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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/John England

England,, first Bishop of Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.A.; b. September 23, 1786, in Cork, Ireland; d. at Charleston, April 11, 1842. He was educated in Cork until his fifteenth year, was then taught privately for two years, and entered Carlow College, August 31, 1803. In his nineteenth year he began to deliver catechetical instructions in the parish chapel and zealously instructed the soldiers in garrison at Cork. He also established a female reformatory together with male and female poor schools. Out of these schools grew the Presentation Convent. He was ordained priest in Cork, October 10, 1809, and was appointed lecturer at the cathedral. Wherever he preached people thronged to hear him. Pending the opening of the Magdalen Asylum he maintained and ministered to many applicants. In the same year he published the "Religious Repertory", established a circulating library in the parish of St. Mary, Shandon, and attended the city jail. In the elections of 1812 he fearlessly exerted his influence, maintaining that, "in vindicating the political rights of his countrymen, he was but asserting their liberty of conscience". In the same year he was appointed president of the new diocesan College of St. Mary, where he taught theology. In 1814 he vigorously and successfully assailed with tongue and pen the insidious Veto measure which threatened disaster to the Church in Ireland. Next to O'Connell's his influence was the greatest in the agitation which culminated in Catholic Emancipation. To help this cause he founded "The Chronicle" which he continued to edit until he left Ireland. In 1817 he was appointed parish priest of Bandon. (The bigotry and prejudice of this city at that time may be conjectured from the inscription over its gates: "Turk, Jew or Atheist may enter here, but not a Papist.") In spite of the prejudices which he found there, he soon conciliated men of every sect and party.

He was consecrated Bishop of Charleston at Cork, September 21, 1820, and refused to take the customary oath of allegiance to the British Government, declaring his intention to become a citizen of the United States as soon as possible. He arrived in Charleston December 30, 1820. Conditions were most uninviting and unpromising in the new diocese, which consisted of the three States of South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia. The Catholics were scattered in little groups over these States. The meagre number in Charleston consisted of very poor immigrants from Ireland and ruined refugees from San Domingo and their servants. In 1832, after twelve years of labor, Bishop England estimated the Catholics of his diocese at eleven thousand souls: 7500 in South Carolina, 3000 in Georgia, and 500 in North Carolina. South Carolina was settled as a royal province by the Lords Proprietors, who brought with them the religion of the Established Church, and it was only in 1790 that enactments imposing religious disabilities were expunged from the constitution of the new State. Religious and social antecedents and traditions, and the resultant public opinion, were unfavorable, if not antagonistic, to the growth of Catholicism. The greatest need was a sufficient number of Catholic clergy. This sparsely settled section, with scattered and impoverished congregations, had not heretofore attracted many men of signal merit and ability. Bishop England faced these unfavorable conditions in a brave and determined spirit. The day after his arrival he assumed formal charge of his see, and almost immediately issued a pastoral and set out on his first visitation of the three States comprising his diocese. No bishop could be more regular and constant in these visitations. He went wherever he heard there was a Catholic, organized the scattered little flocks, ministered to their spiritual needs, appointed persons to teach catechism, and wherever possible urged the building of a church. During these visitations he preached in halls, court houses, State houses, and in chapels and churches of Protestant sects, sometimes at the invitation of the pastors. When in Charleston he preached at least twice every Sunday and delivered several courses of lectures besides various addresses on special occasions. He successfully advocated before the Legislature of South Carolina the granting of a charter for his diocesan corporation, which had been strongly opposed through the machinations of the disaffected trustees. In 1826 he delivered, by invitation, an eloquent discourse before the Congress of the United States. It was the first time a Catholic priest was so honored. He was chiefly instrumental in having the First Provincial Council of Baltimore convened, and pending this, formulated a constitution for his diocese defining its relations to civil and canon law. This was incorporated by the State and adopted by the several congregations. He also organized conventions of representative clergy and laity in each of the States in his diocese, to meet annually. In 1840 these were merged into one general convention. He held a synod of the clergy, November 21, 1831, and in 1832 established a seminary and college under the name of "The Philosophical and Classical Seminary of Charleston", hoping with the income from the collegiate department to maintain the seminary. Notwithstanding his many and varied duties he devoted himself to this institution as teacher of classics and professor of theology. Organized bigotry soon assailed it, reducing the attendance from one hundred and thirty to thirty; but he continued and it became the alma mater of many eminent laymen and apostolic priests. In the words of Chancellor Kent, "Bishop England revived classical learning in South Carolina". In 1822 he organized and incorporated a Book Society to be established in each congregation, and in the same year his indefatigable energy and zeal led him to establish the "United States Catholic Miscellany", the first distinctively Catholic newspaper published in the United States. It continued to be published until 1861 and is a treasury of instructive and edifying reading. He also compiled a catechism and prepared a new edition of the Missal in English with an explanation of the Mass. He was an active member of the Philosophical Society of Charleston, assisted in organizing the Anti-duelling Society, and strenuously opposed Nullification in a community where it was vehemently advocated. His intense loyalty to his faith led him into several controversies which he conducted with a dignity and charity that commanded the respect of his opponents and elicited touching tributes from some of them at his death.

In 1830 he established in Charleston the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy "to educate females of the middling class of society; also to have a school for free colored girls, and to give religious instruction to female slaves; they will also devote themselves to the service of the sick". Subsequently their scope was enlarged, and branch houses were established at Savannah, Wilmington, and Sumter. In 1834 he further promoted education and charity by the introduction of the Ursulines. In 1835 Rt. Rev. William Clancy arrived from Ireland as the coadjutor of Bishop England, but, after a year's dissatisfied sojourn, he requested and obtained a transfer to another field. Bishop England had originally asked for the appointment of the Rev. Dr. Paul Cullen, then rector of the Irish College, Rome (afterwards the first Irish cardinal), as his coadjutor.

A striking phase of Bishop England's apostolic character was manifested in his spiritual care of the negroes. He celebrated an early Mass in the cathedral for them every Sunday and preached to them at this Mass and at a Vesper service. He was accustomed to deliver two afternoon sermons; if unable to deliver both, he would disappoint the rich and cultured who flocked to hear him, and preach to the poor ignorant Africans. In the epidemics of those days he exhibited great devotion to the sick, while his priests and the Sisters of Mercy volunteered their services in the visitations of cholera and yellow fever. His personal poverty was pitiable. He was known to have walked the streets of Charleston with the bare soles of his feet to the ground. Several times the excessive fatigue and exposure incurred in his visitations and ministrations prostrated him, and more than once he was in danger of death. Twice he visited Hayti as Apostolic Delegate. In 1823 he was asked to take charge of East Florida and, having been given the powers of vicar-general, made a visitation of that territory.

In the interests of his impoverished diocese he visited the chief towns and cities of the Union, crossed the ocean four times, sought aid from the Holy Father, the Propaganda, the Leopoldine Society of Vienna, and made appeals in Ireland, England, France, Italy, wherever he could obtain money, vestments, or books, After Easter, in 1841, he visited Europe for the last time. On the long and boisterous return voyage there was much sickness, and he became seriously ill through his constant attendance on others. Though very weak, notwithstanding, on his arrival in Philadelphia, he preached seventeen nights consecutively, also four nights in Baltimore. With his health broken and his strength almost exhausted, he promptly resumed his duties on his return to Charleston, where he died, sincerely morned by men of every creed and every party. His apostolic zeal, saintly life, exalted character, profound learning, and matchless eloquence made him a model for Catholics and an ornament of his order.

Most of his writings were given to the public through the columns of the "United States Catholic Miscellany", in the publication of which he was aided by his sister, a woman of many-sided ability and talents. His successor, Bishop Reynolds, collected his various writings, which were published in five volumes at Baltimore, in 1849. A new edition, edited by Archbishop S. B. Messmir of Milwaukee, was published at Cleveland in 1908.

P. L. DUFFY

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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Felix Englefield

Englefield,, a Franciscan friar, d. 1767. He was the younger son of Henry Englefield of White Knights, Reading, and Catherine, daughter of Benjamin Poole of London. His elder brother, Henry, succeeded their cousin Charles as sixth baronet in 1728. It is uncertain whether his own baptismal name was Charles or Francis. He joined the Franciscans at Douai and was ordained there, probably about 1732, when he was approved for preaching and hearing confessions. He had been teaching philosophy there before ordination, and from 1734 to 1746 he taught theology. In 1744 and 1745 he was titular guardian of York, but remained in residence at Douai. From 1746 to 1749 he acted as definitor, and at the end of that period was in England, for in March, 1749, he was sent to Rome on behalf of his own order and other regulars to procure the repeal of the papal decree of 1745 regulating the relations between the vicars Apostolic and the regulars. In this he failed, as Benedict XIV supported the vicars Apostolic by the "Rules of the English Mission", issued in 1753. In 1749 Father Felix was titular guardian of Oxford, and in the following year he attended the general chapter at Rome in place of the provincial, Father Thomas Holmes, who was too infirm to undertake the journey. In 1750-1751 he was titular guardian of Greenwich; custos 1752-1755, and finally, on August 19, 1755, he was elected provincial and held that office till 1758, living for part of the time at Horton in Gloucestershire. While provincial he drew up a valuable list of all the Franciscans then (1758) in England, with their addresses. Father Thaddeus, O.F.M. (op. cit. inf., p. 14) states that he was the reputed author of the "Miraculous Powers of the Church of Christ", published anonymously in 1756. But this was really written by William Walton, afterwards Vicar Apostolic of the Northern District, whose name appears on the title-page of a subsequent issue. Father Englefield died probably at Douai, though one account says he was on the English mission at the time.

EDWIN BURTON


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/English College in Rome

English College, .—I. FOUNDATION.—Some historians (e.g., Dodd, II, 168, following Polydere Vergil, Harpsfield, Spelman, etc.) have traced the origin of the English College back to the Saxon school founded in Rome by Ina, King of the West Saxons, in 727. To an antiquity so great, however, the college, venerable though it be, has no just claim. It dates from about the middle of the fourteenth century, when the Hospice of St. Thomas of Canterbury was founded. This hospice owed its establishment to the jubilees, which brought pilgrims to the Holy City from every country of Europe. Those who arrived from England in 1350 to perform their devotions, found it difficult to obtain suitable accommodation. This suggested an institution, national in character, where English pilgrims might receive shelter and hospitality. The archives of the English College seem to point to the establishment of a guild of laymen, which acquired certain property in the Via Monserrato, the principal persons who took part in the transactions being John Shepherd and Alice his wife, who devoted themselves and their fortunes to the service of the pilgrims in the hospice, and William Chandler, chamberlain, Robert de Pinea, syndic, and John Williams, officials of the community and society of the English of the city. The deeds show that the property in question was acquired in the year 1362, which therefore may be taken as the date of the foundation of the hospice. But from the time of Henry VIII the hospice began to decline. After the persecution had broken out anew under Elizabeth, many of the clergy went into exile. Some of those who found their way to Rome were received into the hospice, and formed a permanent community therein. During Dr. William Allen's visit to Rome in 1576, it was arranged with Pope Gregory XIII that a college should be founded there for the education of priests for the English Mission. As soon as he returned to Douai (July 30, 1576) he sent ten students to Rome to form the nucleus of the new college; six more went in 1577, and again six in 1578. Dr. Gregory Martin, writing on May 26, 1578, to Father Campion, tells him that twenty-six students are living either in the hospice itself or in the house next door, which has internal communication with the hospice (Douai Diaries, Appendix, p. 316). Indeed, the Pope had already determined to convert the hospice into a seminary; and at Christmas, 1578, "There came out a Breve from the Popes Holines commanding all the ould Chaplines to depart within 15 dayes, and assigning all the rents of the Hospitall unto the use of the Seminary, which was presently obayed by the said Priests" (Father Persons's Memoirs: Catholic Record Society, II, 144). Unfortunately, however, Cardinal Morone, the Protector of England, and therefore also of the College, appointed as its rector Dr. Clenock, the warden of the hospice, who was assisted by two Jesuit Fathers as prefect of Studies and procurator. Dr. Gregory Martin, again writing to Father Campion, February 18, 1579 (from Reims), informs him that there are in the college in Rome "at the present moment forty-two of our students, most of whom are divines, one rector, three fathers of your Society, and six servants. They live in the hospital and the adjoining house. The revenues of the hospital have been transferred to the seminary, except what is required for the entertainment of the pilgrims" (Douai Diaries, lviii, and Appendix, p. 319). However, internal dissensions soon arose. Most of the students of the college were, of course, English; but there were also seven or eight Welshmen, for no national distinction was made between the Cambrian and the Saxon, all being considered as English for the purposes of the institution. The Welsh rector was accused of favoring his fellow-countrymen; and finally the English students broke out into open mutiny. They petitioned the Holy Father that the college should be entrusted to the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, and declared that they would rather leave the college than remain under Dr. Clenock.

The students were ordered by the Cardinal Protector to submit under pain of expulsion; but they preferred to go, and began to make preparations for the journey back to Douai and Reims, or to England. Much sympathy, however, was shown for them in Rome, and, intercession being made with the Pope on their behalf, they were reinstated in the college after two days, and their petition was granted. Dr. Clenock was removed from the rectorship and the government of the college handed over to the Jesuits, the famous Father Robert Persons being given temporary charge till the appointment of the first permanent Rector, Father Alphonsus Agazzari, on April 23, 1579. This day is the real birthday of the English College in Rome; for on this day the Bull of Foundation was signed by Pope Gregory XIII; on this day the students took the oath to lead an ecclesiastical life, and proceed to England when it should seem good to their superiors; and on this day the College Register begins. The Bull, however, was not published till December 23, 1580. Under this date, the entry occurs in the College Annals (Liber Ruber), II, 12; of which the following is the translation: "A.D. 1580, on the 23rd of December, to the praise and glory of the most Holy Trinity and of St. Thomas the Martyr, was expedited the Bull of the Foundation of this College, which, though it was granted by Pope Gregory XIII in April last year, did not reach our hands before the above date, and in which, as besides many faculties and spiritual and temporal favors all the goods of the English Hospice were united with the College, we received possession of them on the 29th. December, which is dedicated to St. Thomas the Martyr: and although it does not explicitly appear in the Bull, yet the Pope declared by word of mouth that this College was bound to receive and maintain the English pilgrims according to the statutes of the said Hospice. This Bull has been deposited in the College Archives."

Thus the English College, the oldest but two of all the national colleges of Rome (the German College and the Greek College), was launched on its career, the number of students at the time in the college being fifty, a number which later rose to seventy-five. That the college did its work efficiently, and fulfilled the purpose for which it was founded, is abundantly attested by the lists of names of the priests sent into the mission-field, and especially by the roll of its martyrs. During the period 1682-1694, under the Cardinal Protector Howard, O.P., the greater part of the college was rebuilt.

The eighteenth century was a period of decline. Contrary to the original constitutions of the college, boys were admitted for the course of humanities, and some even, of very tender years, for more elementary studies. In August, 1773, the Society of Jesus was suppressed, and the administration of the college was handed over to Italian secular priests. During this period the students were ill-treated, the college was mismanaged, and a large portion of the archives sold for wastepaper. "At the time of the suppression, the number of Students was reduced to four divines, three philosophers, and three grammarians... Of those divines and philosophers, only three were ordained priests at Rome, and two at Douay; and the whole number of those ordained at Rome from 1775 to the year 1798, a period of 23 years, did not exceed seven, and of those, two never performed any missionary duties, and the third but for a short time. In that same period four died in the College, and 34, if not more, quitted the house re infecta!—Six, however, afterwards pursued their studies in other Colleges, and were ordained priests." (Catholic Magazine, 1832, pp. 359-360.) Bishop Challoner, and afterwards the three vicars Apostolic, Bishops James and Thomas Talbot and Matthew Gibson, entreated the Pope to restore the college to its first administrators, the English secular clergy; and finally, on April 12, 1783, the Congregation of Propaganda answered that when the rectorship fell vacant, an English priest might be appointed to the post. Cardinal Braschi, the Protector, wrote to Bishop Douglas on November 4, 1797, informing him that the rector was about to resign, and requesting him to choose, in consultation with Msgr. (afterwards Cardinal) Erskine, an English priest for the office. But before this could be done, the French had invaded Rome, the college was seized and suppressed, and the students sent to England. On the 30th of July, 1814, Cardinal Litta, Prefect of Propaganda, wrote to Bishop Poynter, vicar Apostolic of the London District, informing him that the college was about to be reopened, and enquiring about the fitness of the Rev. Stephen Green, who had been recommended by Bishop Milner for the rectorship. But Father Green died, and other obstacles arose, and nothing more was done for three years. Then Cardinal Consalvi, Secretary of State, acting as protector of the college, directed the English vicars Apostolic to select a priest for rector, and to send him to Rome at once. They chose the Rev. Robert Gradwell, who received his appointment on March 8, 1818. Ten students, among whom was the future cardinal, Nicholas Wiseman, arrived in the following December. Thus the English College began to live again, and continued to flourish in its career of usefulness to the Church in England.

II. SCHOLASTIC STATUS., In the Bull of Foundation, Gregory XIII confers on the college the privileges and rights of a university with the power of conferring the degrees of Bachelor, Licentiate, Doctor, and Master in Arts and Divinity. The students, from the beginning, attended the lectures of the Roman College, and then during the suppression of the Society of Jesus, at the University of St. Apollinare (the Roman Seminary). They returned, however, to the Roman College, or Gregorian University, in 1855, and still attend it, taking its degrees in philosophy and theology, as the English College does not exercise its faculty of conferring degrees. The college is immediately subject to the Holy See, which is represented by a cardinal protector. The immediate superiors are the rector, appointed by the pope on the recommendation of the English hierarchy, and vice-rector, appointed by the rector. The first rector, Dr. Maurice Clenock (1578-9), belonged to the English secular clergy. The Jesuits took the reins of government in 1579, and held them for one hundred and ninety-four years. Three of their rectors were Italians, and the rest English, the last being Wm. Hothersall, who, on the suppression of the society, handed the college over to Italian secular priests. From the restoration in 1818 the rectors have always been chosen from the English secular clergy. The college has the privilege of extra-parochiality, the rector being parish-priest for all its members, and exemption from the jurisdiction of the cardinal vicar and other ordinaries and tribunals.

III. ILLUSTRIOUS STUDENTS., Among the names of those included on the college lists, who have laid down their lives for the Faith, and the supremacy of the Holy See, six have been beatified, and thirty-six declared Venerable. The former are, Ralph Sherwin, John Shert, Luke Kirby, Laurence Richardson (vere Johnson), William Lacy, and William Hart. Shert was the first missionary priest from the college to enter England. The Venerables are: George Haydock, Thomas Hemerford, John Munden, John Lowe, Robert Morton, Richard Leigh, Christopher Buxton, Edward James, Christopher Ba(y) les, Edmund Duke, Eustace White, Polidore Plasden (Palmer), Thomas Pormont, Joseph Lampton, John Cornelius, S.J., John Ingram, Robert Southwell, S.J., Henry Walpole, S.J., Edward Thwing, Robert Middleton, Thomas Tichborne, Robert Watkinson (Wilson), Edward Oldcorne, S.J., John Roberts, O.S.B., Richard Smith (Newport), John Almond, John Thules, John Lascelles (vere Lockwood), Edward Morgan (John Singleton), Henry Morse (alias Claxton), S.J., Brian Cansfield, S.J., John Woodcock (alias Farrington), O.F.M., Edward Mico (alias Baines), Anthony Turner (alias Ashby), S.J., John Wall (alias Marsh), O.F.M., and David Lewis (alias Charles Baker), S.J. The cause of beatification of the following, who all died in prison, has not yet been introduced: Roche Chaplain, James Lomax, Martin Sherson, John Brushford, John Harrison, and Edward Turner.

The famous Father Robert Persons was rector of the college in 1588, and again from 1598 till his death in 1610. Father Muzio Vitelleschi, afterwards General of the Society of Jesus, held the rectorship from 1592 to 1594, and again from 1597 to 1598. Cardinal Wiseman went to the college as a student in 1818, became rector in 1828, and was made bishop in 1840. The English College may claim as teachers the great Jesuit theologians of the Roman College: Bellarmine, Suarez, Vasquez, in the distant past; and in modern times Perrone, Franzelin, Ballerini, Billot.

IV. INFLUENCE ON THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND.—The college shares with Douai and the other continental seminaries, the honor of having kept alive the lamp of the Faith in England during the dark days of persecution. Without these colleges the supply of priests for the English Mission would have entirely failed. Moreover, the college in Rome was for English Catholics a connecting link with the center and Head of Christendom; and the missionaries sent thence formed a visible and tangible bond of union with that Holy See for the supremacy of which the faithful in England were suffering so much. When we turn to the nineteenth century, it suffices to mention the name of Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman, the "Man of Providence", who had the greatest share in the work of the reestablishment of the Catholic Hierarchy in England in 1850, and, as its head, by his genius reconciled the English people to what they at first regarded as a "Papal Aggression". It was he who put the Church in England on a firm basis, and, under God, whom we have to thank for the "Second Spring". But Wiseman was not alone. Of the rectors of the nineteenth century, all but two were made bishops, and in every part of the country the English College alumni may be found in positions of responsibility, vicars-general, canons, and especially professors of the ecclesiastical colleges and seminaries, whence the purity of the Roman Faith is diffused throughout the length and breadth of the land.

CHARLES J. CRONIN


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education of Immigrants

EDUCATION OF IMMIGRANTS. During the 14 years preceding the outbreak of the European War 11,726,606 immigrants over 14 years of age were admitted to the United States. Of this number 3,116,182 or about 25 per cent were illiterate. During a year of ordinary immigration preceding the war more than 1,000.000 immigrants came to this country. In the year 1914 the number was 1,218,480. Illiteracy has been on the increase in 18 States in the Union. These States are the leading industrial and mining States, and include New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Illinois and California, These are the States in which the great majority of immigrants settle. Under the first selective draft law 1,245,801 alien males registered who are between the ages of 21 and 30. Under the military ages fixed in the amended draft law, 18 to 45, there are 3,000,000 unnaturalized alien males in this country. About 20 per cent of these cannot speak English. When they enter the United States army they will be unable to understand the commands of their officers until they are taught to understand English. There

are 5,500,000 people in the United States who are unable to speak English.

In the last decade there has been a large decrease in the number of illiterates under 14 years of age. Under compulsory attendance laws illiterates under this age have practically disappeared. The number of negro illiterates is rapidly decreasing. The number of native-born white illiterates is also rapidly decreasing. The only class of illiterate which has been increasing during recent years is the foreign-born. This large number of citizens unable to speak the language of the United States exceeds the number of soldiers which the government expects to send to Europe to fight in this war. The number equals about one-twentieth of the population of the country. These immigrants' come to the United States for the purpose of obtaining larger opportunities for themselves and their children. They naturally drift to the sections of the cities which are inhabited by former residents of their native lands. Thus there are to be found in all the large American cities a particular section inhabited by Italians and known as the Italian section, another inhabited by Poles and known as the Polish section, etc. These immigrants do not get the spirit of the life of American or democratic institutions. They retain to a very large extent the customs and habits of the country from which they emigrated. It is difficult for them to learn to speak English and they are not able to communicate readily with Americans. This fact is to their disadvantage in obtaining employment. Then, too, they do not acquire so readily a knowledge of the laws of the United States, of their rights in and their obligations to the country. About one-third of the prisoners in penal institutions in the United States are aliens. The number during the decade preceding the war had constantly increased. They have in many instances been here but a short period of time and have committed minor offenses. They are in many cases the leaders in riots and in other movements of disorder and lawlessness.

President Wilson in addressing several thousand aliens made the following statement: “You cannot become thorough Americans if you think of yourselves in groups. America does not consist of groups. A man who thinks of himself as belonging to a particular national group in America has not yet become an American. . . . America was created to unite mankind by those passions which lift.”

Immigration is a national affair and has always been regulated by the Congress. The action of the Congress in passing a measure over the veto of the President in 1917 prohibiting immigrants from coming to this country who are illiterate has simplified in a measure the question of adult illiteracy. While no additional illiterates will be admitted to this country there will still be large numbers of immigrants admitted who are not able to read or write English. In the problem therefore of immigrant education there are two types of alien who must have consideration. First, the illiterate alien, and second the literate alien who is unable to speak English. It is as important to educate the non-English-speaking literate alien as it is to educate the illiterate alien for preparation for citizenship, by informing him upon the fundamental features of the social,

industrial and civic questions upon which the progress and prosperity of a democracy depends.

This subject has never been approached as one of the great national problems which the country must solve. For many years various charitable, philanthropic, religious and civic organizations, in various parts of the country, have done very much toward the education of the illiterate alien. The North American Civic League for Immigrants, The Baron De Hirsch Fund, The Educational Alliance, The Young Men's Christian Association and many civic, religious and charitable societies have done much pioneer work of great value in this field of education. The great railroad corporations and many of the industrial and manufacturing corporations of the country have maintained schools at their own expense for the education of their alien employees. In many cases large corporations have found it to be a matter of economy to maintain such schools and therefore reduce the number of accidents, thus saving in industrial insurance and increasing the efficiency of the employees. The developments of this field of education are similar to the developments in all the new fields of education, which are ultimately assumed by the State. Charitable and religious societies usually take the initiative in such fields. Over half a century ago some of the American States, which had begun to realize the importance of this problem, because of the number of immigrants coming into such State, authorized the establishment of adult schools and of evening schools. The establishment of such schools was not mandatory but was wholly in the discretion of the community or its educational officers. This type of legislation has increased until most of the States having large numbers of aliens have authorized such schools. In most States attendance upon these schools is free. In some States small appropriations are made by the State but very generally the burden of the maintenance of such schools is placed upon the city or district.

The problem is not a local problem and local authorities should not be compelled to meet the expense of maintaining such schools. The problem is a National problem and a State problem. The National government should make appropriations which, supplemented by appropriations by the States, would be adequate to provide schools where all aliens might receive the degree and type of education which is essential for newcomers from other countries who intend to make America their adopted home. An effort has also been made to reach the alien through the organization of camp schools. In cases where cities and municipalities have been engaged in large constructive problems, notably in New York, is connection with the construction of the Barge Canal, the building of State roads and of the Ashokan Dam, where large numbers of aliens have been employed for long periods of time, temporary or camp schools have been established for the education of such aliens. The aliens employed in these labor camps do not remain in one place a sufficient period of time for the establishment of permanent schools. Experience in maintaining camp schools shows that if such schools are to be made effective there should be portable school buildings with

which may be moved from one place to another. The expense of maintaining these camp schools should be borne by the municipalities or the corporations or jointly by the agencies employing such aliens.

Massachusetts, New Jersey and New York have done pioneer work in alien education. Massachusetts enacted a law on the subject in 1887 requiring all illiterates between the ages of 14 and 21 to attend some school if they were continuous residents in the city or town where an evening school was held. An examination was prescribed to be given after the close of the instruction as a literacy test. In 1906 this test was that which was required in reading, writing and spelling for admission to the second grade in the public school. In 1907 for admission to the third grade and in 1909 to the fourth grade. The requirement now is admission to the fifth grade. The law prohibited the employment of a minor unable to pass this test unless he attended an evening school. The New Jersey law of 1907 provides that the board of education “may establish and maintain a public evening school or evening schools for the instruction of foreign-born residents of said district over 14 years of age in the English language in the form of government and the laws of this State and of the United States.”

The most recent and comprehensive legislation on this subject is that of the State of New York. Three laws were enacted in 1918 by that State. One provides for the training of special teachers to instruct illiterate adults, under the supervision and direction of the State Education Department and an appropriation was made by the State for the purpose of holding summer institutes in which teachers so adapted to this work might receive instruction on the most natural and modern ways of approaching the foreigner and teaching him not only the English language but his relations and obligations to the government. Another of these laws makes it mandatory upon the cities and school districts to maintain night schools on three nights per week for two hours each night. In cities of the first class these schools must be maintained during the duration of the period that day schools are maintained. In cities of the second class such classes must be maintained for 100 nights. In cities of the third class they must be maintained for 80 nights. In school districts outside of cities and which have 20 or more persons above the age of 16 years who desire instruction, such school must be maintained for 75 nights. Attendance upon these night schools must be free. The purpose therefore of these two acts is to provide the necessary facilities for the maintenance of schools where illiterates may receive instruction and also to provide trained teachers who may give such instruction. The third law makes it obligatory upon certain minor illiterates to attend these schools. An illiterate minor who cannot speak, read and write the English language sufficient for admission to the sixth grade of the public school if he is in proper physical and mental condition must attend the evening school or a day school until such minor it able so to use the English language. Unless a minor satisfies these requirements of the law he may not be

employed in industry. Provisions, with suitable penalties for the failure thereof, run against such minor, his parents or guardian and an employer.

In the State of California a plan has been adopted intended to reach the immigrant women and through them the home. This plan involved the establishment of a Home Education Department under the direction of the State authorities. Through this plan visiting teachers go to the homes of all the immigrant women who are illiterate and who need instruction in modern home making and in the customs and practices of this country. If laws similar to the statutes in New York and California could be enacted in every State and the National government and each State would make appropriations upon an equitable basis illiteracy in America could be practically eliminated within the next decade.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education in the Law

EDUCATION IN THE LAW. See .


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education of Mental Defectives

EDUCATION OF MENTAL DEFECTIVES. See .


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Magnus Felix Ennodius

Ennodius,, rhetorician and bishop, b. probably at Arles, in Southern Gaul, in 474; d. at Pavia, Italy, July 17, 521. When quite young he went to Pavia, where he was educated, was betrothed, and eventually became a priest, his fiancée at the same time becoming a nun. It does not appear certain that he ever married. Shortly after the death of his benefactor, Epiphanius (496), he received minor orders at Milan, attracted thither no doubt by his uncle Laurentius, bishop of that city. Soon he was ordained deacon and taught in the schools. About this time (498) two popes were elected simultaneously, the deacon Symmachus and the archpriest Laurentius. King Theodoric was in favor of the former, and convened a council at Rome in 501, the famous Synodus Palmaris, to settle this question and put an end to much scandal. On this occasion Ennodius acted as secretary to Laurentius of Milan, who was the first to sign the decrees of the council. The adherents of the archpriest Laurentius, who was rejected by the council, wrote against the decisions of the latter. Ennodius answered them and defended the synod in a still extant work entitled "Libellus adversus eos qui contra synodum scribere praesumpserunt". After referring to the objections urged against the incompetency and irregularity of the council, he attacks the enemies of Symmachus and proclaims the inability of human judges to decide matters pertaining to popes: "God no doubt consented to the affairs of men being settled by men; He reserved to Himself the passing of judgment upon the pontiff of the supreme see" (Libellus, §93). In 513 Ennodius was still at Milan, but shortly afterwards he was made Bishop of Pavia. In 515 and 517 he headed two successive embassies which Pope Hormisdas sent to Emperor Anastasius at Constantinople, both of which, however, were barren of results. The unrelenting enmity of the emperor endangered the lives of the envoys in 517. Of the remaining years of his episcopate nothing is known. His epitaph, found by accident, gives the date of his death.

The works of Ennodius comprise poems for special occasions and epigrams, particularly inscriptions for churches or other religious monuments. His defense of the synod of 502, often known as "Libellus pro Synodo", his autobiography (Eucharisticum), his panegyric on King Theodoric, and the biographies of his predecessor Epiphanius of Milan, and a monk, Antonius of Lerins, are interesting from an historical point of view; the first four especially. As much can be said of his numerous letters, addressed to various correspondents. Notwithstanding their verbosity, they contain much useful information concerning the addressees and the customs of the time. Ennodius is the last representative of the ancient schools of rhetoric. His "Paraenesis didascalica" (511) celebrates the wonderful power of that foremost of the liberal arts, by which a guilty man is made to appear innocent, and vice versa. He illustrates his own method in a few declamatory exercises called "Dictiones"; they deal with themes once the delight of pagan rhetoricians, e.g. grief of Thetis on beholding the corpse of Achilles; Menelaus contemplating the ruins of Troy; the lament of Dido forsaken by Aeneas, etc. Again, with all the resources of his rhetoric he denounces a man who placed a statue of Minerva in a place of ill-repute; a player who gambled away the field in which his parents lay buried; etc. He shared the popular fallacy of his contemporaries who saw in the reign of Theodoric a revival of the Roman Empire under the control of men of letters. Ennodius remained to the end faithful to the academic traditions of the Roman schools, whose mythological apparatus he was the last to retain; thus in an epithalamium he describes the beauty of the nude Venus, and makes love argue against virginity. Nevertheless, he refutes elsewhere the fables of the poets and points out that the understanding of the Christian Scriptures is the highest intellectual ideal. In him are visible the two tendencies whose conflict is never quite absent from Christian life; outwardly he remains true to classic tradition. His diction is exuberant and florid, but occasionally manifests vigor. The best editions of his writings are those of Hartel, in the sixth volume of the "Corpus ecclesiasticorum latinorum" (Vienna, 1881), and of Vogel in "Monumenta Germanise Hist.: Auct." (Berlin, 1885), VII.

PAUL LEJAY


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ulrich Ensingen

Ensingen, , belonged to a family of architects who came from Einsingen near Ulm, Würtemberg, and who shared as master-builders in the construction of the most important Gothic buildings of the fifteenth century in Southern Germany. Ulrich, the founder of the family, is known from the year 1391; d. at Strasburg, February 10, 1419. Apparently he learned his craft in the stonemason's guild of Ulm, and was also, perhaps, a pupil of Master Heinrich the Younger of Ulm. In 1391 he was asked to take charge of the work on the Milan cathedral, but he seems at that time to have stayed in Ulm, where he was architect of the cathedral until his death. At first his engagement at Ulm was for five years only, but in 1397 he was appointed master architect for life. Ulrich completed the choir, began the nave, and made the ground-plan of the tower. In 1394-95 he worked on the cathedral of Milan, but, disagreeing with the Duke of Milan as to questions of artistic detail, he went back to Ulm. His connection with the work on the Strasburg cathedral, however, lasted longer; at Strasburg he was master-builder during 1399-1419 and built the north tower from the platform to the great window. At the same time he completed the nave and the lower part of the tower of the church of Our Lady at Esslingen. Besides two daughters Ulrich had three sons; his sons all followed the calling of their father. At first they used Ulrich's official title Kirchenmeister as a family name, but later adopted that of Ensingen (Ensinger).

(2) CASPAR ENSINGEN was the oldest son; very little is known of him.

(3) MATTHIAS ENSINGEN, another son, d. 1438. There is evidence that he was employed on the Ulm cathedral from 1427 and at Esslingen during 1436-38.

(4) MATTHÄUS ENSINGEN, the youngest and most gifted son, can be traced during the years 1420-1463. In 1420 he worked at Strasburg; in the same year he was appointed master-builder for the work on the minster at Berne. The cornerstone of this was laid in 1421, and Mattähus conducted the work until 1449. In addition he had his father's position as architect at Esslingen (1419-1463). It can be proved that he was engaged on the cathedral of Ulm from 1446, but it was not until 1451 that he had charge of its construction as master-builder; before this last appointment he worked (1449-51) on the cathedral at Strasburg without occupying any well-defined position. On the Ulm cathedral he completed the vaulting of the choir and built the tower as high as the nave. During his last years he was for a short time again at Berne.

(5) VINCENZ ENSINGEN, son of Matthäus, employed at Berne from 1448; during 1462-85 he worked at Constance, and in 1472 he built the small cloister at Basle.

JOSEPH SAUER


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Entablature

Entablature.— A superstructure which lies horizontally upon the columns in classic architecture. It is divided into three parts: the architrave (the supporting member carried from column to column); the frieze (the decorative portion); and the cornice (the crowning and projecting member). Each of the orders has its appropriate entablature, of which both the general height and the subdivisions are regulated by a scale of proportion derived from the diameter of the column. It is occasionally used to complete, architecturally, the upper portion of a wall, even when there are no columns, and in the case of pilasters or detached or engaged columns is sometimes profiled round them.

THOMAS H. POOLE


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Sequoia

SEQUOIA, a genus of Coniferæ, included in the sub-family Taxodioidæ, of which the other genus is the Taxodium or deciduous cypress. The Sequoia genus (named in honor of the Cherokee chief Sequo-yah, who invented the alphabet of that tribe), was for a time known as Taxodium or Wellingtonia; it comprised two species, S. sempervirens, the redwood, and S. gigantea, the “big-tree,” both natives of California. The genus was once widely distributed, as fossil remains testify, and the petrified forest in Arizona is stated to be composed of species of sequoia. The flowers of the sequoias are monœcious and are borne in scaly inflorescences as terminal or axillary shoots in such great profusion, that the pollen covers the ground beneath the trees during their winter blooming. The pistillate flowers mature into a fruit, or oval cone, having persistent woody scales, broadened at their outside ends into a rhomboidal flat top, very much wrinkled, and with a slightly prickle-tipped apex. Their scales are slightly separated to allow the many brown, compressed seeds to escape and then spin away on their lateral wings. The leaves are acute, compressed and keeled, decurrent on the stem, alternate and inserted in spirals, very scale-like on the branchlets, but on older branches linear and spreading.

The redwood, which was the first Sequoia discovered, is the more common species, and grows along the Pacific Coast just so far inland as the sea-fogs can go. It is a very straight, handsome tree, with columnar trunk, and spreading branches and branchlets, and reaches in some instances as great a height as the other and more famous species. See.


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184 watch, reported that he could smell icebergs. 'Smell a rope's end!' cried the captain when he was informed of it, 'we are getting into warm latitudes' Just then the man on the look out reported icebergs in sight.

"'There must be some mistake' cried the captain with an oath; 'come here, mate, let us examine my calculations.'

"When the skipper again staggered on deck he was laughing uproariously as he shouted, ' What a rum mistake to make! I've been adding figures where I should have been subtracting them! 'My yarn is ended. Good night all: only before I go, let me give you a bit of advice, be very careful in the additions you may make. Good night. Remember Captain Jock."

A few days after the events just recorded, the usual requisites for forming a station in the bush were gathered together under the practical superintendence of Dodge, who, now he was relieved from the incubus of his difficulties, lent his energies to the new scheme with all the ardour of a boy.

In consequence of Hugh's recent letters bearing intelligence of the gradually declining state of his father's health, he made the necessary arrangements with his partner, and determined to lose no time in visiting England. Impelled by a sense of duty, not perhaps altogether unalloyed by other inducements, which we may well leave to the reader's imagination, he took advantage of the sailing of the first wool ship, and bade Slinger and his newly acquired friend a hopeful farewell.

They lost no time in stowing their provisions, tools, and other things in a capacious dray, and with a team of eight working bullocks journeyed westward, with many regrets at the absence of their late comrade. After surmounting the every-day difficulties and tediousness of a bush journey, and passing over the scene of the late fire (the country seemed to be throwing off its

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Rh mourning, and appeared once more habited in green), they reached the fine district they had so recently traversed. It presented many natural advantages for the formation of a future home. A river of good water flowed through it, and the hills near were covered with the choicest timber, whilst in one direction grass-covered plains spread as far as the eye could reach. The rising ground near the river, which first attracted Dodge's attention on the occasion of the breaking up of the bark canoe, was eventually fixed upon as the best site on which to erect the huts.

After months of toil the buildings assumed something like a habitable appearance, and could our readers have visited the spot at this time, they might have envied the evident satisfaction and honest pride with which the labourers regarded their achievements. How delightful was the sleep which visited them beneath the roof raised by their own right arms!

The weekly day of rest did not pass unheeded, though no aspiring pinnacles directed the eye heavenward, and no sonorous bells echoed through the misty woods proclaiming one spot more sacred than the rest of earth. They were happy days too, those Sundays in the far bush, spent in the solitudes of the primeval forest. Under their peaceful influence labors and past privations were forgotten, and those to come unthought of; thus the mind was left free to wander where it would. On such a day, when everything below was bright and lovely, and each leaf and flower seemed rejoicing in the glorious sunshine, when the eye instinctively looking upwards pierced through the rich tracery of boughs and leaves, and resting on

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186 as to form a kind of couch. He had fallen into a reverie and as the blue wreaths of smoke rose from his pipe sluggishly in the sunshine, they formed the fantastic groundwork on which he built up many a hope for the future. Happy Slinger! thy airy castles were destined to assume something like reality.

Dodge, who was not given to dream, particularly in broad daylight, had been more practically engaged. He had been so unfortunate as to break his only pipe, and had nearly completed the construction of another, the only means at his disposal being the bone of a leg of mutton, out of which he had formed the bowl, and the wing bone of a swan serving for a stem.

"You seem to like the sunshine," Dodge observed, boring into the mutton bone with his pocket knife.

"I do," Slinger replied, "how bright everything appears!"

"Ah, so it does. What in the world have you been looking so pleased about? Did you find the tobacco so very excellent?" Dodge asked, advancing to the fire to turn a pair of shoes he had hung up to dry:—they were sadly deficient of soles, as was rendered palpable by the two forks of the stick on which they depended protruding through the bottoms.

"I've been to England," was Slinger's reply. "I've looked in upon Raymond at home."

"Capital!" Dodge cried smiling, "well, and how did you find him?"

"Dear me," said Slinger, "my mind was engaged on other things, and I forgot to inquire. Suppose we drink his health in a bumper of tea made extra strong."

"With all my heart," Dodge said, dipping into the tea-chest and casting a handful or two of its contents into the kettle. An economical housekeeper would never have overlooked such extravagance, but then, bushmen and washerwomen know of no moderation in their cups.

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Rh "And now," Dodge said, "we must give the station a name. What shall we christen it? You remember how hungry we were when we first came upon it. I like something expressive. What do you think of 'Pinch-gut Slopes!'"

"Oh that won't do," said Slinger. "Supposing Raymond should bring out a wife with him, what a pretty place to date letters from: her English friends would never get through with such an address as that. Try again."

"What do you think of a native name? they are often very musical, and I like the notion of preserving some memento of the tribes who are passing away, leaving nothing to indicate that they ever existed. I have heard the natives speak of a river situated about here called Lan-lan-borin. Will that do?"

"Yes, never mind what it means. It is far preferable to such appellations as 'No Good Damper,' 'Wet Jacket Hump' 'Razor-back Pinch,' and a hundred other such outlandish names." So the station was called Lan-lan-borin.

would be taking an unfair advantage of thee, most patient reader, were we to spin out our story much longer, for is it not clear as the sun at noon day that Hugh Raymond will return with Amy Leslie as his wife, and his father having died, leaving the girls without a protector, what more probable than that they too should accompany their brother, and Slinger's day-dream be realised? As for our eccentric friend Dodge,

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188 his practical experience had helped to build up the already rising fortunes of the partners, what else, in gratitude, could they do but offer him a share in the station, what more natural than that he should accept it with avidity? But Dodge positively declined the partnership. The reasons he offered were these:—

"You see," he said, "when you amalgamated my cattle, annexed my station, and got me out of the hands of these infernal vampires who were bleeding me slowly to death, you did me a service I can never repay."

"Stuff and nonsense!" Slinger exclaimed.

"Never interrupt a gentleman in his speech," Dodge said with mock solemnity. "Well, I have been able to do you some little good in return, and we are on more equal terms. I perceive great changes are about to take place; for the future I should be only in the way. I shall soon make tracks."

"And if you do," said Slinger with energy, "I'll follow you to the end of creation, I'll upbraid you with ingratitude night and day, and if you go to the jumping-off place I'm after you, mind that. Here's Raymond and I have cut out all our plans, and you want to come in and spoil everything, you ungrateful old creature: give me your hand: we will hear nothing more to the contrary, you shall come in as a partner."

"Here's a pretty position for a man to be in," said Dodge; "why how many more partners do you want to take? I hope you don't find" ———— and Dodge whispered the name in Slinger's ear, "so unwilling as I am."

"Hush! " Slinger replied, "its too serious a matter to joke about."

"Don't you make such a mess of it as I did," Dodge continued, unheeding the warning. "I was once in love, a good many years ago though, but you see I have not lost all memory

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Sequoia Gigantea

SEQUOIA GIGANTEA, the “big-tree of California,” is more rare. It is found in 10 small groves, forming an uninterrupted “belt” extending for 200 miles on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and nowhere else in the world. It grows at elevations of 4,000 to 7,000 feet. This has suggested that possible lower growths were destroyed by glacial action. The Calaveras grove near the northern extremity of this series is the most picturesque and important group of big trees,

and was first discovered by J. Bidwell in 1841. These famous trees are the most massive of any in the world, but are not the tallest, being surpassed by the Eucalyptus trees of Australia. They are practically exempt from disease, and, if they were not injured by fire and by man, would have apparently an almost endless life. Some of them are judged, by the number of annual rings, to have been thousands of years old. Fully grown trees average a height of 275 feet, and a diameter of 25 feet. One of the most gigantic, cut down, with great difficulty, in 1853, was 302 feet in height, 96 feet in circumference, and after the bark was removed (which was itself nearly 18 inches thick, the diameter of the solid wood in the stump was 25 feet, 6 feet from the ground. This stump was used as a dancing floor, holding 40 or more persons. Others have been estimated as between 350 and 400 feet high. A section of one of these great trees has been placed in the Museum of Natural History in New York, and another in South Kensington, England.

The younger sequoias are very graceful, and charming in their dark blue-green foliage, being often grown in English and European parks. They have a straight, tapering stem from which the branches spring to form a narrow spire-like pyramid. After a few hundred years they begin to lose their branches, and become dome-like. Ultimately they become our picturesque trees, with a great trunk enlarged at the base, and strongly buttressed, fluted with low broad ridges, and covered with cinnamon brown bark (purple-tinted in the shadow) which follows the contour of the lobed trunk, and is deeply, longitudinally furrowed, and separated into fibrous scales on the ridges. This tapering shaft is naked for 100 or more feet, when great branches, eccentric in development, join in constructing the narrow, but massive domes which stand out above the other tall trees of the Sierras, and break into delicate but dense spray of much divided pendulous branchlets, blue-green when young but developing a bronzy tint when mature.

The big trees, while standing, have served as shelter for men and cattle, and are a constant attraction for tourists, the largest being known by name. One, the Wawona, in the Mariposa grove, has a portal cut through its base, which allows the passage of vehicles. But there is constant danger of their extinction. Only one comparatively unimportant and uninteresting group, the Mariposa grove, is efficiently protected. The others are owned by private interests and often by lumbermen, who cut down the magnificent trees for the sake of their light soft wood, bright red in the heart, and durable when in contact with soil, and which is dynamited apart, with enormous waste, and made principally into fencing and shingling. The big-tree has not the tremendous reproductive powers of the redwoods, the seeds have very low vitality, and in some groves almost no seedlings are found; moreover, the flocks of sheep pastured on the mountains destroy the saplings, and the dreaded forest fires not only decimate the patriarchs but devour the young growth. Consult Jeffrey, ‘Comparative Anatomy . . . of the Coniferales,’ pt. 1, Vol. V, Memoir Boston Society of Natural History (1903). See.


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 From "The Duchesse de Langeais," etc. Translated by Katharine Prescott Wormeley. Published (in their edition of Balzac's works) by Roberts Brothers.

Copyright, 1885, by Roberts Brothers.


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 From "The Book of Pity and of Death." Translated by T. P. O'Connor. Published by the Cassell Publishing Co.

Copyright, 1892, by Cassell Publishing Co.


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Rh of it, and the lady—I thought her an angel then—appeared to favor my suit. In those days I was not the outlandish looking fellow I am now. I laid out three months' pocket-money on a costly ring and longed for an opportunity to declare my passion. It soon offered, and so did I: with this result. One day, after a tete-a-tete, 'Will you favor me, dearest,' said I, seizing her hand, 'by wearing this poor trifle for my sake—will you, in short, consider yourself engaged?' Here I felt myself choking. The lady smiled as she replied, 'Oh, certainly I do.' 'Then permit me,' said I, still retaining the hand I had grasped, but rather taken aback by the easy conquest, 'to imprint one kiss upon those''I declare if you do' said she, all in a pucker, 'I'll tell John.' It turned out that the little minx had been engaged for months to John: I forget his sir-name, but as you value my friendship, never christen any of your youngsters John; it has a most hateful sound to me."

Ten years are passed away. Let us visit again the station of Lan-lan-borin. We left it emerging from the surrounding wilderness. Accompany us yet a little further, indulgent reader, and fear not but we will bring thee to our friends in safety. We know their district well: every hill and valley, each water-course and lagoon, we know their bearings every one; they are as familiar to us as the streets of our native town. Let us hasten towards yonder columns of smoke rising in silvery lines through the trees. Can that comfortable and picturesque homestead be the place we seek? Even so. Industry and energy have overcome all obstacles, and the wilderness "blossoms as the rose." See the surging corn in the spacious

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 From "One of Cleopatra's Nights." Translated by Lafcadio Hearn. Published by Hurst & Co.

Copyright, 1890, by the Worthington Co.


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 By arrangement with the author. The translation by Elisabeth Luther Cary.


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190 and the horses and cattle spread over that boundless plain. Come on, we must not loiter now. That peaceful group of cottages, so English in their aspect in all but the luxuriant creepers with which they are netted together, contain within their walls two prosperous and happy families. The garden, common to both, is full of the most lovely flowers such as money could scarcely purchase in England, though here they are in themselves mere weeds. It is the tasteful arrangement of colors which give them all their value. Do you not feel at the first glance that garden was ordered and arranged by woman's hand; that it is to her delicate sensibilities you are indebted for the perfume and the home associations called up by the English honeysuckle creeping round and almost hiding the burly stem of its Australian namesake? The old country is not forgotten. No: no. The tendrils of that fragile plant just strong enough to resist the sea breezes which sweep up the valley, yet form a link in an enduring chain which binds the memory of the exiles to the land of their birth. Let us make for the nearest dwelling. The old kangaroo dog sunning herself on the threshold is quite harmless. Poor Lady's course is well nigh run: grown stiff with scars and age she will dream away the brief existence which remains to her, tended kindly by the hand of the master she has served so long and faithfully. Even her antipathies are forgotten, and alongside her nestles a joey, one of the pets of the family. "Shoot her!" said Dodge, warmly, to a humane individual who counseled him to kill Lady on the plea that she was quite useless; "Shoot her! I'd sooner stockwhip you."

And has the bushman's life no peculiar attractions to offer? Let us inquire of the parents of that happy group of sunburnt

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OW little we really know, my friends; how little we really know."

The speaker was Gabriel, a distinguished civil engineer of the mountain corps. He was seated under a pine tree, near a spring, on the crest of the Guadarrama. It was only about a league and a half distant from the palace of the Escurial, on the boundary line of the provinces of Madrid and Segovia. I know the place, spring, pine tree and all, but I have forgotten its name.

"Let us sit down," went on Gabriel, "as that is the correct thing to do, and as our programme calls for a rest here—here in this pleasant and classic spot, famous for the digestive properties of that spring, and for the many lambs here devoured by our noted teachers, Don Miguel Bosch, Don Máximo Laguna, Don Augustin Pascual, and other illustrious naturalists. Sit down, and I will tell you a strange and wonderful story in proof of my thesis, which is, though you call me an obscurantist for it, that supernatural events still occur on this terraqueous globe. I mean events 13


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14 which you cannot get into terms of reason, or science, or philosophy—as those 'words, words, words,' in Hamlet's phrase, are understood (or are not understood) to-day."

Gabriel was addressing his animated remarks to five persons of different ages. None of them was young, though only one was well along in years. Three of them were, like Gabriel, engineers, the fourth was a painter, and the fifth was a littérateur in a small way. In company with the speaker, who was the youngest, we had all ridden up on hired mules from the Real Sitio de San Lorenzo to spend the day botanizing among the beautiful pine groves of Pequerinos, chasing butterflies with gauze nets, catching rare beetles under the bark of the decayed pines, and eating a cold lunch out of a hamper which we had paid for on shares.

This took place in 1875. It was the height of the summer. I do not remember whether it was Saint James's day or Saint Louis's; I am inclined to think it was Saint Louis's. Whichever it was, we enjoyed a delicious coolness at that height, and the heart and brain, as well as the stomach, were there in much better working order than usual.

When the six friends were seated, Gabriel continued as follows:

"I do not think you will accuse me of being a visionary. Luckily or unluckily, I am, if you


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Rh children, whose sports are presided over and shared in by our old friend Dodge, if they have the usual anxieties for the future provision of their offspring? They will tell you their minds are quite easy upon that score, and they doubt not but there will be "room enough for all."

Education, my dear reader! One material branch, at least, is not neglected: early self dependence. See that hardy youngster, who by the likeness we would swear is either a Raymond or a Slinger, we can't exactly say which, trying with all his little might to make an impression upon yon sturdy tree, as he labors determinedly with an axe which might be wielded to greater advantage by a more brawney arm. But the tiny boy is a man in spirit, and the tree, which flourished before his father lived, will fall before him.

There is another youngster; bless us! he has tumbled head-long into the stream which bounds the garden. Fly Dodge, fly to his rescue! Not a bit of it, to swim was one of the first lessons he was taught. Although only eight years old he is well able to save himself. Why that child, Dodge will tell you, was once lost several days in the woods, where he fraternised with a tribe of the aborigines, and when recovered had acquired some proficiency in the art of climbing gum trees for opossums by the aid only of a clumsy stone tomahawk. Save him indeed!

Old friends are claiming our attention now. Raymond and Slinger, your hands.—Honest hands too, though horny to the touch and somewhat of the brownest. Dodge, we wish we had a third hand to give you. We are glad to hear the world has gone well with you all: that your business in Melbourne, commenced with a capital of £350, sold for £3,500; that your cattle have multiplied exceedingly under the watchful superintendence of Big Mick, who now resides with his wife and family at

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Rh will allow me to say so, a man of the modern world. I have no superstition about me, and am as much of a Positivist as the best of them, although I include among the positive data of nature all the mysterious faculties and feelings of the soul. Well, then, apropos of supernatural, or extra-natural, phenomena, listen to what I have seen and heard, although I was not the real hero of the very strange story I am going to relate, and then tell me what explanation of an earthly, physical, or natural sort, however you may name it, can be given of so wonderful an occurrence.

"The case was as follows. But wait! Pour me out a drop, for the skin-bottle must have got cooled off by this time in that bubbling, crystal-line spring, located by Providence on this piny crest for the express purpose of cooling a botanist's wine."

", gentlemen, I do not know whether you ever heard of an engineer of the roads corps named Telesforo X; he died in 1860."

"No; I haven't."

"But I have."

"So have I. He was a young fellow from Andalusia, with a black moustache; he was to


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16 have married the Marquis of Moreda's daughter, but he died of jaundice."

"The very one," said Gabriel. "Well, then, my friend Telesforo, six months before his death, was still a most promising young man, as they say nowadays. He was good-looking, well-built, energetic, and had the glory of being the first one in his class to be promoted. He had already gained distinction in the practice of his profession through some fine pieces of work. Several different companies were competing for his services, and many marriageable women were also competing for him. But Telesforo, as you said, was faithful to poor Joaquina Moreda.

"As you know, it turned out that she died suddenly at the baths of Santa Agueda, at the end of the summer of 1859. I was in Pau when I received the sad news of her death, which affected me very much on account of my close friendship with Telesforo. With her I had spoken only once, in the house of her aunt, the wife of General Lopez, and I certainly thought her bluish pallor a symptom of bad health. But, however that may be, she had a distinguished manner and a great deal of grace, and was, besides, the only daughter of a title, and a title that carried some comfortable thousands with it; so I felt sure my good mathematician would be inconsolable. Consequently, as soon as I was back in Madrid, fifteen or twenty days after his loss, I went to see


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Rh him very early one morning. He lived in elegant bachelor quarters in Lobo Street—I do not remember the number, but it was near the Carrera de San Jerónimo.

"The young engineer was very melancholy, although calm and apparently master of his grief. He was already at work, even at that hour, laboring with his assistants over some railroad plans or other. He was dressed in deep mourning.

"He greeted me with a long and close embrace, without so much as sighing. Then he gave some directions to his assistants about the work in hand, and afterwards led me to his private office at the farther end of the house. As we were on our way there he said, in a sorrowful tone and without glancing at me:

"'I am very glad you have come. Several times I have found myself wishing you were here. A very strange thing has happened to me. Only a friend such as you are can hear of it without thinking me either a fool or crazy. I want to get an opinion about it as calm and cool as science itself.

"'Sit down,' he went on when we had reached his office, 'and do not imagine that I am going to afflict you with a description of the sorrow I am suffering—a sorrow which will last as long as I live. Why should I? You can easily picture it to yourself, little as you know of trouble. And as for being comforted, I do not wish to be,


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18 either now, or later, or ever! What I am going to speak to you about, with the requisite deliberation, going back to the very beginning of the thing, is a horrible and mysterious occurrence, which was an infernal omen of my calamity, and which has distressed me in a frightful manner.'

"'Go on,' I replied, sitting down. The fact was, I almost repented having entered the house as I saw the expression of abject fear on my friend's face.

"'Listen, then,' said he, wiping the perspiration from his forehead."

"' not know whether it is due to some inborn fatality of imagination, or to having heard some story or other of the kind with which children are so rashly allowed to be frightened, but the fact is, that since my earliest years nothing has caused me so much horror and alarm as a woman alone, in the street, at a late hour of the night. The effect is the same whether I actually encounter her, or simply have an image of her in my mind.

"'You can testify that I was never a coward. I fought a duel once, when I had to, like any other man. Just after I had left the School of Engineers, my workmen in Despeñaperros revolted, and I fought them with stick and pistol until


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Rh I made them submit. All my life long, in Jaen, in Madrid, and elsewhere, I have walked the streets at all hours, alone and unarmed, and if I have chanced to run upon suspicious-looking persons, thieves, or mere sneaking beggars, they have had to get out of my way or take to their heels. But if the person turned out to be a solitary woman, standing still or walking, and I was also alone, with no one in sight in any direction—then (laugh if you want to, but believe me) I would be all covered over with goose-flesh; vague fears would assail me; I would think about beings of the other world, about imaginary existences, and about all the superstitious stories which would make me laugh under other circumstances. I would quicken my pace, or else turn back, and would not get over my fright in the least until safe in my own house.

"'Once there I would fall a-laughing, and would be ashamed of my crazy fears. The only comfort I had was that nobody knew anything about it. Then I would dispassionately remind myself that I did not believe in goblins, witches, or ghosts, and that I had no reason whatever to be afraid of that wretched woman driven from her home at such an hour by poverty, or some crime, or accident, to whom I might better have offered help, if she needed it, or given alms. Nevertheless, the pitiable scene would be gone over again as often as a similar thing


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20 remember that I was twenty-four years old, that I had experienced a great many adventures by night, and yet that I had never had the slightest difficulty of any sort with such solitary women in the streets after midnight! But nothing of what I have so far told you ever came to have any importance, since that irrational fear always left me as soon as I reached home, or saw any one else in the street, and I would scarcely recall it a few minutes afterwards, any more than one would recall a stupid mistake which had no result of any consequence.

"'Things were going on so, when, nearly three years ago (unhappily, I have good reason for knowing the date, it was the night of November 15-16, 1857), I was coming home at three in the morning. As you remember, I was living then in that little house in Jardines Street, near Montera Street. I had just come, at that late hour, a bitter, cold wind blowing at the time, out of a sort of a gambling-house—I tell you this, although I know it will surprise you. You know that I am not a gambler. I went into the place, deceived by an alleged friend. But the fact was, that as people began to drop in about midnight, coming from receptions or the theatre, the play began to be very heavy, and one saw the gleam of gold in plenty. Then came bank-bills and notes of hand. Little by little I was carried away by the feverish and seductive passion, and


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Rh lost all the money I had. I even went away owing a round sum, for which I had left my note behind me. In short, I ruined myself completely; and but for the legacy that came to me afterwards, together with the good jobs I have had, my situation would have been extremely critical and painful.

"'So I was going home, I say, at so late an hour that night, numb with the cold, hungry, ashamed, and disgusted as you can imagine, thinking about my sick old father more than about myself. I should have to write to him for money, and this would astonish as much as it would grieve him, since he thought me in very easy circumstances. Just before reaching my street, where it crosses Peligros Street, as I was walking in front of a newly-built house, I perceived something in its doorway. It was a tall, large woman, standing stiff and motionless, as if made of wood. She seemed to be about sixty years old. Her bold and malignant eyes, unshaded by eyelashes, were fixed on mine like two daggers. Her toothless mouth made a horrible grimace at me, meant to be a smile.

"'The very terror or delirium of fear which instantly overcame me gave me somehow a most acute perception, so that I could distinguish at a glance, in the two seconds it took me to pass by that repugnant vision, the slightest details of her face and dress. Let me see if I can put together


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Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part IV. A. 5.djvu/8

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011  of both sides who were fearful that the armistice would be used to conceal construction of military bases or other preparations for aggression; but these provisions depended on a credible international supervision which never materialized. Partition and regroupment pitted North against South Vietnam, and arms control failed patently and soon. Geneva traded on long-run risks to achieve short-run disengagement. France withdrew from Vietnam, leaving the Accords in the hands of Saigon. Lasting peace came between France and the Viet Minh, but the deeper struggle for an independent, united Vietnam remained, its international implications more grave, its dangers heightened.

The Southeast Asia policy of the U.S. in the aftermath of the Geneva Conference was conservative, focused on organizing collective defense against further inroads of communism, not on altering. was the two Vietnams set up at Geneva, facing each other across a demilitarized zone. Hanoi, more than other powers, had gambled: hedged by the remaining Viet Minh, it waited for either Geneva's general elections or the voracious political forces in the South to topple the Saigon government. In South Vietnam, Diem had begun his attempt to gain control over his people, constantly decried DRV subversion and handling of would-be migrants as violations of the Geneva Accords, and pursued an international and domestic policy of anti-communism. Both Vietnams took the view that partition was, as the Conference Final Declaration stated, only temporary. But statements could not gainsay the practical import of the Accords. The separation of Vietnam at the 17th parallel facilitated military disengagement, but by establishing the principle that two regimes were separately responsible for "civil administration" each in distinct zones; by providing for the regroupment of military forces to the two zones, and for the movement of civilians to the zone of their choice; and by postponing national elections for at least two years, permitting the regimes in Hanoi and Saigon to consolidate power, the Geneva conferees in fact fostered two governments under inimical political philosophies, foreign policies, and socio-economic systems.

The Geneva powers were imprecise — probably deliberately indefinite — concerning who was to carry out the election provisions. France, which was charged with civil administration in the "regrouping zone" of South Vietnam, had granted the State of Vietnam its independence in June 1954, six weeks before the Accords were drawn up. Throughout 1954 and the first half of 1955, France further divested itself of authority in South Vietnam: police, local government, and then the Army of Vietnam were freed of French control, and turned over to the Saigon government. Concurrently, the U.S. began to channel aid directly to South Vietnam, rather than through France. The convolution of French policy then thrust upon the U.S. a choice between supporting Diem or the French presence in Indochina. The U.S. opted for Diem. By the time the deadlines for election consultations fell due in July 1955, South Vietnam was sovereign as well as, waxing strong with U.S. aid, and France was no longer in a position to exert strong influence on Diem's policy or actions. Rh


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Sequoyah

SEQUOYAH, sẹ-kwō'yä, or GEORGE GIST, or GUESS, Cherokee Indian inventor: b. about 1770; d. near San Fernandino, Northern Mexico, 1842. He exercised his ingenuity in numerous ways, — as silversmith, blacksmith, artist. In 1821 he completed the Cherokee alphabet, for which he received in 1823 a silver medal from the Cherokee general council. This alphabet was perfectly adapted to the peculiarities of the Cherokee tongue, which it expressed as the English alphabet never could. He borrowed many symbols from an English speller. His alphabet was quickly adopted, was very successful, and was employed by the missionaries and, in part, in printing a newspaper, The Phœnix. The giant Sequoia tree was named in his honor. Consult Foster, ‘Sequoyah, the American Cadmus and the Modern Moses’ (Ithaca, N. Y., 1885); Mooney, J., ‘Myths of the Cherokee’ in Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, Vol. XIX (Washington 1902).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/General Education Board

GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, an organization chartered by Congress in 1903, primarily to enable John D. Rockefeller to distribute his gifts and aids to education, and secondarily to make it possible for other men of means to promote the advancement of education in the United States in a more effective and systematic manner than had heretofore been possible. The sphere of the General Education Board embraces the promotion of practical farming and of public high schools in the Southern States; of negro education and institutions of higher education everywhere throughout the United States. Under an agreement entered into with the United States Department of Agriculture in 1906 the General Education Board contributed $405,700 for the promotion of practical farming within the province of the charter of the organization. This was employed in promoting demonstration farms and the furnishing of instructors for the education of farmers. The work of the Board also influenced the practical teaching of agriculture in the schools of the South. In the promotion of public high schools in the Southern States the Board appropriates for the use of each State Department of Education or State University the funds necessary to pay the salary and traveling expenses of a special high school representative whose business it is to stir up public sentiment in favor of public high schools, and to organize the different sections where he is at work so as to promote the end in view. The Board has already devoted large sums of money to this department of its work; and the high school representatives paid by it have raised several millions of dollars for the establishment of public high schools in the South. So effective was this part of the work that by 1911 over 700 new high schools had been opened through direct work of the Board. On the same date the General Education Board had already appropriated over $25,000,000 as gifts to encourage institutions of higher learning made to some 82 colleges and universities in the United States and for other educational ends. Of this sum $2,300,000 went to colleges in the Southern States; $2,510,000 to those of the Western States; $1,805,000 to those in the Middle and Eastern States. About half a million dollars had also been devoted by the Board for the promotion of negro education.

The work of the General Education Board has both a practical and a social side. Over 200,000 farmers are being influenced for the betterment of agriculture by its exertions, while State agents paid by the Board have for some time been conducting demonstration work among boys under actual farming conditions, and by the establishment of “corn” and other clubs. Other clubs of a social nature have been organized for the promotion of more social life in farming communities; while educative clubs to study house management, poultry, preservation of fruit and other subjects directly related with agricultural life have also

been encouraged in various ways, more especially in connection with the girl's clubs.

Since 1911 the work of encouraging the establishment of public high schools in the United States has progressed rapidly, carried along by its own momentum and the ceaseless work of the educational representatives of the Board. But the same may be said of the work of the Board in all the departments of its self-imposed activities.


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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Enthronization

Enthronization (from Greek enthronizein, to place on a throne).—This word has been employed in different meanings:

(1) formerly, it meant the solemn placing of the relics upon the altar of a church which was to be consecrated, hence a newly consecrated church was called naos enthroniasmenos (naos enthroniasmenos).

(2) In the Middle Ages we find the inthronizatio matrimonii, or enthronization of marriage, which was nothing else than the blessing in the nuptial Mass (benedictio nuvtiarum).

(3) In the East it was employed, but seldom, to denote the induction into a parochial benefice.

(4) It was used especially to designate the ceremony of enthronization which accompanies the consecration of a bishop. After receiving episcopal consecration, the newly consecrated bishop was solemnly conducted to the episcopal throne, of which he took possession. He received the kiss of peace and listened to the reading of a passage of Holy Scripture, whereupon he pronounced an address or sermo inthronisticus. The letters which it was customary for him to send to the other bishops in token of his being in communion with them in the same faith, were called litteroe inthronisticoe, or syllabai enthronistikai (sullabai enthronistikai), and the gifts which it was customary for him to present to the bishops who had consecrated him, and to those who had taken part in the ceremonies were called the inthronisticon (enthronistikon). At present, after the consecration has taken place, the new bishop is conducted by the consecrating bishop and one of the assistants to the throne occupied by the consecrator during the ceremony, or to the seat usually taken by the bishop, if the consecration has taken place in the cathedral church. The enthronization can also take place independently of the consecration; in this case, the bishop, after taking his seat upon the throne; receives there the homage of all ecclesiastics present in the cathedral. These ceremonies have no longer the slightest juridical importance (see Bishop).

(5) The enthronization of the pope in the Chair of St. Peter, Cathedra Petri, was formerly a very important ceremony, which took place at St. Peter's in Rome, or, exceptionally, in the church of St. Peter ad Vincula, where there was also a Cathedra Petri. This ceremony was performed immediately after the election, if the latter had taken place in the church of St. Peter, or before the coronation. Its object was to proclaim to the Christian world that the newly elected pope was the lawful successor of St. Peter. Before this ceremony had taken place, he was forbidden to take part in the administration of the Church. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II declared that the omission of the enthronization did not prevent the pope from administering the Church. This custom disappeared in the thirteenth century, owing to the fact that in that period the popes seldom resided in Rome. Equivalent to enthronization is the adoratio of the pope by the cardinals, which is performed in St. Peter's after the election of the pontiff. It is a simple ceremony and does not confer the slightest right. (6) The Roman Pontifical mentions enthronement amongst the ceremonies which accompany the solemn consecration of a king. It is still practiced in the Anglican Episcopal Church at the coronation of the King of England (see Coronation).

A. VAN HOVE


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User talk:Angel.belleza

The days ran into weeks and for most of my youth I was just someone more. I started to understand and have self awareness soon there after with my memories now starting to store in the databank of my mind. An unusual thirst for social interactivity was some of the first things I craved to satiate. With the growth of my body and mind I was much more aware of the growth of the world around me, making it a habit to inquire about any and everything that crossed my path. I somehow yearned for that which I did not know of and wanted to affirm what I thought I new. It was a force of habit, one of the first I had ever fallen into. The issue of identity was at that time a non-issue as I was able to easily meld into any social interaction and assimilate the environments I was placed in but never fully developed my own identity...

title: User talk:Angel.belleza


text:
Author:Alphonse van Hove

Works

 * Étude sur les conflits de juridiction dans le diocèse de Liége à l'époque d'Érard de la Marck (1506-1538) (1900)

title: Author:Alphonse van Hove


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/General Grant National Park

GENERAL GRANT NATIONAL PARK, California, located in Tulare and Fresno counties; usually mentioned in connection with Sequoia National Park (q.v.) because, though separated by six miles of mountain and forest, the two are practically the same governmental reservation. The area of the former, the subject of this paragraph, is 2,536 acres and its altitude ranges from 5,250 feet to 7,631 feet. Created primarily (by act of 1 Oct. 1890) for the protection of the General Grant tree, a very beautiful Sequoia Washingtoniana, 264 feet high and 35 feet in diameter at the base, the park has made such substantial progress that its superintendent in 1915 mentioned in his report the hotels, stores, feedyards, post offices, telephone stations and photograph galleries within his jurisdiction. It is situated on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada 46 miles from Sanger. Between that station (on the Southern Pacific Railroad) and the park regular transportation service has been established. The number of visitors was 7,022 in 1915 (1 April to 10 August), of whom 5,019 arrived in automobiles. Mammals native to the parks are the elk, deer, mountain sheep, squirrels, flying squirrels, porcupine, hares, rabbits, bear, wolves, foxes, mountain lion, lynx, ring-tailed cat, raccoon, wolverine, etc. The Sequoia and General Grant parks are homes of both migratory and breeding birds. Owing to the topography of the parks and their varied climatic conditions, birds of both the torrid and frigid zones come to them. There is a constant movement of the birds north and south and from the high mountains to the lower and from the lowlands to the higher elevations; in all, 194 species have been observed, including plover, grouse, partridges, pheasants, wild turkey, hawks and eagles. The best season for tourists is between the middle of June and October, when the atmosphere is usually cool and clear. The main tourist camp ground in General Grant National Park consists of 35 acres fenced with steel woven wire attached to cedar posts. A description of the forests with their “big trees” is given in the article . See also .


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317 1. Surely no mortal, O Agni, hath attained the cruelty of thy self (tanū́). The ape gnaws (bhas) the shaft (téjana), as a cow her own after-birth.

2. Like a ram, thou art bent both together and wide apart, when in the upper wood [the upper] and the lower stone devour; exciting (ard) head with head, breast (ápsas) with breast, he gnaws the soma-stalks (aṅçu) with green mouths.

3. The eagles have uttered (kṛ) their voice close in the sky; in the lair (ākhará) the black lively ones have danced; when they come down to the removal of the lower [stone], they have assumed much seed, they that resort to the sun.

1. Smite, O Açvins, the borer, the samān̄ká, the rat; split their head; crush in their ribs; lest they eat the barley, shut up their mouth; then make fearlessness for the grain.

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vi. 50-

2. Hey, borer! hey, locust! hey, grinder, upakvasa! as a priest (brahman) an unfinished oblation, not eating this barley, go up away, doing no harm.

3. O lord of borers, lord of vághā's! with arid jaws do ye (pl.) listen to me: what devourers (vyadvará) there are of the forest, and whatever devourers ye are, all them do we grind up.

1. Purified with Vāyu's purifier, Soma [hath] run over opposite (pratyán̄), Indra's suitable companion.

The translation implies, at the end of b, áti drutás (or atidrutas, as the comm. appears to read), which SPP. has rightly in his text. In most mss. dru and hru are hardly distinguishable (and not easily distinguishable from du and hu), and hru was unfortunately adopted in our text, because the first mss. consulted favored that reading. Ppp. has instead adhiçrutaḥ. The verse is found twice* in VS. (x. 31 d; xix. 3 a), twice in TB. (ii. 6. 1$2-3$; two immediately successive versions), and thrice in MS. (ii. 3. 8;

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Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sts. Eoghan

Eoghan, .— (I) EOGHAN OF ARDSTRAW was a native of Leinster, and, after presiding over the Abbey of Kilnamanagh (Co. Wicklow) for fifteen years, settled in the valley of Mourne (Co. Tyrone), his mother's country, about the year 576. He was followed by many disciples including St. Kevin of Glendalough, who completed his studies under this saint. As a boy he had been carried off to Britain, and subsequently he was taken captive to Brittany, together with St. Tighernach, who is best known as the founder of the Abbey of Clones, Co. Monaghan. So great was the fame of the sanctity and learning of St. Eoghan, at Mourne, that he was consecrated first Bishop of Ardstraw about the year 581. It is difficult to give his chronology with any degree of exactness, but the Irish annalists give the date of his death as August 23, 618. His name is generally latinized as Eugenius, but the Irish form is Eoghan (Owen), hence Tir Eoghain, or Tyrone.

Ardstraw continued as an episcopal see until 1150, when it was translated to Rathlure and subsequently to Maghera, but in 1254 it was definitely removed to Derry. In all these changes St. Eoghan was regarded as the clan patron, and hence he is the tutelary guardian of the See of Derry to this day, His feast is celebrated on August 23.

(2) EOGHAN OF CLONCULLEN, Co. Tipperary, has been identified with Eoghan, son of Saran of Cloncullen, for whom St. Ailbe of Emly composed a rule. He is entered in the Martyrologies of Tallaght and Donegal, and is venerated on March 15.

(3) EOGHAN, Bishop, is commemorated in the Martyrology of Tallaght on April 18, and is included by the Bollandists under that date, but the particulars of his life are scanty in the extreme.

(4) EOGHAN THE SAGE (SAPIENS) finds a place in the Irish martyrologies, and he is also included in the "Acta Sanctorum", but no reliable data as to his life is forthcoming. His feast is celebrated on May 28.

(5) EOGHAN OF CRANFIELD (Co. Antrim) has been described as Abbot of Moville, but there is reason to believe that he is to be identified with the preceding saint of the same name, especially as the Bollandists style him Episcopas et Sapiens de-Magh-cremhcaille. A St. Ernan of Cremhcaille (Cranfield) is honored on May 31, but this is also the feast day of St. Eoghan. However, "Ernan" may be a scribal error for "Eoghan", and this would account for the seeming mistake of name in regard to the patron of Cranfield.

There are other Irish saints of this name, but their history is somewhat obscure, and it is not easy to reconcile their chronology.

.


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 49

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 49


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 50

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 50