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 Chapter 1

AGRICULTURE

1.1 The Modern Theory Of Agriculture

Liebig and other chemists have, within the last twenty five years, endeavored to establish a science of agriculture, based upon a knowledge of the constitution of plants and of soils, and their mutual relations. We propose to give a very condensed account of the general conclusions arrived at.

Food of Plants.

Plants derive their food from the air as well as from the earth; the former by their leaves, the latter by their roots. Elements most necessary to them are carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, and nitrogen, with various mineral substances present in the soil. Carbon is the most abundant. This is to a large extent extracted from the atmosphere by the leaves of plants, during the day-time. Hydrogen and oxygen are in the water contained in the earth and air, and oxygen is in the air mixed with nitrogen. Plants do not seem able, however, to separate much nitrogen from the air as such, but more readily obtain it by the decomposition of ammonia (composed of hydrogen and nitrogen), which is formed in the atmosphere,and washed down into the earth by rain-water, so as to reach the roots. All ordinary waters, it must be remembered,contain substances dissolved in them. Irrigation of land does not act only by the water itself, but by that which is dissolved or diffused in it. Davy calculated that, supposing one part of sulphate of lime to be contained in every two thousand of river water, and every square yard of dry meadow land to absorb eight gallons of water,then, by every flooding, more than one and a half hundred weight of gypsum per acre is diffused by the water - a quantity equal to that generally used in spreading gypsum as a manure or fertilizer; and so, if we allow only twenty-five parts of animal and vegetable remains to be present in a thousand parts of river water, we shall find that every soaking with such water will add to the meadow nearly two tons per acre of organic matter. The extraordinary fertility of the banks and delta of the river Nile is due to the natural annual overflow of the river, extended by artificial irrigation. In China also, the principle of irrigation is carried out very largely, and it is applicable,on a large or small scale, in any country The water of lakes is usually charged with dissolved or suspended substances even more abundantly than that of rivers.

Humus.

Soils contain a great amount of matter which results from the decay of vegetables and animals; to a compound of which with earthy material the name of humus is given. This was once incorrectly supposed to give the whole nutriment of the plant. Trees and plants, instead of abstracting carbon from the earth, really, by taking it from the air, and subsequently dying and decaying, annually by their leaves, and finally altogether, give carbon and other atmospheric elements to the soil. As above said, all plants by their leaves absorb carbonic acid from the air, and retain carbon, giving out oxygen. It is evident, therefore, that the leaves are of great importance to the plant. So are the roots, for their absorbing office. Thus it is true that the growth of a plant is always proportioned to the surface of its roots and leaves together. Vegetation, in its simplest form, consists in the abstraction of carbon from carbonic acid, and hydrogen from water; but the taking of nitrogen also, from ammonia especially is important to them, and most of all, to those which are most nutritious, as the wheat, rye, barley etc., whose seeds contain gluten and other nitrogenous principles of the greatest value for food. Plants will grow well in pure charcoal, if supplied with rain-water, for rain-water contains ammonia.

Animal substances, as they putrefy, always evolve ammonia, which plants need and absorb. Thus is explained one of the benefits of manuring, but not the only one as

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 14

we shall see presently Animal manure, however, acts chiefly by the formation of ammonia. The quantity of gluten in wheat, rye, and barley is very different; and they contain nitrogen in varying proportions. Even in samples of the same seed the quantity varies, and why? Evidently because one variety has been better fed with its own appropriate fertilizer than another which has been reared on a soil less accurately adapted by artificial means for its growth. French wheat contains 12 per cent. of gluten; Bavarian 24 per cent. Sir H. Davy obtained 19 per cent. from winter, and 24 from summer wheat; from Sicilian 21, from Barbary wheat 19 per cent. Such great differences must be owing to some cause, and this we find in the different methods of cultivation. An increase of animal manure gives rise not only to an increase in the nu mber of seeds, but also to a remarkable difference in the proportion of gluten which those seeds contain. Among ma nures of animal origin there is great diversity Cow dung contains but a small proportion of nitrogen. One hundred parts of wheat, grown on a soil to which this material was applied, afforded only 11 parts of gluten and 64 of starch; while the same qua ntity of wheat, grown on a soil fertilized with hu man urine, yielded 35 per cent. of gluten, a nd of course a smaller proportion of less valuable ingredients. During the putrefaction of urine, ammonia cal salts are formed in large quantity, it may be said, exclusively; for under the influence of warmth and moisture, the most prominent ingredient of urine is converted into carbonate of a mmonia. Guano.

Guano consists of the excrement's of sea-fowl collected during long periods on certain islands in the South Sea. A soil which is deficient in organic matter is made much more productive by the addition of this manure. lt consists of ammonia, combined with uric, phosphoric, oxalic and carbonic acids, with some earthy salts a nd impurities. The urine of men and animals living upon flesh contains a large quantity of nitrogen, partly in the form of urea. Hu man urine is the most powerful manure for all vegetables which contain nitrogen, that of horses and horned cattle contains less of this element, but much more than the solid excrement's of these animals. ln the face of such facts as these, is it not pitiable to observe how the urine of the stable or cow-shed is often permitted to run off, to sink uselessly into the earth, or to form a pool in the middle of a farm-yard, from which, as it putrefies, the ammonia formed in it rapidly escapes into the atmosphere?

Cultivated plants need more nitrogen than wild ones, being of a higher and more complex organization. The CHAPTER 1. AGRICULTURE

result of forest growth is chiefly the production of carbonaceous woody fibre; of garden or field culture, especially the addition of as much nitrogen as the plant can be made to take up.

Solid Manure.

The solid excrement's of a nimals do not contain as much nitrogen as those which are voided in a liquid form, and do not constitute so powerful a fertilizing material. ln urine, moreover, ammonia loses a good deal of its volatility by being combined and dissolved in the form of salts. ln an analogous manner, one of the uses of sulphate of lime or gypsum, as a manure, is to fix the ammonia of the atmosphere. Charcoal and humus have a similar property

Mineral Matter in Plants.

Besides the substances already mentioned others are needed by plants as part of their food, to form their structure. The firmness of straw for example, is due to the presence in it of silica, the principal constituent of sa nd and flints. Potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, a nd phosphoric acid are contained in pla nts, in different proportions. All of these they must obtain from the soil. The alkalies above named (potassa a nd soda) appear to be essential to the perfect development of the higher vegetable forms. Some plants require them in one mode of combination, and some in another; and thus the soil that is very good for one, may be quite unfit for others. Eirs and pines find enough to support them in barren, sandy soil.

The proportion of silicate of potash (necessary for the firmness of wheat straw) does not vary perceptibly in the soil of grain fields, because what is removed by the reaper, is again replaced in putrefying straw. But this is not the case with meadow-land. Hence we never find a luxuriant crop of grass on sandy and limestone soils which contain little potash, evidently because one of the constituents indispensable to the growth of the plants is wanting. lf a meadow be well manured, we remove, with the increased crop of grass, a greater quantity of potash than can, by a repetition of the same manure, be restored to it. So grass-land ma nured with gypsum soon ceases to feel its agency. But if the meadow be strewed from time to time with wood ashes, or soap-boilers' lye made from wood ashes, then the grass thrives as luxuriantly as before. And why? The ashes are only a means of restoring the necessary potash for the grass stalks. So oats, barley a nd rye may be made for once to grow upon a sandy heath, by mixing with the scanty soil the ashes

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 11 THE MODERN THEORY OE AGRICULTURE

of the heath-plants that grow upon it. Those ashes contain soda and potash, conveyed to the growing furze or gorse by rain-water. The soil of one district consists of sandstone; certain trees find in it a quantity of alkaline earths sufficient for their own sustenance. When felled, and burnt a nd sprinkled upon the soil, oats will grow and thrive that without such aid would not vegetate. The most decisive proof of the absurdity of the indiscriminate use of any strong manure was obtained at Bingen, a town on the Rhine, where the produce and development of vines were highly increased by manuring them with animal matters such as shavings of horn. After some years, the formation of the wood and leaves decreased perceptibly Such ma nure had too much hastened the growth of the vines: in two or three years they had exhausted the potash in the formation of their fruit leaves and wood; so that none remained for the future crops, as shavings of horn contain no potash. Cow-dung would have been better, and is known to be better. Conditions of Vegetation.

The sun's heat and light, air, water, and the common elements of the earth are necessary to the existence of plants. But a greater or less abundance of certain elements, and their existence in more or less favorable states of combination, determines the magnitude and fertility or, in a word, the whole productiveness, of the vegetable growth.

The rules of agriculture should then, if rationally perfected, enable us to give to each plant what it requires for the attainment of the special object of its culture, namely the increase of certain parts which are used as food for men and animals.

One instance may illustrate this idea. The means to be resorted to for the production of fine pliable straw for hats and bonnets are the very opposite to those which would tend to produce the greatest possible a mount of seed or grain from the same plant.

Sa nd, clay and lime, as has been said are the principal constituents of soils. Clay and marl always contain potash a nd soda. Pure sa nd, or pure limestone, would alone constitute absolutely barren soils. All arable land contains a n ad mixture of clay although an excess of it, in proportion, is of course disadvantageous. Rotation of Crops.

The exhaustion of alkalies in a soil by successive crops is the true reason why practical farmers suppose themselves compelled to suffer land to lie fallow. lt is the 15

greatest possible mistake to think that the temporary diminution of fertility in a field is chiefly owing to the loss of the decaying vegetable matter it previously contained: it is principally the consequence of the exhaustion of potash a nd soda, which are restored by the slow process of the more complete disintegration of the materials of the soil. lt is evident that the careful tilling of fallow land must accelerate a nd increase this further breaking up of its mineral ingredients. Nor is this repose of the soil always necessary. A field, which has become unfitted for a certain kind of produce, may not, on that account, be unsuitable for another; and upon this observation a system of agriculture has been gradually formed, the principal object of which is to obtain the greatest possible produce in a succession of years, with the least outlay for manure. Because plants require for their growth different constituents of soil, changing the crop from year to year will maintain the fertility of that soil (provided it be done with judgment) quite as well as leaving it at rest or fallow. ln this we but imitate nature. The oak, after thriving for long generations on a particular spot, gradually sickens; its entire race dies out; other trees and shrubs succeed it, till, at length, the surface becomes so charged with an excess of dead vegetable matter, that the forest becomes a peat moss, or a surface upon which no large tree will grow. Generally long before this ca n occur, the operation of natural causes has gradually removed from the soil substances, essential to the growth of oak leaving others favorable and necessary to the growth of beech or pine. So, in practical farming, one crop, in artificial rotation with others, extracts from the soil a certain quantity of necessary materials; a second carries off, in preference, those which the former has left.

One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15 1/2 of ashes; the same quantity of barley straw, 8 1 / 2; of oat straw, only 4; a nd the ashes of the three are chemically of about the same composition. Upon the same field, which will yield only one harvest of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be raised, a nd three of oats. We have in these facts a clear proof of what is abstracted from the soil and the key to the rational mode of supplying the deficiency Since wheat consumes a large amount of silicate of potassa from the soil, the plants which should succeed or alternate with it must be such as require but little potassa, as potatoes or turnips. After three or four years the same lands may well bear wheat, because, during the interval, the soil will have been, by the action of the atmosphere, a nd the solution of vegetable and a nimal substances decaying upon or in it, again rendered capable of yielding what the wheat requires. Whetlier this process can be artificially anticipated, by supplying the

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Rh the chief man among them being one Abdallah ibn Ubai. Although perfectly aware of their designs, Mohammed treated them with singular courtesy and forbearance, and spared no pains to win them over to his side; even when his rule was firmly established, and they were completely in his power, he made no difference in dealing with them until in the course of time they became absorbed into the general band of the faithful.

The Jews of Medînah were much harder to deal with, and although Mohammed, by adapting his religion as far as possible to their own, by appealing to their own scriptures and religious books, by according them perfect freedom of worship and political equality, endeavoured in every way to conciliate them, they treated his advances with scorn and derision. When it became obvious that Islâmism and Judaism could not amalgamate, and that the Jews would never accept him for their prophet, Mohammed withdrew his concessions one by one, changed the qiblah or point to which he turned in prayer from Jerusalem which he had at first adopted to the Kaabah at Mecca, substituted the fast of Ramadhân for the Jewish fasts which he had prescribed, and, in short, regarded them as the irreconcilable enemies of his creed.

Soon afterwards he turned his attention to his native city, which had rejected him and driven him out; and feeling himself now sufficiently strong to take the offensive, he began to preach the Holy War. After some petty raids upon the enemies′ caravans an event happened which brought the Muslim and the infidel armies for the first time into open collision. In January, 624, a large caravan from Mecca, which had in the autumn of the previous year escaped an attack by the Muslims, was returning from Syria laden with valuable merchandise, and Mohammed determined to capture it. His intention, however, reached the ears of Abu Sufiyân, who sent a messenger to Mecca to ask for troops for his protection, while he himself followed a different route along the coast of the Red Sea. Mohammed, without waiting for the return of his spies, marched out in the C 2


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ⅹⅹⅹⅵ hopes of surprising Abu Sufiyân at Bedr, where the caravan usually halted, but the Meccan had been too much upon his guard, pressed on with all possible haste, and was soon out of danger. The caravan comprised most of the chief men of Mecca, besides its rich freight. Abu Sufiyân’s message, therefore, asking for succour, caused a complete panic in the city. An army of nearly 1,000 men was immediately equipped and marched forth to the rescue, but on the way met a second messenger from Abu Sufiyân with the news that all danger was passed. On this 300 of them returned to Mecca, whilst others hurried to join the caravan. Mohammed was still advancing, in hopes of surprising the caravan, when he was informed of the approach of the Meccan army. After a council of war it was decided to advance and meet the enemy first, as, in the event of victory, they could afterwards pursue the caravan. Arrived at Bedr, the Muslims took up such a position that their foes could not approach the wells, and during the night the rain fell with such violence that the Meccans could scarcely march upon the sodden soil. In the morning these latter were at a great disadvantage, wearied by the state of the ground, and harassed by the blinding sun which shone straight in their faces; but Mohammed, whose numbers were far inferior, awaited the issue of the combat with no little anxiety. During the first part of the engagement the Muslims, by Mohammed's order, stood firm to their posts, whilst he encouraged them by promising the immediate reward of Paradise to those who should fall martyrs in the cause : whilst a fierce winter storm of wind which was blowing at the time, and which added to the discomfort and embarrassment of the enemy, he called the work of Gabriel with a thousand angels fighting for the faith. At length Mohammed gave the expected signal; taking up a handful he threw it towards the Meccans, and exclaimed, 'May their faces be covered with shame! Muslims to the attack!' The condition of the ground so hampered the movements of the Meccans that they were soon completely routed. Several


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 ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast.

The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holyhead branch) crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead (Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey, coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one member is returned for the county. It is in the north-western circuit, and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop. 2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six hundreds and seventy-eight parishes.

Môn (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll (“Dark Isle”) and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; “Isle of brave folk”). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann. xiv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands overlooking the sea, e.g. at Plâs Newydd. The Druids were attacked in 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in  78. In the 5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the princes of Gwynedd lived till 1277. The present road from Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Gint or black nations, gentes), especially in 853.

ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species by Dr Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-mine in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F. S. Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V. von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6·3. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism {110} and the basal plane {001}, but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals barytes and celestite.

Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills, in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral contains 68%. ANGLI, or, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania (cap. 40), at the end of the 1st century. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position, but states that, together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on “an island in the Ocean.” Ptolemy in his Geography (ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which region the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. At the present time the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skiöldr, the mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skiöldungar). In English tradition this person is connected with “Scedeland” (pl.), a name which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skåne, while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.

Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the Historia Brittonum. King Alfred and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named (q.v.) and  (q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli invaded this country (see, Anglo-Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the code mentioned above.

The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found, special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Britain.

.—Bede, ''Hist. Ecc''. i. 15: King Alfred’s version of Orosius, i. 1. §§ 12, 19; Æthelweard’s Chronicle, lib. i. For traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under (1). L. Weiland,

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Rh of Mohammed’s bitterest enemies were slain, and a number of prisoners and much booty taken. Of the captives, six were executed by the prophet’s order, some embraced Islam, and others were ransomed by their compatriots. This victory was so important for the cause that Mohammed himself regarded it as brought about by a special miracle, and as such it is spoken of in the Qurʼân, Chap. Ⅲ, ver. 20.

Mohammed’s military as well as religious supremacy was now assured in Medînah, and he lost no time in making his enemies there feel his power. The Jews first experienced the full weight of his wrath; a woman of that persuasion, who had incited her fellow-townsmen against him before the battle of Bedr, was put to death, and not long after the Benu Qâinuqâh, a Jewish tribe, who had risen against his authority, dwelling in a suburb of Medînah, were attacked, their property confiscated, and themselves sent into exile.

The war between Mecca and Medînah in the meantime continued.

Abu Sufiyân invaded the territory of Medînah, and the Muslims, on the other hand, captured a caravan belonging to the Qurâis.

The Meccans, determined to revenge the defeat of Bedr, had devoted the profits of the caravan that had been the cause of the conflict to the equipment of a large army, and in January, 625, three thousand men marched on to Medînah with Abu Sufiyân at their head. The latter was accompanied by his wife Hind, who had lost her father, brother, and uncle at the battle, and longed for vengeance. They established their camp near Mount Ohod, on the road between the two cities. The Muslims were divided in opinion, whether to await the invaders in the city, or to make a sortie and attack them where they were; and at length, in spite of Mohammed’s advice to the contrary, the latter plan was decided on.

They marched forth to the number of a thousand, and of these three hundred belonged to the Hypocrites, or


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ⅹⅹⅹⅷ the disaffected party who deserted before the battle commenced.

Mohammed had disposed his forces so that his best trained archers covered the only vulnerable part of his army, the left flank, and these he bade keep to their posts, no matter what happened. The battle commenced with a few single combats and slight skirmishes, in which the Muslims had the advantage, and a few of the latter having reached and pillaged the enemies’ camp, the archers, thinking the day already won, forgot their orders and joined in the loot. ʿHâlid, who commanded the Meccan cavalry, seized the opportunity thus afforded, and took the Muslims on the flank and completely routed them. Mohammed himself was wounded in the mouth and narrowly escaped with his life, and ʿHamzah, his uncle, surnamed the Lion of God, was slain.

The Meccans did not pursue their victory, but believing Mohammed, whom they had seen fall, to be dead, returned to their own city.

The defeat placed Mohammed in a very critical position, and he had great difficulty in restoring confidence to his followers.

About the beginning of the year 627 the Muslims were in great jeopardy. 4,000 Meccans and 1,000 men, gathered from the neighbouring tribes, marched upon Medînah, being instigated thereto by the Jews who had been expelled from that city.

Mohammed was only apprised of the movement at the last moment, but he at once took measures for the defence. On the advice of Salmân, a Persian captive, he caused a deep trench to be dug round the city, and earthworks to be raised in those parts where it was undefended, and behind the trench he posted his army, numbering 3,000 men. The invading Meccans were completely checked by this mode of defence, and although the Beni Qurâidhah, a Jewish tribe, deserted to them from Mohammed’s side and


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Rh rendered them every assistance, their attacks were unsuccessful. At length one cold winter’s night a violent storm of wind and rain arose, and a complete panic took place in the camp of the Meccans, who broke up and precipitately retired to their homes. This was the siege of the Confederates alluded to in the Qur′ân.

The enemy having disappeared, Mohammed at once marched against the traitorous tribe of Qurâidhah, and besieged them in their fortress, about six miles south-west of Medînah. Being quite unprepared, these were obliged to surrender after fourteen days, which they did on condition that the Benu Aus, their allies in Medînah, should decide their fate. Mohammed chose for arbitrator one of the chiefs of the Aus tribe, named Saad ibn Moâdh, a fierce soldier, who was at the time dying of the wounds which he had received in the attack upon the fortress. He ordained that the men should be beheaded one and all, the women and children sold as slaves, and the property divided amongst the soldiers. This terrible sentence was promptly executed, and the men, to the number of 800, were beheaded, and the women and children bartered to the Bedawîn in exchange for arms and horses.

Mohammed’s power and influence was now extending every day.

For six years neither he nor his followers had visited the Kaabah, or performed the sacred rites of the pilgrimage, and in the year 628 he resolved to attempt it. The time chosen was in the sacred month of uʼl Qaʼhdah, when the Lesser Pilgrimage was wont to be performed, rather than uʼl ʿHiggeh, that of the Greater Pilgrimage, as less likely to lead to a collision with the other tribes. Fifteen hundred men only accompanied Mohammed, bearing no other arms than those usually allowed to pilgrims, a sheathed sword for each. The Meccans contemplated Mohammed’s advance with no small apprehension, and not believing in his pacific


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112 and will continue to issue their anathema maranathas until justice is done to these much injured officers. We ask by what rule was this Board selected? Did they pass the ordeal of a secret inquisition? Or have they since their appointment passed another 'careful examination' by a Board?"

Senators Jefferson Davis and Stephen Mallory, prominent advocates of the original Bill establishing the Retiring Board, both strongly opposed Maury's reinstatement when a Bill praying for justice for those injured by the action of that Board was introduced into Congress. One afterwards became President of the Confederate States, and the other his Secretary of the Navy, and, both before and during the war, were inimical to Maury. At this time the following appeared in the New York Herald of December 15th, 1855. appeared in the New York Herald of December 15th, 1855.

"We learn that the Russian Minister yesterday waited on Lieutenant Maury, at the National Observatory, to deliver, by command of his Government, the following autograph letter from the Grand Duke Constantine, Commander in Chief of the Russian Navy:—

It is now a long time since the eminent scientific works, for which navigators of every nation are indebted to your zeal and your talents, attracted my attention. . . . . I should rejoice, sir, to present you with a testimonial of my esteem; but, knowing the laws of your country, which do not permit you to accept anything from foreign Princes, I must confine myself to the expression of my sentiments. They are as exalted as your own merits; and, in my official capacity, I may say to you that you do honour to the profession to which you belong, as well as to the great nation which you have the honour to serve. Receive, sir, the assurance of my goodwill and esteem. CONSTANTINE.


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 Die Angeln (1889); A. Erdmann, Über die Heimat und den Namen der Angeln (Upsala, 1890—cf. H. Möller in the Anzeiger für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur, xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock in the Historisk Tidskrift (Stockholm), 1895, xv. p. 163 ff.; G. Schütte, Var Anglerne Tyskere? (Flensborg, 1900); H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age (London, 1866); J. Mestorf, Urnenfriedhöfe in Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1886); S. Müller, Nordische Altertumskunde (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122 ff.; see further and, Anglo-Saxon.

ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as “Anglican Communion,” first used in the 19th century, marked at once the immense development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate article (see ); and it is not without significance that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it early gave way to the dominant Presbyterianism, its religious was long overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact, while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception, which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the Scotsman, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation. This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeeding the Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the 16th and 17th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical organization. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.

The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church, was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr Samuel Seabury to England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though the bestowal of the potestas ordinis would be valid, the crown, which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal jurisdiction, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the consecration of a bishop to a see outside the realm (see ). The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal restrictions, were more amenable; and on the 11th of November 1784 Seabury was consecrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786, on the initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad; and, on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in America and the nature of certain liturgical changes in contemplation, the two English archbishops proceeded, on the 14th of February 1787, to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the sees of Pennsylvania and New York (see ).

This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is not yet by any means complete.

Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards the traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity of Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the jurisdiction of Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion of the Anglican Church has been in no sense conceived as a Protestant aggressive movement against Rome. Occasional exceptions, such as the consecration by Archbishop Plunket of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in Spain, raised so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main, then, the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its claim, so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the Church of England and the English race, while recognizing its special duties towards the non-Christian populations subject to the empire or brought within the reach of its influence. As against the Church of Rome, with its system of rigid centralization, the Anglican Church represents the principle of local autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive and more catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has developed on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation; but, though in principle there is no great difference between a church defined by national, and a church defined by racial boundaries, there is an immense difference in effect, especially when the race—as in the case of the English—is itself ecumenical.

The realization of what may be called this catholic mission of the English church, in the extension of its organization to the colonies, was but a slow process.

On the 12th of August 1787 Dr Charles Inglis was consecrated bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British possessions in North America. In 1793 the see of Quebec was founded; Jamaica and Barbados followed in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839. Meanwhile the needs of India has been tardily met, on the urgent representations in parliament of William Wilberforce and others, by the consecration of Dr T. F. Middleton as bishop of Calcutta, with three archdeacons to assist him. In 1817 Ceylon was added to his charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East Indies and the islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 “New South Wales and its dependencies”! Some five years later, on the nomination of the duke of Wellington, William Broughton was sent out to work in this enormous jurisdiction as archdeacon of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835 and 1837, the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836 Broughton himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus down to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of that year, however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his famous letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that “an episcopal church without a bishop is a contradiction in terms,” and strenuously advocating a great effort for the extension of the episcopate. It was not in vain. The plan was taken up with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841 the bishops of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration which inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent

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 out. It was indeed, as a German critic has pointed out, the prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners, for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed “such stuff” six months ago, knew them better now. “Your new raised forces,” he wrote to the House, “did perform singular good service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and acknowledgment.” Worcester resembled Sedan in much more than outward form. Both were fought by “nations in arms,” by citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best. Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty, which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in which a pursuit is superfluous—a “crowning mercy,” as Cromwell called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself reduced to the position of an English province under martial law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the tremendous climax of Worcester.

.—Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion (Oxford, 1702–1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie, Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, 1904); Fairfax Correspondence (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace, History of the Irish Rebellion (London, 1675); R. Bellings, ''Fragmentum historicum, or the. . . War in Ireland (London, 1772); J. Heath, Chronicle of the late Intestine War (London, 1676); Military Memoir of Colonel Birch'' (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., 1873); Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson (edition of 1882); Papers on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and English Historical Review, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, Survey of England’s Champions (1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (London, 1849); J. Vicars, Jehovah-Jireh (1644), and England’s Worthies (1647), the latter reprinted in 1845: Anthony à Wood, History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1792–1795); Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, Life of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle (ed. C. H. Firth, London, 1886); Lucy Hutchinson, Memoir of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); Memoirs of Edward Ludlow (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. Goode, The Services of the Earl of Manchester’s Army (London, 1644); H. Cary, Memorials of the Great Civil War (London, 1842); Patrick Gordon, Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gordon (Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, Military Memoirs of the Civil War (ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); Narratives of Hamilton’s Expedition, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh, 1904); Lord Hopton, Bellum Civile (Somerset Record Society, London, 1902); Irish War of 1641 (Camden Society, old series, vol. xiv., 1841); Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles I. 1641–1649 (London, 1660); Hugh Peters, Reports from the Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell (London, 1645–1646); “Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert” (ed. C. H. Firth, Engl. Historical Review, 1898); J. Sprigge, Anglia Rediviva (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854); R. Symonds, Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644–1645 (ed. C. E. Long, Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, The Military Government of Gloucester (London, 1645); M. Carter, Expeditions of Kent, Essex and Colchester (London, 1650); Tracts relating to the Civil War in Lancashire (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London, 1844); Discourse of the War in Lancashire (ed. W. Beament, Chetham Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, The late Fight at Preston (London, 1648); Journal of the Siege of Lathom House (London, 1823); J. Rushworth, The Storming of Bristol (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner History of the Great Civil War (London, 1886); and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, Oliver Cromwell (New York and London, 1900); Cromwell’s Army (London, 1902); “The Raising of the Ironsides,” Transactions R. Hist.

Society, 1899 and 1901; papers in English Historical Review, and memoirs of the leading personages of the period in Dictionary of National Biography; T. S. Baldock, Cromwell as a Soldier (London, 1899); F. Hoenig, Oliver Cromwell (Berlin, 1887–1889); Sir J. Maclean, Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. Markham, Life of Fairfax (London, 1870); M. Napier, Life and Times of Montrose (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. Devereux, Lives of the Earls of Essex (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, ''Mil. Engineering in the Civil War (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887); “The Battle of Naseby,” English Historical Review, 1888; Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, Cavalry, its Past and Future (London, 1903); E. Scott, Rupert, Prince Palatine (London, 1899); M. Stace, Cromwelliana (London, 1870); C. S. Terry, Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven'' (London, 1899); Madame H. de Witt, The Lady of Lathom (London, 1869); F. Maseres, Tracts relating to the Civil War (London, 1815); P. A. Charrier, Cromwell (London, 1905), also paper in Royal United Service Institution Journal, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, “Edgehill,” English Historical Review, 1887; The History of Basing House (Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, “The Sieges of Hull,” English Historical Review, 1905; J. Willis Bund, The Civil War in Worcestershire (Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, History of Reading (London, 1802); F. Drake, Eboracum: History of the City of York (London, 1736); N. Drake, Siege of Pontefract Castle (Surtees Society Miscellanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, The Civil War in Hampshire (2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, Leicester during the Civil War (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, Sieges of Pontefract Castle (Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, East Anglia and the Civil War (London, 1897); H. E. Malden, “Maidstone, 1648,” ''English Hist. Review, 1892; W. Money, Battles of Newbury'' (Newbury, 1884); J. R. Phillips, The Civil War in Wales and the Marches (London, 1874); G. Rigaud, Lines round Oxford (1880); G. Roberts, History of Lyme (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] Sieges of Bristol (Bristol, 1868); [J. H. Round] History of Colchester Castle (Colchester, 1882) and “The Case of Lucas and Lisle,” Transactions of R. Historical Society, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, London and the Kingdom (London, 1894); I. Tullie, Siege of Carlisle (1840); E. A. Walford, “Edgehill,” ''English Hist. Review, 1905; J. Washbourne, Bibliotheca Gloucestrensis (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, Civil War in Herefordshire'' (London, 1879).

 GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8° and 113.2° W. long. and between 40.7° and 41.8° lat. Great Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth) pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn too small) reaching N.

No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., possibly as little as 13 ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of 50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is not constant, as the water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation is variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the water of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), and besides a difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873; and between 1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The range of rise and fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865–1886. With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity, which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was 1.179; in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates the solids in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter date 302.122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with continued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Free-Soil Party

FREE-SOIL PARTY (1848-55). This was the old Liberty party (q.v.) of direct abolition (Birney, Chase, etc.), plus the “Conscience Whigs” of Massachusetts (Sumner, C. F. Adams, etc.), who supported the ../Wilmot Proviso/ (q.v.), and the “Barnburners,” or Van Buren section of the New York Democrats. The latter as a body adopted their principle of restricting the extension of slavery into the Territories, to punish the Polk administration, ultra-southern, for attempting to build up its own “machine” in New York at the expense of the ../Albany Regency/ (q.v.) ; but a small element of it was really in sympathy with their less extreme purposes. Van Buren had lost the nomination in 1844 by refusing to approve the annexation of Texas; and his co-operation was more than a mere party move. The Liberty party in 1847 nominated John P. Hale of New Hampshire and Leicester King of Ohio for President and Vice-President; but seeing a chance of larger success through the promising split in the Democracy, dropped them and waited. The Barnburners offered only an even share of the State vote with their rivals the Hunkers in the Baltimore Democratic convention of 1848, withdrew, and after nominating Van Buren at a bolting convention to keep the party together, agreed to join in a fusion “Free-Soil” party. A convention of this at Buffalo in August nominated Van Buren and Adams. The platform declared for “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor and Free Men”; and that slavery in the States was beyond the control of Congress, but that as Congress could not make slaves it was bound to refuse it admission to the Territories. (See ). The party cast 291,263 votes, turned Maine and six western States over to the Democrats (Cass), and would have defeated the Whigs (Taylor) but that the New York defection (120,510) was mainly from the Democrats and gave that State to the Whigs. The New York Democratic delegation to Congress was annihilated all but one; and the two factions at once struck a bargain which left Van Buren permanently out of public life. The Free-Soilers in the 31st Congress (1849-51) had 2 United States senators (Chase and Hale), and 14 representatives, including J. R. Giddings, George W. Julian and Horace Mann. Sumner in the Senate and 3 more representatives reinforced them in 1851, and in the 33d Congress (1853-55) they had 5 senators and 17 representatives. Having been abandoned by their casual allies, in 1852 they

nominated Hale and Julian; with a platform denouncing the ../Compromise of 1850/ (q.v.), both the great parties for accepting it, and slavery as “a sin against God and a crime against man,” and demanding the repeal of the fugitive-slave law. They polled 156,149 votes, of which 25,329 were in New York. They maintained their organization in Congress till the ../Kansas-Nebraska Bill/ (q.v.) had created the Republican party, which adopted its policy, and into which they were at once fused. It had served as a school of experience for some of the most distinguished Republican leaders, and played a part out of all proportion to its voting strength. Consult Wilson, H., ‘Fall of the Slave Power’ (New York 1874); and Smith, T. C, ‘Liberty and Free-soil Parties in the Northwest’ (New York 1897).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Freifeld, George

FREIFELD, George, American judge: b. New York city, 1856; d. 17 Nov. 1917. Of German extraction, his father served in the Civil War. Freifeld was elected a municipal court justice in 1909, and was re-elected to the second district municipal court of Brooklyn in 1917 for a term of 10 years. For over a quarter of a century Freifeld was a prominent figure in Freemasonry; he was district deputy of the third district in 1906, and in 1914-15 was grand master of the Grand Lodge of Masons in the State of New York. He served 12 years as a member of the board of education, was a life member of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and vice-president of the Manufacturers' Trust Company.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Locofoco

LOCOFOCO, formerly a familiar name for a member of the Democratic party; applied especially to the radical or equal rights section of that party, because at a meeting in Tammany Hall, New York, on 29 Oct. 1835, in which there was great diversity of sentiment, the chairman left his seat, and the lights were extinguished, with a view to dissolving the meeting; when those in favor of extreme measures produced loco-foco matches — then a comparatively recent invention, rekindled the

lights, continued the meeting, and accomplished their object. (See ). Consult Byrdsall, F., ‘History of the Loco-Foco Party’ (New York 1842); Alexander, De A. S., ‘Political History of the State of New York’ (Vol. II, New York 1906); Woodburn, J. A., ‘Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States’ (2d ed., ib., 1914).


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88

We publish the following letter as confirming the accuracy of Dr. Dabney's interesting report of Colonel John B. Baldwin's account of interview with Mr. Lincoln.

, December 18, 1880.

Rev. J. William Jones, D. D., Secretary Southern Historical Society, Richmond:

Dear Sir,—I have just read, in the first volume of the Transactions of your society, Dr. Dabney's paper concerning an interview between Lincoln and Colonel John Baldwin, of Virginia, in April, 1861. In May, 1865, I was on duty, as a Federal military officer, in Norfolk, and while the United States District Court for the eastern district of Virginia was in session there. I was introduced to Colonel Baldwin at that time, in the clerk's office, by Honorable L. H. Chandler, United States District Attorney, Colonel Baldwin being then in attendance on some business connected with that court, and having also for the first time, after the war, visited Norfolk. I met him again, during the afternoon, at the Atlantic hotel, and he was kind enough to refer to some of the incidents of the contest, and to the causes which occasioned it. In that interview he made substantially the same statement that Rev. Dr. Robert L. Dabney has given in his valuable and interesting paper, but, for reasons that will occur to almost any one, I did not repeat what he said, and did not feel at liberty then to make any publication of his statement, and would not do so now had not others already done so.

Yours respectfully, .

The following letter explains itself. We should be glad to learn something more concerning the lieutenants who wrote the document quoted:

, February 11, 1881.

Dr. J. W. Jones, Secretary Southern Historical Society:

Dear Sir,—In the winter of 1864 and the spring of 1865 I served in the Army of the Potomac, in front of Petersburg, and was present


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Loeb, Jacques

LOEB, lėb, Jacques, German-American physiologist and biologist: b. Germany, 7 April 1859. He studied at Berlin, Munich and Strassburg, was assistant at both Würzburg (1886-88) and Strassburg (1888-90), studied at the Naples zoological station, and in 1891-92 was associate professor of biology at Bryn Mawr College. In 1892 he became assistant professor of physiology and experimental biology at the University of Chicago, and in 1895

associate professor. He was also professor of physiology at the Rush Medical College of Chicago from 1900. In 1902 he was appointed professor of physiology in the University of California. Since 1910 he has been a member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. His experiments have been in different fields of physiology and biology, all trying to show that complicated life phenomena can be reduced to simple physico-chemical laws. In his earlier work he showed that complicated animal instincts are identical with those reactions of plants which are known as tropisms, and he and his collaborators have recently shown that the law of Bunsen and Roscoe which controls the chemical effects of light also expresses the influence of light upon those animal instincts which fall under the name of heliotropism. His experiments on artificial parthenogenesis have furnished the proof that the fertilizing effect of the living spermatozoon can be replaced by simple solutions. Other experiments deal with the influence of salts upon life phenomena, with regeneration and heteromorphosis, with effects of temperature, etc. He has published numerous papers in scientific journals and the following books: ‘Der Heliotropismus der Tiere und seine Übereinstimmung mit dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen’ (1890); ‘Untersuchungen zur physiologischen Morphologie der Tiere’ (1891-92); ‘Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology’ (1900); ‘Studies in General Physiology’ (1906); ‘Untersuchungen über künstliche Parthenogenese’ (1906); ‘The Dynamics of Living Matter’ (1906); ‘The Mechanistic Conception of Life’ (1912); ‘Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilization’ (1913).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Loeb, James

LOEB, James, American banker and Hellenist: b. New York, N. Y., 6 Aug. 1867. He was graduated at Harvard University in 1888 and from that year until 1901 was a member of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb and Company, New York. He is a member of the English Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies; in 1911 he turned over his collection of Aretine pottery to the Fogg Museum at Harvard, and in the same year perfected plans for the publication of a library of Greek and Latin authors — text and translation. The volumes, known as the Loeb Classical Library, began to appear in 1912 and were continued in the following years. Mr. Loeb has published translations of Paul Delcharme's ‘Euripides and the Spirit of His Dreams,’ and of Maurice Croiset's ‘Aristophanes and the Political Parties at Athens.’


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Rh during the last gallant efforts of the Army of Northern Virginia. Upon reaching the inside of the Confederate works in the vicinity of the point where the Weldon railroad crossed the trenches I saw a bunch of papers, the one corner of which lay in a pool of blood. Near by was also the shattered carriage of a gun, indicating that one of our shells had dismounted it. Everywhere were the signs of a desperate struggle, though the dead and wounded had been removed. I picked up the package of papers, supposing that some poor fellow had dropped them as he fell, and they might lead to a clue. There was nothing of interest except one, a copy of which I give you. I preserved it, but there was no historical society in the South in 1873 with which I was acquainted to which to send it, and therefore that year I placed it to be among the archives of the Iowa Historical Society for safe keeping, and publication was made of it among the transactions for that year. When I last saw it it had a large blood stain and a number of earth stains from the yellow clay in which I found it. It was written on coarse foolscap paper, in a delicate hand, and evidently had been prepared for transmission through the regular military channels to the War Department at Richmond. The following is the document:

, March 31, 1865.

General,—We have the honor to request of you authority to raise ten companies of colored troops in the vicinity of Montgomery, Ala. We feel confident that this can be done, with the help of influential friends; both of us having many in and around the city.

We are, General, very respectfully, Your obedient servants, , First Lieut. and Adjt. Sixty-first Ala. Regt. Inf.

, First Lieut. Co. "A" Sixty-first Ala. Regt. Inf. To General S. Cooper, A. and I.G.

I have always had a personal interest in the fate of these gallant soldiers, and I give you the copy for what it is worth. There is no doubt of the genuinessgenuineness [sic] of the paper, as I picked it up and did not receive it from any second hand. Yours fraternally,


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User talk:Hendrawd

Selamat datang
Halo Hendra, selamat datang. Skoring bisa dilihat di halaman ini. Tiga hari tidak menyunting dianggap gugur yah.Siska.Doviana (talk) 01:57, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Pertanyaan
Saya baru daftar kemarin dan tertarik untuk ikut serta dalam proyek Beasiswa Perjalanan Jakarta tersebut. Tetapi ada yang mau saya tanyakan. Pertama tentang huruf - huruf yang tidak bisa dibaca atau tidak ada padanan katanya, seperti halaman 161 yang ada bahasa Arabnya itu bagaimana? Kedua tentang penomoran halaman, apakah perlu dikasih? Karena di halaman 1 dan 2 yang udah diverifikasi, tidak ada penomoran halamannya. Untuk sementara itu dulu. Ditunggu jawabannya, terima kasih - Hendra Wijaya Djiono
 * Jawaban:
 * Tanya: huruf yang tidak bisa dibaca atau tidak ada padanan katanya
 * Huruf/ halaman yang rusak (tidak bisa dibaca) tetap akan dihitung nilai (poin), bukan salah anda bahwa halamannya rusak atau memiliki aksara yang tidak diketahui. Namun ada kode tertentu yang mengikuti lihat perbaikan halaman yang anda tanyakan disini.
 * Tanya: tentang penomoran halaman, apakah perlu dikasih?
 * Ya, perlu. Nomor halaman perlu berada di header seperti ini. Kodenya adalah (kosong jangan diisi karena ini untuk bagian kiri) Siska.Doviana (talk) 02:04, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Mbak, saya mau tanya lagi donk. Itu kalau formattingnya harus sesuai dengan naskah asli ya? Jadi tiap kata kan penjelasannya selalu menjorok ke dalam indent-nya, dan kalau ada garis lurus horisontal gmn? apa harus dikasi juga? contohnya di sini. Itu kan paling bawah sendiri ada garis lurusnya horisontal sebelum referensi. Terus buat template page numbering footer editnya gmn ya? Bingung yang di sini. Terus kata2 apa yang perlu diberi tautan? Yang make tag kata itu. Ada gak daftar / list template Wiki apa aja yang bs gw pake? Maaf mbak banyak nanya, soalnya masih newbie banget >_<. Mohon bantuannya ya mbak, makasih.

 * Halaman sini menggunakan rumus rujukan, contohnya begini seperti yang dibeneri Rachmat hohoho. Sorry belum kejawab bener, baru keketik separo udah ketiduran, keburu dijawab orang. Rumus rujukan.

Terus buat template page numbering footer editnya gmn ya? Bingung yang di sini.

 * Ah, itu mah cuman kesalahan ketik doang yang nomor 3 dibawah, yang bener halamannya diatas nomor 17

 * Terus kata2 apa yang perlu diberi tautan? Yang make tag kata <-- ya yang ini ngga usah kok, diemin aja seperti biasa (tanpa tautan).
 * Ada gak daftar / list template Wiki apa aja yang bs gw pake?
 * Sengaja tidak dikasih daftar karena malah nanti "mual" ngeliat daftar banyak, jadi lebih baik begitu ngga yakin - tanya - ngga yakin tanya. Jadi kemajuannya sedikit sedikit tapi maju.

 * Maaf mbak banyak nanya, soalnya masih newbie banget >_<. Mohon bantuannya ya mbak, makasih.
 * Ya ngga perlu minta maap untuk kemajuan kompetisi memang di desain untuk banyak tanya. Tutup saja kotak ringkasan (summary) yang dibawah dengan pertanyaan dan kalimat frustasi sebagai "penanda" entar juga ada yang mbenerin. Siska.Doviana (talk)

Penilaian Sementara
Halo Hendra, Penilaian sementara dapat dilihat disini.

Beberapa catatan hasil dari melihat suntingan kamu: 06Ivonne (talk) 10:17, 4 July 2012 (UTC)
 * 1) Headernya jangan dibuat big, dibalikin lagi yah semua.
 * 2) Yang ini belom bisa dikasi poin, masi ada cetak miring dan karakter yang kurang, tolong diperbaiki.
 * 3) Tidak perlu dienter kalau masih bisa nyambung walaupun di teksnya pindah ke bawah.

Headernya diganti jadi normal aja, kayak gini

Itu gak usah, gak apa-apa. Halamannya sudah divalidasi. Tautan ke wiktionary memang tidak usah juga tidak apa-apa, tapi kalau sudah dikasi yasudah biarkan saja. Itu seharusnya diisi di halaman wiktionarynya sesuai entri kamusnya. Tapi tidak usah dikerjakan untuk saat ini. 06Ivonne (talk) 03:52, 5 July 2012 (UTC)

Terima Kasih
Makasih ya Mas Hendra udah betulin revisi saya. Maklum saya baru di wikisource.

Maaf lho, Mas. :D Charis

Penilaian

 * Terakhir, bagaimana kalau misalnya saya sudah merasa hasil editan saya benar, tetapi ada orang lain yang merubahnya dan saya rasa salah?
 * Tinggal hubungi orang itu dan bertanya kenapa dirubah. Kalau ternyata dia yang benar, biarkan, kalau ternyata kamu yang benar, tinggal pilih pada bagian "history" untuk dikembalikan.

 * Kalau misal halaman udah saya tetapkan menjadi */proofread*/, masih boleh diedit - edit lagi kan kedepannya kalau misal masih ditemui kesalahan?
 * Masih, udah di validasi juga bisa di sunting kok.

 * Terus bagaimana kalau ada user lain yang kadang mengedit lagi halaman saya yang udah */proofread*/. Dan melabelinya lagi dengan */proofread*/ kepunyaan dia? Padahal dia cuma melakukan sedikit perubahan, misal menambahkan tautan saja.
 * Ah tenang aja, itu sih domain juri yang menilai halamannya siapa yang "kerja keras", tautan itu ngga harus, tapi kalau dia mo nambah tautan mah terserah aja. Dari halaman "history" nya kan terlihat yang kerja keras siapa. Ngga peduli proofread nya oleh siapa dan berapa kali. Bagian ini terpaksa musti di pasrahin aja :D Siska.Doviana (talk) 16:53, 5 July 2012 (UTC)

Proofread
Wah, ga tau deh itu kenapa. Mungkin browsernya, disini sih bisa. Yang halaman 355 tidak usah pake ekstra spasi. Yang halaman 385 sementara tidak apa-apa ditulis di setiap line saja. 06Ivonne (talk) 03:38, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

Halaman habis - peserta untuk terus menyunting agar tidak gugur
Halo Hendra, Charis memberitahukan pada panitia bahwa halaman sudah habis. Ini panitia sadari beberapa jam yang lalu. Pengumuman beasiswa akan kita matikan lebih cepat dari rencana, karena halaman merah sudah tidak ada atau harus diidentifikasi berapa yang betul di "proofread" (kaji halaman) tetapi belum dikerjakan. Para peserta yang masih bertahan diharapkan untuk terus menyunting baik itu memvalidasi halaman atau memperbaiki halaman hingga tanggal 17 Juli, agar tidak gugur sembari panitia menghitung skornya. Untuk melihat halaman seluruhnya, silahkan klik kamus dalam versi halaman lengkap dan betulkan halaman yang bermasalah untuk terus menyunting. Terima kasih dan semoga yang terbaik yang menang. Siska.Doviana (talk) 13:07, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hendrawd


text: Southern Historical Society Papers/Volume 09/February/Interview of Colonel Baldwin with Mr. Lincoln


text: Southern Historical Society Papers/Volume 09/February/An Official Paper that was Never Sent


text:
Author:John Hancock Keatley

Works

 * “The Gold Fields of Alaska” (1890)
 * “The Gold Fields of Alaska” (1890)
 * “The Gold Fields of Alaska” (1890)
 * “The Gold Fields of Alaska” (1890)

Works about Keatley

 * "John H. Keatley" in History of Iowa From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century, volume 4, by Benjamin F. Gue (1903)

title: Author:John Hancock Keatley


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Handel, George Frederick


text:
User:Meetatholiday

Truth in Number Beasiswa Jalan Jakarta

title: User:Meetatholiday


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Great Rebellion


text:
User talk:GeoEvan

— billinghurst  sDrewth  01:50, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Azawad Declaration of Independence
Regarding your deletion of the Azawad Declaration of Independence - I'll defer to your judgment on the copyright of the original French version (I take it that public domain is not to be assumed by default regarding publications by governments other than that of the U.S.). But I want to at least let you know that the English version was uploaded here with the express written permission of the translator (me), though this may not have been documented properly on Wikisource. I don't fully understand how copyright works with translations, so I'll again defer to your judgement there - but if there would be any basis for restoring the English document to the wiki based on the translator's permission, let me know and I can provide whatever licensing documentation is necessary. [GeoEvan] (talk) 14:28, 2 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Hi [GeoEvan]. It is a little political and technical. My reason for deleting the work was …
 * The website from you have taken the French work has a © copyright statement at the base of the page
 * The US has rejected the declaration of independence, so there is not valid argument that it is a government edict
 * accordingly I cannot see that the French language work is in the public domain, and therefore it is subject to the standard copyright. As the French language work is not in the public domain, therefore your English translation cannot be in the public domain whether you wish it to be or not. For English Wikisource to host your translation, the original would need to be released into the public domain as per one of the choices at Help:Copyright tags, identified as such at the source, then you would need to similarly licence your translation, and generally we would do that via an OTRS permission. — billinghurst  sDrewth  15:06, 2 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Understood. Thanks for clearing that up. Now that you mention it, the copyright statement on the source site should have been a giveaway. The relevance of the U.S. rejecting the declaration, on the other hand, hadn't occurred to me. Is that because Wikisource is operating under U.S. law? And if so, does the U.S. have laws specifically relating to other governments' edicts? [GeoEvan] (talk) 19:54, 2 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Apologies for not saying all of this here when I deleted the work, I should have given my reasoning it was an oversight on my behalf. English Wikisource basis its copyright status based on US law, and it does have specific laws relating to government edicts, and it will be covered in the previous link. To note, that just because someone claims copyright, does not mean that it definitely applies, there are many false/incorrect claims. One of the things that I was looking for would have been a statement on whether it had been released to the public under a Creative Commons licence. — billinghurst  sDrewth  01:50, 3 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Got it. Thanks for the clarification! And I'll check the Help:Copyright tags link next time. Thanks. :-) [GeoEvan] (talk) 21:47, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:GeoEvan


text:
User talk:Ekosuryanto09

Selamat datang
Halo Eko, saya tambahkan templat di halaman penggunanya ya. Bisa diinformasikan lokasi tinggalnya? Siska.Doviana (talk) 02:03, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Gugur
Terima kasih telah berpartisipasi pada kompetisi Beasiswa Perjalanan Jakarta, berdasarkan catatan kontribusi pengguna, anda dinyatakan gugur oleh panitia per 7 Juli 2012 karena tidak menyunting setelah tanggal 3 Juli. Sampai bertemu dikompetisi selanjutnya! Siska.Doviana (talk) 13:56, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ekosuryanto09


text:
User talk:Meetatholiday

— billinghurst  sDrewth  02:05, 3 July 2012 (UTC)

Truth in Numbers
Halo, kalo ingin ikut mendapat beasiswa ke Jakarta harap sebutkan lokasi saat ini dan mulai menyunting. Bila tidak menyunting selama tiga hari akan dianggap gugur. 06Ivonne (talk) 07:05, 4 July 2012 (UTC)

Gugur
Terima kasih telah berpartisipasi pada kompetisi Beasiswa Perjalanan Jakarta, berdasarkan catatan kontribusi pengguna, anda dinyatakan gugur oleh panitia per 7 Juli 2012 karena tidak menyunting setelah tanggal 3 Juli. Sampai bertemu dikompetisi selanjutnya! Siska.Doviana (talk) 13:58, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Meetatholiday


text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 6.djvu/46

ⅹⅼ intentions, resolved to bar his progress. Mohammed, thus checked, turned aside towards ʿHudâibîyeh, on the frontier of the sacred territory.

Here, after some negotiations, a treaty was concluded in, which a truce of ten years was agreed upon; any of the Meccans who pleased should be at liberty to join Mohammed, and vice versâ, any of the Muslims who chose might enter the Meccan ranks; only those who were clients of powerful chiefs were not to be allowed to become Muslims without the consent of their patrons. Mohammed and his followers were not to enter Mecca that year, but the next year they were to be permitted to do so and to remain for three days.

This was, in reality, a great triumph for Mohammed, as it recognised his position as an independent prince, while the ten years’ truce not only enabled him without hindrance to propagate his doctrines at Mecca, but, by removing the constant danger in which he stood from that city, gave him the opportunity of turning his attention elsewhere.

He now not only endeavoured to reduce the Bedawîn tribes to submission, but wrote letters to the great kings and emperors of the world, to the Persian Khosrou, to the Byzantine Emperor, and to the Abyssinian Naggâsî, peremptorily bidding them embrace the faith and submit to his rule. The replies that he received were not flattering to his pride, but he or his immediate successors were, ere long, to repeat the summons in a form that admitted neither of denial nor of delay.

One potentate only, the governor of Egypt, Maqauqas, returned a favourable answer, and he sent amongst other presents two slave girls, one of whom, a Coptic girl named Mary, Mohammed took to himself, and by so doing estranged his numerous wives, and was only reconciled by a revelation.

In 629, in the month of uʼl Qaʼhdah (February),


text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 6.djvu/47

Rh the long-expected pilgrimage took place. With two thousand followers the prophet entered the Holy City, and the Meccans having retired to the neighbouring hills, all passed off quietly.

In the course of the short three days′ sojourn in Mecca the Muslim ranks were strengthened by the accession of two influential personages, ʿHâlid, who had conquered them at Ohod, and ʿAmr, the future conqueror of Egypt.

In this year the Muslim army experienced a terrible defeat at Mûta on the Syrian frontier, in which the prophet′s friend Zâid was slain. His prestige, however, was soon re-established by fresh successors and the accession of numerous border tribes.

Two years after the truce of ʿHudâibîyeh, a tribe who were under the protection of Mohammed, were attacked unawares by another tribe in alliance with the Meccans, and some Meccans in disguise were recognised amongst the assailants. This was a violation of the treaty, and Mohammed, on being appealed to by the sufferers, was nothing loth to take advantage of the opportunity afforded him for recommencing hostilities. The Meccans sent Abu Sufiyân to Medînah to offer explanations and procure a renewal of the truce, but without success. Mohammed began to make preparations for an expedition against Mecca, but concealed his plans even from his immediate followers; his Bedawîn allies were ordered either to join him at Medînah, or to meet him at certain appointed places on the route, but it was not until the last moment that his troops knew that their destination was the Holy City. While they were encamped in the immediate neighbourhood, and before the Meccans had any certain knowledge of their approach, the camp was visited at night by Abu Sufiyân, who was introduced to Mohammed by his uncle ʿAbbâs, the latter having become converted to Islâm now that he saw that its cause must certainly triumph. Mohammed promised Abu Sufiyân that all those inhabitants of Mecca who should take refuge in his house or in the Kaabah or even in private houses, provided the doors were closed, should be


text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 9.djvu/14

ⅷ


text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 9.djvu/15

Rh

[9]


text:
Page:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 9.djvu/16

ⅹ


text: Studies of a Biographer/Jowett's Life

title: Studies of a Biographer/Jowett's Life


text: Template:New texts/2012/05

title: Template:New texts/2012/05


text:
Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/1

Rh POPULAR MEDICINE, CUSTOMS, AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE RIO GRANDE.

The following material, collected by me during the time I was in command of the post of Fort Ringgold, Texas, may be of interest from the light it throws upon the character of the Mexican population of our extreme southern border, but it is not to be accepted as exhausting the subject of the folklore of that region, which is simply interminable. Other notes, equally extensive, were gathered at the same time in regard to the theatres, ballads, games, and traditions of the people, but it is impossible, on account of their bulk, to present them here. As many of these Mexicans were engaged in armed attacks upon the Mexican territory, and in armed resistance to the American troops sent to suppress them, it became my duty to make as earnest a study of their character and condition as means would permit.

In making these examinations, care was taken to preserve each statement in the words of the witness, but it is believed that what has been lost in elegance of diction has been more than counterbalanced by a faithful representation of the mode of thought of these descendants of Spaniard and Aztec.

In very many cases the full name or the initials of my informant will be found attached to the "cure." The first authority consulted was a most singular personage. Maria Antonia Cavazo de Garza, born in Rio Grande City, had the reputation of being a "bruja," or witch, but she modestly laid claim to being nothing more than a "curandera" (healer), who knew a great deal about "medicinas" which could effect wonderful results—"con el poder de Dios" (with the power of God). She was at the date of my first meeting with her (1891) about sixty-five or seventy years old, had been married four times and borne seventeen children, the youngest of whom, a good-looking boy of nine or ten, and the last husband, always came with her. She had snappy, black eyes, and a varicose, bottle nose, which, in a moment of unguarded enthusiasm, she had attempted to embellish by an application of tincture of iodine.

Alferecia.—To cure "alferecia," or epilepsy, in children, which is due to the moon's influence. Take a newly born pig and rub the naked baby with this (live) pig from head to foot. The baby will break out into a copious perspiration, and the pig will die. But the fact that epilepsy is a brain trouble seems to be dimly recognized. Maria Antonia says that the child's skull breaks in four pieces (in form of a cross +), and the child then dies.

The pig being an animal introduced from Europe, it would be


text:
Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/2

120 well to examine into the superstitions of the Old World in regard to this matter, and we should then see that they have been transplanted to this side of the ocean. Saint Anthony is the friend and patron of the pig in Italy as he is in Mexico, and in the churches of both countries his statue may be seen with his faithful porcine adjunct by his side. Much interesting information on this point is to be extracted from "The Golden Bough" of James G. Frazer, London, 1890.

Amulets and Talismans (Votive Offerings).—Maria Antonia wore at her neck a "miraculous" package which I persuaded her to open. It was made up of a "miraculous" prayer, printed on paper, which had been broken up and reduced to a pulp by the action of time, and of a small piece of blessed wax from one of the candles which had burned upon the altar while mass was going on.

To cure Asthma ("Orguilla").—Take a talcoyote (badger), bake it in the oven until perfectly dry, grind it up, mix on a "metate" with clean flour, add a stew made of the Rio Grande jackdaw, locally known as the orraca, add a trifle of sugar, and put a little of the above mixture in the patient's food. Give in the moon's first quarter. When the moon ends, the disease will end. All diseases which have had their beginning with a new moon can be made to go out with a waning moon. (Maria Antonia.)

Asthma.—Make a drink of hot water and the ripe (black) beans of the ebony roasted. (M. A.)

Some people smoke "mariguan" or Indian hemp, in their cigarritos.

Axolotl.—The most curious and incomprehensible superstition of the Mexican people, and one which has the widest dissemination, concerns the curious lizard called the axolotl, a name by which it was known to the Aztecs, although I do not feel prepared to say that they had the superstition concerning it.

The axolotl frequents damp, slimy places, near pools or tanks of water, and all kinds of refuse ("basura").

It will enter the person of a woman, at certain times, and will remain just as long as would a human foetus.

Young girls, at their first change of life, are especially exposed, and will manifest all the symptoms of pregnancy.

It is within the limits of probability, although I am not sufficiently posted in medical matters to assert that such is the case, that a badly nourished girl would be susceptible to cold, rheumatism, and dropsy at such a critical moment in her life, and that imagination could supply any features that might be lacking to make the romance complete. There are several remedies; one calls for a liberal fomentation with hot goat's milk, and in the other, a young


text:
Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/3

Rh man appears to marry the girl. Often when women were bathing in the waters of the Rio Grande itself, or in some of the great "acequias," mischievous boys would yell "Axolotl!" and cause a scampering of all the bathers.

Among the Italian peasantry notions of this same kind obtain: "When a man wishes his wife to be faithful, he should take sperma illius mulieris and put it in a bottle, and then catch a lizard with the left hand and put it in the same bottle, and cork up both very tightly and say:—

Here I put the fidelity of My wife, that she may be Ever, ever true to me.

Then be careful not to lose the bottle." "Roman Etruscan Remains," Charles G. Leland, New York, Scribners, 1891, page 292. He traces this superstition back to the time of the Roman poet, Marcellus, from whom he quotes.

The following may be included in the same category, although it is expressed very obscurely, and I find it difficult to clearly understand:—

"Il y avait une fois une jeune fille qui, toutes les nuits, allait coucher dans le foin. Chacun lui disait:

"'Parie que le faudonx ira te fauder!'

"Mais elle n'y faisait pas attention et elle retournait coucher dans le sends (grenier à foin). Pourtant le faudoux venait la fouler, et elle disait à ses voisins:

"Je ne sais ce que j'ai: je suis plus lassée au matin qu'en me couchant.

"Nous te l'avions bien dit, répondaient-ils, c'est le faudoux qui vient te fauder."

And much more of the same import. Paul Sébillot (Vannes, France): "Additions aux Coutumes, etc., de la Haute Bretagne," in "Revue des Traditions Populaires," Paris, 1892.

When speaking of the axolotl, the coyote, and other animals to which are attached myths and superstitions of various kinds, I was disappointed in not learning anything of the wild boar—peccary—or Tabilin—which is so readily domesticated that I am inclined to believe it must have been the "guinea pig," which Garcilasso de la Vega says that the ancient Peruvians "bred in their houses called cocoz." Book vi. (Markham), quoted also in vol. vi. "Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences," 7th Memoir,—"Human Bones of the Hemenway S. W. Archaeological Exploration, in Army Medical Museum," p. 200.

Stomach Bitters.—Pour a quart of mescal over a handful of the white flowers and root of the "amargosa" bush. VOL. VII. — NO. 25. 9


text:
Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/4

122 Cancer.—To cure cancer (which is quite common along the Rio Grande on account of poor food, filth, want of proper clothing, lack of clean and sufficient bedding, and disregard of every law of hygiene). Get the roots of Yerba Gonzalez, Yerba Cancer, and another (name forgotten, but all three sent to National Museum), make a decoction in nine quarts of water. Boil down to one quart, sweeten with sugar or molasses. Dose, from half teaspoonful to a large tablespoonful, according to severity of disease. Begin treatment with appearance of the new moon. (M. A.)

Cardiac Troubles.—Make a decoction of "Flor de Peña" and drink. (M. A.) (This seems to be a mistaken analogy. The rock flower, if allowed to remain in water over night, expands; hence, it can cause an expansion of the heart, or remove a feeling of oppression from the chest.)

Comets.—Are forerunners of wars and great sicknesses. A white comet means a pestilence; a red comet means war.

When owls hoot at night, or crows caw at midnight, it is a sign that Indians are planning an outbreak. (M. A.)

To aid Conception.—There were many names of herbs given me, but as none of them grow in that part of Mexico, I do not repeat them.

They were all made into a decoction, taken internally, and also used as a bath every eight days, the bath to be followed by a purge. Continue this treatment for forty days, observing continence. Then there is to be another day of rest and bathing. Intercourse will then be followed by conception, but the sex of offspring cannot be surmised, as that is a matter which God generally keeps to himself, said Maria Antonia.

The Yerba Gonzalez also aids conception, but the expectant mother must not fail to present herself in a "novena" before the altar of "Maria Purissima," and hang up a "milagro" (votive offering) of silver, in form of a boy, or a girl, according to her desires. A "novena" can also be made with great advantage to the altar of San Ramon Non-nato, near San Luis Potosi, the "patron" or "abogado" of "parturientes." (M. A.) This Not-Born Saint Ramon derives his title from having been brought into the world by the Caesarian operation, as his mother was dying of the Plague.

To reduce Swollen Breasts.—Take the tecalote stone (i. e., the stone of the metate, or corn-meal grinder), warm it in the sun, and with it gently rub the inflamed nipples. (M. A.)

Pestles and rubbing stones, such as the tecalote, have had phallic significance attached to them in various parts of the earth, but I do not feel that the evidence of such symbolism is very strong in the present case.


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Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/5

Rh Diseases of Urinary Organs, Bladder, and Kidneys (Blennorhagia).—Make a decoction of colazmecate; put it to cool in the light of the moon, sweeten with sugar. Take a cupful, fasting daily, for nine days. (M. A.)

(Colazmecate is a squatty plant, with fine thorns, much like a rosebush.)

To bring Milk to the Breasts of Women, or to expand breasts not fully developed.—Drink twice daily an "atole," or gruel, made out of powdered and toasted mulberry twigs. (M. A.)

To cure Consumption.—Take a black cat, kill it, and extract all the bones; rub the consumptive with the flesh from head to foot, and let him drink the cat's blood mixed with warm water. (M. A.)

The analogue of this notion can be traced in the far East.

It is believed by Chinamen that cat's meat is a remedy for lung diseases. It is served in most of the Canton restaurants cooked in various ways.

Maria Antonia had a pronounced dislike for Captain Pilcher, our post surgeon. It was no doubt a strictly professional antipathy due to loss of patronage, but it manifested itself on every occasion. "There! Look! I have told you how to cure consumption. Can that little doctor do that? Valgame Dios!"

Now the term "little," as applied to my friend Pilcher by Maria Antonia and myself, could in no sense be translated as small, Pilcher being one of the most heavily built men in the army; it simply expressed our contempt for his ignorance of witchcraft, moon-medicine, milagros, love-philters, and such important matters in the medical curriculum, and I am sorry to have to confess that when I saw that the key to Maria Antonia's good will lay in an abuse of Pilcher, I said several things not exactly complimentary.

"Know how to cure consumption! Why, my dear little friend, I assure you that he has never heard of your remedies! I do not believe he could keep witches out of this house if he were to try for a week. That's the reason why I have sent for you. I believe that you know more about witchcraft than DeWitt and Pilcher put together. And as for the best method of using black cats, they don't know as much as your little boy. Caramba! I have no use for such people!"

Cosmetics.—If a young lady wants to have a soft skin, and a clear ruddy complexion, she must wait till the eve of St. John's Day, and then rub the face with a piece of the umbilical cord of a young male child, and she'll have a ruddy complexion, if the moon be full at the time, and she have previously washed her face with a soap made of fresh hog's lard and "teguezquite," a kind of soap used in Monterey. (M. A.)


text:
Page:Popular medicine, customs and superstitions of the Rio Grande, John G. Bourke, 1894.pdf/6

124 The Mexicans still have the same faith in the beautifying properties of a lotion of urine which Strabo relates as one of the characteristics of their Celtiberian grandmothers.

Young ladies will first rub their faces and hands with fresh beef tallow, and then, just before going to bed, apply a lotion of the warm urine of a little boy. (M. A.)

Cosmetics to remove Freckles.—Scrape some white potatoes into a bowl of cold water, and there let them remain for eight days. Wash with the water and the freckles will disappear. But an infallible specific for imparting beauty to the complexion is some of the first urine of a male child.

Crispillæ.—In the week before Christmas, the Mexican women busy themselves in the preparation of a cup-shaped, sweetish, greasy fried cake, which is given form by being patted over the cook's knee. This cake can be identified with the "crispillæ" of the Normans, described by Ducange in his Glossarium. Long before the time of the Normans, long before the time of Christ, it was made by the shepherd-bandit comrades of Romulus and Remus, in honor of the goddess Fornax. On the Rio Grande, it is called "Buñuelo."

Cross.—When a woman has consented to an interview with an old lover, but does not wish to be led into any criminality, she will have her good resolutions strengthened if she make the sign of the cross on the inside of the lower hem of her dress skirt. This should be made by placing four large pins in the necessary positions. (M. A.)

"Thorns, in the form of a cross, were either laid in the window, or should be put in a window, to keep witches from entering." "Roman Etruscan Remains," Charles G. Leland, New York, Scribners, 1891, page 108.

"In a Tuscan incantation to break love:" ... "When you wish to prevent a young man from visiting a girl, in any house, take shoemaker's wax and four nails. Make of these a cross, and put such crosses under the seat whereon the lover and maid sit. And the end will be that they will quarrel, and he will no more come to the house." Idem, page 296. Such crosses are again mentioned when you wish to bewitch a man. Page 354.

An obstructive power is also ascribed by the Bretons to the figure of the cross:—

"Une petite pieèce placée sur une route avec certaines paroles, fait verser les charrettes; il en est de même des croix tracées sur la poussière du chemin, si elles ont aussi été accompagnées de conjurations." "Additions aux Coútumes, etc., de la Haute Bretagne," in "Révue des Traditions Populaires," Paris, 1892, Paul Sébillot.