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 was a most unfortunate expedition, equalled only by poor Kennedy's. Where is Gray? He must be the poor fellow whose bones were found at Lake Massacre; but then how are the different coloured hairs to be accounted for? Perhaps the mystery will be cleared up when King gets to Melbourne, or when Burke's journal is published.

"Jack," the black fellow who went with the detachment to Blanchewater, has bolted, not much liking the service. He was an obliging fellow, and good-natured. Instead of him they have brought a white man from Mr. Jacob's station, to act as cook. Of him more anon.

30th. Highest temperature to-day 120°; wind this morning south-south-east. Mr. McKinlay and party, composed of Middleton, Poole, and two natives, preparing to start for Cooper's Creek, and to look at some water reported to the south-east.

I wonder where we shall be off to, now that the fate of the Melbourne explorers has been determined. I hope the governor will go to the Gulf of Carpentaria, that is, if he can do so without leaving behind him half his crew; although, perhaps, if he does, the difficulties and dangers passed will be thought little of should he fail, even if he leaves his bones and those of most of us in this hitherto unexplored country. Should any


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 return, they will doubtless get all the glory of the exploit; at least, so it is with the world generally. Eighteen inches of water in well; temperature only 99° at noon.

Poor Burke and Wills! it is sad to think that those intrepid fellows should have been the first to cross this great continent, the vast deserts of the interior, and supposed to have arrived within almost a "cooey" of the settled districts, to have only arrived at their depôt some few hours after the depôt party had left there, under Mr. Brahe—who remained there until he could do so no longer from the illness of his men,—and to have there laid down and died; it was hard just as they had the laurel wreath almost within their grasp, and that so hardly won. I can fancy these poor fellows, after digging, finding the note stating that Brahe had only left that morning. It must have been a fearful disappointment to them; fancy, reader, just place yourself in their situation, seeing the date of that note after arriving from such an expedition, weary and faint with hunger and exhaustion, clothes in rags, and perhaps hardly a boot to your foot; fancy, I say, arriving a few hours after your friends had gone, who you fully expected would be there to give you help and succour, and finding yourself too feeble to follow in their track. They, as it afterwards turned out, were only fourteen miles away.

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 Dec 1. Kept holy the Sabbath-day; all very quiet reading newspapers, and those who had any, their letters. Good news from home. How pleasant it is to receive a little cheerful tidings from anywhere, but from those we love doubly so! I was not troubled with anything of the sort, but one of the party had enough for the lot, so he told us anything he thought we might like to hear—lucky dog, to have friends to write to him! Temperature to-day 139°, and rather hot, as you may suppose.

McKinlay and party start to-morrow for the south-east and Cooper's Creek. I wish I was going with them. To-day a few natives came into camp, and round the neck of one of them was found suspended the side-spring of a Terry's breech-loading rifle, and tells McKinlay that the rest of the rifle is out to the north-east. I suspect it must be one of Burke's, who left it behind at the fight, or else it got disabled, and was of no further use: a little bit of mystery again. "I wonder whose rifle it was," or, "Who left it, I wonder," you hear from mouth to mouth, and divers opinions on the subject. I suppose it will be all cleared up by the publishing of Burke's journal.

110 days out to-day. All well, but much thinner, at least the majority. I wish we had some Bass or Alsopp, or any other good beer.


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 You, reader, will perhaps ask why we did not take some. The answer is simple—we had no carriage for it.

2nd. Mr. McKinlay and party started this morning with two camels and four horses, about 9 Bullenjani is left in charge of sheep. Frank, our native shepherd, going with McKinlay.

Again we must trespass on McKinlay's journal for the narrative of his trip, as I was not with him to Cooper's Creek and back. Meantime I will just jot down what happened during his absence at the depôt camp, Lake Buchanan, where the remainder of us are staying.

Wind very light to-day. A squall, accompanied with rain, passed over the camp about 3, and the wind continued blowing hard till midnight. We had a jolly evening notwithstanding, singing songs and telling stories of bygone days. To-day the last tobacco served out—twenty-eight sticks for each man; not much certainly, so we must husband it. Two of the party tossed up who should have the two allowances. Ned Palmer won the toss, and immediately put them up to auction, and they were bought by Davis for £1 4s., so he has three. Ned knocks off smoking at once.

3rd. The morning broke fine and clear, wind west. Our rations reduced to-day—flour, from


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 8 lb. to 7 lb.;. sugar, from 2 lb. to 1½ lb.; and tea, from 4 oz. to 3 oz., a man per week. Our sugar never held out before, what will it do now? We may have to go without presently, which I think very likely to occur if we are out any length of time, and so it is as well to begin to live on short commons by degrees.

4th. Blew very hard this morning and during the night, and very cold, during the middle part. Could not see the thermometer, the night was too dark; the two camels on being let loose this morning started away round the lake, and took it into their heads to explore a trifle on their own account. A fine walk I had after them, seven or eight miles. I got on their tracks, but could see nothing of them for a long time, the sand hills being so many and close together. At last I saw one on the top of rather a high sand hill, just going over, then in a short time discovered the other; they were hobbled still; they went along at a good stiff walk, and kept me for an hour or so till I could come upon them, a stern chase being always a long one. I at last headed them, and turned them to go home.

Arrived at 11·30, and found that Bell and a black had gone out after me, thinking that I had lost the tracks returning, or could not find the animals; it certainly was rather difficult tracking them, as they leave so. little marks behind them,


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Rh through the dense tea-tree, along with the rest. Under the impression that the unknown enemy were a hostile tribe, she willingly submitted, and sought cover until the tribe had mustered again, when she found that the only one missing was her poor adopted Takawarrant. His loss not being thought of any consequence to the chief of the tribe, she knew it was vain to apply for his rescue from his captors, so that she had to submit.

The time had now arrived when, in accordance with the custom of the tribe, and Matoka having attained age and importance among the Warrigals, it became incumbent upon him that he should take to himself a wife, who was to be stolen from some rival tribe; and in order to sustain that dignity which by his bravery he held, he chose to carry off his bride from among his most hostile enemies, the more risk and danger he ran in such an undertaking the more exalted would be his position in the estimation of the tribe. One moon was the allotted time for accomplishing his undertaking.

True to the confidence placed in him, Matoka returned before the specified time with a female stranger, and to Lindigo a very welcome one, on seeing her wear a European calico dress, and above all her being able to converse in broken English, a language she had not heard for many days.

The joy experienced by Lindigo was great on listening to Maria, as she called herself, and which name she said was given to her by "Massa Duart," her own and her husband Quandak's white master. She then told how she had been ruthlessly taken away while Quandak was from home, how kind Massa Duart was to them, and so beloved by all his servants and acquaintances, how she had been nursing Mrs. Munro's little boy and girl "Charlie and Bella," how Mrs. Munro kept house for her master, and her husband Donald acted as overseer, how little Takawarrant became quite happy in his new home, and lastly how Quandak on his return would institute a search for her.

These were the acceptable and joyful details furnished by the communicative Maria to her eager listener, who drank in every word of the narrative, although couched

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 and then the sand was blowing so much that in many places the marks were quite obliterated, and having no compass I steered by the sun, knowing pretty well where the camp was.

I missed Bell as he followed the outward tracks, and I had come a shorter way home. He arrived about 1·30, and found us just getting our dinners. It was a weary and lonely walk, and I was tired when I got home, the sand being in some places very deep and soft. One of our men had got a severe kick from a horse to-day, which placed him hors de combat for two days. The well was sounded to-day, and had two feet eight inches water in it. Temperature cool; rather windy.

5th. This morning delightfully cool and pleasant. 113 days out from Adelaide to-day. On going after the animals to see if they were all right, the bullocks were not to be seen. Ned and the driver went after them, and found their tracks to the eastward, and also our faithful (?) native Bullenjani on the track, which circumstance created the suspicion that they had been driven off by some of the natives.

6th to 10th. For the last week I find nothing in the journal but the temperature; extreme variation, 64° to 122°. Making trousers and repairing wardrobes generally, which by this time were rather the worse for wear, seeing we were only allowed


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 to take two shirts, two pairs of boots, two pairs of trousers, and half a dozen pairs of socks, one coat, etc.; some did infringe a little, and took three or four shirts. We sang songs, and made ourselves as jolly as circumstances would permit. The water in the well has risen to 3 ft. 10 in., although we are constantly using it for drinking.

11th. To-day, about noon, McKinlay returned, having succeeded in finding Burke's and Wills' graves.

13th. Mr. McKinlay is going out to-morrow to the stony desert of Sturt. The party consists of two white men, two blacks, five horses, and two camels. At 11·30 to 12 o'clock the thermometer was up to 165°. Reader, how would you like that style?

14th. This morning the party started at 7·30, crossed sand hills and flooded flats, thirty or forty miles, to a small creek, where they camped; there is little or no water in it, and from the report of the natives there seems to be no likelihood to be any further on; so McKinlay determined to return to camp to-morrow, and to go no further, as the natives' report seems correct from the appearance of this creek, and from what we could see of the country from off the top of a very high stony hill. Had a first-rate supper—chocolate and jerked mutton.

15th. Up very early; got breakfast, and started


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132 for depôt at 8 We went another route home. Soon got out of the stones. At 12 came to a native well, where we camped under some trees; unloaded the animals for a couple of hours; gave them some water from the well, and let them browse about while we got a fire under way, and our pots on for some tea. By the time the horses had been watered, our impromptu snack was ready, consisting of tea and jerked mutton. We then had a smoke, till McKinlay gave the word to saddle, which was soon done; and we started for Lake Buchanan, and arrived about 6·30, tired and hungry. Country undulating, and not very promising.

16th. Up very early this morning to get all ready for a start northward, packing the dray. We shall be off to-morrow if all goes on well, at least that is the leader's intention. Many natives about. Cut on a large tree at the back of the camp, after nicely squaring a place on it about 2 ft. by 1 ft. 3 in.

The arrow points to the spot where McKinlay buried some letters in an air-tight tin case, for any parties who might come there; also some memoranda for the Commissioner of Crown Lands.


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176 in many distorted and ill-used English words, but nevertheless the intelligence was sweet to her ear. Fresh hopes now filled her mind that her rescue would be soon effected through Maria's loss, and that he would be sure to tell of her being with the Warrigals.

Maria's company was now a source of happiness which she little anticipated, and Matoka, who as yet had made but little impression on his forced bride, patiently waited until the impenetrable heart of Maria yielded to him, made no objection to the intimacy which had sprung up between her and Lindigo. He accordingly begged the latter to plead his cause with Maria, and endeavour to reconcile her to her fate, but she remained faithful to Quandak, from whom she was so ruthlessly stolen.

Matoka had now earned for himself a great name for penetrating the territory of the white man, and forcing from thence a bride of the natives attached to them.

In acknowledgment of these honours he resolved on making amends for his former disloyalty (in attempting to restore Lindigo to the white men) by keeping strict guard over her and Maria lest they should make their escape; so that any hopes of him being serviceable to them in obtaining their liberty entirely vanished.

The summer season was now advanced, and the time of visiting the Alps (on the disappearance of the snow) according to their annual custom had arrived. This, with a dread of a search being made, or the knowledge of the captive being in their power, made them move towards the mountains for greater security from their white neighbours. Such a proposition and resolve extinguished the last hope which Lindigo entertained, but Maria never despaired, and always encouraged her by saying—"Neber bear; Quandak berry good tracker, bye-an-bye come up with white fellows; plenty shoot him Warrigal."

These were but poor consolations for the white captive, who knew better the character of their captors, their determination, and the motives which, governed them to keep possession of their captives; and she also knew that should a forcible attempt be made for their rescue, their own sacrifice would be the consequence sooner than the Warrigals would give up possession of them.

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 We are all very happy that we are to be on the road again, although we were very comfortable here under all circumstances. Still we got tired of the awful monotony of the same humdrum life; same niggers, same trees, same pelicans. Everything ready for a start the first thing to-morrow morning.


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Rh Under these harassing thoughts, Lindigo, with her swarthy companion, was obliged to commence their weary pilgrimage towards the Alps, and leave behind the level plains, where Charlie was stationed quite ignorant of her sad fate.

Many a languishing and sad look she cast behind on gaining each eminence from which she could view the property of him who would sacrifice all for her sake; and she, the poor exile, suffering so many hardships and sorrows, which even the most wretched black on his station would view with horror. Another source of terror presented itself on the fatal journey, and the near approach of her being entirely out of reach. This was a strenuous appeal made by Matoka to plead his cause with Maria, otherwise he should be under the necessity of compelling her to enter his gunyah, although Lindigo had as yet dissuaded him from taking such a course. But another threat made by him filled Lindigo with more terror than anything she had experienced for many years, and which she would sooner suffer death than endure. This was that Bungilina intended to put in force the same condition respecting herself. At this announcement she almost fainted, but still having some slight hope, she told Matoka that he might entertain some hopes of gaining Maria without having to resort to such extremities.

That evening on arriving at an old encampment among the mountains after a fatiguing day's journey, while Lindigo was communicating the threats to Maria at the fire, a strange whistle pierced the air, the latter suddenly started, and quietly said:—"Ah! Quandak?" then checking herself, she whispered in her fair companion's ear, that she was positive it was his signal whistle, and that they might make their escape before morning.

While thus indulging between fear and hope, Matoka approached the fire, expressing a wish to know what Bran was beseigingbesieging [sic] with such eagerness at the stump, and on his searching for a fire-stick, with the intention of smoking the game out, Lindigo sprung up in terror, test the hidden game should be connected in any way with the signal whistle. It was under this impression

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text: Talk:Enforcement Act of 1870

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Enforcement Act of 1870

16 Stat. 140-146,H.R. 1293

title: Enforcement Act of 1870


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 Publius Helvius Pertinax, who attempted to restore discipline in their ranks, but only partially succeeded. The habit of obedience was broken, and the same troops who had so clamorously demanded his appointment soon afterwards solicited his recall.

He returned to fill a civil employment in Rome, where fortune held in store for him supreme grandeur and a cruel fall.

Decimus Clodius Albinus, who succeeded him, was successful not only in reducing the army to obedience, but in obtaining their affection. He administered the province so well that the emperor, in a fit of gratitude, conferred on him the title of Cæsar; an honour which, in all probability, would very soon have been repented of, or led to his disgrace, had not a revolution in the palace removed Commodus from the throne, and raised Pertinax in his stead.

The new reign lasted but three months; Pertinax fell a victim to his attempt to reform the abuses which were corroding the very heart of the empire. He was massacred by the Pretorian guards.

The election of his successor shows to how fearful a state Rome had degenerated. The empire was put up to auction and sold, like common merchandise, to the highest bidder. Didius Julianus by his great wealth purchased the empire: though bought by gold, it could not be retained by the same means. Septimus Severus no sooner heard of the death of Pertinax than he hastened to Rome, at the head of his legions, and the crime was quickly avenged by the death of the assassins, and that of the feeble prince whom they had placed upon the throne.

After the death of Albinus, who, driven to extremities by the secret practices against his life, had marched into Gaul, and was defeated at Lyons, Severus, at an advanced age, visited Britain, and defeated the Caledonians, whom he compelled to sue for peace. It was whilst engaged in this memorable expedition that his son, Caracalla, tried to poison him.

At the termination of the war, the conqueror made York his residence, and employed his army in constructing the gigantic wall whose remains still bear his name. It was seventy-eight miles long, and ran parallel with the remains of the one built by Adrian; its height, twelve feet, without comprising the parapet; its width, eight feet; and it was still further strengthened by a succession of towers and fortresses. The wall was completed in 210 of the Christian era.

Falling into a severe sickness, his unworthy son took occasion to seduce the allegiance of a portion of the army, who proclaimed him emperor. The aged prince was carried to his tribunal, before which he compelled the usurper, his tribunes and centurions, to appear: the guilty son prostrated himself, and demanded pardon.

"What!" exclaimed his father, in a tone of bitter irony, "have you yet to learn that it is the head and not the feet which govern?" The reproach was the more bitter as the disease from which the speaker was dying had settled in his feet, and rendered him incapable either of mounting on horseback or walking.

Shortly afterwards he expired at York.

Septimus Severus died the 4th of April, 211, after a reign of eighteen years: his last words were, "I received the republic divided and weak at every point; I leave it at peace and consolidated, even in Britain: old and disabled in my legs, I bequeath to my sons a powerful empire, if they are prudent; if not, a feeble one."

During the third century, the empire was agitated by numerous competitions for the purple, which were somewhat appeased on the accession of Diocletian. Britain afforded to these pretenders not only an asylum, but the means of advocating their claims to the purple. One of these, Carausius, was only got rid of by assassination.

The murderer, Allectus, attempted to succeed him, and maintained himself in the island till defeated by Constantius, who had been elevated to the rank of Cæsar: thus Britain was once more united to the empire.

The victor made himself loved by the Britons, by his equitable and wise administration, and continued to reside amongst them till the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian elevated him to the imperial throne.

At his death, which occurred in York, in 306, he recommended to the army, who were devoted to him, his son, the celebrated Constantine, who was immediately saluted emperor and Augustus.

The tradition that St. Paul and St. Peter preached the gospel in the island found, at one period, general credence. It must be looked upon with extreme suspicion, there not being the slightest historical evidence to support it, and the probabilities highly against it; still, it is certain that, at a very early age, Christianity was introduced amongst us. Many of the Romans, who had received the new religion and fled from the persecutions of Claudius and Nero, found refuge in Britain, where the imperial edicts were less rigorously obeyed, till the persecution of Diocletian, when the churches throughout the empire were ordered to be closed, and the refusal of the new sect to offer sacrifice to the gods of Rome punished with death.

Much as Constantius condemned, he dared not annul the impious mandate he had received. Ascending his tribunal, before which the principal officers, both of his army and household, had been summoned, he read aloud the edict, and added that those who professed the new faith must decide on abandoning either their faith or their employments. Many, doubtless, chose the former alternative; since we are told that the prince, in great indignation, dismissed the apostates from his service, observing that it was impossible for him to trust those who had denied their convictions. His lieutenants, however, were less scrupulous, and Christian blood, no doubt, was shed to maintain the state religion of the empire.

Alban, the proto-martyr—as the latter designation implies—was the first who suffered; and the names of Julius and Aaron, citizens of Caerleon, upon the Usk, have also been handed down to posterity as two of the earliest victims.

On the accession of Constantine to the throne, religious toleration was restored throughout the empire.

Christianity now made rapid progress in the island. A hierarchy became established, and at the Council of Arles, in 314, three English bishops assisted—those of York, London, and Camalodunum.

After the death of Constantine, we see two people disappear, in name at least, from the page of history—the Maætæ and the Caledonians, who were replaced by the Picts and the Scots. There is every reason to believe that the warlike nation, the Caledonians—who so long resisted the Romans—and the Picts are the same race; the last


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 R. O'HARA BURKE.


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 WILLIAM JOHN WILLS.


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User talk:146.115.66.209

Jeepday (talk) 12:29, 22 November 2012 (UTC)

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Rh Celtic influence is afforded by the dotted or punctured ornament which is carried round the whole of the penannular armlets, a species of decoration which is found on enamelled horse-trappings of undoubtedly late Celtic character.

A gold bracelet or armlet with a snake-like termination, found at Newport Pagnel, and now in the British Museum, is unquestionably of Roman workmanship.

These two gigantic cruciform figures cut in the turf on the steep sides of the Chiltern Hills in the neighbourhood of Monks Risborough and Bledlow are of great antiquity, and may perhaps belong to prehistoric times.

These crosses cut in the chalk present certain features which offer striking parallels to the White Horses and Long Men in other parts of the kingdom. That all these hill-side figures are of great antiquity may be inferred from the fact that popular tradition assigns them to the Saxons, and in some cases associates them with battles fought by that race. An examination of the forms both of the animals and men tends, however, to show that they belong to an earlier period. The horses, especially in the case of the famous example at Uffington, display a remarkable resemblance to the animals portrayed on ancient British coins. Whether the Buckinghamshire crosses may be regarded as still retaining their original forms, or as having been modified in order to conform to Christian ideas, must, in the present imperfect state of our knowledge, be pronounced uncertain; but having regard to the unquestionably symbolic character of the Long Man of Cerne Abbas, Dorset, and probably too that of Wilmington, Sussex, the evidence seems to be in favour of the theory that the Buckinghamshire crosses are modifications of purely phallic forms.

Apart from any specially symbolic meaning, these crosses resemble the other hill-side figures in (1) their colossal forms, in (2) being situated on a steep hill-side visible over a large area of country, and in (3) facing generally in a western or north-western direction.

The cross at Whiteleaf, to the east of Monks Risborough, which stands out on the hill-side so prominently that it is said to be visible from a distance of thirty miles, is shown in the accompanying plans. The perpendicular stem or shaft of the cross, apart from the triangular base, is over 80 ft. in height, and 80 ft. across. Its stem and cross-limbs are a little over 20 ft. in breadth.

The cross near Bledlow, which has been cut on a prominent spur of the Chiltern Hills, is less striking from its somewhat smaller size and more grass-covered condition. Its form, apparently, has been somewhat

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Rh modified, and at the present time the limbs are about 15 feet in breadth. It has no base.

The Whiteleaf cross is kept in fairly good repair, some parts having been returfed recently; and there is a local tradition that both of these crosses were regularly cleaned or "scoured," like the White Horse at Uffington.

The period covered by what are commonly called ancient British coins overlaps, in a certain sense, the historic period, because the names of various ruling princes are inscribed on British coins.

Many of the coins found in Buckinghamshire, however, are of an early character and uninscribed. The most important discovery in the county was that made in February 1849 at Whaddon Chase, when upwards of 400 gold coins were unearthed by the plough. Mr. J. Y. Akerman, F.S.A., Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of London, contributed to The Numismatic Chronicle an account in which it is stated that

"About February 1849, the son of a tenant of Mr. Lowndes ploughed up a quantity of gold coins at Whaddon-chase, in a field called Narbury in the parish of Little Horwood. The discovery brought to the spot many persons, some of whom contrived to get possession of nearly one hundred specimens, which have been dispersed. About 320 reached the hands of Mr. Lowndes, who has kindly submitted them to our inspection. Fragments of an earthen vessel were said to have been turned up where the coins were found; but, on enquiry, no satisfactory information on this point could be gathered. ..

"Though extremely interesting to the numismatist, it is greatly to be regretted that not a single example of an inscribed coin occurs in this find. About one fourth consists of pieces of a type already well known, stamped on one side only with the rude figure of a horse, the head grotesquely shaped, and resembling the bill of a fowl, and the limbs disjointed. The rest have, on some examples, a tolerably well- executed figure of a horse unbridled and at liberty; and on the reverse, a wreath dividing the field."

Sir John Evans, who deals with the question of the date of these coins in his monumental work, little more, proves them to be earlier than those of Cunobelinus, or even Tasciovanus, whose coins rarely, if ever, exceed 85 grains. At the same time, the type of the obverse does not show so complete an oblivion of the original prototype as the cruciform ornament on the coins of Tasciovanus."

The ancient British coins found in the central part of England, including the counties of Oxford, Bucks, Herts, Beds, and Essex, are represented on Plate C of Sir John Evans's book just referred to. They show very degraded versions of the laureate head of Apollo (or of the

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Rh young Hercules) found on the coins of Philip II. of Macedon. The wreath in some cases has been converted into a cruciform object, whilst the horse, derived from the two horses and biga on the reverse of Philip's coins, has retained its proper form more perfectly. The wheel of the biga, however, is shown about midway betwixt the fore-legs and hind-legs of the animal.

Buckinghamshire belongs to what Sir John Evans, for numismatic purposes, classifies as "the central district." "ANDOCO" and "AND," inscriptions which appear on coins found at Chesham and Ellesborough, are evidently fragments only of the name of a prince who ruled over a territory comprising parts of the counties of Bucks, Beds, and

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Rh Northants. "The style and types of his coins," writes Sir John Evans, "prove him to have been a contemporary of Tasciovanus and Eppillus; and as, from the rarity of his coins and the paucity of the types, his reign would appear to have been of short duration, it is by no means improbable that he was subjugated by the former, whose coins are found over much the same district." The full name of this prince may have been Andocomius or Andocombos.

Coins of Tasciovanus have been found at High Wycombe and Stoke Mandeville; copper coins of Cunobelinus at Fenny Stratford, Fleet Marston, and Thornborough; gold coins of the same prince at Cuddington and Quainton; a coin of Addedomaros at Chalfont Park, near Slough; one bearing the mysterious inscription or, found at Creslow; a coin inscribed  in allusion probably to its having been struck at Verulamium; and various other uninscribed coins found in different parts of the county, particulars of which will be found in the topographical list at the end of this article.

—Late Celtic pottery, now in Aylesbury Museum [Archæologia, vol. lii. p. 354].

—British urn, 12 inches high, 3 feet from surface, in Aylesbury Museum [Records of Bucks, iv. 224].

—Numerous neolithic implements. Prehistoric cruciform cutting on side of hill.

—Hoard of sixteen bronze implements, etc., found here in 1879 [MS. notes of Mr. A. H. Cocks, F.S.A.]. Now in Aylesbury Museum.

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 591 ].

—Pair of silver armlets showing traces of Late Celtic influence in the ornament [Journal of the British Archæological Assoc., vol. ii. pp. 352–355].

—Coin of Addedomanus found at 'Chalfont Park, Slough' [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 578].

—Ancient British coin inscribed. [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 218]; and uninscribed gold coin [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 432].

—Ancient British coin inscribed, or [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 260].

—Inscribed gold British coin [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 299].

—Bronze spear-head [Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements, 333: and MS. notes of Mr. A. H. Cocks, F.S.A.].

—Uninscribed gold coin [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 449].

—A flint arrowhead (uncommon in Bucks), figured [ Evans' Ancient Stone Implements, p. 383 ].

—Ancient British coin inscribed. [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 218].

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Rh —Neolithic celt of ground cherty flint found at Chalvey Grove, near Eton Wick [A. J. xxx. 284; Evans S. 101; ''Proceedings Soc. Antiq. Lond.'', 2nd series, vol. vi. p. 13].

—Palæolithic implement 5 inches long at Skirmett. Neolithic flint celt (chipped) also at Skirmett.

—Three bronze celts [Records of Bucks, i. 139].

—Bronze sword [Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1st series, ii.; Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements, 279].

—Several flint scrapers and flakes low down in, and near the Pile Village, the greater part of the contents of which were of Romano-British time. Some of the piles believed to have been pointed by stone tools [Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 2nd ser., vol. xvi. pp. 7–15; Records of Bucks, vol. vii. pp. 538–549.

—Palæolithic implements [Records of Bucks, v. 318].

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 591 ]. Many others collected by Mr. J. Rutland.

—Numerous neolithic flakes and scrapers near the encampment in Pulpit Wood [ Ancient Stone Implements, 281, 310 ].

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 591 ].

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 591 ].

—Copper coin of Cunobelinus [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 568].

—Bronze spear-head, 2 feet below surface, near the entrenchment close to the new house at Danesfield, in Mr. A. H. Cocks's collection.

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 596 ].

—Coin of Cunobelin [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 300].

—Prehistoric cross cut on side of Whitecliffe Hill.

—Coin of Tasciovanus [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 536].

—Copper coin of Cunobelinus [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 259].

—Palæolithic implements [ Ancient Stone Implements, 591 ].

—Coin of Cunobelinus [Evans Ancient British Coins, 335].

—Five socketed bronze celts [Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements, 111].

—Uninscribed British gold coin [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 52].

—Important hoard of British uninscribed gold coins (see pages 190–191) [Records of Bucks, i. 15, and ii. 125].

—A Late Celtic (?) copper torque [Archæologia, vol. xi. p. 429, plate xix. 3; and Evans' Ancient Bronze Implements, 380].

—A dug-out, flat-bottomed boat, 25 feet 3 inches long, 3 feet 4 inches wide, of oak, probably of the bronze age, found in dredging in the Thames near the railway bridge at Bourne End. Bought by Mr. A. H. Cocks, and it having been declined by the British Museum, and the Oxford Museum, he finally gave it to the late Frank Buckland, for his collection at the S. Kensington Museum [Records of Bucks, iv. 122].

—Important find of bronze-age pottery, at Wycombe Marsh [''Proceedings Soc. Antiq. Lond''. 2nd series, vol. xii. pp. 338–346]; and Records of Bucks, vi. 259]. Now in Brit. Mus. Several ancient Brit, coins [Evans' Ancient British Coins, 78, 227, 247, 248].

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HOUGH the chalk downs of Kent, of Sussex, Wiltshire and the Isle of Wight are strewn with Anglo-Saxon burials of the pre-Christian period, it would seem that those of Hampshire and Buckinghamshire, perhaps to a less extent also Berkshire, were neglected in favour of the more fertile valleys. A circular pendant of gold (see fig.), with filagree ornament almost identical with Kentish specimens, has indeed been found at High Wycombe in circumstances that indicate one or more interments of the seventh century, but further evidence is wanting of an extensive occupation of the chalk area. The fact that a large part of the Chilterns was forest or waste land, subsequently under forest law, is no adequate reason, for though the lower slopes were no doubt thickly wooded at that time, the higher ground must always have been dry and open. That these heights were inhabited during the early part of the seventh century is indeed shown by the mention of the Chiltern-sætna, or dwellers on Chiltern, in the tribal hidage, but whether these were Saxon immigrants or refugee Britons, or a blend of both races, cannot be deduced from the record, and must be left to archæology to decide. Perhaps in some uncultivated area a discovery may yet be made of equal interest and importance to that on Farthingdown, to the south of Croydon, where a series of interments were brought to light some years ago.

Though it proves little as to British occupation, an interesting relic from Oving near Whitchurch, preserved in the museum of the Buckinghamshire Archæological Society at Aylesbury, may be mentioned here. It is an enamelled disc (see fig.) ornamented on one face with graceful scrolls that can be at once distinguished from early Anglo-Saxon work. How long the Celtic arts survived the Roman conquest is an unsolved

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Rh problem, but several discs of this description with sunk (champleve) enamels have been found with Anglo-Saxon interments in various parts of England. Only two however have been published from Ireland, which was untouched by the Romans and preserved its artistic traditions for many centuries after Britain was cut adrift from the empire. Bronze bowls with such discs attached to the outside below the hooks for suspen- sion have been found from time to time, and there can be little doubt that bowls so richly ornamented were the work of Celtic artists in England or Ireland. They are found however in graves that presumably belong to the seventh century, while in Norway they are common during the Viking period, but no very plausible suggestion as to their use has yet been brought forward.

How far beyond Bedford the Saxons advanced under Cuthwulf or his successors has yet to be determined, but a northern limit about Daventry, Dunsmore Heath and the Warwickshire Avon is indicated by the remains already discovered. It is a fair deduction from the statement in the Chronicle that the capture of the four towns (Aylesford, Bensington, Eynsham, and perhaps Lenbury in 571) led at once to the occupation of Buckinghamshire and parts of the adjacent counties by the West Saxons. In spite of the aggressive policy of Mercia in the middle of the seventh century, it is by no means improbable that the West Saxon did not finally retire from the district thus won till the battle of Bensington in the year 779.

Up to the present time archaeology has not furnished any positive evidence of any settlement by the West Saxons in the immediate neigh- bourhood of Lenbury and Buckingham, but their occupation of the Vale of Aylesbury is illustrated in a clear and consistent manner by relics re- covered from the soil. Even in recent times the physical characteristics of natives of that fruitful vale have been held to exhibit a strong West Saxon element, and there can be little doubt that this was one of their richest and best protected seats. It is from this as a centre that a brief review of early Saxon remains recovered from the soil of the county and now preserved in museums and private collections should naturally start.

Close to Aylesbury, on the south-west, is a group of Anglo-Saxon sites, from which a few unmistakable relics of the pagan period have been recovered. At Hartwell, on the road to Thame, a number of iron weapons, spearheads, knives and shield-bosses were brought to light about 1866, and exhibited to the Archaeological Institute. At Stone, on the same road, there seems to have been a cemetery at that date between the vicarage garden and the mill, but only a few particulars are recorded of discoveries made there about sixty years ago. On one occasion were found six skeletons regularly interred, and with one was a coin of the Emperor Magnentius, who died in the year 353, though the date has

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 little bearing on that of the burial. In the sandpit adjoining the mill a skeleton was discovered, provided with spear, knife and shield, while a small pottery vase had been placed at the feet; but the most important discovery was made in the orchard of the vicarage, which had doubtless formed part of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery. This was a saucer-brooch of unusual size (see fig.), now in the British Museum. The material is bronze, originally gilt, and in the centre is a cruciform design, rudely engraved and filled in with bands of straight and curved lines that represent the original animal ornament of early Anglo-Saxon art.

That this type of brooch was unfamiliar sixty years ago, even to antiquaries of such wide experience as John Yonge Akerman, is curiously illustrated by his attribution of it to the Byzantine period, though he was subsequently convinced of its home manufacture and pagan origin. An error that has been more frequently noticed but is more readily excused was made in 1848, when the antiquities of Stowe House were sold by auction. Two very similar saucer-brooches from Ashendon appeared in the catalogue as the pans of a pair of scales, and scales have indeed been found more than once in Anglo-Saxon graves. In the present case however there is no room for doubt, and at the back of the specimen could be detected linen shreds from the grave clothes of the original owner, while the pair found only five miles distant at Ashendon are known to have been associated with a human skeleton discovered in a stone quarry. In all probability therefore they had not been accidentally lost by the living but interred with the body in the grave; and as the custom of burying the dead in full dress was discouraged by the Christian Church, and ceased before the eighth century, it is unlikely that the ornaments in question are any later than the seventh.

Further discoveries have been made in the same neighbourhood. At Eythrop, three miles west of Aylesbury, some iron relics that are easily recognized as part of a warrior's equipment have recently been unearthed, but no further details are forthcoming. A quarter of a mile north of Dinton Church, and on the right of the main road to Thame, there formerly existed a cluster of bell-shaped barrows, which were opened in 197

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 supported, until the keystone is inserted. This at the present day is effected by means of centreing an assemblage of timbers framed together, with its upper surface of the same form as the arch required; the voussoirs are laid on the centreing till the ring of the arch is completed. In the case of arches of small span, such as the early examples referred to, limited to about 6 ft., such centreing might be dispensed with in various ways, but it is difficult to see how the arches of the great entrance gateways, shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, could have been built without temporary support of some kind. In those days, when any amount of labour could be obtained, even the erection of a temporary wall might have been less costly than the employment of timber, of which there was great scarcity.

The Assyrian tradition would seem to have descended first to the Parthian builders, who in the palace of El Hadr built semicircular arches with regular voussoirs decoratively treated. The Sassanians who followed them employed the elliptical or egg-shaped arch, of which the lower part was built in horizontal courses up to about one-third of the height, which lessened the span of the arched portion.

In Europe the earliest arches were those built by the Etruscans, either over canals (see article : Etruscan), or in the entrance gateways of their towns. The skew-arch in the gateway at Perugia shows great knowledge in its execution. From the Etruscans the adoption of the arch passed to the Romans, who certainly employed centreing of some kind, but always economized its use, as is clearly shown by Choisy. Although their walls from the Augustan age were built in concrete, arches of brick were always turned over their entrance doorways, sometimes in two or three rings. The Romans utilized the arch in other ways, sometimes burying it in their concrete construction, as in their vaults, and sometimes introducing it as a veneer only, as in the Pantheon. In their monumental structures in stone, the arch was sometimes built with regular voussoirs, i.e. with a semicircular extrados, and sometimes with the joint carried far beyond. The latter was not done in the early examples of the Tabularium and the Theatre of Marcellus, but in the Colosseum and all the arches of triumph the joints run through the spandrils, notwithstanding the recognition of the arch proper by its moulded archivolt.

Although the value of the pointed arch as a stronger constructional feature than the semicircular (owing to the tendency to sink in the keystone of the latter) had been recognized by the Assyrian builders, who employed it in their drains, it was not used systematically as an architectural feature till the 9th century, in the mosque of Tulun at Cairo; it seems to have been regarded by the Mahommedans as an emblem of their faith, and its use spread through Syria to Persia, was brought to Sicily from Egypt, and was taken back by the Sicilian masons to Palestine and employed throughout the Crusaders’ churches during the 12th century. As the pointed arch had already, for constructional reasons, been employed in Périgord from the commencement of the 11th century, it does not follow that the Crusaders brought it from Palestine, but there is no doubt that its universal employment in France early in the 12th century may have been partly due to its adoption in the Crusaders’ churches. At first in Gothic work both the semicircular and pointed arches were used simultaneously in the same building, the larger arches being pointed, the smaller ones and windows being semicircular. The great value of the pointed arch in vaulting is described in the article.

We have suggested that the pointed arch became an emblem of Mahommedan faith, and it was introduced in India but not as a constructive feature, for the Hindus objected to the arch, which they say never sleeps, meaning that it is always exerting a thrust which tends to its destruction. In India therefore it was built in horizontal courses with vertical slabs leaning against one another to form the apex. The Moors of north Africa, however, never employed it, preferring the horseshoe arch which they brought into Spain and developed in the mosque of Cordova. In the additions made to this mosque the prayer chamber was enriched by the caliph Mansur, who, to eke out the height, raised arch upon arch. In the Alhambra it appears in the decorative plaster work, and travels northwards into the south of France, where at Le Puy and elsewhere it is found decorating doorways and windows; in England it was employed towards the end of the 12th century.

About the middle of the 14th century at Gloucester the four-centred pointed arch was introduced, which became afterwards the leading characteristic feature of the Tudor style. In France they adopted the three-centred arch in the 15th century.

The ogee arch was the natural result of the development of tracery in the commencement of the 14th century, and in Gloucester (about 1310) the foliations were run one into the other without the enclosing circles. About the middle of the 14th century, in the arcade of the first storey of the ducal palace in Venice, flowing tracery is found, from which the ogee arch there was probably derived, as throughout Venice it becomes the favourite feature in domestic architecture of that and the succeeding century.

The arches are of various forms as follows:—

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248 clergy. Henry III, Bishop of Liege, was such a fatherly sort of individual that he had sixty-five "natural children!" William, Bishop of Padreborn, in 1410, although successful in reducing such powerful enemies as the Archbishop of Cologne, and the Count of Cloves by fire and sword, was powerless against the dissolute morals of his own monks, who were chiefly engaged in the corruption of women. Indeed, the Swiss clergy in 1230, frankly stated that they "were flesh and blood, unequal to the task of living like angels." The Council of Cologne, in 1307, tried in vain to give the nuns a chance to live virtuous lives; to protect them from priestly seduction. Conrad, Bishop of Wurzburg, in 1521, accused his priests of habitual "gluttony, drunkenness, gambling, quarrelling, and lust." Erasmus warned his clergy against concubinage. The Abbot of St. Pilazo de Antealtarin was proved by competent witnesses to have no less than seventy concubines. The old and wealthy Abbey of St. Albans was little more than a den of prostitutes, with whom the monks lived openly and avowedly. The Duke of Nuremburg, in 1522, was concerned with the clerical immunity of monks who night and day preyed upon the virtue of the wives and daughters of the laity.

The Church openly carried on a sale of indulgences in lust to ecclesiastics which finally took the form of a tax. The Bishop of Utrecht in 1347 issued an order prohibiting the admittance of men to nunneries. In Spain, conditions became so intolerable that the communities forced their priests to select concubines so that the wives and daughters would be safe from the ravages of the clergy.

"The torture, the maiming, and the murder of Elgira by Dunstan illustrates further, amongst thousands and thousands of similar bloody deeds, the diabolical brutality of superstition perpetuated in the name of Christianity upon women in the earlier centuries of our


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Rh 1769, but the few details recorded were not published till seventeen years later. Though not in themselves of much importance, they suggest that the road existed before the interments were made, and furnished a means of communication between several early Saxon settlements on its course. More than twelve skeletons were discovered at Dinton, but many of the bones were scattered. In three cases however the direction of the graves could still be determined, the head being to the north-west, but beyond a glass cup, nothing except iron weapons of the usual kind appear to have been deposited with the bodies. Douglas published a letter from Sir John Van Hattem, the owner of the estate, briefly describing the exploration of the mounds, and illustrated three of the objects discovered. An iron spear- head and knife call for no remark, but the conical glass cup, apparently from the grave of a warrior, is of a form somewhat rare in England. Being footless, the vessel cannot stand upright, and the ornament consists, as usual, of loops and spirals of applied threads. Outside the more richly furnished graves of Kent, specimens have been found at Kempston, Beds, and East Shefford, Berks, and also in a Jutish cemetery on Chessell Down, Isle of Wight.

Another brooch of the saucer-type has been found at Bishopstone, about 2 miles east of Dinton, and the same distance from Aylesbury ; while beside it in the museum of the Bucks Archaeological Society is ex- hibited another variety from the same locality. Instead of being made all in one piece, this brooch has an embossed gilt plate of bronze applied to the front, while a separate vertical border is attached to a stouter plate at the back to which have been affixed the pin and catch. The applied plate is very common on circular brooches from this part of England, and in the large cemetery at Kempston, Beds, many were found associ- ated with the true saucer-brooch manufactured in one piece. The latter type is also represented by a specimen in the same museum found in 1859 at Kingsey Park, another site in the Aylesbury district, but no further particulars of its discovery are on record. Yet another was discovered about sixty years ago at Mentmore, where several skeletons were subsequently unearthed at different spots. Some were found in a gravel pit in the centre of the village ; and others, of which two had been accom- panied by spears, were met with on the brow of the hill immediately south of the church. About twelve more burials in all were found nearer the church and kennels, but the only objects found with them were a bronze buckle-plate, a coin of Constans or Constantius (fourth century) and a few fragments of iron weapons. Those burials of which any note was taken at the time had been in an east-and-west direction, the head being to the west. At Wing, 3 miles distant, several skeletons

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ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. , ancient things, and  , theory or science), a general term for the study of antiquities. The precise application of the term has varied from time to time with the progress of knowledge, according to the character of the subjects investigated and the purpose for which they were studied. At one time it was thought improper to use it in relation to any but the artistic remains of Greece and Rome, i.e. the so-called classical archaeology (now dealt with in this encyclopaedia under the headings of and ); but of late years it has commonly been accepted as including the whole range of ancient human activity, from the first traceable appearance of man on the earth to the middle ages. It may thus be conceived how vast a field archaeology embraces, and how intimately it is connected with the sciences of (q.v.) and  (q.v.), while it naturally includes within its borders the consideration of all the civilizations of ancient times.

In dealing with so vast a subject, it becomes necessary to distinguish. The archaeology of zoological species constitutes the sphere of (q.v.), while that of botanical species is dealt with as  (q.v.); and every different science thus has its archaeological side. For practical purposes it is now convenient to separate the sphere of archaeology in its relation to the study of the purely artistic character of ancient remains, from that of the investigation of these remains as an instrument for arriving at conclusions as to the political and social history of the nations of antiquity; and in this work the former is regarded primarily as “art” and dealt with in the articles devoted to the history of art or the separate arts, while “archaeology” is particularly regarded as the study of the evidences for the history of mankind, whether or not the remains are themselves artistically and aesthetically valuable. In this sense a knowledge of the archaeology is part of the materials from which every historical article in this encyclopaedia is constructed, and in recent years no subject has been more fertile in yielding information than “archaeology,” as representing the work of trained excavators and students of antiquity in all parts of the world, but notably in the countries round the Mediterranean. It is for its services in illuminating the days before those of documentary history and for checking and reinforcing the evidence of the raw material (the “unwritten history” of architecture, tombs, art-products, &c.), that recent archaeological work has been so notable. The work of the literary critic and historian has been amplified by the spade-work of the expert excavator and explorer to an extent undreamt of by former generations; and ancient remains, instead of being treated merely as interesting objects of art, have been forced to give up their secret to the historian, as evidence for the period, character and affiliations of the peoples who produced and used them. The increase of precise knowledge of the past, due to greater opportunities of topographical research, more care and observation in dealing with ancient remains and improved methods of studying them in (q.v.) and collections, has led to more accurate reading of results by a comparison of views, under the auspices of learned societies and institutions, thus raising archaeology from among the more empirical branches of learning into the region of the more exact sciences. This change has improved not only the status of archaeology but also its material, for the higher standard of work now demanded necessarily acts as a deterrent on the poorly equipped worker, and the tendency is for the general result to be of a higher quality.

The archaeological details concerning all subjects which have their “unwritten history” are dealt with in the separate articles in this work, including the ancient civilizations of Assyria, Egypt and other countries and peoples, while the articles on separate sites where excavations have been particularly noteworthy may be referred to for their special interest; see also ;, &c. It remains here to deal generally with the early conditions of the prehistoric ancient world in their broader aspects, which constitute the starting-place for the archaeologist in various parts of the world at different times, and the foundations of our present understanding of the primitive epochs in the history of man.

The beginning of archaeology, as the study of pre-documentary history, may be broadly held to follow on the last of the geological periods, viz., the Quaternary, though it is claimed, and with some reason, that traces of man have been found in deposits of the preceding or Tertiary period. Although there is no valid reason against the existence of Tertiary man, it must be confessed that the evidence in favour of the belief is of a very inconclusive and unconvincing kind. The discussion has been mainly confined to the two questions (1) whether the deposit containing the relics was without doubt of Tertiary times, and (2) whether the objects found showed undoubted signs of human workmanship. Vast quantities of material have been brought forward, and endless discussions have taken place, but hitherto without carrying entire conviction to the minds of the more serious and cautious students of prehistoric archaeology. A chronic difficulty, and one which can never be entirely removed, is our ignorance of the precise methods of nature’s working. It is an obvious fact, that natural forces, such as glacial action, earthquakes, landslips and the like, must crush and chip flints and break up animal remains, grinding and scratching them in masses of gravel or sand. If it were possible to determine with precision what were the peculiarities of the flint or bone, thus altered by natural agencies, it would be easy to separate them from others purposely made by man to serve some useful end. Our present knowledge, however, does not allow us to go so far in dealing with the ruder early attempts of man to fabricate weapons or implements. Even the one feature that is commonly held to determine human agency, the “bulb of percussion,” cannot be considered satisfactory, without collateral evidence of some kind. Flint breaks with what is called a conchoidal fracture, as do many other substances, such as glass. Thus on the face of a flint flake, at the end where the blow was delivered to detach it from the nodule, is seen a lump or bulb, which is usually regarded as evidence of human workmanship. To produce such a bulb it is necessary to deliver a somewhat heavy blow of a peculiar kind at a particular point of a flattened surface; and the operation requires a certain amount of practice. The fulfilment of all the necessary conditions might well be a rare occurrence in nature, and the bulb of percussion has come to be regarded as the hall-mark of human manufacture; but recent investigations have shown that the intervention of man is not necessary and that natural forces frequently produce a similar result. When, therefore, it is a question whether or no a group of rude flints are of human workmanship, evidence of design or purpose in their forms must be established. If this be found, and in addition if a number of flints, all having this character of design, be found together, then and then only is it safe to admit them into the domain of archaeology. There can be no doubt that much time and energy have been wasted, and a number of intelligent workers have been fruitlessly occupied in following up archaeological will-o’-the-wisps, through neglecting this elementary precaution.

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Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Ohio

OHIO, the third of the States of the American Union in point of wealth and population, is situated between 38° 27′ and 41° 57′ N. lat. and between 80° 34′ and 84° 49′ W. long., and is bounded on the N. by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the E. by Pennsylvania, on the E. and S. by the Ohio river, which separates it from the States of West Virginia and Kentucky, and on the W. by Indiana. The greatest length from north to south is about 210 miles, the greatest breadth from east to west about 225 miles and the area 40,760 square miles.

Physical Features.—The surface consists of an undulating plain, generally ranging in elevation between 1550 and 430 feet above sea-level, the portions below 500 feet or above 1400 being comparatively insignificant. The largest connected areas of high land extend from east to west across the central and northern central districts. In some limited districts of central Ohio, especially along the ridge of high land just referred to, and also in a few thousand square miles of north-western Ohio, the natural drainage is somewhat sluggish, and, while the land is covered with its original forest growth, it inclines to swampy conditions; but when the forests are removed and the waterways opened most of it becomes arable, and all of it can be made so without excessive outlay by means of open ditches.

The chief feature in the topography of Ohio is the watershed, which extends across the State from north-east to south-west, and divides its surface into two unequal slopes, the northern, which is much the smaller, sending its waters into Lake Erie and the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the drainage of the other is to the Gulf of Mexico by the Ohio river. The average height of the ridge is about 1100 feet, but it is cut by several gaps, in which the elevation is reduced to about 950 feet. The relief of the State is chiefly due to erosive agencies. The entire drainage area of such a river as, for example, the Muskingum or the Scioto, may be conceived as originally a plain, all portions of which were at approximately the same elevation above the sea. Across this area one main furrow has been drawn, deepening and widening as it advances, and a countless number of narrower and shallower valleys are tributary to it. Fragments of the old plain still remain in the isolated “hills” or tablelands that bound the valleys, and which, though often separated by intervals of miles, still answer to each other with perfect correspondence of altitude and stratification. They rise to a maximum height of 600 feet above the river-channels in the main valleys.

Geological Map of Ohio.

Geology.—The rocky floor is entirely composed of unaltered stratified rocks of Palæozoic age. Not a single trap dyke or volcanic vent intersects them, and not a trace of igneous metamorphism is shown in any portion of their extent. These strata are disposed in plains so nearly horizontal that the dip is nowhere heavy enough to be safely determined by a clinometer. Not only are sharp flexures wanting, but faults deserving the name are found in but a single corner of a single county. A few low folds, one of which is of preponderating importance, traverse the State and redeem its surface from geological monotony. The only structural irregularity is an occasional case of overlap, but even this is seldom of such a character as to interfere with the easy reading of the record. The aggregate thickness of the entire series will reach 5000 feet if the maximum of each stratum is taken into the account, but if the average measurements are used the thickness does not exceed 3500 feet. The main elements of the scale,

which extends from the Lower Silurian (upper portion) to the Upper Coal-measures inclusive, are given below, and the geological sketch-map shows how the surface of the State is distributed among the principal formations.

Soils, Forests.—The division of the State into a drift-covered and driftless region coincides with the most important division of the soils. Below the line of the terminal moraine these are “native,” or, in other words, they are derived from the rocks that underlie them, or that rise above them in the boundaries of the valleys and uplands. They consequently share the varying constitution of these rocks, and are characterized by considerable inequality and by abrupt changes. All are fairly productive, and some, especially those derived from the abundant and easily-soluble limestones of the Upper Coal-measures, are not surpassed in fertility by any soils of the State. Large tracts of these excellent native soils are found in Belmont, Monroe, Noble, and Morgan counties. Among the thinner and less productive soils, which occupy but a small area, are those derived from the Devonian shales. They are, however, well adapted to forest and fruit production. The chestnut and the chestnut oak, both valuable timber trees, are partial to them, and vineyards and orchards thrive remarkably. The native soils of the Waverly group and of the Lower Coal-measures agree in general characters. They are especially adapted to forest growth, reaching the highest standard in quality of timber product. When these lands are brought under the exhaustive tillage that has mainly prevailed in Ohio thus far, they do not hold out well, but the farmer who raises cattle and sheep, keeps to a rotation between grass and small grains, and does not neglect fruit can do well upon them. The cheap lands of Ohio are found in this belt. The other great division of the soils of Ohio—viz., the Drift soils—are by far the most important, alike from their greater area and their intrinsic excellence. Formed by the commingling of the Glacial waste of all the formations to the north of them, over which the ice has passed, they always possess considerable variety of composition, but still in many cases they are strongly coloured by the formation underneath them. When any stratum of uniform composition has a broad outcrop across the line of Glacial advance, the Drift beds that cover its southern portions will be found to have been derived in large part from the formation itself, and will thus resemble native or sedentary soils. Western Ohio is underlain with Silurian limestones, and the Drift is consequently limestone Drift. The soil is so thoroughly that of limestone land that tobacco, a crop which rarely leaves native limestone soils, is grown successfully in several counties of western Ohio, 100 miles or more north of the terminal moraine. The native forests of the Drift regions were, without exception, hard-wood forests, the leading species being oaks, maples, hickories, the walnut, beech, and elm. The walnut, sugar maple, and white hickory are limited to warm, well-drained limestone land; the white oak characterizes the upland clays, while the red maple, the elm, and several of the oaks stand for the regions of sluggish drainage. This noble growth is rapidly disappearing, but several million acres still remain.

Climate.—There is a difference of at least 40° Fahr. between the average summer and winter temperatures. A central east-and-west belt of the State is bounded by the annual isotherms of 51° and 52°, the average winter temperature being 30° and the average summer temperature 73°. Southern Ohio has a mean annual temperature of 54°, and northern Ohio 49°. The annual range is not less than 100°, and sometimes 130°, the extreme of summer heat reaching 100° in the shade, while “cold waves” in winter

may depress the mercury to 30° below zero. Extreme changes are liable to occur in the course of a few hours, especially in winter, when the return trades are violently displaced by north-west winds. In such cases the temperature sometimes falls 60° Fahr. in twenty-four hours; changes of 20° or 30° in a day are not unusual. Still the climate proves itself excellently adapted to the finer growths of vegetation, while its effects on human life and on the domestic animals favour a symmetrical development and a high degree of vigour. The rainfall varies between an average of 46 inches in the Ohio valley and an average of 32 inches on the shore of Lake Erie (spring 10 to 12 inches, summer 10 to 14 inches, autumn 8 to 10 inches, winter 7 to 10 inches). The annual range is considerable. In some years there is an insufficient supply and in some there is a troublesome excess, but disastrous droughts on the large scale are unknown, and disastrous floods are rare. The vast body of water in Lake Erie favourably modifies the climate of the northern margin of the State. The belt immediately adjoining is famous for the fruits that it produces. Extensive vineyards and orchards have been planted along the shore and on the islands adjacent, and have proved very successful. The Catawba wine here grown ranks first among the native wines of eastern North America. Melons of excellent quality are raised in almost every section of the State. The peach is the least certain of all the fruits that are largely cultivated; there is rarely, however, a complete failure on the uplands of southern Ohio. The winters of Ohio are very variable. Snow seldom remains for thirty days at a time over the State at large, but an ice crop rarely fails in northern Ohio, and not oftener than once in three or four years in other portions of the State. In the southern counties cattle, sheep, and horses often thrive on pasture grounds through the entire winter.

Population.—The following table gives the population from 1840 to 1880:—

In 1880 the coloured population numbered 2½ per cent, of the whole, and the foreign-born 12½ per cent, (from Germany 6 per cent., and from the United Kingdom 4½ per cent.).

Agriculture.—This is the leading industry, employing in 1880 397,495 persons, or about two-fifths of the total number reported as engaged in occupations of all sorts. In 1881 nearly 50,000,000 bushels of wheat and nearly 112,000,000 bushels of Indian corn were produced, the total production of cereals in the State for that year being 188,933,067 bushels, an average of sixty bushels to each inhabitant. The reported orchard products of the year would furnish ten bushels of fruit to each inhabitant, and the dairy products an average of 26 ℔. The domestic animals reach a total of 10,000,000. In number and quality of thorough-bred cattle Ohio is scarcely second to any State; in the average of its herds it ranks second to

Illinois alone. The sheep-growing counties are supplied with the best breeds of sheep, and the wool of south-eastern Ohio has long been famous for unusual strength of fibre. The annual production of wool exceeds 20,000,000 ℔, Ohio holding the first rank in this respect among the States of the Union. In the origination of agricultural 7iiachinery Ohio has taken a leading part, and in the present manufacture it easily holds the first rank, the value of the annual product exceeding $15,500,000, or one-fourth of the entire product of the United States. The average yield of wheat in the State has been doubled within the last ten years through the use of artificial fertilizers and improved methods of cultivation. An efficient system of crop reports is carried on by a State board of agriculture, and thorough control of the artificial manures sold in the State is maintained by constantly repeated chemical analyses. A State meteorological bureau also renders special service to the agricultural interest.

Manufactures, Towns and Cities.—The manufactured products of the State, according to the census of 1880, have more than twice the value of the farm products, reaching an aggregate of nearly $350,000,000. As a necessary result of the recent development of mining and manufacturing in Ohio, its cities and villages are gaining rapidly in population and wealth. Cincinnati, the largest city of the State and the eighth in the Union, had a population of 255,139 by the census of 1880. The same census credits it with about 30 per cent. of the manufactures of the State, but the reports of its chamber of commerce give it a much greater total than the census tables. Cleveland, the second city of Ohio and the eleventh of the United States, had 160,146 inhabitants, Columbus, the State capital, 51,647, and Toledo 50,137. Dayton (38,678) and Springfield (20,730) in south-western Ohio, Youngstown (15,435), Akron (16,512), and Canton (12,258) in the north-eastern quarter of the State, and Zanesville (18,113) in the central district are all thriving and ener getic cities.

 * (E. O.—J. T. S.)


text:
Author:Edward Orton

Works

 * (with J. T. Short)

title: Author:Edward Orton


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 Whether or no man produced flint implements before Quaternary times, it would seem to be a necessity that he should have passed through an earlier stage, before arriving at the precision of workmanship and the fixed types found in the old Stone Age deposits known as palaeolithic. It is now claimed that this earlier and ruder stage has actually been discovered in what are known as the Plateau-gravels of Kent, in Belgium, and even in Egypt, and the name of eolithic (, dawn,  , stone) has been bestowed upon them. The controversy as to the human character has been very keen, some alleging that the fractured edges and even the definite and fairly constant types are entirely produced by natural forces. Sir Joseph Prestwich in England, and Alfred Rutot in Belgium, the latter arguing from his own discoveries in that country, have strongly supported the artificial character of the relics. On the other hand it is pointed out that the existence of these implements on the high levels of Kent furnished confirmation of Sir Joseph Prestwich’s theory of the submergence of the district, and that his support was thus somewhat biassed, while the geological conditions in Belgium are not quite comparable with those of the Kent plateau; and the Belgian evidence, whatever it may be worth in itself, is of no avail as corroboration of the Kentish case. It is to be regretted that the conditions are not more convincing, for, as stated above, they agree fairly well with the evolution theory of man’s handiwork, and if they could be accepted, would carry back the evidences to a more remote time when the physical features of Kent were of a very different character. The critics of eoliths have brought forward some facts that at first sight would seem to be of a very damaging nature. It was observed that in the process of cement manufacture the flints that had passed through a rotary machine in which they were violently struck by its teeth or knocked against each other, possessed just those features that were claimed as indisputable proof of man’s handiwork, and that even the forms were the same. These statements have, of course, been met by counter-statements equally forcible, and the matter may still be considered to be in suspense. The great struggle, therefore, is now more closely restricted to the nature of the chipping than as to the quasi-geological question, and if the solution is ever to be found, it will be by means of a closer examination and a better understanding of the difference between intentional and accidental flaking.

On reaching the Palaeolithic period we come to firmer ground and to evidence that is more certain and generally accepted. This evidence is fundamentally geological, inasmuch as the age of the archaeological remains is dependent upon that of the beds in which they are found. That they were deposited at the same time is now no longer questioned. The flints are found to have the same colour and surface characteristics as the unworked nodules among which they lie, and are generally rolled and abraded in the same way. This in itself suffices to show that the worked and unworked flints were deposited in their present stratigraphical position at the same time. The remote age of the beds themselves is demonstrated by the presence of bones of animals either now extinct or found only in far distant latitudes, such as the mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, &c., and in some cases these bones are found in such relative positions as to prove they were deposited with the flesh still adhering to them, and also that the animal was contemporary with the makers of the flint implements. Evidence of a somewhat different kind is provided for the palaeolithic period by certain caverns that have been discovered in England and on the continent. In these limestone caves palaeolithic man has lived, slept, eaten his food and made his tools and weapons. Much of his handiwork has been left, with the bones of animals on which he lived, scattered upon the floor of the cave, and has been sealed up by the infiltration of lime-charged water, so that the deposit remains, untouched to our own day, below an impermeable bed of stalagmite. In such circumstances there can be no doubt of the contemporaneous character of the remains, natural or artificial, if found on the same level. Moreover, so far as type is a criterion of age, the flint tools found in the cave deposits tend to confirm the date assigned to those of the river-gravels.

It is fairly certain that about the middle of the Tertiary period the northern hemisphere possessed a temperate climate, such that even the polar regions were habitable. But the physical aspect of northern Europe was very different from that of Quaternary times. North of a line drawn roughly from southern England to St Petersburg all was sea. It was during the latter half of the Tertiary period that the continent assumed its present general form, though even in Pleistocene (Quaternary) times England and Ireland formed part of it. The great change of climate from temperate to arctic conditions during the latter half of the Tertiary period has been interpreted in various ways, no one of which is yet universally accepted. There can be little doubt, however, that no single cause was responsible for so complete a change. There may have been some alteration in the relative positions of the earth and the sun, which would conceivably have produced it; but what is practically certain is that the physical geography of northern Europe was affected by considerable difference in level, and it is clear that the raising of mountain ranges and the general elevation of the continent must necessarily have reacted on the climatic conditions. If in the later Tertiary time we find that the Alps, the Carpathians and the Caucasus have come into existence, it is not surprising to find that these huge condensers have brought about a humid condition of the continent to such an extent that this phase has been called the Pluvial Age. The humidity, however, was in some ways only a secondary result of the protrusion of high mountain ranges. The primary cause of the physical conditions that we now find in the valleys and plains was the formation of glaciers. These rivers of ice descending far into the lower levels during the winter months, melted during the summer, causing enormous volumes of water to rush through the valleys and over the plains, carrying with it masses of mud and boulders which were left stranded sometimes at immense distances. The intensity and force of the rivers thus formed would depend upon two factors, first the extent of the watershed, and secondly, the height of the mountains from which the water was derived. The result of increasing cold was that in course of time the northern hemisphere was surmounted by a cap of ice, of immense thickness (about 6000 ft.) in the Scandinavian area and gradually becoming thinner towards the south, but at no time does it seem to have extended quite to the south of England. This is proved by the absence of boulder-clay (glacial mud) in the districts south of London. These arctic conditions were not, however, continuous, but alternated with periods of a much less rigorous temperature during what has been called the Ice Age. Remains both of mammals and plants have been found, under conditions that are held to prove this alternation.

Such being the natural forces at work remodelling the surface of the earth; forces of such gigantic power as to be almost inconceivable in these more placid times, it can easily be understood how, in the course of the many thousands of years before the Quaternary period, when the surface of the globe attained its present aspect, the powerful river-systems of Europe wore their beds deep into the solid rocks. In some cases in Europe the erosive power of the river has worn through its bed to such an extent that the present stream is some hundreds of feet lower than its forerunner in palaeolithic times. From various causes, however, the rivers did not always wear for themselves a deep channel, but spread themselves over a wide area. This seems to have been the case with the Thames near London: the river-bed is not of any great depth, but at various periods it has occupied the space between Clapton on the north-east and Clapham on the south-west. It must not be assumed that the whole of this area of 7 m. or more was filled by the river at any one time, but rather that during the course of the palaeolithic period the river had its bed somewhere between these two limits. For instance, it is probable that at one period the bank of the Thames was at a point nearly midway between the northern and southern limits, where Gray’s Inn Road now stands. It was here that the earliest recorded palaeolithic

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Author:John Thomas Short

Works

 * The North Americans of antiquity; their origin, migrations, and type of civilization considered
 * (with Edward Orton)

title: Author:John Thomas Short


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''Mr. Godwin's conjecture concerning the indefinite prolongation of human life.—Improper inference drawn from the effects of mental stimulants on the human frame, illustrated in various instances.—Conjectures not founded on any indications in the past, not to be confidered as philosophical conjectures.—Mr. Godwin's and Mr.''


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CHAP.


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CHAP.


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 Condorcet's conjecture respecting the approach of man towards immortality on earth, a curious instance of the inconsistency of scepticism.p..


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iv the famines of China and Indostan.—Evil tendency of one of the clauses in Mr. Pitt's Poor Bill.—Only one proper way of encouraging population.—Causes of the happiness of nations.—Famine, the last and most dreadful mode by which nature represses a redundant population.—The three proportions considered as established.p..

Rh


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 implement (now in the British Museum) was found towards the close of the 17th century in association with mammoth bones. But it is safe to say that the Thames was a very much wider and more imposing river in palaeolithic times than it is now, when its average width at London is under 300 yds. As, in the course of ages, it changed its bed and by degrees lessened in size and volume, it would leave, on the terraces formed on its banks, the deposits of brick-earth and gravel brought down by the stream, and it is on these terraces that the relics of palaeolithic man are found, sometimes in great quantities. It will be obvious from the nature of the case that the highest terraces, and those farthest apart, should contain the earliest implements; but it is by no means easy in the present state of the land surface and with our present knowledge, to place the remains in their relative sequence. More accurate observation, and a better understanding of the conditions under which these deposits were made, should solve many such problems. Much light has been thrown upon many points by Worthington Smith, who has excavated with great care two palaeolithic floors at Clapton and at Caddington near Dunstable. The latter discovery was of quite exceptional interest as confirming the geological evidence by that of archaeology. In this case the original level at which palaeolithic man had worked was clearly defined, and was prolific of dark-grey implements, which had evidently been made on the spot, as Smith found that many of the flakes could be replaced on the blocks or cores from which they had been struck by palaeolithic man; there were also the flint hammers that had been used in the operation. Above the floor was a layer of brick-earth, again covered by contorted drift, in which also implements occurred, but of a very different kind from those found below. In place of being sharp and unabraded, and with the refuse flakes accompanying them, they were rolled and disfigured, of an ochreous tint, and evidently had been transported in the drift from a much higher level now no longer existing, as the site where they occurred is the highest in the vicinity, about 500-600 ft. above sea-level. Here then we have a clear case of palaeolithic man being compelled to abandon his working place on the lower level by the descent of the waters containing the products of his own forerunners, probably then very remote. In this case the sequence of the various strata may be considered certain, and the remains thus accurately determined and correlated are naturally of extreme value and importance. But even this does not enable us to diagnose another discovery unless the internal evidence is equally clear and conclusive. One point of importance that may be noted is that the older abraded implements were mostly of the usual drift type, while the more recent ones from the “floor” contained forms more highly developed and elaborated, such as occur in the French caves. Explorations of this kind, carefully conducted in a strictly scientific spirit by men of training and intelligence, are the only means by which real progress will be made in this puzzling branch of archaeology.

Although many problems yet remain to be solved in England, its small area, and the relatively large number of workers, have together sufficed to put the main facts of the earlier stages of man’s existence on a fairly satisfactory basis. In France, owing to the richness of the results, a great number of trained and ardent workers have made equal, if not better, progress. But unfortunately the real scientific spirit is not invariably found. Not so long ago an apparently serious writer in a well-known scientific magazine gave a detailed account of his studies in primitive methods and explained at great length his attempts at the manufacture of flint and stone implements. He found by the processes he adopted that it was much more easy for him to produce a polished implement than one merely flaked. From this fact he seriously argued that a great mistake had been made in the relative ages of the neolithic and palaeolithic periods, and that the former must necessarily be the older of the two. The evidence of geological position and of the mammalian remains accompanying the obviously older flints was entirely disregarded, just as on the other hand it was forgotten that in regard to neolithic remains the proofs were in every way in favour of a relatively modern origin. Such attempts not only bring the serious study of early man into disrepute, but tend to retard the progress of real knowledge and are therefore to be deplored and when possible discouraged.

s (q.v.) have been at all periods regarded as something uncanny and mysterious, with perhaps a tinge of the supernatural. In classical times they were associated with semi-divine beings, with oracles, and even with the gods themselves, while half the legends of dwarfs and gnomes that run through the folk-lore of medieval and modern Europe are associated with caves. They have been used as shelters or habitations at all times, and in examining them it is fully as necessary to sift the evidence of age as it would be in dealing with the river-gravels. Their exploration in the first instance may well have been due to chance, but it is fairly certain that during the 16th century the search for the horn of the unicorn as an antidote to disease, was responsible for the opening up of a certain number. Among the finds were no doubt the fossil bones of Quaternary animals to which mythical names and imaginary properties were attached, and the popular belief in such amulets naturally gave a great impetus to the search. It is, however, only a little more than a century ago that these investigations took anything like a scientific turn, and even then they had only a palaeontological end in view. The idea that archaeology entered into the matter was not at all realized for some years. The remains of many extinct or migrated animals, such as the hyena, grizzly bear, reindeer and bison, were found in quantities in the now famous cave at Gailenreuth in Franconia; and later, William Buckland explored the equally well-known hyena-cave at Kirkdale in Yorkshire, where he demonstrated that these animals had lived on the spot, feeding on the mammoth, rhinoceros and other creatures that had been their prey. The remains of man, however, had not been found, nor were they even looked for. It was not until Kent’s cavern, near Torquay, was examined by the Rev. J. McEnery, that man was clearly proved to have been contemporary with these extinct beasts. So contrary was this contention to the ideas prevalent in the second quarter of the 19th century, that the pioneer in this work had died (in 1841) before the immense importance of his discovery was admitted. To Godwin Austen in the first place and to W. Pengelley in the second, with the aid of the British Association, was due the vindication of McEnery’s veracity and accuracy.

Several circumstances conspire to give a special interest to Kent’s cavern, and not the least is the fact that the age and appearance of the various strata indicate that it has been the home or the refuge of human beings at all ages even up to medieval times, and perhaps from a period even more remote than is the case elsewhere. In the black mould that formed the uppermost layer were found fragments of medieval pottery, and relatively in close proximity were ancient British and Roman remains as well as relics of the earliest days of metallurgy, in the shape of bronze fragments. The two thousand years or more that may have separated the oldest from the most modern of these later products, is as nothing in comparison with the immense intervals that lie between the earliest of them and the infinitely more remote period when gigantic mammals first inhabited the cave. Attempts have been made from time to time to express in years what the interval must have been: but as the computations have differed by hundreds of thousands of years, according to the method adopted, it is scarcely wise to do more than speculate. Beneath the black mould, containing what may be called the recent remains, was a layer of stalagmite, some feet in thickness; and under this at one place was a great quantity of charcoal, which has been with good reason assumed to show the site of fireplaces. A quantity of implements of palaeolithic type was found, but the main layer at this level consisted of a reddish clay known as cave-earth, and in this deposit were implements both of flint and horn, as well as bones of extinct animals. The flint implements were mostly of the usual river-drift type, but some were of types generally confined to cave-deposits of this period; while the barbed harpoon

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Le Despenser, Baron


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Lee, Holme


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Legge, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Leighton, Frederic


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Rh described as undoubtedly Saxon were met with about the same period, but were reinterred in the churchyard to which they were supposed to have originally belonged. There can be little doubt that the church at Wing dates from Anglo-Saxon times.

Besides the saucer-brooch already mentioned, there were other relics discovered with burials at Bishopstone that call for remark. That the interments were not by way of cremation is apparent from the good conditions of several fragile objects, amongst which may be mentioned a crystal bead, a spindle-whorl of blue and white glass, bronze toilet articles on a ring, a buckle with tinned front, three small square-headed brooches and a number of glass and amber beads. The graves of several warriors were marked by iron spear-heads, shield-bosses and two swords of the usual pattern, but the most interesting relic was undoubtedly a small engraved buckle-plate of bronze (see fig.) which is ornamented in precisely the same style as one found in a Saxon cemetery on High Down, near Worthing, Sussex. These two pieces present a notable contrast to the usual ornaments of the pagan time in England; and instead of simple geometrical or disjointed animal patterns, show such delicate execution and tasteful design that one is tempted to refer them to a Roman artist; but whether they were produced in this country or in some centre of civilization on the Continent cannot as yet be determined.

To quite another district belongs the famous Saxon barrow at Taplow, 20 miles from Aylesbury and separated from it by the whole breadth of the Chilterns. Its position on a height overlooking the river suggests a search for parallel discoveries further down stream, and it is indeed to Kent that one must turn for anything of like importance.

Adjoining Taplow Court is the old churchyard with an artificial mound at its western end. At the present time there are no visible traces of the church which was demolished in 1827, though some ruins were allowed to remain till 1853. It was then discovered that the foundations passed over a ditch which, with its accompanying rampart, showed that the position had been fortified in early times, the church being subsequently built at the east end while the mound occupied the centre of the enclosure. The locality is known to-day as Bury (or Berry) Fields, and this spur of the high ground on which Taplow stands would have many advantages as a stronghold, the view in all directions except the north being very extensive. That it was seized upon from time to time as a point of vantage to command the river-passage, is suggested by the large quantities of pottery fragments dating from early British, Roman and Saxon times, that have been collected on or near the surface of the churchyard.

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