kingdom, and such matters, ecclesiastical and civil, in which they were concerned, from the first propagation of Christianity therein to the present time.’ Harris not only translated Ware's account of the bishops, but enlarged it and continued it in the protestant succession to 1739. The first part of the second volume of Harris's edition of Ware's works appeared in 1745. It contained a revised and enlarged version in English of Ware's treatise, ‘De Hibernia et antiquitatibus ejus.’ The second part of the second volume was published in 1746 with the title, ‘The writers of Ireland. In two books. I. Of such writers who were born in Ireland. II. Of such writers who, though foreigners, enjoyed preferments or offices in Ireland, or had their education in it.’ Harris stated that he had made ‘many material additions to the original work,’ continuing it ‘down to the beginning of the present century.’ Harris's contribution is mainly compiled from printed books. His treatment of writers in the Irish language is throughout defective and inaccurate. Lists of religious treatises and sermons fill many pages. The latest writer mentioned is Jonathan Swift. The unsold copies of Harris's edition of Ware's writings were reissued at Dublin with new title-pages in 1764.

Harris's other works, all published in Dublin, were:
 * 1) ‘Historiographorum aliorumque scriptorum Hiberniæ commentarium, or a history of the Irish writers,’ Dublin, 1736, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘Hibernica, or some ancient pieces relating to the history of Ireland,’ 1747, folio; with ‘An essay on the defects in the histories of Ireland, and remedies proposed for the amendment and reformation thereof,’ addressed to Baron Newport, chancellor of Ireland. In this Harris mentions the materials existing, so far as he knew, for a history of Ireland, and states that he had transcribed numerous documents on the subject. A second part of the ‘Hibernica’ appeared in 1750. A third part was prepared for the press, but never published. The manuscript now belongs to the writer of the present article. The two published parts were reprinted together in 1770, Dublin, 1 vol. 8vo.
 * 3) A ‘History of William III,’ printed anonymously, Dublin, 1747, 4 vols. Harris complained that this work had been issued, contrary to his wishes, in a curtailed form by the bookseller, who had undertaken the cost of its publication. Harris accordingly published in 1749 his unabridged history of the life and reign of William III, fol., dedicated to the earl of Harrington, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and illustrated with engravings.
 * 4) ‘Fiction unmasked, or an answer to a Dialogue lately published by a Popish physician. … In a dialogue between a Protestant and a Papist,’ 1752, 8vo; a polemical tract intended to controvert statements printed by Dr. John Curry and other writers on the movements of the Irish in 1641.


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18 of life nor in any other way did Landor fill his subject with himself, so neither by passion nor by any other quality did he breathe his own spirit into his style.

The consequence is that Landor, unclassified in his own age, is now to be ranked among the poets, increasing in number, who appeal rather to the artistic than to the poetic sense. He is to be placed in that group which looks on art as a world removed; which prizes it mainly for the delight it gives; which, caring less for truth, deals chiefly with the beauty that charms the senses; and which therefore weaves poetry like tapestry, and uses the web of speech to bring out a succession of fine pictures. The watchwords of any school, whether in thought or art, seldom awake hostility until their bearing on the details of practice reveals their meaning. Art is, in a sense, a world removed from the actual and present life, and beauty is the sole title that admits any work within its limits. Of this there is no question. But that world, however far from what is peculiar to any one age, has its eternal foundations in universal life; and that beauty has its enduring power because it is the incarnation of universal life. What


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Rh poem has a better right to admission there than The Eve of St. Agnes? and in what poem does the heart of life beat more warmly? Laodamia belongs in that world, but it is because it voices abiding human feelings no less than because of its serenity. Nature in itself is savage, sterile, and void; individual life in itself is trifling: each obtains its value through its interest to humanity as a whole, and the office of art is to set forth that value. A lovely object, a noble action, are each of worth to men, but the latter is of the more worth; and, as was long ago pointed out, poetry is by the limitations of language at a considerable disadvantage in treating of formal beauty. But without developing these remarks, of which there is no need, the only point here to be made is that in so far as poetry concerns itself with objects without relation to ideas, it loses influence; in so far as it neglects emotion and thought for the purpose of gaining sensuous effects it loses worth; in both it declines from the higher to the lower levels. Landor, notwithstanding his success in presenting objects of artistic beauty—and his poetry is full of exquisite delineations of them—failed to interest men; nor could his


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20 skill in expressing thought, although he was far more intellectual than his successors, save his reputation. Landor mistook a few of the marks of art for all. His work has the serenity, the remoteness, that characterize high art, but it lacks an intimate relation with the general life of men; it sets forth formal beauty, as painting does, but that beauty remains a sensation, and does not pass into thought. This absence of any vital relation between his art and life, between his objects and ideas, denotes his failure. There are so many poets whose works contain as perfect beauty, and in addition truth and passion; so many who instead of mirroring beauty make it the voice of life,—who instead of responding in melodious thought to the wandering winds of reverie strike their lyres in the strophe and antistrophe of continuous song,—that the world is content to let Landor go by. The guests at the famous late dinner-party to which he looked forward will indeed be very few, and they will be men of leisure.

Thus far, in examining the work of Landor as a whole, and endeavoring to understand somewhat the public indifference to it, the answer has been found in its objectivity


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Rh and its discontinuity, both springing from the effacement of his personality as an active power; or, in other words, in the fact that, by failing to link his images with his thoughts, and his thoughts one with another, so as to make them tell on the mind, and especially by eliminating the romantic element of passion, he failed to bring his work into sympathetic or helpful relations with the general emotional and intellectual life of men.

Why, then, do the most sensitive and discriminating critics, as was said at the beginning, list themselves in Landor's favor? They are, without exception, fellow-workers with him in the craft of literature. They have, by their continued eulogy of him, made it a sign of refinement to be charmed by him, a proof of unusually good taste to praise him. His admirers, by their very divergence in opinion from the crowd, seem to claim uncommon sensibilities; and the coterie is certainly one of the highest order, intellectually: Browning, Lowell, Swinburne, to name no more. They are all literary men. They are loud in their plaudits of his workmanship, but are noticeably guarded in their commendation of his entire


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  from March 1835 to December 1837. On his return to India Harris was appointed executive engineer at Belgaum in January 1838, and field engineer to the Scinde force in December of the same year. In December 1840 he was made superintending engineer to the southern provinces, and in September 1841 was sent in charge of a mission to open up relations with the ancient Christian kingdom of Shoa (Shwa) in the highlands of Abyssinia. He returned to England bearing a commercial treaty with that state, and was knighted for his services (London Gazette, 7 June 1844). Harris was executive engineer at Dharwar Dion in 1846, and at Poona in February 1847, and on 5 Feb. 1848 was appointed superintending engineer, northern provinces. He died of lingering fever at Surwur, near Poona, 9 Oct. 1848.

Harris appears to have communicated an account of his travels in South Africa to the Royal Geographical Society, London, and the Geographical Society of Bombay. A further account, entitled ‘Narrative of an Expedition in South Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Tropic of Capricorn in the years 1836–1837,’ was published at Bombay in 1838. Under the title ‘Wild Sports in South Africa, being a Narrative,’ &c., the same work appeared in London in 1841, and in subsequent editions. Harris, who was an excellent artist, also published ‘Portraits of the Game Animals of Southern Africa, drawn from Life in their Natural Haunts,’ reproduced on stone by F. Howard, London, 1840, folio; and ‘Highlands of Ethiopia, a Narrative of a Mission to the Kingdom of Shoa,’ London, 1844, 8vo, of which several editions have appeared. The following papers are entered under his name in the Royal Society's ‘Catalogue of Scientific Papers:’ ‘Description of a New Species of Antelope’ (Aigocerus niger), Zoological Society's ‘Transactions,’ 1842, ii. 213–16, and ‘Proceedings,’ 1838, vi. 1–3; ‘Account of the Trees producing Myrrh and Frankincense,’ Linnean Society's ‘Proceedings,’ 1849, i. 181–3, Froriep Notizen, 1844, vol. xxx. cols. 182–4.

HARRIS, WILLIAM GEORGE, second (1782–1845), lieutenant-general, eldest son of, first lord Harris [q. v.] was born 19 Jan. 1782. After being at a private military academy at Chelsea under Captain Reynolds, Harris was appointed ensign in the 76th foot in May 1795, and the year after was promoted to be lieutenant in the 74th highlanders, which he joined at Wallajabad, Madras, in 1797. With that regiment he served in the army commanded by his father throughout the campaign of 1799 against Tippoo Sahib, and at the capture of Seringapatam was one of the storming-party and among the first to enter the fortress, for which he was commended on the spot by General Baird. He was sent home in charge of the captured Mysorean and French standards, which he had the honour of presenting to George III. Promoted to a company in the 49th foot (16 Oct. 1800), he joined that regiment in Jersey, and afterwards embarked with it on board the fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Admiral Nelson. He was on board the Glatton at the battle of Copenhagen and in the Baltic cruise (for particulars see Nelson Desp. iv. 299 et seq.) In 1802 he accompanied his regiment to Canada, and won the confidence of Sir Isaac Brock [q. v.], who was then colonel of the regiment. Promoted to a majority in the 73rd, he was on his way to join that regiment in India when the expedition under Sir David Baird was despatched in the autumn of 1805 for the recapture of the Cape. Harris joined it as a volunteer, and was present at the landing and action with the Dutch army at Blue Berg. On his arrival in India he found his regiment had returned home, whither he followed it, after visiting China. In 1809, when about to embark with the regiment for New South Wales, he was counter-ordered and posted to the command of the newly raised 2nd battalion at home. In September 1812 Harris stood for Coventry, but retired in favour of [q. v.] In 1813 he was embarked with his battalion on ‘a particular service,’ but was ordered to join the troops under General Gibbs sent to Stralsund in Swedish Pomerania. Harris was then detached with his battalion into the interior to get into communication with the army under Lieutenant-general Count Walmoden. Creeping with his small force between the huge army corps under Davoust and other French marshals then in Pomerania, Mecklenburg, and Hanover, Harris succeeded in reaching Walmoden, and contributed to the victory at Göhrde in Hanover 16 Sept. 1813, when, after the German hussars had been repulsed, he charged up a hill with his battalion, capturing a French battery in very gallant style, and causing a panic among the defenders. In November the battalion re-embarked at Warnemunde in the Gulf of Lubeck, and on arriving at Yarmouth was ordered to join the army before Antwerp under Sir [q. v.] During the succeeding opera-


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22 ; the passages for which they express unstinted enthusiasm are few. Landor was, beyond doubt, a master-workman, and skill in workmanship is dear to the craft; others may feel its effects, but none appreciate it with the keen relish of the professional author. The fullness, power, and harmony of Landor's language are clearly evident in his earliest work. He had the gift of literary expression from his youth, and in his mature work it shows as careful and high cultivation as such a gift ever received from its possessor. None could give keener point and smoother polish to a short sentence; none could thread the intricacies of long and involved constructions more unerringly. He had at command all the grammatical resources of lucidity, though he did not always care to employ them. He knew all the devices of prose composition to conceal and to disclose; to bring the commonplace to issue in the unexpected; to lead up, to soften, to hesitate, to declaim; to extort all the supplementary and new suggestions of an old comparison; to frame a new and perfect simile; in short, he was thoroughly trained to his art. Yet his prose is not, by present canons, perfect prose. It is not self-possessed,


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28 man's work is of service to mankind in proportion as, by expressing himself in it, by filling it with his own personality, he fills it with human interest.


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Rh, and graceful conversation, modulated, making its points without aggressive insistence, yet with certainty, keeping interest alive by a brilliant but natural turn and by the brief and luminous flash of truth through a perfect phrase. His prose is rather the monologue of a seer. In reading his works one feels somewhat as if sitting at the feet of Coleridge. Landor has the presence that abashes companions. His manner of speech is more dignified, more ceremonial, his enunciation is more resonant, his accent more exquisite, than belong to the man of the world. He silences his readers by the mere impossibility of interrupting with a question so noble and smooth-sliding a current of words. The style is a sort of modern Miltonic; it has the suggestion of the pulpit divine in Hooker, the touch of formal artificiality that characterizes the first good English prose. Landor goes far afield for his vocables; his page is a trifle too polysyllabic, has too much of the surface glitter of Latinity. But in the age that produced the styles of De Quincey, Ruskin, and Carlyle, it would be mere folly to find fault because Landor did not write, we will not say after the French fashion, but after the fashion of Swift, at


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24 his highest and on his level, the unrivaled master of simple English prose. Landor, at his best, is not so picturesque as De Quincey, nor so eloquent as Ruskin, nor so intense as Carlyle; but he has more self-possession, more serenity, more artistic charm, a wider compass, a more equal harmony, than any of these.

Landor pleases his fellow-craftsmen, however, not only by this general command of language as a means of expression, but by the perfection of form in his short pieces. Perfection of form is the great feature of classical art; it is an intellectual virtue, at least in literature, and appeals to the mind. The moderns are lacking in it. Landor's command of form was limited, insufficient for the construction of a drama; impressive as Count Julian is, it has not this final excellence. Landor's power in this respect is analogous to Herrick's; it is perfect only within narrow bounds; but it lacks Herrick's spontaneity. His verses are not the "swallow flights of song;" he was not a singer. The lyric on Rose Aylmer is entirely exceptional, and much of its charm lies in the beauty of the name, the skillful repetition, and, we must add, in the memory of


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  Harris distinguished himself in the presence of the Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV) by storming and capturing the village of Merxem. He remained with his battalion in the Low Countries after the peace of 1814, and in May 1815 joined the Duke of Wellington's army. The 2nd battalion 73rd was brigaded with the 2nd battalions 30th and 69th and the 33rd foot, under Sir [q. v.], and suffered heavily at Quatre Bras and Waterloo. At Waterloo Harris was shot through the right shoulder. He returned home with the battalion, and retired soon after on half-pay of the Bourbon regiment. On his retirement the officers of the 73rd presented him with a splendid sword. Harris became a major-general in 1821, and held a staff command in Ireland from May 1823 to June 1825, and commanded the northern district in England from 1825 to July 1828, where he rendered good service in quelling the civil disturbances in the manufacturing districts. He became colonel of the 86th regiment in 1832; colonel of the 73rd foot in 1835, and lieutenant-general in 1837. He was a C.B., K.C.H., and a knight of Wilhelm the Lion in the Netherlands.

In his early years Harris was an expert athlete and swimmer. As a commanding officer he was strict but kind, and appeared to have been liked by his soldiers as well as by his officers. After succeeding to the peerage as second Lord Harris in 1829, he lived in retirement on his estate at Belmont, near Faversham, Kent. He was twice married: first, 17 Oct. 1809, to Eliza Selina Ann, daughter of William Dick, M.D., of Tullymet House, Perthshire, and by her, who died 25 Jan. 1817, had two sons and one daughter; secondly, 28 May 1824, Isabella Handcock, only daughter of Robert Handcock Temple of Waterstown, Westmeath, who survived him, and by whom he had three sons and one daughter. He died at Belmont, after a few days' illness, on 30 May 1845, and was succeeded by his eldest son by his first wife [see, third ].

HARRIS, WILLIAM SNOW (1791–1867), electrician, born at Plymouth on 1 April 1791, was the only son of Thomas Harris, solicitor, by Mary, daughter of William E. Snow, of the same town. After attending Plymouth grammar school he was sent to the university of Edinburgh to study medicine. He commenced as a militia surgeon, and was afterwards a general practitioner in Plymouth. On his marriage in 1824 with Elizabeth Snow, eldest daughter of Richard Thorne of Pilton, near Barnstaple, Devonshire, he abandoned his profession in order to devote himself exclusively to electricity. He had already, in 1820, invented a new method of arranging the lightning-conductors of ships, the peculiarity of which was that the metal was permanently fixed in the masts and extended throughout the hull. He was also the inventor of an improved mariner's compass, and to him is due the first idea of a disc electrometer. In December 1826 he communicated to the Royal Society, at the invitation of Sir H. Davy, the president, a valuable paper ‘On the Relative Powers of various Metallic Substances as Conductors of Electricity,’ and in 1831 he was elected a fellow. His papers contributed to the society in 1834, 1836, and 1839, on the elementary laws of electricity, contain his best work. To the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of which he also became a fellow, he communicated in 1827, 1839, and 1833, various interesting accounts of his experiments and discoveries in electricity and magnetism. In 1835 he was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society, in recognition of the value of his papers on the laws of electricity of high tension. In 1839 he delivered the Bakerian lecture, his subject being ‘Inquiries concerning the Elementary Laws of Electricity.’ Meanwhile, in 1839, the general adoption of his lightning-conductors in the royal navy had been strongly recommended by a mixed naval and scientific commission; and though the naval authorities still continued to offer various objections to his invention, the government in 1841 conferred on him an annuity of 300l., ‘in consideration of services in the cultivation of science.’ Harris met objections to his system by publishing a work on ‘Thunderstorms’ (1843), which failed, however, to attract attention. He also contributed a series of papers on the defence of ships and buildings from lightning to the ‘Nautical Magazine’ for 1834 (published collectively in 1835). He developed his case in letters and pamphlets, which he circulated among persons of influence. His system was employed in the Russian navy long before it was admitted into our own, and in 1845 the czar


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 a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine, however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.

The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name (“beautiful city”) shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have been found.

 GALLIPOLI (Turk. Gelibolu, anc.  ), a seaport and city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40° 24′ N. and 26° 40′ 30″ E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are a few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian (483–565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I. (1389–1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.

The district (sanjak) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises four kazas (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however, amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation.

There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself, except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports was £80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats’ skins and sheepskins are also exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and groceries.

The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century At an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.

 GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet above the river’s high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city’s manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer (1747–1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen. This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still known as the “French Grant”), however, was ever occupied by them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first chartered as a city in 1865.

See Theodore T. Belote, The Scioto Speculation and the French Settlement at Gallipolis (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No. 3 of the University Studies of the University of Cincinnati.

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Rh Lamb's fondness for it. Familiar as it is, it would be unjust not to quote it:—

Ordinarily, however, Landor deals with a beautiful image or one fine sentiment. His objectivity, his discontinuity, help him here; they insure that simplicity and singleness which are necessary for success. The lack of any temptation in his mind to expound and suggest is probably one reason why he rejected the sonnet, certainly the most beautiful poetic mould to give shape to such detached thoughts and feelings. He scorned the sonnet; it was too long for him; he must be even more brief. He would present the object at once, instead of gradually, as the sonnet does; not unveiling the perfect and naked image until the last word has trembled away. His best work of this kind is in the quatrain, which is rather the moralist's than the poet's form,—Martial's, not Horace's.


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Harrison presented him with a handsome ring and vase. At length the efficiency of his system was officially recognised, and Harris received the honour of knighthood (1847), and subsequently a grant of 5,000l. In 1860 he was appointed scientific referee of government in all matters connected with electricity, and superintended the fitting up of his conductors at the royal palaces, the houses of parliament, the powder magazines, the royal mausoleum at Frogmore, and other public buildings. Harris resumed his researches, but made no further important discoveries. His handbooks of ‘Electricity’ (1848), ‘Magnetism’ (1850–2), and ‘Galvanism’ (1856), contributed to Weale's Rudimentary Series, were clearly written, and passed through several editions. Harris died at 6 Windsor Villas, Plymouth, on 22 Jan. 1867. He was an accomplished musician, performing on both harp and piano, and an excellent conversationalist. At the time of his death he had in preparation a ‘Treatise on Frictional Electricity,’ which was published posthumously in the same year (1867) with a memoir of the author by Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. He was also author of: 1. ‘Observations on the Effects of Lightning on Floating Bodies; with an account of a new method of applying fixed and continuous conductors of electricity to the masts of ships,’ 1823. 2. ‘On the Utility of fixing Lightning-Conductors in Ships,’ 1830. 3. ‘On the Protection of Ships from Lightning’ [1837]. 4. ‘State of the Question relating to the Protection of the British Navy from Lightning by the method of Fixed Conductors of Electricity, as proposed by Mr. Snow Harris,’ privately printed, 1838. 5. ‘Remarkable Instances of the Protection of certain Ships of her Majesty's Navy from the Destructive Effects of Lightning. To which is added a list of two hundred and twenty cases of ships struck and damaged,’ 1847. 6. ‘National Defences,’ 1862. 7. ‘Supplemental National Defences,’ 1862, a reply to Sir Morton Peto's pamphlet entitled ‘Observations on the Report of the Defence Commissioners.’

HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1771–1856), treasurer of Guy's Hospital, fourth son of Benjamin Harrison (1734–1797), also treasurer of Guy's Hospital (who was second son of Sir Thomas Harrison (1700–1765), chamberlain of the city of London, see Gent. Mag. 1765, p. 46), was born at West Ham on 29 July 1771, lived for twelve years with his father at Guy's, and succeeded him in the treasurership in 1797. For fifty years he governed the hospital and managed its estates despotically without salary. One of Cruickshanks' caricatures depicts him as a king sitting on a throne with his subjects prostrating themselves abjectly before him. He introduced many improvements. In concert with Sir Astley Cooper [q. v.] he, in 1825, established Guy's as a complete medical school separate from St. Thomas's, with which it had always been allied. Harrison greatly resented an inquiry into the hospital administration which was made by the charity commissioners in 1837, but no abuses were discovered. He was F.R.S. and F.S.A., deputy-governor of the Hudson's Bay and South Sea Companies, and chairman of the Exchequer Loan Board. He was selected as one of the three appeal commissioners for the city of London on the first imposition of an income tax. He lived latterly at Clapham Common, being closely connected with the ‘Clapham sect,’ and died there on 18 May 1856, aged 84. He married in 1797 Mary, daughter of H. H. Le Pelly of Upton and Aveley, Essex, by whom he had three sons (the eldest, Benjamin [q. v.], becoming archdeacon of Maidstone), and six daughters, the eldest married to W. Cripps, M.P. for Cirencester 1841–8, sometime a lord of the treasury.  HARRISON, BENJAMIN, the younger (1808–1887), archdeacon of Maidstone, born on 26 Sept. 1808, was son of Benjamin Harrison [q. v.], treasurer of Guy's Hospital. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, 17 May 1826, and was elected a student in 1828 (B.A. 1830, M.A. 1833). Harrison had a distinguished career at Oxford, where he was contemporary with Mr. Gladstone and other remarkable men. He was placed in the first class for classics and in the second class for mathematics (1830); gained the Ellerton theological essay prize, the Kennicott and the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew scholarships, in 1831–2, and the chancellor's English essay prize in 1832. The subject of the last was ‘The study of different languages as it relates to the philosophy of the human mind’ (printed Oxford, 1833). He took part in the Oxford movement, and wrote Nos. xvi. xvii. xxiv. and xlix. of the ‘Tracts for the Times,’ mostly on the scriptural authority for the episcopalian organisation of the church. But he was deterred from the Romeward movement both by his ecclesiastical connections and by his conservative temperament.


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 Rh face was as guiltless of any knowledge of our approach as his body was of a shirt.

Probably the largest bachelor establishment on the American continent, perhaps in the world, is that of Baron Guillermo Wodon de S——. In the war of reform, when church property was confiscated and sold to the highest bidder, this gentleman became the purchaser of an extensive convent, and no transformation could have been more complete than that he wrought in the venerable building. The walls which had echoed only the sighs and prayers of pious nuns now resounded with the voices of the bachelor occupant and his bons-camarades. That the Baron makes an admirable host, we, with our friends, can testify, having been delightfully entertained at this metamorphosed hall. Our entertainer combined the grace and courtesy of the manner of his native country with that of the land of his adoption.

A more charming climate, both summer and winter, is not to be found in the republic than that of Michoacán, which is sixty English miles from the capital. It is so temperate that one experiences no dizziness.

The State is rich in minerals—gold, silver, and precious stones. It possesses woods of endless variety. Among them we saw in the museum the cork tree, pitch-pine, red and white cedar, red, white, and black walnut, wild olive, mahogany, poplar, ash, red and white oak, willow, laurel, beech, rosewood, ebony, and many others impossible to mention. Everywhere in the State fine fruits abound, and skirting as it does the tierra caliente, those of both tropical and temperate climes alike flourish. Here, for the first time, I saw in perfection the chirimolla and granadita.

In 1839 Madame Calderon de la Barca made the journey from the capital to Morelia on horseback, and regretted that so much beauty was wasted. She says: "We are startled by the conviction that this enchanting variety of hill and plain, wood and water, is for the most part unseen by human eye and untrod by human footstep." These beauties are now no longer concealed. The railway has penetrated


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26

This is perfect; but it is perfect speech, not perfect song. When Landor had something to say at more length, when he had a story to tell, he chose the idyl; and his work in this kind is no less perfect in form than are his quatrains. Indeed, on the idyls his poetic fame will mainly rest. They are very remote from modern life, but the best of them are very beautiful, and in the highest rank of poetry that appeals to the artistic sense. Those who are able still to hold fast to the truth of Greek mythology to the imagination will not willingly let them die. To read them is like looking at the youths and maidens of an ancient bas-relief. The cultivated will never tire of them; the people will never care for them. The limitations of their interest are inherent in their subject and the mode of its presentation; but these limitations do not lessen their beauty, although they make very small the number who appreciate it. Landor's influence over his critics is due chiefly to his power as a stylist, and to the


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 GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770–1840), American Roman Catholic priest, called “The Apostle of the Alleghanies,” was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of (q.v.), the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin (1735–1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748–1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop Carroll’s instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his father’s death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia “by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession”; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest, who after his father’s death had in 1809 discarded the name of Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin’s “great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable purposes, contracted.” In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: A Defence of Catholic Principles (1816), Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures (1820), Appeal to the Protestant Public (1834), and Six Letters of Advice (1834), in reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.

 GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69·9), one of the metallic chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (Comptes rendus, 1875, 81, p. 493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeléeff (c. 1869) from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see ). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30·15° C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5·956 (24·5° C.), of the liquid 6·069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0·079 (12-23° C.) and for the liquid 0·082 (106-119°) [M. Berthelot, Comptes rendus, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and K. Seubert.

 GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. galon, Central Fr. jalon, and was Latinized as galo and galona. It appears to be connected with the modern French jale, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without much plausibility to Gr. , a milk pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277·274 cub. in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard gallon of the United States.

 GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731–1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over which he presided in 1766–1773. During this period, with his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a “Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the Colonies,” and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have such “rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of Commons of Great Britain”; the president-general and grand council were to be “an inferior distinct branch of the British legislature, united and incorporated with it.” The assent of the

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Rh perfection of form in his shorter poems and his idyls; but something is also due to the passages which, apart from those mentioned, they commend so unreservedly; such as the study of incipentincipient [sic] insanity in the dialogue between Tiberius and Vipsania, and the scenes from Antony and Octavius where the boy Cæsarion is an actor. Not to be conquered by these argues one's self "dull of soul;" and scattered through the volumes are other passages of only less mastery, especially in the Greek dialogues, which cannot here be particularized. For this reason no author is more served than Landor by a book of selections. After all, too, an author should be judged by his best. Nevertheless, when one remembers the extraordinary gifts of Landor, one cannot but regret the defects of nature and judgment that have so seriously interfered with his influence. His work as a whole exhibits a sadder waste of genius than is the case even with Coleridge. There is no reason to suppose that the verdict of the public on his value will be reversed. His failure may well serve as a warning to the artistic school in poetry; it affords one more of the long list of illustrations of that fundamental truth in literature,—the truth that a


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 CRABBE.

have done with Crabbe. His tales have failed to interest us. Burke and his friends, as we all know, held a different opinion from ours; and their praise is not likely to have been ill founded. The cultivated taste of Holland House, thirty years later, is also against our decision. Through two generations of markedly different literary temper Crabbe pleased the men best worth pleasing. Indeed, we owe him to Burke's approval; for when Lord North, Lord Shelburne, and Lord Thurlow had neglected his entreaties for recognition and aid, and had left him to write, pawn, and go hungry, Burke saved him from the debtor's prison, took him into his friendship, welcomed him to his home, and gave him to literature.

Yet the verses which won this recognition from Burke, and gained for Crabbe, besides, praise from Johnson and talk with Fox and idle mornings in Reynolds's studio, were


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 ON THE PROMISE OF KEATS.

the domestic, chatty, and nonsense portions of the letters of Keats, in their chaffing, their abandon, their unregarded laughter (and admirable fooling they are, too), there is a spontaneous and irresponsible gayety, which, being quite natural only to the young heart and mind, charmingly discloses his youthfulness as a prime quality. Of all the famous English poets, he had most of the spirit of April in him. His senses were keen; his temperament was feverish, now jealous and irritable, and straightway humble and indulgent; his imaginary joys and sorrows were spiritual possessions, subjecting him; his humor was scampering, his fancy teeming, his taste erratic, his critical faculty exposed to balking enthusiasms; his opinions of men and affairs were hasty, circumscribed, frequently adopted unreflectingly at second-hand; and, with all these boyish traits, he was extremely self-absorbed. At the centre of his individuality,


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 AUBREY DE VERE ON POETRY.

is rare good fortune to find criticism in which the ideas are more excellent than the manner, and the spirit finer than the ideas; in which it is not the keener sympathy of the poet that speaks, or the sure sense of the trained artist for expression, or any single faculty, but the whole nature of the man; in which the judgment rendered does not proceed from any particular part of his mind—the scholarly or moral or æsthetic element by itself—but is felt to be grounded upon his total convictions. Aubrey de Vere's essays, therefore, are worth more than ordinary attention. He writes principally of Spenser and Wordsworth, and also of Milton, Shelley, and Keats. He considers mainly the doctrine of this poetry. He values it chiefly for its highest office as a teacher of moral wisdom, and a quickener of the spiritual part of our nature. He justly decides that its real subject is man's life; this is the centre of interest in all great


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 ILLUSTRATIONS OF IDEALISM.

I. THE PERGAMON MARBLES.

development of the Greek genius in sculpture, after it had passed its first maturity in Phidias and his immediate successors, presented the same characteristic signs shown in the history of other modes of artistic expression in other nations. A reasoned conception of the ends and means, a trained appreciation of form, a complete mastery of technique, were inherited by the sculptors of Pergamon. The purpose being defined and the tools perfected, no originality was allowed them except in style; and consequently their work, like the last dramas of Shakespeare, or the creations of Browning or Carlyle, exhibits an excess of subject, an effort to put the utmost of muscular action, of narrative import, of allegorized truth, into their marbles. And yet, in connection with this intensity, as it is called, it cannot fail to be observed that their


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Rh the word "ancient" when applied to the Greeks. Wherever approached, they are as level to our own times in thought and deed as any of the so-called moderns; and though their language, in its former dialect, is dead, its golden words always fall upon our ears as if from the lips of some wiser contemporary. In looking on these recovered marble fragments, just as in reading the Antigone or Alcestis, the centuries seem meaningless.

II. A GREEK TRAIT NOTICED BY DR. WALDSTEIN.

One distinction between the Greeks and ourselves may be expressed by saying that our culture as a people rests upon literature, on the printed word, while that of the Greeks based itself rather upon observation, on the thing seen. The divergence of intellectual mood thus induced between ancient and modern is profound, and affects the whole higher life. In reflecting upon this classical trait, however, something is to be guarded against. It is well known that the illiterate, generally speaking, think in images, and that this power or habit of visualization, sometimes thought to be characteristic of the poet, be it observed, usually falls into disuse


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98 whether the rise and defense of realism among us mean that literature is to follow in the same track, and die, as sculpture and painting died, until a new age shall set the wheel turning again; for if the history of the arts teaches anything, it is that the ages of idealism are the ages of power, and those of realism the premonition and stiffening of death.

III. MR. PATER ON IDEAL ÆSTHETICISM.

The heart of Mr. Pater's Marius lies in his thought about the ideal, and it is in the nature of all such thought to make a peculiar demand upon the reader. Its wisdom is felt to be, as it were, sacerdotal, and requires a conscious preparation of mind in him who would know of it; its vision is supernal, and disclosed only when some spiritual illumination has been sent before. So runs a Platonic doctrine of election and grace that has been held as rigorously in literature as in theology. This aristocracy of idealism—its exclusiveness, its jealousy of any intrusion of the common and worldly within the company it keeps, its sense of a preciousness, as of sacred things, within itself—is incorporate in every fibre of Mr.


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112 appreciation of beauty and impassioned contemplation of its ideal forms, was, in fact, his; yet of what worth was it,—what did it mean to either God or man? The Northern idealist, the Puritan, cannot dispense with some serviceableness as essential to any high living. One should not push the point too far, however. Independently of all that has been said, any one who cares to think on counsels of perfection for man's life will find profound and original thought about the ideal elements still at hand in modern days for use, and many wise reflections, sown in this history. It is a rare work, and not carelessly to be read. Some exquisiteness of taste, some delight in scholarship, some knowledge of what is best worth knowing in the historic expressions of man's aspiration, and, above all, that "inward tacitness of mind" the reader must bring to its perusal. What of it? Have we not the highest authority for casting our pearls where Circe's herd cannot come?

IV. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE LITERATURE.

The traditional romance that hangs about Italy has fostered a popular misapprehension of nearly all things Italian. As the mother


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 REMARKS ON SHELLEY.

I. HIS CAREER.

natural charm by which Shelley fascinated his familiar friends lives after him, and has gathered about him for his defense a group of men whose affection for him seems no whit lessened because they never knew him face to face. The one common characteristic prominent in all who have written of him with sympathy, however meagre or valuable their individual contributions of praise, criticism, or information, is this sentiment of direct, intimate, intense personal loyalty which he has inspired in them to a degree rare, if not unparalleled, in literary annals. Under the impulse of this strong love, they have championed his cause, until his fame, overshadowed in his own generation by the vigorous worldliness of Byron, and slightly esteemed by nearly all of his craft, has grown world-wide. With the enthusiasts, however, who have aided in bringing about this result, admiration for


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Rh work through his perception of the valuable objects of living, and his clinging to them.

This, too, was the result of the imperfect years of preparation. He had given him only the traditional thirty years which belong to every genius for trial and training before the finished work can be required. He had just recognized the conditions to which he must conform, and was only ready to begin when he died.

II. HIS ACQUAINTANCES.

It is impossible to condense Shelley's Life in a clear way. One turns the pages, and owns for the thousandth time the fascination of Shelley, from the first glimpse of the boy, pressing his face against the window-pane to kiss his sister, to the hot July afternoon when he made his last embarkation, and the summer storm swept the gleaming mountains from his sight; but no art transmits the spell, and the story, clasped between these periods, must be left in its integrity. Shelley lived in solitude, and died before he was thirty years old; but his career involved such variety of scenes, persons, and incidents, was so thick-strewn with interesting episodes, and contained so many perplexed passages,


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156 III. HIS ITALIAN LETTERS.

The prose work of Shelley has remained in the obscurity which it once shared with his poetry. The formal essays, which concern the transitory affairs of the world or themes of thought remote through their generality, are valued, even by admirers of Shelley, mainly as media of his spirit; the familiar letters, scattered in old books, or collected only in a costly edition, and deprived of literary effectiveness because those of high and enduring interest have never been selected and massed until recently, have escaped any wide public attention; even the translations have been neglected. All this really large body of prose, however exalted by its informing enthusiasm, however exquisite in language, and melodious, lies outside the open pathways of literature. It is this fact which gave the element of surprise to what Mr. Arnold called his doubt "whether Shelley's delightful Essays and Letters, which deserve to be far more read than they are now, will not resist the wear and tear of time better, and finally come to stand higher, than his poetry,"—a judgment which well deserved Dr. Garnett's quiet rejoinder that


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 SOME ACTORS' CRITICISMS OF OTHELLO, IAGO, AND SHYLOCK.

actor of genius, at the moment of impersonating (either in imagination or in fact) a character of Shakespeare's, is probably nearer to the dramatist's creative mood than any one else can get, except possibly the poet born. He may, to use a phrase of Booth's, in speaking of this mode of coming to an understanding of Shakespeare, "hit it" by the mere force within that bears him naturally on. Or, to take the case in which his sympathy with the rôle is imperfect, he may perceive wherein he is defective more clearly by his conscious failure than by any analysis. Again, the difficulties that arise from not knowing how Shakespeare put the play on the stage may not be solved rightly, it is true, by the moderns; but the conclusions of the acting fraternity on these matters are much more worthy of weight than those of men unacquainted with the


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 SIR GEORGE BEAUMONT, COLERIDGE, AND WORDSWORTH.

appears to have been one of the most agreeable of men. He had not merely high breeding, but humanity of disposition, delightful companionableness, and the refinement that springs from artistic pursuits. Haydon accuses his manners of a want of moral courage. "What his taste dictated to be right, he would shrink from asserting if it shocked the prejudices of others or put himself to a moment's inconvenience," was the fault that this critic had in mind; but this is only to class him with the men who do not think that the truth is always to be spoken in society, and prefer tact to an aggressive egotism. Sir Humphry Davy notices especially that he was a "remarkably sensible man, which I mention because it is somewhat remarkable in a painter of genius who is at the same time a man of rank and an exceedingly amusing companion." Southey


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 THREE MEN OF PIETY

I. BUNYAN.

word genius is often used to conceal a puzzle which the critic, through defects of analytic power or sympathetic insight, is unable to solve; but perhaps this short and easy method was never more feebly resorted to than when a writer, with a strong prejudice in favor of sweetness and light, described Bunyan as a "Philistine of genius." In this designation there is much darkness and some acerbity. The wonderful thing about this man was not so much his gifts as the strange combination of them. There must be, of course, something extraordinary in any common man who becomes a leader in the higher life of the race. The history of the Church, however, is starred with the names of the ignorant and the humble who, since the fishermen were called from their nets by Galilee, have been chosen to be shepherds of the flock and evangelists of the faith. Bunyan was visited with the experience of