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The Moths of the British Isles/Chapter 1

As mentioned in "Butterflies of the British Isles," there is, speaking generally, no clear line of division between moths and butterflies, and, as Dr. Sharp, in "Insects," puts the case, "the only definition that can be given of Heterocera [moths] is the practical one that all Lepidoptera that are not butterflies are Heterocera." Now, it happens that all the butterflies occurring in these islands have the tips of the horns (antennæ) clubbed; and, although there is much variety in the structure of the horns of our moths, none of them have the tips knobbed.

Like the butterflies, moths pass through the stages of egg, caterpillar, and chrysalis before they attain the perfect state (imago), and the duration of the several stages is just as variable. The majority assume the moth condition but once in the year, but some species have two, or even three, generations in the twelve months, whilst others occupy twenty-four months in completing the life cycle. In one or two species the chrysalis stage may last four, five, or even six years.

Diversity of form and structure is considerable in the early stages as well as in the perfect insects, and this is shown in the selection of life-history details figured on the black and white plates in this volume.

Except that it is generally less prominent, the head, with the various parts thereof, is pretty much the same as in the butterflies. In a few families, however, the "tongue" (proboscis) is only rudimentary or even entirely absent; while in others it is very long. The Convolvulus Hawk-moth has the proboscis of such length that it is able to reach the deep-seated nectary of such tubular flowers as those of Nicotiana affinis. In the illustration the "tongue" of the moth and the sweet-scented tobacco blossom are shown on exactly the same scale.

Fig. 2 represents some forms of antennæ found in moths. A, thickened and spreading out towards the tip (dilate); B, simple, thread-like (filiform) structure, without teeth, hairs, or bristles; C, fringed with fine hairs (ciliate); D, fringed with fine hairs, and with longer bristles at the joints (setose ciliate); E, the fringe in tufts (fasciculate); F, toothed, with fine hairs on the teeth (dentate ciliate); G, toothed with hairs in tufts from the teeth (dentate fasciculate); H, I, with double rows of hair scales (bipectinate); in I the projections are continued to the tip, and are themselves fringed with fine hairs, giving the antennæ a very feather-like appearance—the term "plumose" is sometimes used to describe this form of antennæ; in H the pectinations do not reach the apical fourth, which is simple. J, the lamellate, that is, the undersides of the rings or joints are made up of minute plates.

The wings of a moth are practically identical with those of a butterfly (see diagram "Butterflies of the British Isles," p. 12). Normally the fore wings have twelve ribs or veins, and the hind wings eight, but in some genera a rib, or perhaps two, may be absent from the fore or the hind wings; or an extra rib, sometimes two, may be found on the hind wings. These modifications, and others, of the general plan of neuration have been employed as a basis upon which to found genera, or to group them together in classification.

Fig. 3 shows the arrangement by which the upper and lower wings of a moth are united in flight. The bristle (frenulum) arising from the base of the hind wing is held in place by the catch (retinaculum) on the costal nervure of the fore wing. It will be noticed that the bristle of the male is longer and firmer than that of the female. The latter, moreover, is usually made up of two or more strands; the catch, too, in the female is on the median instead of the costal nervure. These structures are found on the under side of the wings of most moths, but they are absent in all butterflies. The Emperor, Kentish Glory, and Eggars may be mentioned as examples of moths lacking the connecting bristle, but all these have feather-like antennæ, which terminate in a point. The Burnets have the antennæ gradually thickened towards the tip (A. Fig. 2), and in this respect are somewhat butterfly-like, but these moths have a frenulum.

The hind wings of the Swifts, and a few others grouped with them, have twelve veins, and these moths have a jugum, or yoke (see Fig. 4). This is a flap-like projection from the inner margin, near the base, of the fore wing; it may serve to connect the wings when the insect flies, but it does not seem to be capable of giving much help in that way.

In describing a moth various markings, etc., have to be referred to, and as it may assist the reader more easily to locate the usual position of such characters the accompanying diagram has been prepared. The lines crossing the fore wings from the front edge, or margin (costa), to the inner edge, or margin (dorsum), are generally styled transverse lines; the short one is the basal; the first long one is the inner, or antemedial; the second is the outer, or postmedial; and the third is the submarginal, or subterminal. The whole wing, less the margins, is sometimes called the disc; but it is more convenient to divide the fore wing into three parts, naming that between the base of the wing and the first line the basal area; the space between the first and second lines the central or median area, and the part beyond the second line the outer area. The more or less round or oval rings or dashes on the central area are the stigmata, and these characters occur more especially in the Noctuidæ. The hind wings usually have a fine short line, crescent, or spot, at the end of the cell, as in the butterflies, and there is generally a line or band beyond.

Immediately behind the head and covering the front part of the thorax is a tippet-like arrangement of scales; this is the collar. On each side of the thorax there is a shoulder lappet (patagium) which has its base on the front part of the thorax also. Both tippet and lappet are often peculiarly ornamented, and the former is sometimes strikingly coloured. The thorax is sometimes crested, and more frequently the body is furnished with tufts of erect hair scales.

The number of moths occurring in the British Islands is well over two thousand. The majority of these hardly ever find favour with the collector. This is probably owing in a large measure to the fact that they belong to a division of the moth tribe which has been dubbed Micro-lepidoptera. It happens, however, that quite a number of the species included in that division are actually larger than many kinds that were placed in the other contingent styled Macro-lepidoptera. According to the most recent authorities the division of moths into two such main groups as those adverted to is entirely fictitious and misleading. Possibly, when this new order of things is more generally understood the so-called "Micros" will receive their proper share of attention.

In the older systems of classification the Clear wings (Sesiidæ) were associated with the Hawk-moths (Sphingidæ), but the former family is now considered to be more closely connected with the Tineidæ. The Goat-moth (Cossus ligniperda) has been removed from among the Bombyces, its name changed to Trypanus cossus, and placed in the family Trypanidæ, which is relegated to the neighbourhood of the Tortricidæ. The Burnets (Zygænidæ), together with Heterogenea limacodes and H. asella (Cochliopodidæ), also Macrogaster castaneæ and Zeuzera pyrina (Cossidæ part) are removed by Meyrick to the Psychina, a group placed between that author's Pyralidina and Tortricina. The Swifts (Hepialidæ) are grouped with Micropterygidæ, which are considered to be primitive forms of Lepidoptera originating in the Caddis-flies or Trichoptera—a division of the Order Neuroptera.

Except that the Cymbidæ and Arctiidæ are placed just before the Noctuidæ instead of after the Geometridæ, the arrangement of families, genera, and species adopted in the present work is very much the same as that in the 1901 edition of Staudinger's Catalogue. Many British entomologists are now interested in the lepidopterous insects of the Palæarctic, or at least the European, fauna, of which our islands furnish but a relatively small number of species. Others, who at the present time are perhaps but beginners, may very possibly desire, later on, to extend their collections and their knowledge by making entomological expeditions to various parts of the continent. It seemed therefore desirable that in an introductory book on British moths its method of arrangement should at least be founded on some generally accepted system.

Several methods of moth collecting are in vogue, but space will only permit of a few of those most frequently practised being here referred to, and those suitable for day work will first be considered. Although small woods should not be neglected, large tracts of woodland afford the moth hunter the best chance of success in searching for those species that usually sit during the daytime on the trunks of trees. Many of the moths that rest in this way so admirably blend with their surroundings that they may easily be overlooked; others by their resemblance to feathers, birds' excrement, etc., are also apt to escape detection. Tree trunks, too, abound in moth-like scars, blotches, and knobs, so that the beginner will frequently fail to readily distinguish a moth from such objects, or from the others mentioned. A little practice will soon enable him to tell which is which without having to very closely investigate, or perhaps even touch the suspected object.

As a general rule it is no doubt best to confine ourselves to one thing at a time, if the results are to be satisfactory and the work well done. In the present case, if he feels that way, the collector can relieve the monotony of trunk searching by operating in another direction at the same time. Some moths prefer to repose on the branches, or on the leaves of trees, others among the herbage under trees; these may be disturbed from their lurking places and caused to fall or take wing by jarring the boughs or brushing the undergrowth with a stick.

Palings, especially old ones and those enclosing wooded parks, etc., are often frequented by numbers of moths. These should be examined as early as possible in the morning, although a later looking over may not be unprofitable. When, however, the wind is dead on them, or where they stand exposed to full sunshine, few insects will be found upon them. Various species are to be obtained from open post and rail fences, and even iron hurdles sometimes yield a good moth or two. Walls are not to be despised, and of course rocks on the moorlands, and the cliffs by the sea afford suitable resting-places for many kinds of moth. As a matter of fact the eyes of the entomologist should always be peering about, as a valuable prize may turn up in the most unexpected places. Hedgerows and bushes in lanes, or bordering fields and woods, afford harbour to many species of moths, and some kinds, not necessarily the commonest, may now and then be beaten from them freely. Herbage on hill or down sides, and on the moor and moorlands is also a favourite hiding-place, as too is the marram grass, etc., on the coast sandhills.

As the day draws to a close and the night advances, the moths awaken, and first one kind and then another rises on the wing. These, as they fly in the lanes, about the borders or along the rides of woods, and over the vegetation in meadow, fen, or moor, should furnish ample employment and keep the collector actively engaged until the time arrives for a first round of the trees upon which he has spread a dainty repast for the night-flying Noctuidæ, and those members of the Arctiidæ and Geometridæ, etc., that frequently look in where sweets are to be obtained.

This sugaring business is perhaps the most exciting phase of collecting. Having prepared a fine compound of coarse brown or "foots" sugar, treacle, and beer, by boiling down these ingredients to a suitable liquid condition, this is taken to the scene of action in a sugaring tin, a receptacle fitted with a brush which is fixed in the screw-on top; or the attracting medium may be carried in any kind of convenient bottle providing a paintbrush (sash tool) and a jampot or some such article accompany it. Arrived on the ground, preferably a wood, a ride is selected along each side of which are convenient trees. A glade such as that in the New Forest, photographed by Mr. W. J. Lucas, and reproduced in Fig. 12, is an ideal pitch. Just before using, a very small quantity of rum may be added to the mixture, but if "foots" can be obtained the rum is not required. In the autumn I have found a drop or two of the essence of jargonelle pear, or of ribstone pippin, an effective addition. Now comes the initial stage in the night's venture, the "sugar" is put on each tree in a streak extending downwards about a foot from the level of one's chin; if thin enough to spread easily the mixture is almost certain to run further down the trunk. Whilst employed in this somewhat messy preliminary we meditate on the possible result, and hope that if visitors are not numerous they may at least be select. Lighting the lantern, the first round of inspection of the sugar patches is made, but this may not be altogether encouraging; on only one tree are there any moths and these but three in number, and not uncommon kinds (see Fig. 13). The second and even the third rounds do not give the satisfactory results we had anticipated, and we feel inclined to retire discomfited; but as a sort of forlorn hope we try once again, and this time we secure one or two really good things. Another night moths arrive quite early and in large numbers, chiefly commoners, but with a sprinkling of the better sorts among them. Just what meteorological or other conditions are most conducive to a successful sugaring expedition I have never been able to ascertain. Often blanks have been drawn when the weather has seemingly been the most favourable, and quite as frequently good bags have been made when exactly the reverse was thought to be more likely. If the natural attractions in the way of flowers and "honey dew" abound, the insects may possibly ignore the most tempting bait we can contrive for them. There is much uncertainty in this favourite method of collecting, and whether sugar is put on tree trunks, foliage, palings, rocks, or stones, or smeared on rags, and these hung up on barbed wire fences; or daubed on heads of thistles or bunches of grass heads tied together, one must be prepared to accept the disappointments that are inevitable, however careful we may be in the selection of "suitable evenings." It may be added that newly sugared trees are generally less attractive than those that are frequently painted with the mixture.

Caterpillars that feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs may be obtained by beating. The collector with one hand holds an open and inverted umbrella, or a Bignall tray made expressly for the purpose, under a branch, whilst with the other hand, armed with a stick, he strikes the branches from above in the direction of the receiver held below. In conducting such operations some collectors are far too energetic. It should be remembered that it is not hard thrashing, but a sudden jar that dislodges the caterpillars most readily.

Although oft-times a somewhat slow process, and to some temperaments, perhaps, rather tedious work, searching for larvæ is not unremunerative when the quality of the material obtained in this way is considered. Some kinds sit in the daytime, or feed, fully exposed, upon the upper sides of the leaves or on the twigs of trees, shrubs, and low herbage; these are not difficult to see. Other kinds conceal themselves under the leaves or on the twigs hidden by the foliage, and these have to be sought for, because many of them cling so tightly to whatever they may be upon that hardly anything short of a fatal blow with the beating-stick will cause them to relax their hold. Others, again, spin two or more leaves together, and in the habitation thus formed they remain throughout the day. The latter are more easy to see than the more readily evicted contingent. All we have to do is to stand under the branches and look upwards and outwards, when the united leaves and the form of the caterpillar between them will be detected. Some, of course, will be high up and out of reach in the ordinary way, but there will be others more accessible. Then, at night, especially in the early spring, we may search, aided by the beam of an acetyline lamp, the plants and undergrowth in wood rides and clearings, borders of woods, and lanes, for caterpillars that are arousing from hibernation. Throughout all searching operations for larvæ the chance finding of eggs under leaves or on twigs or buds is always probable. Cocoons in addition, among the leaves of trees and on stems of low plants and the trunks of trees, may also be revealed.

Furnished with a trowel—the ordinary garden kind will do, but the flatter pattern, sold by dealers, is better—the collector may take a turn at digging at the roots of trees for chrysalids. No doubt there are many kinds to be obtained in this way, but I cannot say much for the practice, as my own efforts have not been very highly rewarded. Not a single species was ever obtained by digging that I could not have secured more easily in some other way.

Methods of setting, and after-manipulation have been fully discussed in "Butterflies of the British Isles."


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Translation:Constitutional Court Decision No. 15/2555

 * Decision of the Court
 * Decision

 * Personal opinions of judges

 * Other documents
 * Announcement of the Office of the Constitutional Court, Re: A legal provision is found by the Constitutional Court to be contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution, dated 14 June 2012

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Category:Constitutional Court Decision No. 15/2555

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40 on the inside of the lining with a fold at the line that marks the closing. Turn over both thicknesses and baste them very carefully. Then stitch with one row of stiching ⅛ of an inch from the edge and another ⅜ of an inch inside of that. (Ill. 71.)

Where no hem is allowed at the closing edge of the lining it is necessary to face it. Cut two pieces of the lining material the same outline as the front or back where the opening comes, and about two inches wide. Baste one on the outside of each front or back with their right sides together. Stitch the seams and turn the facing over toward the inside. Stitch it just as you would a hemmed edge.

Hooks and eyes are then sewed on. (Chapter 24, page 116.) Sew the hooks and eyes right through the lining allowing the stitches to go through to the right side so as to make the sewing strong and durable. Be careful in sewing on the hooks and eyes on the second side to have them exactly correspond in position to those of the opposite side.

INSIDE BELT. An inside belt is sometimes used in fitted linings. Get the regular silk or cotton belting for this purpose and make it three inches longer than your waist measure. Turn back an inch and a half at each end, sew on a hook on one edge and the eye on the other (Ill. 72), and hem the raw edges over their ends. (Ill. 72.) Mark the center of the belt and sew it to the center front seam if the lining opens at the back. If it opens in the front, sew it to the center back of the lining with the lower edge of the belt half an inch above the normal waistline. (Ill. 73.) Sew across the width of the belt with a long cross-stitch to the inside of the seam.

FINISHING THE NECK AND ARMHOLE EDGES OF THE LINING depends on the lining material and on the waist material. In silk or cotton linings turn the edges under; clip them whenever necessary to make them lie flat. In the silk lining finish them with ribbon seam-binding sewed on flat like a facing. In a cotton lining use lawn binding in the same way.

Narrow lace may be whipped to the edges. (Ill. 70.) This is always done in a French dress or any good dress.

If the lining is of net or Georgette, narrow lace may trim the neck and armholes. (Ill. 70) Apply the lace as explained in Illustration 311, page 134, or the edges may be finished with a narrow bias facing (Chapter 19, page 94) of the lining material and narrow lace whipped to the edge, or the neck and armhole edges may be picoted. (Chapter 25, page 119.)

THE TOP OF A CAMISOLE LINING used under transparent materials may be finished with a facing of the lining material. Or an allowance may be made for a hem if the pattern has none and the hem used to form a casing. The lower edge of the facing or hem may be machine hemstitched. One or two additional rows of hemstitching may be put below as a trimming. Lace may be whipped to the top if desired. (Ill. (69.) Work a buttonhole in the lining at each side of the center, run a ribbon through the casing (Ill. 69) and tie the ribbon in a bow.

A wide band of lace may be used to trim the top. (Chapter 27, page 134.)

Or the top of the camisole lining may be turned to the outside and covered with lace beading. Ribbon is run through the beading and tied in a bow.

The shoulder-straps of a camisole lining may be of ribbon or lace. (Ill. 69.)

The finish of the lower edge of the lining depends on the design of the pattern of the

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Rh waist. If it is a fitted lining extending below the waistline and not attached to another edge, it may be finished according to the instructions for finishing the neck and armhole edges of silk or cotton linings on the preceding page. Or the edge may be simply bound with seam-binding.

THE OUTSIDE WAIST should be put together according to the Deltor or Illustrated Instructions with the pattern.

If any alterations were made in the lining the same alterations should be made in the outside waist. Try the waist on to be sure that it fits properly.

FINISHING THE OUTSIDE WAIST. The finish depends on the material and the design of the pattern. The seams are finished differently for silk, wool and cotton. (Chapter 17.)

The underarm seams of a kimono waist made of a non-transparent material should be clipped to prevent their drawing at the curve. They are then finely overcast or bound with seam-binding. If the material is transparent, cut away the seam to one-quarter of an inch width and overcast it finely, or have the seam machine hemstitched. (Chapter 25.)

Piecing in a kimono sleeve where the material is transparent should be machine hem-stitched. (Chapter 25.) In any other material it may be piped. (Chapter 26.) In silks or satins the piecing seam may be machine hemstitched or fagoted. (Chapter 25.)

THE COLLAR. Removable and attached collars for the open neck and the high collar are given in Chapter 23, page 110.

FINISHING A COLLARLESS NECK. In sheer materials the edge of a collarless neck may be picoted (Chapter 25, page 1 19) or bound with a bias binding (Chapter 26, page 131).

In silk, satin, heavier cotton materials and linen the neck edge may be bound.

In wool materials the neck edge may be bound with a lighter weight material like satin, or with braid.

In any material which is not sheer the neck edge may be picoted.

A soft finish is much used on silk and wool materials and on velvet. For this soft finish turn under the seam allowance on the neck edge and cover it with seam-binding sewed on flat like a facing. No sewing should show on the outside. In silk and wool materials if there are seams or closing edges or embroidery or trimming of any sort, the inner edge of the seam binding may be tacked to the seam, closing edge, etc. In any other case it should be left free and simply lie flat against the edge. Press the neck edge and since there is no strain on it the seam-binding will he flat against the neck and stay in place. In velvet the inner edge of the seam-binding may be blind-stitched, for this can easily be done in invisibly on this material. In heavier cotton and linen materials use seam-binding as a facing. The inner edge must be hemmed invisibly or stitched in place on wash materials.

THE SLEEVES are considered by some people as the most difficult part of a costume. Great caution is necessary to keep them exactly alike, from the time the sleeves are cut until they are finished and sewed in the armhole. If not correctly cut and basted, one sleeve may be larger than the other. If they are not stitched in the armhole exactly alike, one may twist while the other hangs without a wrinkle. The finish of the bottom of a dress sleeve is handled in Chapter 23, page 111.

In sewing in a set-in sleeve hold the sleeve toward you when basting it or sewing it by hand, for it is easier to control the ease or fulness in this position.

THE ARMHOLE. Do not bind the armhole. After the sleeve has been sewed in, overcast the armhole seam unless the material is transparent and is to be machine hemstitched. In sheer material which is not hemstitched the armhole seam should be cut to about one-quarter of an inch width before overcasting it.

THE FINISH OF THE WAISTLINE OF THE OUTSIDE WAIST is a matter of style. Follow the information given with the pattern. The waist may be made separately or joined to the skirt. In both cases instructions for finishing it are given with the pattern.

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Translation:Constitutional Court Decision No. 15/2555/Decision

Re:	An Ombudsman's petition for a Constitutional Court decision under the Constitution, section 245 (1), as to whether the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is attacked by a question of constitutionality pursuant to the Constitution, section 30

An Ombudsman ("Petitioner") submitted a petition to the Constitutional Court, requesting for its decision under the Constitution, section 245 (1). The facts are as follows, in summary:

Mr Sirimit BUNMUN lodged with the Petitioner the complaint of 18 February 2010, containing the following statement. On 14 May 2009, he applied for candidacy in the Knowledge Examination for Judicial Officer Recruitment and Judge Trainee Appointment for the Year 2009, Class 58. After examining his physical condition, the Court of Justice Judicial Service Commission ("CJJSC") announced the list of candidates, in which his name was nowhere to be seen. He then applied for an explanation on his disqualification. The Office of the Courts of Justice later informed him in writing that the CJJSC has considered his qualifications for the Judicial Officer Recruitment Examination and resolved not to accept him, since his physical and mental condition is not appropriate for judicial service according to the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10).

Mr Sirimit BUNMUN deemed that his disqualification on the basis of his physical and mental condition being inappropriate for judicial service, pursuant to the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), constitutes unfair discrimination on grounds of different physical condition or disability and exposes him to injury. The provision of the said law is thus contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30. Although the Constitutional Court has, by its Decision No. 16/2545, ruled that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), was not contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution, section 30, the Constitution referred to was the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2540 (1997), whilst the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30, paragraph 3, has now included discrimination against persons with disabilities. Having considered that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30, Mr Sirimit BUNMUN requested the Petitioner to exercise the authority under the Constitution, section 245 (1), to refer the matter and opinion to the Constitutional Court for further decision.

The Petitioner found that the Constitutional Court Decision No. 16/2545 stood on the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2540 (1997), which was now replaced by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007). Section 30 of the latter Constitution bears the same principle as section 30 of the former Constitution, but its paragraph 3 includes the term "disabilities" which was nowhere in the former Constitution. Due to this cause, the said Constitutional Court Decision does not bind the Petitioner pursuant to the Constitution, section 216, paragraph 1, and the Petitioner is competent to deal with the complaint. In this respect, the Petitioner was of an opinion that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), which reads "…having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service…", permits the unlimited exercise of discretion on account of appropriateness. The exercise of discretion under the provision in question may become unfair to any candidate when he is considered to be different from others due to his disability, despite the prohibition under the Constitution, section 30. Accordingly, the Petitioner hereby petitioned the Constitutional Court for its decision as to whether the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is sanctioned by the Constitution, section 30.

The preliminary question the Constitutional Court must handle was whether or not it is competent to address the petition, in accordance with the Constitution, section 245 (1).

Having carefully considered, the Constitutional Court entertained the following opinion. The Constitution, section 215, allows the Constitutional Court to refuse to deal with any matter or issue being presented to it but having been decided by it. As the Petitioner petitioned the Constitutional Court for a decision as to whether the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is attacked by a question of constitutionality pursuant to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30, the Constitutional Court has rendered the Decision No. 16/2545 on 30 April 2002, adjudging that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), was sanctioned by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2540 (1997), section 30. Even the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), retains the same principles of equality and unfair discrimination as those under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2540 (1997) ; paragraph 3 of section 30 of the former Constitution, however, includes the term "disabilities", with a view to preventing unfair discrimination on grounds of disability. The question raised before the Constitutional Court by the Petitioner as to whether the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is sanctioned by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), when it constitutes unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of their disabilities pursuant to section 30, paragraph 3, has never been decided by the Constitutional Court, according to the Constitution, section 215. The criteria under the Constitution, section 2451 (1), incorporating the Constitutional Court Ordinance on Procedure and Rendition of Decisions, BE 2550 (2007), article 17 (18), are thus met. The Constitutional Court therefore accepted to address the petition.

The question the Constitutional Court must now decide is whether or not the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution, section 30.

Having taken the case under its deliberations, the Constitutional Court is of the following opinion. Section 30 of the Constitution is in Chapter 3 of Rights and Liberties of the Thai People, Part 2 of Equality. Paragraph 1 of the said section 30 prescribes that "All shall be equal before the law and be entitled to equal protection of the law." Paragraph 2 of the same provides that "Males and females shall enjoy equal rights." Paragraph 3 reads: "Forbidden shall be unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of their different origins, race, languages, sex, age, disabilities, physical or health condition, personal status, economic or social standing, religious belief, education or political opinion which is not contrary to the provisions of the Constitution." And paragraph 4 states that "The measures taken by the State, for the purpose of eliminating the obstacles to a person's exercise of rights and freedoms or enabling a person to exercise his rights and freedoms on an equal basis as others, shall not constitute unfair discrimination under paragraph 3." The Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30, paragraph 3, includes the new key principle to protect persons with disabilities from unfair discrimination against them on grounds of their "disabilities", because they are not considered to be either in the state of anomaly or in need of care, whilst disabilities could not be identified as "physical or health condition". A disability is internationally recognised as a result of the relations between a person and the environment which does not allow him to live as a normal person. Regard should then be paid to the modification or development of such unfavourable environment, so that persons with disabilities would be able to equally access fundamental utilities and to peacefully live their lives in the same manner as other ordinary persons. For the same reason, the Constitution recognises various rights and freedoms of persons with disabilities, for instance, the right of persons with disabilities or infirmities to access good quality education universally provided by the State without charge for twelve years, which is acknowledged by section 49 with a view to entitling them to receive education on an equal basis as other persons, and the right of persons with disabilities or infirmities to access and enjoy public welfare and facilities as well as other appropriate assistances provided by the State, which is acknowledged by section 54. In addition, if a bill governing persons with disabilities or infirmities is not considered by the Committee of the Whole House of Representatives, the bill is required by section 152 to be considered by an extraordinary committee set up by the House and consisting of the representatives of the nongovernmental organs for persons with disabilities or infirmities.

After the Constitutional Court rendered the Decision No. 16/2545, ruling that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), was not attacked by a question of constitutionality under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2540 (1997), section 30, Thailand has ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) on 29 July 2008 and is bound to implement the obligations under the said Convention as from 28 August 2008. The Convention mentions the nature of "disabilities" and the scope of "discrimination on grounds of disability". According to its article 1, "persons with disabilities" include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. The Convention also defines "discrimination on grounds of disability" as any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of disability which has the purpose or effect of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal basis with others, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field, including all forms of discrimination and denial of reasonable accommodation. And the term "reasonable accommodation" is defined as necessary and appropriate modification and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where needed in a particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. In this respect, a State Party is obliged by article 4 of the Convention to adopt and undertake all appropriate legislative measures to modify or abolish the existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which give rise to discrimination against persons with disabilities. Article 5 of the Convention, which concerns the equality and nondiscrimination, requires a State Party to refrain from all discrimination on grounds of disability and guarantee to persons with disabilities equal and effective legal protection against discrimination on all grounds. For the sake of promoting equality and eliminating discrimination, the Convention also directs a State Party to take all appropriate steps to ensure that reasonable accommodation is provided. When Thailand has now become a State Party to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the state agencies are charged by its article 27 (a) with the duty to refrain from discrimination on grounds of disability in relation to all matters concerning all forms of employment, including conditions of recruitment, hiring and employment, continuance of employment, career advancement and safe and healthy working conditions. The state agencies are also required by (g) to employ persons with disabilities in the public sector. Therefore, the state agencies must be mindful of the described obligations when determining the criteria for recruitment of holders of whatever offices.

The Constitution, section 30, in principle recognises every person's equality before the law, guarantees to all the equal protection of the laws and forbids unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of their disabilities. The Constitution, section 29, also peremptorily prohibits the restriction of personal rights and freedoms constitutionally recognised, save where the restriction is permitted by the legal provisions, is made only for the purposes constitutionally allowed and to the extent necessary, and is not prejudicial to the subject of the rights and freedoms concerned. Having reviewed the Act Promoting and Developing Life Qualities of Persons with Disabilities, BE 2550 (2007), the Constitutional Court finds that the Act desires to protect persons with disabilities from unfair discrimination on grounds of physical or health condition, to entitle them to public facilities and other assistances provided by the State, as well as to require the State to promote the good quality of their lives and enable them to live on their own. The Act, applicable to both the public and private sectors, defines a "person with disabilities" in its section 4 as a person who sustains the imperfection of vision, hearing, movement, communication, mind, emotions, behaviour, intelligence, learning or any other impairment which, in conjunction with various barriers, limits his daily activities or social participation, and who is considerably in need of any specific assistance to enable him to carry out his daily activities or participate in society on an equal basis with others, subject to the types and criteria determined by the Minister of Social Development and Human Security. This definition of "person with disabilities" is in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), governs personnel administration, from the selective examination, recruitment, appointment, promotion and punishment of judges to their vacation of offices. Section 26, paragraph 1, which deals with the selection of judges, prescribes that "A candidate in a selective examination, knowledge examination or special selection for judicial officer recruitment and judge trainee appointment must be qualified and not be disqualified as follows… (10) Not being incompetent, quasi-incompetent, insane or of mental infirmity, or having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service, or experiencing any of the diseases specified in the Rules of the CJJSC." Section 15, which concerns the appointment of judges, provides that "A person to be appointed as a judge of any court must have been a judge trainee and passed the training of the Office of the Courts of Justice for a period of time fixed by the President of the Supreme Court of Justice, with the approval of the CJJSC, but not less than one year; prescribed that the outcome of the training must be in conformity with the standards of the Court of Justice Administrative Commission and indicates that the person is of integrity, knowledge, ability, responsibilty and behaviour appropriate for judicial service…" And section 32, which relates to the removal of judges, determines the grounds for removal of judicial officers, such as, the removal under (6) on account of the training outcome not being in agreement with the standards of the Court of Justice Administrative Commission, or on account of failure of duty, lack of ability to discharge official functions, conducting oneself in such a manner unsuitable to remain in judicial office any further, or undergoing an illness to the extent incapable of regularly functioning, or on account of being disqualified pursuant to section 26, paragraph 1 (10).

Since the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), requires a candidate in a selective examination, knowledge examination or special selection for judicial officer recruitment and judge trainee appointment to be qualified and not to be disqualified by not "…having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service…", the Constitutional Court deems that the phrases "physical or mental condition [which is] inappropriate" cover the term "disabilitites" as defined by the Act Promoting and Developing Life Qualities of Persons with Disabilities, BE 2550 (2007), in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. However, the provision in question does not clearly limit the scope of the physical or mental condition which is not appropriate for judicial service and leads to the exercise of discretion which may eventually give rise to unfair discrimination. The law which restricts personal rights and freedoms must definitely be framed. For example, the nature of the physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service must be described, so that the public would be informed of which right and freedom is to be restricted by the law in question. Incidentally, such law must also be subject to the principle of proportionality and be based upon the interest of the public or society as a whole, rather than the benefit of any specific organisation. As the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), was enacted before the promulgation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), some of its provisions are repugnant to the prevailing circumstances when the Constitution is aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to enjoy equal rights and enjoy equality in the same manner as others, whether in respect of education, work or occupation. The provision of section 26, paragraph 1 (10), of the said Act allows the immoderately extensive exercise of discretion which may result in unfair discrimination against persons with disabilities. When the qualifications and disqualifications, which are likely to constitute unfair discrimination against persons with disabilities, are to be decided in the course of subscribing judicial officer selective examination candidates, and the determination of the appropriateness of each candidate is left in the hands of the CJJSC, persons with disabilities could be deemed to have been deprived of their rights from the outset, because they will not be allowed to either sit it any examination on an equal basis with others or reveal their true knowledge and ability regarding the work desired. In addition, because the principal missions of the judges of the courts of justice are to try and adjudicate lawsuits fairly, in compliance with the Constitution and laws, and in full panel, no disability would debar a judicial officer from undertaking those missions to the extent the carriage of justice to the parties or relevant persons is affected. When the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), requires a candidate in a judicial officer recruitment examination to be qualified and not to be disqualified by not "…having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service…", this requirement is therefore hostile to the right of persons with disabilities to engage in occupations on an equal basis with others, as recognised by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and also begets unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of disability, as proscribed by the Constitution, section 30, paragraph 3.

For these reasons, the Constitutional Court hereby holds that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), only in the part stating "…having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service…", is contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution, section 30, paragraph 3.

 * President of the Constitutional Court

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge

 * Constitutional Judge


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Translation:Announcement of the Office of the Constitutional Court dated 14 June 2012

Whereas the Constitutional Court, by its Decision No. 15/2555 dated 13 June 2012, held that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26 (10), only in the part stating "having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service", is contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30, paragraph 3, which prescribes: "Forbidden shall be unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of their disabilities";

And whereas the part of the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26 (10), which states "having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service", thus became defunct by operation of the Constitution, section 6;

These matters are hereby announced for public acknowledgment.


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Author:James Edward Alexander

Works

 * Travels from India to England: comprehending a visit to the Burman empire, and a journey through Persia, Asia Minor, European Turkey, &c. In the years 1825-26. – London : Parbury, Allen, & Co, 1827
 * Travels through Russia and the Crimea. (1830, 2 vols.)
 * Transatlantic Sketches: comprising visits to the most Interesting Scenes in North & South America & West Indies. 2 vols. – London : Richard Bentley, 1833
 * Sketches in Portugal during the Civil War of 1834. – London : J. Cochrane & Co, 1835
 * Narrative of a Voyage of Observation among the Colonies of Western Africa, in the Flag-Ship Thalia; and of a Campaign in Kaffir-Land, on the Staff of the Commander-in-Chief in 1835. 2 vols. – London : Henry Colburn, 1837
 * Expedition of discovery into the interior of Africa : Through the Hitherto Undescribed Countries of the Great Namaquas, Boschmans, and Hill Damaras, Performed under the Auspices of Her Majesty's Government and the Royal Geographic Society. 2 vols. – London : Henry Colburn, 1838
 * Life of Field Marshal, His Grace the Duke of Wellington : Embracing His Civil, Military, and Political Career to the Present Time. 2 vols. – London : Henry Colbourn, 1839–40
 * L'Acadie : or Seven Years' Explorations in British America. 2 vols. – London : Henry Colburn, 1849 (online: vol.1, vol.2)
 * Passages in the life of a soldier, or, Military service in the East and West. – London : Hurst & Blackett, 1857
 * Salmon-Fishing in Canada by a Resident. – London und Montreal : Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860
 * Incidents of the last Maori-War in New Zealand. – London : Richard Bentley, 1863
 * The Albatross : record of voyage of the "Great Britain" steam ship from Victoria to England in 1862. – Stirling : C. Rogers & Co., 1863
 * Bush Fighting. – London : Sampson, Low, Marston, Low & Searle, 1873
 * Cleopatra's Needle, the obelisk of Alexandria (1879)

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Translation:Constitutional Court Decision No. 15/2555/Wasan Soiphisut

 * Question

Is the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30?

 * Opinion

Having taken the case under my deliberations, I find that the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 29, lays down the principle to prevent the restriction of personal rights and freedoms constitutionally recognised, unless the restriction is permitted by the legal provisions, is made only for the purposes constitutionally allowed and to the extent necessary, and is not prejudicial to the subject to the rights and freedoms concerned. It is also required that these legal provisions are generally applicable, that is, not being intended to govern any specific event or person. The Constitutional, section 30, prescribes in principle that all, either males or females, are equal before the law and are entitled to equal protection under the law, and that unfair discrimination against persons on grounds of their different origins, race, language, sex, age, disabilities, or physical or health condition is forbidden.

The Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1, which deals with the qualifications of the candidates in the judge trainee appointment examinations, requires those candidates to be qualified and not disqualified by not "…(10) having physical or mental condition inappropriate for judicial service…". (11) also requires them to pass a physical and mental examination conducted by a medical panel.

The Constitution, section 30, recognises the equality before the law in relation to persons with disabilities and physical impairments, though not describing the nature of these disabilities and physical impairments. In order to implement certain legal requirements, regard must be paid to the suitability and accordance of the disabilities and physical impairments with the work to be carried out. For instance, the complete hearing or visual impairment would be repugnant to the proper functioning of a judge who needs to watch and hear testimonies, examine material evidence, as well as inspect crime scenes or land in dispute, whereas mere strabismus, absence of some fingers or genu varum would not debar a judge from installing himself in stateliness and respectability when holding sessions amongst the assembly of the relevant parties and persons. Furthermore, it is much possible for judges in general to be transferred to outer provinces, to attend state and royal ceremonies, and to have audiences with Their Majesties and the royal household members; various disabilities would surely obstruct these functions. If a judge with disabilities is exempted from being transferred to an outer province, the judges without disabilities would then be exposed to unfair discrimination. Due to these causes, the criteria regarding the candidates in the judge trainee appointment examinations under the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), are sanctioned by the Constitution, section 29, even somewhat giving rise to the restriction of personal rights and freedoms. The qualifications and disqualifications in question permit the Court of Justice Judicial Service Commission, or CJJSC, to individually consider whether or not the physical condition of each candidate is appropriate for judicial service. The provision of the said law merely lays down broad criteria and is not contrary to the principle of equality, because the CJJSC is required to base its discretion upon requirement under the Constitution, section 30, not to exercise its discretion in the same manner as before promulgation of the current Constitution. Nevertheless, the question as to whether or not the CJJSC exercises its discretion in a constitutional manner is not subject to the competence of the Constitutional Court.

For these reasons, I hereby hold that the Court of Justice Judicial Service Act, BE 2543 (2000), section 26, paragraph 1 (10), is not contrary to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Buddhist Era 2550 (2007), section 30.


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HE SEPARATE BLOUSE is made on easier fitting lines than the dress waist with a fitted lining. The style, use and materials demand this easier fit. When a blouse is made of a material that is not transparent the general principles for making it are the same as for finishing the dress waist. (Chapter 7, Part I.) When a blouse is made of a transparent material everything is done to give it the sheerest effect possible.

MATERIALS AND TRIMMINGS. Transparent blouses are made of lace, trimmed with lace, or of net trimmed with lace or embroidery. They are also made of Georgette, chiffon, crêpe de Chine or silk voile and trimmed as elaborately as one likes with embroidery, beading or lace. All the newest designs for embroidery, beading and braiding can be had in the Butterick Transfers illustrated in The methods of applying lace are given in Chapter 27, pages 134–136. Blouses of cotton voile or batiste may be trimmed with embroidery, lace, hand drawn-work and hand hemstitching. The latter are easy to do on cotton voile or batiste because the threads draw easily. Handkerchief linen is lovely with hand drawn-work or hand hemstitching or lace, or a combination of the two, as they make material look more transparent.

Hand drawn-work and hand hemstitching can be done on crêpe de Chine, Georgette and silk voile, but the threads are more difficult to draw.

Embroidery, beading and drawn-work used on the body of a blouse should be done before the underarm seam is closed. It is easier to handle the work in this way.

On many of the more transparent blouses machine hemstitching is the only trimming. (Chapter 25, page 118.)

SEAMS. Underarm and sleeve seams are usually French seams. (Chapter 17, page 86.) For shoulder and armhole seams the sheerest effect is given by machine hem- stitching. It can be used on any of the transparent materials unless handwork is used on the blouse. In that case if the sheer seam is desired it is better to use Valenciennes or Cluny seaming. Valenciennes seaming is the best to use on batiste. Cluny should be used on cotton voile, handkerchief linen, Georgette or crêpe de Chine, The seaming is put in with narrow rolled hems. (Chapter 27, page 133.)

A very fine cord piping is used to finish the shoulder and armhole seams of many fine French blouses. (Chapter 26, page 131.) The cord piping should be included in the seams and then trimmed off with the seams to one-quarter of an inch width. The edges are finely overcast. (Chapter 16, page 82.) This effect, of course, is not as sheer as the seaming or machine hemstitching.

A tailored effect can be given a sheer blouse by turning the shoulder seams toward the shoulder, and the armhole seam toward the neck, and stitching close to the seam on the outside of the blouse. The seam should then be trimmed off to one-quarter of an inch depth and finely overcast. (Chapter 16, page 82.) At all times seams should be made as inconspicuous as possible.

COLLARS. Collars may be single or double according to the transparent effect desired. When a single collar is to be joined to a blouse of a material sufficiently transparent for

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Rh the joining to show through to the outside, or if part of the collar joining rolls to the out-side and shows, the daintiest effect is given by machine hemstitching the seam or by using Valenciennes or Cluny lace seaming in the joining. If the collar joining does not roll to the outside, the joining can be made with a narrow flat fell seam. (Chapter 17, page 87.)

A single or double collar should never be joined to the neck of a transparent blouse with a facing, for it makes a thick seam which will show on the outside.

The outside of a double collar should be sewed to the neck edge of the blouse. The edge of the inside collar or collar lining should be turned in and felled over the sewing.

The single collar can be put on with machine hemstitching or seaming.

It is advisable to avoid a seam in the edge of either single or double collars in a transparent material, if possible. In the case of a single collar a hem is the best finish for the outside edge when it is plain.

THE COLLARLESS NECK. Instructions for finishing the collarless neck are given in Chapter 7, page 41.

THE CUFFS. When the design is suitable the making and finishing of the cuff may match the making and finishing of the collar. The joining of the cuff to the sleeve may match the finishing of the shoulder and armhole seams when the seam finish is suitable. The same general principles are applied to the cuff as to the collar, and are simply adapted to suit the design of the cuff.

The cuffs may be closed with buttons and buttonholes, or with buttons and loops. (Chapter 24, page 114.) Or the buttons may be simply ornamental and the closing made underneath with hooks and eyes or tiny snap fasteners. (Chapter 24, page 116.)

THE CLOSING OF THE BLOUSE depends on the degree of softness and dressiness that you want to give to the blouse. The closing of the waistline is always made secure with a hook and eye, or button and loop. (Chapter 24, page 114.) Above, snap fasteners are sometimes used (Chapter 24, page 116), or sometimes a waist is fastened with buttons and buttonholes, or sometimes buttons and loops. But quite often when the blouse laps a great deal at the waistline, and is soft and full, the only closing above it is made by a fancy pin at the open neck.

For the back-closing blouse snap fasteners are not very secure. It is better to use small buttons and buttonholes.

PLAITINGS OR FRILLS are usually made of a single thickness of the material and may be finished with a picoted edge, a narrow hem or Valenciennes lace, net or point d'esprit footing. If a hem is used it should be machine hemstitched, or hand hemstitched (Chapter 2.5), or hand hemmed (Chapter 18) or machine stitched.

Plaitings are very pretty in Georgette, crêpe de Chine, cotton voile, handkerchief linen and batiste. Organdy plaitings are very dainty on cotton voile, and net plaitings are often used on handkerchief linen and crêpe de Chine.

WHEN A BLOUSE EXTENDS BELOW THE WAISTLINE and is to be worn inside the skirt, it is usually finished at the waistline with a casing through which an elastic or drawstring is run to regulate the size. (Chapter 23, page 111.) The lower edge is finished with a narrow hem.

If the blouse is worn outside the skirt the finish of the lower part depends on the style and material of the blouse.

A BLOUSE THAT COMES JUST TO THE WAISTLINE is usually finished with a belt casing. (Chapter 23, page 111.)

HIRT-WAISTS are usually given a more mannish effect in their making and finishing than a blouse-waist.

MATERIALS. Tub silks and satins, radium silks, cotton, silk or wool shirtings, the heavier qualities of crêpe de Chine, pongee, dimity, madras and linen are the best materials to use for shirt-waists.

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44 THE SEAMS may be finished as French seams or as flat stitched seams, or lapped seams, (Chapter 17, pages 86 and 87.)

THE FRONT CLOSING. Shirt-waists are finished with a box plait or coat closing. The making of the box-plait closing on the right front is shown in Illustration 74 and the finished box plait in Illustration 75. A hem is turned and the raw edge included in the fold of the hem. (Ill. 74.)

THE COAT CLOSING is made by turning both hems on the wrong side, basting and stitching them. (Ill. 76.)

A BLIND CLOSING. If the waist is to have a blind closing, a fly must be applied to the closing edge. The fly should be made double, folded lengthwise through the center, and a seam turned in at each edge. The fold edges are basted together and then sewed in position. (Ill. 77.)

THE GIBSON TUCK in a waist necessitates joining the shoulder seam first before basting in the tuck. This leaves the tuck free across the shoulder seam (Ill. 78), and in basting in the sleeves the tucks can simply be turned toward the neck out of the way as illustrated.

A BACK YOKE. A back yoke may be applied to the waist as shown in Illustration 79.

THE NECKBAND. Shirt-waists are sometimes made with a band finishing

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Rh the neck of the waist and worn with separate linen collars.

The neck requires care. It should not be trimmed out too much and the neckband should fit the neck closely, though not too tightly, or it will be difficult to adjust the collar.

An interlining should be used in the neckband. In most cases it should be of a material about the same weight as the waist material. The material of the waist can often be used for an interlining. In wash materials and flannel a soft cambric makes a good interlining.

Cut two sections by the collar-band pattern and also one interlining. Baste the interlining to the wrong side of one of the collar sections. Place the two collar sections together with the right sides face to face. Baste an even three-eight-inch seam at the top and ends, turn the band right side out and crease and baste the edges flat. Baste the inside section of the band to the neck of the waist with the seam on the right side. Turn the seam up, turn in the remaining edge of the band, fully covering the seam and stitch the outside, continuing this stitching all around the band.

FINISHING THE SLASH IN THE SLEEVE. For the slash in the sleeve sew the underlap piece to the back edge of the slash with the seam toward the right side. Crease the seam on the lap, turn the lap; baste down, entirely covering the joining, and stitch. Join the overlap piece to the front edge of the slash in the same manner. (Ill. 80.) Adjust the overlap so that it will conceal the underlap and baste it in place. Stitch all around the overlap, following the shape of the point. At the top of the opening the stitching should cross the lap and catch through the underlap, securely holding the opening in correct position, as shown in Illustrations 80 and 82.

A CONTINUOUS LAP is often used to finish the slash at the cuff opening. This lap is made by sewing a straight strip of the material continuously along both edges of the slashed opening, the strip of material being the same width all its length. (Ill. 81.) The other side is turned over and hemmed by hand or machine-stitched, to cover the first seam. This lap is shown in Illustration 81. When the lower edge of the sleeve is gathered this lap is turned under at the front or overlapping edge of the opening and extends on the other side to form an underlap. (Ill. 84.)

MAKING AND FINISHING THE CUFF. There are two sections for each cuff.

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46 degree of mannish effect desired in the waist. The interlining gives a cuff a more mannish look. It should be of a material about the same weight as the waist material, and is used to give a little more body to the cuff, but not to stiffen it. In many cases the material of the waist could be used for an interlining. In wash materials a soft cambric makes a good interlining.

If an interlining is used baste it to the wrong side of one of the cuff sections. Then baste the second cuff section to the first with the right sides facing each other, stitching along the two ends and lower edge. Trim off the seam at the corners and turn the cuff right side out, making sure that the corners are as neat as possible. Baste along the seamed edges so that the cuff will be easy to handle in sewing it to the sleeve.

Baste the upper edge of the outside and interlining to the sleeve and overlap, but not to the underlap in a link cuff (Ill. 82), and to the sleeve, overlap and underlap in a lapped cuff. (Ill. 83.) Then stitch, pushing the sleeve fulness well toward the end of the cuff. Turn the seam down and baste. Make a narrow turning on the inside of the cuff and baste in position, covering the seam. Stitch around all the edges of the cuff from the outside. For convenience in handling it is better to turn the sleeve wrong side out before making this stitching.

In sewing in the sleeves hold the sleeve toward you so that the ease or fulness can be handled easily in basting.

THE BOTTOM OF THE SHIRT-WAIST. The bottom of the waist is finished with a narrow hem.

THE BUTTONHOLES. The buttonholes in the box plait or coat closing are worked up and down through the center with a bar tack at each end. (Page 112, Ill. 228.) In the neckband they are worked lengthwise. The button-hole at the center back is worked one-quarter of an inch above the stitching and has a bar tack at each end. Those at the ends of the band are worked a corresponding distance above the stitching, but with a round front end above the center of the box plaits. (Page 113, Ill. 229.) The button-holes in the cuff are cut one-half inch in from the edge and about in the middle of the cuff. They are worked with one round end and one bar tack.

THE DETACHED COLLAR. An interlining in a collar gives a more mannish effect. It may be used or not according to the degree of mannishness of the waist.

If a detached collar is desired, cut two sections and an interlining by the collar pattern. Stitch together on the outside edges. Turn, and baste the bottom of the collar and its band with the seam toward the wrong side, and then stitch. Hem the outer edge over to the line of stitching. Stitch around the outside of the collar and work buttonholes corresponding to those on the neckband of the shirt-waist.

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Rh apprehension more than pure intellect, or required the exercise of fancy, imagination, affection or faith, was distasteful to Cavendish. An intellectual head thinking, a pair of wonderfully acute eyes observing, and a pair of very skilful hands experimenting, or recording, are all that I realize in reading his memorials," wrote his biographer sixty years ago.

Cavendish was a profound chemist, mathematician, astronomer, electrician, geologist, and meteorologist; and for fifty years he constantly published important papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Priestley and Cavendish were contemporaries. The work of the former was brilliant and quick; that of the latter was slow and thorough. Although Cavendish wrote much, he had an innate dislike to publicity. He published few papers, destroyed many, and therefore some of his brilliant researches were lost to science. His dread of popularity, want of laudable ambition, lack of enthusiasm, and morbid shyness compelled him to refrain from publishing many important scientific papers. Will there ever be an adequate life of Cavendish? Never. This remarkable man of solitary habits destroyed more papers than he ever published. No doubt the world lost much, for as Sir Humphry Davy said of Cavendish's researches, "they were all of a finished nature, and though many of them were performed in the very infancy of chemical science, yet their accuracy and their beauty have remained unimpaired."


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32 Cavendish's residences were in Gower Street and Dean Street, Soho, but his favourite home was Cavendish House, Clapham. In the last-mentioned residence (which was demolished in 1905) most of the rooms were converted into laboratories, workshops, and observatories. The author visited Cavendish House and grounds on 9th August 1905, and took several photographs. The house was situated on the south side of Clapham Common, and within its walls one of the most remarkable feats of science was accomplished. Just under the vane (centre window of the second storey) was a small room in which Cavendish weighed the earth.

In 1798 he computed its mean density by comparing the force of terrestrial attraction with that of the attraction of something of known magnitude and density. This done, an approximation of the weight of the earth became possible. The mean of twenty-three experiments was that the earth weighed 5·45 times that of a globe of water of equal size—the accepted figure now being 5·50. This and a vast amount of work was performed within the walls of Cavendish House, which stood in nine acres of beautifully timbered land; and here one of England's greatest chemists "buried his science and his wealth in solitude."

It was in this house that exact quantitative work on electricity received a great impetus by the researches of Cavendish. In 1771 he published important


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Rh to electrical theory, amongst them being an ingenious null method by which the law of inverse squares was proved to a high degree of accuracy. He also was the first to make quantitative measurements in electrical resistance—one of his experiments gave the specific resistance of water as four hundred million times that of iron.

Cavendish, about 1775, showed that the capacity for a condenser depends not only on its geometrical shape and dimensions, but also on the dielectric employed, and that the capacity is greater when solid dielectrics take the place of air. Cavendish's results were not published at the time, and only verbally did his contemporaries know anything of his work. Sixty-two years afterwards Faraday investigated the phenomena of condensers.

In his wildest dreams, however, Cavendish cannot have anticipated that in less than a century after his death a service of electric cars would be passing Cavendish House. Most likely the recluse would not have liked the prospect if the idea had occurred to him, as he hated "noise and bustle."

Cavendish lived a life of perfect retirement in Cavendish House. Society was a bore to him; he received no strangers, and held no communication with female servants. His horror of women was extreme. He ordered his dinner by leaving a note on the hall table every day; and orders were given that no female servant


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34 was to show herself on pain of instant dismissal. He had no friends—real friends—only scientific acquaintances, and these had to be very careful how they spoke to him, or he would become perfectly silent and leave their presence. It is said of this remarkable man—one of the most eccentric characters of his time—that he uttered fewer words in the course of his long life than even a Trappist monk.

In Cavendish House he discovered the composition of water, and made other momentous scientific discoveries. Despite his immense wealth (he was the richest man in London in his day), he lived in the simplest fashion, reserving only one or two rooms for domestic purposes.

Cavendish was tall and thin, with wizened features. He wore old-fashioned clothes—even for the times in which he lived—and a knocker-tailed periwig. He would never sit for his portrait. Our illustration is a copy of a drawing made surreptitiously by a contemporaneous artist.

He was afraid of strangers, and, when introduced to anyone, he fell into a state of the most painful nervousness. It was his custom each evening to take a constitutional walk in a secluded part of Clapham Common, where there was little chance of his meeting anyone else. Strolling there one evening, thinking over some momentous problem, probably lost to the world, he was addressed by a couple of lovers, fell immediately into


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Rh a state of nervous agitation, and in future confined his evening walks to the nine acres surrounding Cavendish House. His shyness was almost a disease, and was extremely embarrassing to himself and acquaintances. If Cavendish had not been such a recluse, he might have taken part in the doings of another famous Clapham house. Cavendish House was No. 100 Clapham Common, and No. 87 was the square and not very picturesque building of the Georgian type known as Battersea Rise House. This house was the rendezvous of Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Thornton, and others of the anti-slavery crusade, who in their day wielded no small influence upon the destiny of mankind. Cavendish's work, however, lay in another line, for he was no philanthropist or politician.

Many are the stories of this eccentric individual. A few, however, must suffice. Ingenhousz, a distinguished scientist, entered upon a complimentary harangue, saying he had only come to England for the purpose of seeing the great Cavendish—so profound and so universally celebrated. Cavendish became speechless, nervous agitation seized him, and, overwhelmed with confusion, made a hasty retreat from the room, and on reaching his carriage was driven home.

On one occasion three or four friends (or rather acquaintances) being invited to dine with him, he was asked what he would like for dinner. He replied, "a


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36 leg of mutton." "But," said the servant, "that will not be enough for five." "Then get two legs," was his reply.

Another story is told that Cavendish's banking account had accumulated to the extent of £80,000, and when his banker asked whether it should be invested, he replied, "Do what you like with it, but trouble me no more about it, or I will place my account elsewhere."

Although a marvellously accurate worker, Cavendish was not free from bias. Like Priestley, he was a phlogistian, and his chemical papers are written in the jargon of the school of Stahl. In 1766 he published his first paper, which was entitled "On Factitious Airs"; but before this time he wrote two papers: "Experiments on Arsenic" and "Experiments on Heat," which, however, due to his horror of publicity, were not published until after his death. In 1788 Cavendish published his famous paper, "Experiments on Air," in which he says: "As far as the experiments hitherto published extend, we scarcely know more of the nature of the phlogisticated part (nitrogen) of our atmosphere, than that it is not diminished by lime-water, caustic alkalis, or nitrous air; that it is unfit to support fire, or maintain life in animals; and that its specific gravity is not much less than that of common air; so that though the nitrous acid by being united to phlogiston is converted into air possessed of these properties, and, consequently, though it was reasonable to suppose that part at least of the phlogisticated air of the atmosphere


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Rh consists of this acid united to phlogiston, yet it might fairly be doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or whether there are not in reality many different substances compounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated air. I therefore made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a given portion of the phlogisticated air of the atmosphere could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there was not a part of a different nature from the rest which would refuse to undergo that change. . . . If there is any part of the phlogisticated air of our atmosphere which differs from the rest, and cannot be reduced to nitrous acid, we may safely conclude that it is not more than $1⁄120$ part of the whole." This is of vast importance, if we bear in mind the discovery of argon as a constituent of the atmosphere by Rayleigh and Ramsay in 1894, and the later work of Ramsay and Travers on krypton, neon, and metargon.

Although Cavendish's work on atmospheric gases was of great importance, it led him to a still more famous discovery, namely, the composition of water in 1781; and in his paper of 1784 he says: "By the experiments with the globe it appeared that when inflammable air (hydrogen) and common air are exploded in a proper proportion, almost all the inflammable air, and nearly one-fifth of the common air, lose their elasticity and are condensed into dew. And by this experiment it appears that this dew is plain water, and, consequently, that almost all the inflammable air, and


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38 about one-fifth of the common air, are turned into pure water." He further showed that when dephlogisticated air (oxygen) and inflammable air (hydrogen) were exploded together, pure water was the result.

Although he proved the composition of water, it does not appear that he viewed it as a chemical compound of the two gases. His phlogistic ideas biased even his clear mind to such an extent that, after the overthrow of the phlogistic doctrine by the work of Lavoisier, he withdrew from any active part in scientific research.

In 1783, in a letter to Black, James Watt expressed the opinion that "water is composed of dephlogisticated and inflammable airs." A long and bitter controversy raged about the discovery, the priority of which was claimed for Watt. It is now, however, universally ascribed to Cavendish.

Although nitric acid was known to Geber—the eighth-century alchemist—Cavendish proved (1784-85) the exact composition and mode of formation of this acid. He was remarkable for the accuracy and precision of his experimental discoveries; but any attempt to draw him into conversation was useless. "The way to talk to Cavendish," said Wollaston, "is never to look at him, but to talk as it were into vacancy, and then it is not unlikely you may set him going."

In 1766 Cavendish discovered inflammable air (the hydrogen of to-day), producing it by the action of dilute


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Rh acids on zinc or iron, and he describes its properties in the first part of his paper "On Factitious Airs." In the same paper he discussed the properties of fixed air (carbon dioxide), and proved that fixed air and the air produced during fermentation were the same.

Early in his career Cavendish made researches into the properties of heat—discoveries in regard to specific and latent heat which anticipated those subsequently made and published by Black—but it is said suppressed them that he might not enter into rivalry with the learned Scotch professor. One pauses in wonder to contemplate a man who could give away fame in so easy-going a fashion, and, moreover, was willing to do so.

The life of Cavendish presents a deeply interesting, but difficult, problem for the student of psychology.

His immense library was available to all his scientific acquaintances on condition that they did not disturb the owner; and on one occasion he was induced to allow a fellow-worker of small means to reside in his London library in order to catalogue and rearrange it. After leaving London, the poor fellow was not in the best of health, and was indifferently provided for. It was suggested to Cavendish that he was deserving of "a little annuity for life." "Well, well, well, a cheque for ten thousand pounds, would that do?" asked Cavendish; and a cheque for that amount was accordingly written. This was the only generous act in his long life of eighty years; and he


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40 died possessed of more than £1,157,000. He was a selfish cynic, ignorant of humour and of pathos, devoid of all human sympathy; love, joy, sorrow, and pity were absent in his nature; he had a leichenbittermiene; and, with the exception of the highest intelligence, his life was a blank. With his vast wealth he did no good, not even to science, for he left none to further the aims of his favourite pursuits. Cavendish lived alone, worked alone, and died alone!

When near his end, he called his servant to his bedside, and said: "Mind what I say—I am going to die. When I am dead, but not till then, go to Lord George Cavendish and tell him—go!" He ordered the servant from the room, as he wished to be left alone. Shortly afterwards it was found that Cavendish had "joined the majority"—"abiit ad plures." He died in London on 24th February 1810, and lies buried in the family vault in All Saint's Church, Derby.

It has been said of Cavendish that "in extent of acquirements, and in profundity of learning, he was unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries."


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Rh

Among Cavendish's other investigations may be mentioned his work on the thermometer and temperatures; he proved that heat was a mode of motion, thereby refuting the material theory. The origin of the "fur" in a tea-kettle was first noted by Cavendish, and the fact that hard waters could be rendered soft by the addition of lime was demonstrated by him. He also proved, by quantitative experiments, that fixed air (carbon dioxide) was heavier than common air, and performed other work on gases. He invented the eudiometer; but his two crowning discoveries were the determination of the composition of water, and the weight of the earth.

Although Cavendish retained the terminology of the phlogistic doctrine, he practically admitted the essential point of the nouvelle chimie of Lavoisier, namely, that calces are compounds of metals and dephlogisticated air (oxygen). He was elected an F.R.S. in 1764, and in 1801 one of the eight foreign associates of the French Académie des Sciences.

Of posthumous honours, the seventh Duke of Devonshire, himself a distinguished mathematician, erected and


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42 endowed the world-famed Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge as a memorial to his illustrious ancestor.

Concerning the author's photographs of the now demolished Cavendish House, the following quotations of letters received by him may not be out of place:—

Professor J. J. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, says: "I am greatly indebted to you for the very interesting photographs of the house in which Cavendish lived and worked. I shall have them framed and put near a picture of Cavendish we have in the laboratory." Sir Oliver Lodge writes that "they are an interesting reminiscence of a great man." Lord Rayleigh writes: "He was a queer creature in many ways, but I have always had the greatest admiration for his scientific work." The Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., writes that "the photographs are of much historical, scientific interest, and as a great admirer of the wonderful precision of Cavendish's work, I am very pleased to have them."

Such are the opinions of some of the foremost living scientists concerning the work of Cavendish.

His fortune, already alluded to, went to his cousin, an ancestor of the ninth and present Duke of Devonshire.

In conclusion, Galileo suffered for saying that the earth revolved round the sun, but what would the Roman hierarchy have done to Cavendish for daring to weigh it?


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Rh If the Church punishes in one age, it condones in another. Pope Leo XIII. removed from the Index Librorum Prohibitorum the two works of Galileo—De Revolutionibus and The Dialogues on Motion, one of which asserted that "the earth was not the centre of the universe, nor immovable, but that it moves even with diurnal motion," this being considered "a proposition absurd and false in philosophy and erroneous in faith." Sentence was pronounced on 22nd June 1633, so that the master's great works have been forbidden to the faithful two hundred and sixty-eight years! The whole proceeding was strange and irregular. Pope Urban VIII. did not sign the condemnation. Copernicus (1473-1543), a priest, taught the same doctrine; and Kepler (1571-1630), by his planetary laws, had founded the new astronomy. Galileo (1564-1642) only confirmed what they had taught. The year that he died Newton was born, in a land where no Inquisition could stay inquiry. Moreover, in England the Copernican theory created no religious alarm! . . . More imperishable than the marble monument in Santa Croce are the two books liberated from the Index. . . . Cavendish performed a monumental feat in weighing the earth, although one which would have brought him before the members of the Inquisition had he lived in Italy or Spain in the sixteenth century!


text: Biographies of Scientific Men/Cavendish

title: Biographies of Scientific Men/Cavendish


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 Chappington built an organ in 1597 for Magdalen College, Oxford, and of the payment for which a memorandum well worth preserving exists in the Liber Computi of that society: The practice of gilding and painting the pipes was customary at the period, as we may infer from this entry.

The accounts of King's College, Cambridge, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, introduces to our notice an organ builder named, who escaped my researches when writing the "History of the Organ."

I was then enabled to show, for the first time, that there were three builders of the same name—Dallam, or Dalham, namely, Robert, born in 1602, who built organs for York Minster, for the Music School, and for New College, Oxford, in the cloisters of which he was buried in 1665; Ralph, who was employed at St. George's


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Hugh (1540?-1616)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Hugh (fl.1642-1660)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Hugh (1784-1824)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, John (1740-1798)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, John (1777?-1860?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Neill


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Owen (1380?-1456)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Owen Roe


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Phelim


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Shane


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, Turlough Luineach


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/O'Neill, William Chichester


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Onslow, Arthur


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, Adeline Dutton (Train)

WHIT'NEY, (1824—). An American author, born in Boston, Mass. She was married at the age of nineteen, and lived at Milton, Mass. The list of her books is long. It includes: Footsteps on the Seas (1857); Mother Goose for Grown Folks (1860), which became popular; Boys at Chequasset (1862); Faith Gartney's Girlhood (1863); The Gayworthys (1865); A Summer in Leslie Goldthwaite's Life (1866); Patience Strong's Outing (1868); Hitherto (1869), with which the period of her best work ends; We Girls (1870); Real Folks (1871); Pansies (1872); The Other Side (1873); Sights and Insights (1876); Odd and Even (1880): Bonnyborough (1885); Homespun Yarns (1886); Daffodils (1887); Bird-Talk (1887); Ascutney Street (1888); A Golden Gossip (1890); Friendly Letters to Girl Friends (1897).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, Asa

WHITNEY, (1791-1874). An American mechanical engineer and manufacturer. He was born in Townsend, Mass., and in his youth learned the trade of blacksmith and machinist. After engaging in the manufacture of machinery in several States he became master machinist (1830) and superintendent (1833) of the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad. From 1839 to 1841 he was a canal commissioner of the State of New York, and in 1842 went into partnership with Matthew Baldwin in the manufacture of locomotives at Philadelphia. In 1847 he patented a process for making cast-iron annealed car wheels, and engaged in their manufacture on a large scale, subsequently introducing other improvements which increased the strength of the wheels and contributed materially to the safety of railway travel. Mr. Whitney served for a year as president of the Reading Railroad. He left $50,000 to the University of Pennsylvania for the founding of a chair of dynamical engineering.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, Eli

WHITNEY, (1765-1825). An American inventor, famous for his invention of the cotton gin. He was born at Westboro, Mass., and was educated at Yale College, where he graduated in 1792. He then went to Georgia as a teacher, where he found a generous patron in the widow of General Nathanael Greene, of the Revolutionary Army, on whose estate he resided, and studied law. While here he had opportunity to display his inventive genius, and at the request of some neighbors of Mrs. Greene he attempted to devise a machine for separating the seed from the fibre of the green seed cotton. He set to work under great disadvantages, having to make his own tools, and even to draw his own wire, while rumors of his success led some lawless people to break into his workshop and steal his machine before he could obtain a patent for it. Forming a partnership with one Miller in 1793, he went to Connecticut to manufacture cotton gins, but litigation in defense of his rights consumed all his profits and $50,000 voted him by the State of South Carolina. Finally, in 1798 he got a Government contract for the manufacture of firearms, which he carried out with ingenious machinery so arranged as to secure absolute interchangeability of parts. His manufactory of firearms was located at Whitneyville, Conn., and was maintained with success. Whitney had but little material reward from the gin, which immediately proved one of the most important inventions connected with the cotton manufacture. See ;.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, James Amaziah

WHITNEY, (1839—). An American lawyer and author, born at Rochester, N. Y. He studied mechanics, engineering, and chemistry, and in 1868 became an editor of the American Artisan. He was one of the founders of the New York Society of Practical Engineering, of which he was for some time president, and in 1869-72 he was professor of agricultural chemistry in the American Institute. He particularly interested himself in equity, and in patent and copyright law. His publications include: The Relation of the Patent Laws to the Development of Agriculture (1874); The Chinese and the Chinese Question (1880; enlarged 1888); Sonnets and Lyrics (1884); and The Children of Lamech (1885), a poem. His Poetical Works were collected in 1886.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, Josiah Dwight

WHITNEY, (1819-96). An American geologist, born at Northampton, Mass., the brother of Professor William D. Whitney. He was educated at Yale College, and in 1840 was employed on the New Hampshire geological survey. After serving in similar surveys of Ohio, the Lake Superior region, Iowa, and Wisconsin, he became State geologist of California, occupying this office from 1860 to 1874. In 1865 he was called to the chair of geology at Harvard University. Through his travels and studies in the principal mining regions of the United States, Whitney became the foremost authority of his day on economic geology, and he was able to perform a great service in the development of the mineral resources of the country. The best known of his writings are: The Mineral Wealth of the United States (1854); A Report on the Upper Mississippi Land Region (1862); The Geological Survey of California (1864-70); The Yosemite Guide-Book (1869); with J. W. Foster, Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District (1851-52); and with James Hall, Geological Report on Ohio (1858).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Whitney, Samuel Brenton

WHITNEY, (1842—). An American organist, conductor, and composer, born in Woodstock, Vt. He was educated under Charles Wels, of New York, and J. K. Paine, of Cambridge, Mass., in which latter city he secured his first organ appointment. He came to be regarded as the greatest Bach player of the United States, and was appointed professor of organ-playing and lecturer in music at the Boston University and the New England Conservatory. In 1871 he was appointed organist and choir director of the Church of the Advent, Boston. His compositions include many anthems and other church pieces, songs, pianoforte music, sonatas, transcriptions, and arrangements for the organ.


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Talk:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Swinnock, George

George Swinnock's father was Thomas Swinnock 1601 - 1642 Maidstone, Kent. George is mentioned in Thomas' will. information added by User:Gillyches