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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Education, Commercial

EDUCATION, Commercial, a general system of modern education to prepare youth for commercial pursuits which follows the usage of many European schools and colleges, where the selective courses for pupils on entry are designated as either “commercial” or “classical.” The commercial high schools of the public system of education of the United States are organized with industrial aims to give “a general education of such a nature as best fits youth for commercial pursuits.” Supplemental or higher commercial education is furnished by extended scientific training in university departments, in schools of technology, or in independent trade and business schools and colleges.

About one-third of the pupils in high schools in the United States in 1917 were taking commercial courses. Government reports from 31 cities of 100,000 population and over show that from 10 to 60 per cent of all high school pupils take commercial courses, and that of these Boston and Milwaukee have the largest, and Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus and Dayton have the lowest per cent. There were special high schools in 1916 in Boston, Cleveland, Columbus, New York, Portland (Ore.), San Francisco, Springfield, Syracuse, Washington and Worcester. The pupils who receive special commercial instruction in the government high schools, and even in the special commercial high schools, continue the study of related academic work with the other pupils from which they are not separated; for commercial instruction is looked upon as general education and is treated as such. While the private business schools have had very definite, if narrow aims, to which they have adhered strictly and logically, the commercial education of the government secondary schools has been more or less a concession to the demands of business interests and practical life; and of late educators have begun to insist that the commercial education of government institutions should be better organized and that its aim be more definitely stated. At present (1918) pupils taking commercial courses in secondary schools give only about 25 per cent of their time to technical commercial education. Another 25 per cent is devoted to “related work” and 50 per cent to “general culture.” The private business schools, on the other hand, go direct to the goal they have set for themselves. The result is that they cover, in from six months to one year, the same commercial work that the secondary schools require from two to four years to accomplish; and the pupils of the private business colleges are taught in a more exact

and businesslike way. Hence the popularity of the latter, though they charge comparatively high fees. In other words, commercial education in the government schools has not yet become individualized, as it has in Germany, where it has developed into a system by itself and not a comparatively unimportant part of a general system, as it still is in the United States. Hence the need of a general reorganization of commercial education along pedagogic and practical lines; for the necessities of business life continue, from year to year, to make more imperative and extensive demands upon the public school system. Owing to the fact that commercial education forms a part of the ordinary school curriculum of secondary importance, most public schools are poorly equipped as to organization and the other machinery necessary to meet the ever-increasing demands made upon them by the business world, which is still pinning its faith to the private business college, which to exist has to keep its ear close to the ground.

The commercial courses of the government secondary schools may be divided as follows: General office work and bookkeeping; stenography, typewriting and the operation of office appliances; secretarial work, which requires more careful training and higher academic requirements on the part of the pupils; and salesmanship. The program of the commercial education of the secondary schools is theoretically good; but in practice it has a decided tendency to be too technical at the expense of accuracy and practicability. On the other hand the private business schools aim, above all things, at speed, accuracy and practical results, and trouble themselves very little over questions of a technical nature, when they are not absolutely necessary to the end in view. The demand being made upon secondary schools is, therefore, that they study more carefully the needs of commercial life and that they impart more intensive instruction and practice in each individual section of commercial education so that their pupils may be enabled to step from the schools into subordinate positions in business concerns. To this end it is necessary to increase and improve the office appliance departments of the secondary schools and to place them in the hands of trained practical teachers, as the better class of business colleges have already done.

Commercial high schools in the United States are confined, for the most part, to the larger cities. They differ very little except in name and the number of pupils taking commercial courses, from the ordinary secondary school with attached commercial courses. Not one of them is primarily a commercial school whose aim is, first and foremost, the teaching of commercial subjects and the preparation of pupils for business life. Even in these schools the equipment of other departments is generally favored at the expense of the commercial. In other words, the commercial education of the United States secondary schools has no traditions to live up to and no definite aims to assure definite results. Until these are attained it must continue to live on sufferance, with other branches of education which have traditions and aims. But little improvement can be hoped for in the teaching of commercial subjects in the government schools until such time

as the ordinary high school and the commercial school are divorced and the latter is allowed to follow its own life and maintain a teaching staff trained to keep the needs of commercial education constantly in view.

Students. — There were, in 1917, approximately half a million students in commercial courses in the United States. The Bureau of Education had the names of more than 1,300 independent commercial and business schools, exclusive of the hundreds of other business schools forming departments of normal schools, private schools and other institutions, Only 843 of the independent business schools in 1916 responded to the request of the Bureau of Education for statistical information. The reports thus furnished show that there were in the 843 business schools reporting 133,286 students, an increase of 15,223 over the preceding year. The reports of 762 private high schools show that they had, in 1916, 17,706 students in business courses. The 2,863 public high schools of the country, during the same period, had 208,605 students in their commercial departments. Of the pupils reported in the private business schools 130,431 were in day and 52,855 in night courses. The total number of students reported to the department as in commercial courses was made up as follows:

Thus it will be seen that the hundreds of business colleges and other institutions having commercial courses, but not reporting them to the department, should easily have increased the number of students in commercial courses to 500,000 in 1917, when the demands of the war had given an added impulse to this ever-growing department of education. Massachusetts led with the highest number of pupils in the public high schools, 28,489, New York coming second with 27,887; but as the latter had more students than the former in private high schools and academies, the total of students of commercial courses, exclusive of the regular private business colleges, was New York, 29,563; Massachusetts, 29,485. Pennsylvania reported 17,544 commercial students in the public high schools, and 2,539 in private high schools and academies, a total of 20,083; Illinois, 13,923 in public high schools, and 1,349 in private high schools and academies, total 15,272; New Jersey, 12,444 in public high schools, and 319 in private high schools and academies, total 12,763; California, 11,567 in public high schools, and 582 in private high schools and academies, total 12,149; Ohio, 10,191 in public high schools, and 995 in private high schools and academies, total 11,086. Michigan and Wisconsin had each about 8,000 commercial high school students; Connecticut about 7,000; Indiana, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri and Washington between 5,000 and 6,000; Maine, Rhode Island and Kansas between 3,000 and 4,000; New Hampshire, Nebraska, Maryland, Texas, Colorado, Tennessee and Oregon between 2,000 and 3,000; while Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Montana, Utah and the District of Columbia had each over 1,000.

The trend of business education in the public schools is shown by the reports of the Bureau of Education for sections of the country as follows: In the North Atlantic States, in 1915, 1,066 high schools are reported as having 109,298 commercial students; the North Central States, 1,424 schools and 70,406 students; Western States, 564 schools and 26,690 students; South Central States, 315 schools and 10,551 students; and the South Atlantic States, 256 schools and 9,369 pupils.

In 1916 there were 54,871 students and 1,511 teachers in the 241 private commercial schools of the North Atlantic States; 76,709 pupils and 1,664 teachers in the 344 schools of the North Central States; 22,926 pupils and 530 teachers in the 110 schools of the Western States; 16,515 pupils and 318 teachers in the 84 schools of the South Central States; and 12,265 students and 286 teachers in the 64 schools of the South Atlantic States. The total number of students reported taking commercial course in public and private high schools and business colleges, in 1915, was: North Atlantic States, 164,169; North Central States, 147,115; Western States, 49,616; South Central States, 27,066; South Atlantic States, 21,631. Everywhere, except in the North Atlantic and Western States, the private business schools were turning out more commercial students than the government institutions. The 843 private business colleges and schools reported to the government as in their employ 4,309 teachers in 1916.

In the fiscal year 1914-15, 19,019 students graduated in commercial courses; 27,836 in amanuensis courses; 14,588 in combined courses; 1,729 in English courses: and 980 in telegraphy.

Higher Commercial Education. — In 1915 there were over 10,000 students studying commerce in the colleges and universities of the United States. At the head of these was New York University wth 2,260 students. The University of Pennsylvania had 916 students of commercial subjects; North Western University, 790; University of Wisconsin, 484; University of Illinois, 423; Boston University, 378; University of California, 320; University of Chicago, 220; University of Pittsburgh, 213; and Saint John's, Ohio, 207. In all 60 colleges and universities were reported as having instruction in commercial education; and of these 25 had 100 or more pupils each.

By the middle of the last century, owing to the vast increase of business throughout the civilized world, business men had already come to feel the need of special technical commercial education for their employees. As early as 1855 Gustav von Mevissen, the great European financier, in a report to the Chamber of Commerce of Cologne, advocated the higher education of business men with the surplus capital of the commercial world. But though the business men of Europe felt the need of business education for their employees they struggled vainly against the traditions of the schools, colleges and universities; and it was in the New World that the business college first came, in a measure, to supply the needed business education. But it was not until the universities turned their attention to this field that the dream of von Mevissen might be said to be in a fair way to became realized. He himself began the good work by founding a

college at Cologne. But the real pioneer in higher commercial education was the University of Pennsylvania which in 1881 established the “Wharton School of Finance and Commerce.” Seventeen years later the University of California founded a similar course leading to the degree of B.S. And in the same year the University of Chicago also added a commercial department with the degree of B.Ph. In 1900, New York University, and in the following year, Columbia University, and in 1902, the universities of Illinois, Indiana and Michigan established commercial courses with the bachelor's degree. Now (1918) most of the important universities of the United States have more or less complete commercial departments. The Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, established in 1908, and the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance, opened in 1900, in connection with Dartmouth College, go further in this respect than the other universities, admitting to their courses only college and university graduates whom they train for business and public affairs.

Bibliography. — Allinson, Mary, ‘The Public Schools and Women in Office’ (Boston 1914); Eaton and Stevens, ‘Commercial Work and Training for Girls’ (New York 19l5); Farrington, F. E., ‘Commercial Education in Germany’ (New York 1914); Herrick, C. A., ‘Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education’ (New York 1904); Hooper and Graham. ‘Commercial Education at Home and Abroad’ (London and New York 1901); Kahn and Klein, ‘Principles and Methods in Commercial Education’ (New York 1914); Thompson, F. N., ‘Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools’ (Yonkers-on-Hudson 1915); Richter, K. E., ‘Commercial Colleges in Germany’ (New York 1913); ‘Report of Conference on Commercial Education and Business, in the University of Illinois’ (Urbana-Champaign 1913); ‘Report of the Commissioner of Education’ (Washington 1917).


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 to power of the Tories she carefully left some Whigs in their employments, with the aim of breaking up the party system and acting upon what was called “a moderate scheme.” She attended debates in the Lords and endeavoured to influence votes. Her struggles to free herself from the influence of factions only involved her deeper; she was always under the domination of some person or some party, and she could not rise above them and show herself the leader of the nation like Elizabeth.

Anne was a women of small ability, of dull mind, and of that kind of obstinacy which accompanies weakness of character. According to the duchess she had “a certain knack of sticking to what had been dictated to her to a degree often very disagreeable, and without the least sign of understanding or judgment.” “I desire you would not have so ill an opinion of me,” Anne writes to Oxford, “as to think when I have determined anything in my mind I will alter it.” Burnet considered that “she laid down the splendour of a court too much,” which was “as it were abandoned.” She dined alone after her husband’s death, but it was reported by no means abstemiously, the royal family being characterized in the lines:—

She took no interest in the art, the drama or the literature of her day. But she possessed the homely virtues; she was deeply religious, attached to the Church of England and concerned for the efficiency of the ministry. One of the first acts of her reign was a proclamation against vice, and Lord Chesterfield regretted the strict morality of her court. Instances abound of her kindness and consideration for others. Her moderation towards the Jacobites in Scotland, after the Pretender’s expedition in 1708, was much praised by Saint Simon. She showed great forbearance and generosity towards the duchess of Marlborough in the face of unexampled provocation, and her character was unduly disparaged by the latter, who with her violent and coarse nature could not understand the queen’s self-restraint in sorrow, and describes her as “very hard” and as “not apt to cry.” According to her small ability she served the state well, and was zealous and conscientious in the fulfilment of public duties, in which may be included touching for the king’s evil, which she revived. Marlborough testifies to her energy in finding money for the war. She surrendered £10,000 a year for public purposes, and in 1706 she presented £30,000 to the officers and soldiers who had lost their horses. Her contemporaries almost unanimously record her excellence and womanly virtues; and by Dean Swift, no mild critic, she is invariably spoken of with respect, and named in his will as of “ever glorious, immortal and truly pious memory, the real nursing-mother of her kingdoms.” She deserves her appellation of “Good Queen Anne,” and notwithstanding her failings must be included among the chief authors and upholders of the great Revolution settlement. Her person was described by Spanheim, the Prussian ambassador, as handsome though inclining to stoutness, with black hair, blue eyes and good features, and of grave aspect.

Anne’s husband, Prince George (1653–1708), was the second son of Frederick III., king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne he had been a candidate for the throne of Poland. He was created earl of Kendal and duke of Cumberland in 1689. Some censure, which was directed against the prince in his capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his death. In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a soldier or a statesman.

ANNE (1693–1740), empress of Russia, second daughter of Tsar Ivan V., Peter the Great’s imbecile brother, and Praskovia Saltuikova. Her girlhood was passed at Ismailovo near Moscow, with her mother, an ignorant, bigoted tsaritsa of the old school, who neglected and even hated her daughters. Peter acted as a second father to the Ivanovs, as Praskovia and her family were called. In 1710 he married Anne to Frederick William, duke of Courland, who died of surfeit on his journey home from St Petersburg. The reluctant young widow was ordered to proceed on her way to Mittau to take over the government of Courland, with the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuzhev, as her adviser. He was subsequently her lover, till supplanted by (q.v.). Anne’s residence at Mittau was embittered by the utter inadequacy of her revenue, which she keenly felt. It was therefore with joy that she at once accepted the Russian crown, as the next heir, after the death of Peter II. (January 30, 1730), when it was offered to her by the members of the supreme privy council, even going so far as to subscribe previously nine articles which would have reduced her from an absolute to a very limited monarch. On the 26th of February she made her public entry into Moscow under strict surveillance. On the 8th of March a coup d’état, engineered by a party of her personal friends, overthrew the supreme privy council and she was hailed as autocrat. Her government, on the whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular. This was due in the main to the outrageous insolence of her all-powerful favourite Biren, who hated the Russian nobility and trampled upon them mercilessly. Fortunately, Biren was sufficiently prudent not to meddle with foreign affairs or with the army, and these departments in the able hands of two other foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with Russia, (q.v.) and  (q.v.) did great things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the period were the War of the Polish Succession and the second Crimean War. The former was caused by the reappearance of Stanislaus Leszczynski as a candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II. (February 1, 1733). The interests of Russia would not permit her to recognize a candidate dependent directly on France and indirectly upon Sweden and Turkey, all three powers being at that time opposed to Russia’s “system.” She accordingly united with Austria to support the candidature of the late king’s son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia was concerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much more important was the Crimean War of 1736–39. This war marks the beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to recover her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted

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text: Author:John Hubert Cornyn

title: Author:John Hubert Cornyn


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Rh

1981 CHAPTER 68

by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:—

The Authority

The Independent Broadcasting Authority

1.—(1)The authority called the Independent Broadcasting Authority shall continue in existence as a body corporate.

(2) The Authority shall consist of—

(3) Unless and until the Secretary of State otherwise determines by notice in writing to the Authority, a copy of which shall be laid before each House of Parliament, the number of those other members shall be ten.

(4) Schedule 1 shall have effect with respect to the Authority. A 2

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schereschewsky, Samuel Isaac Joseph

SCHERESCHEWSKY, skĕr-ĕs-kūs'kĭ, Samuel Isaac Joseph, American Protestant Episcopal bishop: b. Tanroggen, Lithuania, Russia, 6 May 1831; d. Tokio, Japan, 1906. He studied in Russia and Germany, and, after coming in 1854 to the United States, at the Western Theological Seminary (Allegheny, Pa.) and the General Theological Seminary; was ordained deacon of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1859, priest in 1860 and was a missionary in China in 1860-75. In 1877 he was consecrated third Protestant Episcopal bishop of China, but he resigned his office in 1883 and afterward resided in the United States, China and Japan. With J. S. Burden he translated the ‘Book of Prayer’ into Mandarin, and he also prepared a complete revision of the Mandarin Bible (1895) and a wholly new rendering of the Bible into Wenli, the classical language of China (1902).


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Rh

The Welsh Fourth Channel Authority.

46.—(1) The authority called the Welsh Fourth Channel shall continue in existence as a body corporate.

(2) The Welsh Authority shall consist of—

(a) a Chairman appointed by the Secretary of State; and

(b) four other members so appointed.

(3) The Welsh Authority, unless previously dissolved, shall cease to function if and when the IBA cease to function under section 2(1).

(4) Schedule 5 shall have effect with respect to the Welsh Authority.

Function, powers and duties of Welsh Authority.

47.—(1) The function of the Welsh Authority shall be—

(a) to provide television programmes (other than advertisements) of high quality for broadcasting by the IBA on the Fourth Channel in Wales; and

(b) to provide the IBA with programme schedules for those programmes;

and, subject to the provisions of this Act so far as they apply in relation to the Fourth Channel in Wales, it shall be the duty of the IBA to broadcast on that Channel the programmes provided by the Welsh Authority, and to do so in accordance with the programme schedules so provided.

(2) In this Part "the Fourth Channel in Wales" means the Fourth Channel so far as it consists of programmes (other than advertisements) broadcast for reception in Wales.

(3) A substantial proportion of the programmes included in the programme schedules provided by the Welsh Authority shall be in Welsh; and the programme schedules shall be drawn up so as to secure that the programmes broadcast on the Fourth Channel in Wales between the hours of 6.30 p.m. and 10.00 p.m. consist mainly of programmes in Welsh.

(4) Subject to subsection (3), the programme schedules provided by the Welsh Authority shall be drawn up with a view to securing that, for any period allocated to the broadcasting of a programme not in Welsh, the programme broadcast is normally the same as the programme (or one of the programmes) broadcast on the Fourth Channel in that period for reception otherwise than in Wales.

(5) It shall be the duty of the Welsh Authority—

(a) to discharge their function under subsection (1) so as to secure that the Fourth Channel in Wales is a public


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Treasury Chambers, Parliament Street, SW1P 3AG

01-233 3000

17 September 1980

The Rt Hon William Whitelaw CH MC MP

Secretary of State for the Home Department

Home Office

WELSH LANGUAGE TV

We spoke last night about the need to reconsider the decision against allocating the fourth channel in Wales exclusively to Welsh language broadcasting. You propose to go back to the "single channel" solution, without direct Government funding, but with an undertaking that the Government will take account of the costs falling on the ITV companies in setting future rates of levy. I understand that, having consulted the Prime Minister, you would like to announce this today or tomorrow.

If we had to deduct the full net cost of the Welsh language service from the levy on the ITV companies, this would be an unwelcome addition to the PSBR, which I understand your officials put at somewhere in the region of £10 million a year. I recognise that you are under strong political pressure, and I am ready to agree that you should announce a decision to adopt a single channel solution for a trial period. But I would want to see the assurance to the IBA and programme companies put in terms, which allow us room to negotiate on the shares of assessed net costs which should fall on them and on the levy receipts.

I understand it has been suggested to you by a delegation from Wales that, if it can be shown by experience that most Welsh consumers would prefer to revert to our earlier proposal for limited time-compatible Welsh language broadcasting by both BBC and ITV, then it would be right to do so. My strong personal hunch is that most Welsh people will wish to revert. My fear is that if that option is not made crystal-clear in your initial announcement, it may be very difficult to revert even if the majority in Wales would clearly prefer it - not least because, if we are in effect relieving the ITV companies of most or all of their net costs, they will have little interest in pressing


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for a change. So I hope you will agree to say that the Welsh-language channel will operate for a trial period of limited duration after which the Government will find some effective means of testing Welsh opinion to establish whether the majority would prefer more limited time-compatible Welsh programmes on the lines we had proposed earlier.

I am sending a copy of this letter to the Prime Minister.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbie, Ambrose


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbie, Gerard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbie, Ralph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbmac


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schermerhorn, Martin Kellogg

SCHERMERHORN, skĕr'mėr-hôrn, Martin Kellogg, American Unitarian clergyman: b. Durham, N. Y., 20 March 1841. He was educated at Williams College and at Union Theological Seminary, was ordained to the

Presbyterian ministry in 1867, held Unitarian pastorates in 1871-84 and Protestant Episcopal rectorships in 1885-96 and returned to the Unitarian ministry in 1897. He has published ‘Ancient Sacred Scriptures’ (1882); ‘Sacred Scriptures of the World’ (1898); ‘Thoughts for the Twentieth Century’ (1900); ‘Universal Worship’ (1904); ‘World-Religion’ and ‘World-Religion Hymns and Prayers’ (1914), etc.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbould, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbould, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corbridge, Thomas of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corcoran, Michael


text: Letter from Geoffrey Howe regarding Welsh Language TV


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cordell, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cordell, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corden, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corder, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corderoy, Jeremy


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cordiner, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cordiner, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corey, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corfe, Arthur Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corfe, Joseph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cormac Mac Art


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Scherr, Johannes

SCHERR, shĕr, Johannes, German author and literary critic: b. Hohenrechberg, Swabia, 3 Oct. 1817; d. Zürich, Switzerland, 21 Nov. 1886. He was educated at the University of Tübingen and in 1843 settled in Stuttgart, where he became a teacher. He allied himself, politically, with the Democrats among whom he became a leader; in 1848 he was elected to the assembly and in the revolution of that year he took so prominent a part that he was compelled to flee to Zürich in 1849. He was appointed professor of history and literature in the University of Zürich in 1860, holding the position until his death. His works are characterized by their caustic wit and many peculiarities in point of diction. His writings include “Geschichte der deutschen Literatur” (1854); “Michel, Geschichte eines Deutschen unserer Zeit” (1858); “Deutsch Kulturund Gittengeschichte” (1852); “Geschichte der deutscher Frauenwelt” (1860); “Blucher, seine Zeit und sein Leben” (1862-63), etc.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cormac (836-908)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cormack, John Rose


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornelisz, Lucas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornelius, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornelys, Theresa


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corner, George Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corner, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornewall, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornewall, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corney, Bolton


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornhill, William of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornish, Joseph


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 four years and a half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and millions of roubles; and though invariably successful, she had to be content with the acquisition of a single city (Azov) with a small district at the mouth of the Don. Yet more had been gained than was immediately apparent. In the first place, this was the only war hitherto waged by Russia against Turkey which had not ended in crushing disaster. Münnich had at least dissipated the illusion of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian soldier that 100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair field, for half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second place the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the third place Russia’s signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had immensely increased her prestige on the continent. “This court begins to have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe,” remarked the English minister, Sir Claudius Rondeau, a year later.

The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to strengthen the position of the heir to the throne, the baby cesarevich Ivan, afterwards Ivan VI., the son of the empress’s niece, Anna Leopoldovna, against the superior claims of her cousin the cesarevna Elizabeth. The empress herself died three months later (28th of October 1740). Her last act was to appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew.

Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as well-meaning as ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be. But she had much natural good sense, was a true friend and, in her more cheerful moments, an amiable companion. Lady Rondeau’s portrait of the empress shows her to the best advantage. She is described as a large woman, towering above all the cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy and graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awfulness in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her.

ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477–1514), daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany, and Marguerite de Foix. She was scarcely twelve years old when she succeeded her father as duchess on the 9th of September 1488. Charles VIII. aimed at establishing his authority over her; Alain d’Albret wished to marry her; Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy; and her guardian, the marshal de Rieux, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In 1489 the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her independence, Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Austria, and soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But Maximilian was incapable of defending her, and in 1491 the young duchess found herself compelled to treat with Charles VIII. and to marry him. The two sovereigns made a reciprocal arrangement as to their rights and pretensions to the crown of Brittany, but in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne undertook to marry the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after the conspiracy of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the duchy to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of paying only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented, After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children, Anne exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1499 she married Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France. The marriage contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the independence of Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should revert to the second son or to the eldest daughter of the two sovereigns, and, failing issue, to the natural heirs of the duchess. Until her death Anne occupied herself personally with the administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the treaty of Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter, Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor, Charles V.), and promised him the possession of Brittany, Burgundy and the county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken, and the queen had to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis of Angoulême, who in 1515 became king of France as Francis I. Thus the definitive reunion of Brittany and France was prepared.

ANNE OF CLEVES (1515–1557), fourth wife of Henry VIII., king of England, daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and Mary, only daughter of William, duke of Juliers, was born on the 22nd of September 1515. Her father was the leader of the German Protestants, and the princess, after the death of Jane Seymour, was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry VIII. She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no dowry, her only recommendations being her proficiency in needlework, and her meek and gentle temper. Nevertheless her picture, painted by Holbein by the king’s command (now in the Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased Henry and the marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th of September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of December; Henry met her at Rochester on the 1st of January 1540, and was so much abashed at her appearance as to forget to present the gift he had brought for her, but nevertheless controlled himself sufficiently to treat her with courtesy. The next day he expressed openly his dissatisfaction at her looks; “she was no better than a Flanders mare.” The attempt to prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine broke down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice. On the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1540, he declared that no earthly thing would have induced him to marry her but the fear of driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of the emperor. Shortly afterwards Henry had reason to regret the policy which had identified him so closely with the German Protestantism, and denied reconciliation with the emperor. Cromwell’s fall was the result, and the chief obstacle to the repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did not scruple to cast doubts on his wife’s honour. On the 9th of July the marriage was declared null and void by convocation, and an act of parliament to the same effect was passed immediately. Henry soon afterwards married Catherine Howard. On first hearing of the king’s intentions, Anne swooned away, but on recovering, while declaring her case a very hard and sorrowful one from the great love which she bore to the king, acquiesced quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which she received lands to the value of £4000 a year, renounced the title of queen for that of the king’s sister, and undertook not to leave the kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by Gardiner by the king’s direction, she acknowledged the unreality of the marriage and the king’s kindness and generosity. Anne spent the rest of her life happily in England at Richmond or Bletchingley, occasionally visiting the court, and being described as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every day! An attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that she had given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed father. She was present at the marriage of Henry with Catherine Parr and at the coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of July 1557 at Chelsea, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

ANNE OF DENMARK (1574–1619), queen of James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, daughter of King Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway and of Sophia, daughter of Ulric III., duke of Mecklenburg, was born on the 12th of December 1574. On the 20th of August 1589, in spite of Queen Elizabeth’s opposition,

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornwallis, Thomas (1519-1604)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornwallis, Thomas (1663-1731)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornwallis, William (d.1631?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornwallis, William (1744-1819)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Cornysshe, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corpre Cromm


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corri, Domenico


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corrie, Archibald


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corrie, Daniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corrie, George Elwes


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corrigan, Dominic John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corro, Antonio de


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Corry, Henry Thomas Lowry


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio

SCHIAPARELLI, skyä-pä-rĕl'lē, Giovanni Virginio, Italian astronomer: b. Savigliano, 5 March 1835; d. Milan, 5 July 1910. He was educated at the University of Turin, and later studied at Berlin, under Encke, and at Pultowa, Russia, under Struve. Returning to Italy in 1859, he became assistant astronomer at the Milan Observatory, and its director in 1862. In 1861 he discovered the asteroid Hesperia. His discoveries of the relations between comets and falling stars were published as ‘Note e riflessioni sulla teoria astronomica dele stelle cadenti’ (1867). In 1877 he published the first accounts of his observations of the “canals” of Mars, to which his name has been given. He published many books on astronomy.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schiavone, Andrea

SCHIAVONE, skyä-vō'nā, Andrea, Italian painter whose original name was ( or ): b. Sebenico, Dalmatia, probably in 1522; d. Venice, 1582. In youth he was placed with a house-painter in Venice, where in leisure hours he studied the works of Parmegiano, Giorgione and Titian. The latter took him under his care, and later employed him in the library of Saint Mark, where he is said to have painted three entire ceilings. Later he was accounted one of the finest colorists of the Venetian school. Among his works are two parables and two landscapes in the Berlin Museum, ‘Christ before Pilate’ in the Venice Gallery, ‘Christ before Caiaphas’ (Vienna), ‘Parnassus’ (Munich), and numerous other specimens to be seen in collections at Florence, Rome, Naples, Dresden, Paris and Petrograd. His ‘Perseus and Andromeda’ and ‘The Apostles at the Sepulchre’ are in the royal collection at Windsor. He also etched 119 plates, making use of some soft material, probably tin.


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 1


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 1/Chapter 1


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 1/Chapter 2


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 1/Chapter 3


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 2


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schiedam

SCHIEDAM, sHē-däm', Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, a seaport near

ihe influx of the Schie into the Maas, four miles west of Rotterdam. Of the old walls four gates have been preserved. The town is intersected by numerous canals, and though irregularly built has broad streets and many good houses. Its chief buildings are the Reformed and other churches, a fine exchange, town house, a handsome concert hall, schools of language, art, business, etc., a public library and various hospitals. The principal manufacture is the Geneva gin or Hollands. Prior to the World War there were over 220 grain and other distilleries in constant operation. Other manufactures were linen, thread, copper and iron castings, white lead and litharge, cordage and vinegar. There was considerable traffic in gin, grain and coal. Pop. about 35,166.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Schieffelin, Bradhurst

SCHIEFFELIN, shēf'ë-lĭn, Bradhurst, American druggist and publicist: b. New York, 21 Sept. 1824. He entered the wholesale drug manufacture, and in 1860 placed petroleum on the market. During the Civil War he organized a committee of prominent citizens for consultation with and support of President Lincoln, and in the financial troubles succeeding the war was active in charities. The Bread and Shelter Society, for sending destitute persons from cities to rural districts for their self-support, was organized by him, and he personally sheltered and fed thousands. With Charles O'Connor and Horace Greeley he formulated the petition introduced into Congress by Roscoe Conkling, for the prevention of the appropriation for the use of religious corporations of public moneys or property.


text: Author:Mrs. S. L. May

title: Author:Mrs. S. L. May


text: Index:From Anne Warren Weston to Fanny Kemble 1849.pdf


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Rh Rough copy of a letter to F. Kemble; A.W. Weston

Mrs Frances Anne Kemble

Dear Madam

I trust that an apology for addressing you may be found in the belief I am most happy to entertain that on the question now so deeply agitating the whole country, that of the continuance of American Slavery your sympathies are in agreement with those of the Abolitionists.

I would have wished that the request I am about to make might have now the advantage of presentation by some one engaging the honour of a personal acquaintance & respect more than even the advice upon the courtesy of my dear friend Mrs Fuller upon who who could have asked your help without


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  which is the principal element, counts 1,500 in the north, 3,000 in the center, and 5,000 in the south and has influence amongst business men, officials, and intellectuals.

(2) The Vietnam Patriots' Party, made up of doctors, lawyers and intellectuals in the liberal professions and having latent power among young intellectuals.

(3) The National Socialist Party, having about 2000 members and its chief sphere of influence in the light industry towns of Haiphong and Hanoi. This party was directed by Tran Trong Kim, late premier of the Bao Dai government, and is said to have been inspired by the Japanese Military Police and Intelligence Organization to recruit Vietnamese for the puppet military forces.

In Cochinchina, the Restoration League was preeminent:

(1) The Vietnam National Independence Party, founded by Tran Van An, Nguyen Van Sam, Ho Van Nga, and Ngo Tan Nhon. Some of the elements of the dissolved Vietnam Revolutionary Party, which had been founded in 1939, joined the new organization. The Party was markedly pro-Japanese in orientation. It favored collaboration with the Japanese Army and the adherence of Vietnam to the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.

(2) The Vietnam Patriots' Party, a group of intellectuals and students.

(3) The Great Vietnam Nationalist Party, an outgrowth of the Cochinchina Vietnam Nationalist Party, consisting of pro-Japanese elements.

(4) The Vietnam National Party, a minor political group.

(5) The Youth Justice Association, a minor youth group.

(6) The Youth Patriots, the southern branch of a terrorist youth group. Elements of this southern group created an organization known as the Vietnam Democratic Party.

(7) The Hoa Hao Buddhist Sect, also known as the Vietnam Independence Restoration Party , a militant Buddhist sect led by Huynh Phu So. Rh

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text:
Executive Order 13620

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, including the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (50 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.) (IEEPA), the National Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.) (NEA), section 5 of the United Nations Participation Act (22 U.S.C. 287c) (UNPA), and section 301 of title 3, United States Code,

I,, President of the United States of America, in order to take additional steps to deal with the national emergency with respect to the situation in Somalia declared in Executive Order 13536 of April 12, 2010, in view of United Nations Security Council Resolution 2036 of February 22, 2012, and Resolution 2002 of July 29, 2011, and to address: exports of charcoal from Somalia, which generate significant revenue for al-Shabaab; the misappropriation of Somali public assets; and certain acts of violence committed against civilians in Somalia, all of which contribute to the deterioration of the security situation and the persistence of violence in Somalia, hereby order:

Barack Obama The White House, July 20, 2012. [FR Doc. 2012–18237 Filed 7–23–12; 11:15 am] Billing Code 3295–F2–P

title: Executive Order 13620


text: Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction/Part 3


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive (8) The Great Religion of the Third Amnesty, a Cao-Daist sect led by Tran Quang Vinh, the principal subordinate of the Cao-Daist Pope, Pham Cong Tac. The Cao-Daists had been furnished arms by the Japanese and were used as an auxiliary police force throughout Cochinchina.

Whatever short term advantages these groups gained the Vichy French, however, collaboration with the Japanese had the longer run effect of discrediting a significant number of Vietnamese nationalists, putting their movements at particular disadvantage in postwar competition with the Viet Minh, which preserved its aura of unwavering faith to resistance against all foreign domination.

 * (c)

In Cochinchina radical communists survived, and as the war progressed, gained a following concentrated in Saigon. In 1944 the "October" Group announced the forming of the International Communist League, and in March, 1945, issued a manifesto condemning the "Stalinists" of the ICP who supported the Allies, and the "feudalist" collaborators with the Japanese:

 * "The future defeat of Japanese imperialism will set the Indochinese people on the road to national liberation. The bourgeoisie and feudalists who cravenly serve the Japanese rulers today, will serve equally the Allied imperialist states. The petty-bourgeois nationalists, by their aimless policy, will also be incapable of leading the people towards revolutionary victory. On the working class, which struggles independently under the flag of the Fourth International, will be able to accomplish the advance guard tasks of the revolution.

 * "The Stalinists of the Third International have already abandoned the working class to group themselves miserably with the 'democratic' imperialisms. They have betrayed the peasants and no longer speak of the agrarian question. If today they march with foreign capitalists, in the future, they will help the class of national exploiters to destroy the revolutionary people in the hours to come."

The Trotskyite "Struggle" Group also re-emerged in May, 1945, to resume its rivalry with the "October" faction, but both parties advocated world revolution, a worker–peasant government, arming of the people and general expropriation of land and industry. Their principal significance was to debilitate the ICP in Cochinchina, and to impair the effectiveness of the Viet Minh there.

 * (4)

The ICP, at the heart of the Viet Minh, communicated to the League the lessons it had painfully learned in the uprisings Rh

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 she was married by proxy to King James, without dower, the alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was interrupted by a violent storm—for the raising of which several Danish and Scottish witches were burned or executed—which drove her on the coast of Norway, whither the impatient James came to meet her, the marriage taking place at Opslo (now Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple, after visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May 1590. The position of queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous one, and Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals and deeds of violence, her share in which, however, is supported by no evidence. The birth of an heir to the throne (Prince Henry) in 1594 strengthened her position and influence; but the young prince, much to her indignation, was immediately withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of the earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave a written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give up the prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen. The king’s intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the prince against the unruly nobles, though the queen’s Roman Catholic tendencies were probably another reason for his decision. Brought up a Lutheran, and fond of pleasure, she had shown no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and soon incurred rebukes on account of her religion, “vanity,” absence from church, “night waking and balling.” She had become secretly inclined to Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king’s connivance. On the death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March 1603, James preceded her to London. Anne took advantage of his absence to demand possession of the prince, and, on the “flat refusal” of the countess of Mar, fell into a passion, the violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and endangered her life. In June she followed the king to England (after distributing all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the prince and the coffin containing the body of her dead infant, and reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms of good fortune she entered into the possession of Queen Elizabeth’s 6000 dresses.

On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her refusal to take the sacrament according to the Anglican use created some sensation. She communicated on one occasion subsequently and attended Anglican service occasionally; but she received consecrated objects from Pope Clement VIII., continued to hear mass, and, according to Galluzzi, supported the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of England, and for the prince’s marriage with a Roman Catholic princess, which collapsed on his death in 1612. She was claimed as a convert by the Jesuits. Nevertheless on her deathbed, when she was attended by the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, she used expressions which were construed as a declaration of Protestantism. Notwithstanding religious differences she lived in great harmony and affection with the king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart. She helped to raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and control of the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at first favourably inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter Elizabeth’s marriage with the elector palatine, and supported the Spanish marriages for her sons, but subsequently veered round towards France. She used all her influence in favour of the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save his life. “She carrieth no sway in state matters,” however, it was said of her in 1605, “and, praeter rem uxoriam, hath no great reach in other affairs.” “She does not mix herself up in affairs, though the king tells her anything she chooses to ask, and loves and esteems her.” Her interest in state matters was only occasional, and secondary to the pre-occupations of court festivities, masks, progresses, dresses, jewels, which she much enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson—whose severity cannot entirely suppress his admiration—“a continued maskarado, where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides, appeared to the ravishment of the beholders,” and “made the night more glorious than the day.” Occasionally she even joined in the king’s sports, though here her only recorded exploit was her accidental shooting of James’s “most principal and special hound,” Jewel. Her extravagant expenditure, returned by Salisbury in 1605 at more than £50,000 and by Chamberlain at her death at more than £84,000, was unfavourably contrasted with the economy of Queen Elizabeth; in spite of large allowances and grants of estates which included Oatlands, Greenwich House and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts in 1616 being reckoned at nearly £10,000, while her jewelry and her plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne died after a long illness on the 2nd of March 1619, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. She was generally regretted. The severe Wilson, while rebuking her gaieties, allows that she was “a good woman,” and that her character would stand the most prying investigation. She was intelligent and tactful, a faithful wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides several children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales, who died in 1612, Charles, afterwards King Charles I., and Elizabeth, electress palatine and queen of Bohemia.

ANNE OF FRANCE (1460–1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the eldest daughter of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI. betrothed her at first to Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards offered her hand successively to Charles the Bold, to the duke of Brittany, and even to his own brother, Charles of France. Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger brother of the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted to Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son, Charles VIII., a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the Beaujeus exercised a virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter of Louis XI. Energetic, obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous, she inherited, too, her father’s avarice and rapacity. Although they made some concessions, the Beaujeus succeeded in maintaining the results of the previous reign, and in triumphing over the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from the meeting of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the “Mad War” (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite of the efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage of Charles VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a short time afterwards the king disengaged himself completely from their tutelage, to the great detriment of the kingdom. In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the Bourbonnais, the last great fief of France. He died in 1503, but Anne survived him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and Chantelle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously to defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne’s only daughter, Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles of Bourbon, count of Montpensier, the future constable; and the question of the succession of Suzanne, who died in 1521, was the determining factor of the treason of the constable de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on the 14th of November 1522.

ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing (from the prefix an, and the old English aélan, to burn or bake; the meaning has probably also been modified from the French nieler, to enamel black on gold or silver, from the med. Lat. nigellare, to make black; cf. niello) is a process of treating a metal or alloy by heat with the object of imparting to it a certain condition of ductility, extensibility, or a certain grade of softness or hardness, with all that is involved in and follows from those

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38 chapter, and then to busy herself with those numerous little tasks associated with arranging and providing for the day. This will bring her to the breakfast hour of eight, after which preparations must be made for the other meals of the household.

Daily Duties.—In those households where cook and housemaid only are kept, the general custom is that the cook shall look after the dining-room. Other household work, varying in different households, is also committed to her care. In establishments of this kind, the cook will, after having lighted her kitchen fire, brushed the range, and cleaned the hearth, proceed to prepare for breakfast. She will thoroughly rinse the kettle, and set it to boil. She may then perhaps have to go to the breakfast-room, and there make things ready for the breakfast. Attention must also be given to sweeping the hall, shaking the hall mats, which she must afterwards put back in their places.

The cleaning of the kitchen, passages, and kitchen stairs must always be over before breakfast, so that it may not interfere with the other business of the day. Everything should be ready, and the whole house should wear a comfortable aspect. Nothing is more pleasing to the mistress of an establishment than to notice that, although she has not been present to see the work done, proper attention has been paid to such matters.

By the time that the cook has performed the duties mentioned above, and well swept, brushed, and dusted her kitchen, the breakfast bell will perhaps summon her to the parlour, to "bring in" breakfast. It is often the cook's department, in small establishments, to take in the breakfast, as the housemaid, by this time, has gone upstairs into the bedrooms, and has there applied herself to her various duties. But many ladies prefer the breakfast brought in by the housemaid, though it remain to be cleared and washed up by the cook. Whichever way this part of the work is managed, each servant should have her duties clearly laid down for her. The cook usually answers the bells and single knocks at the door in the early part of the morning, as the tradesmen, with whom it is her more special business to speak, call at these hours.

The Preparation of Dinner is the most important part of the cook's work, wherein she begins to feel the responsibility of her situation, as she has to see to the dressing and serving of those dishes, which her skill and ingenuity have prepared. Whilst these, however, are cooking, she must be busy with her pastry, soups, gravies, entrées, etc. Stock, or what the French call bouillon, being the basis of most made dishes, must be always at hand, in conjunction with sweet herbs and spices for seasoning. "A place for everything, and everything in its place," must be the rule, in order that time may not be wasted in looking for things when they are wanted, and that the whole business of cooking may move with the regularity and precision of a well-adjusted machine. All must go on simultaneously. The vegetables and


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Rh sauces must be ready with the dishes they are to accompany, and the smallest oversight must be avoided in their preparation. It is a good plan when a dinner of many courses has to be prepared, to write out, and hang in a conspicuous place, two lists of the day's dishes, one of the order in which they must be served, with every accessory complete, that nothing may be forgotten, and one of the order in which each should be cooked, that nothing may be over or underdone. When the dinner hour has arrived it is the duty of the cook to dish up such dishes as may, without injury, stand for some time covered on the hot plate or in the hot closet; but such as are of a more important or delicate kind must be delayed until the order "to serve" is given. Then comes haste; but there must be no hurry—all must work with method. The cook takes charge of the fish, soups and poultry; and the kitchen-maid of the vegetables, sauces and gravies. These she puts into proper dishes, while the scullery-maid waits on and assists the cook. Every dish must be timed so as to prevent its getting cold, whilst great care should be taken that no more time is lost between the courses than is absolutely necessary, for good serving, hot plates, gravy and sauces that have not been allowed to get cold and greasy, are vital factors in providing a good dinner. When the dinner has been served, the most important item in the daily work of the cook is at an end. She must, however, every night and morning, look to the contents of her larder, taking care to keep everything sweet and clean, so that no disagreeable smells may arise from the neglect of this precaution. These are the principal duties of a cook in a big establishment. In many smaller households the cook engages to perform the whole work of the kitchen, and, in some places, a portion of the housework also.

Duties of the Kitchen-Maid.—Whilst the cook is engaged with her morning duties, the kitchen- or scullery-maid is also occupied with hers. Her first duty, after the fire is lighted, is to sweep and clean the kitchen and the various offices belonging to it. This she does every morning, besides cleaning the stone steps at the entrance of the house, the halls, the passages, and the stairs, if any, which lead to the kitchen. Her general duties, besides these, are to wash and scour all these places twice a week, with the table, shelves, and cupboards. She has also to attend to the nursery and servants' hall dinners while cooking, to prepare all fish, poultry, and vegetables, trim meat joints and cutlets, and do all such duties as may be assigned to her by the cook.

The duties of the kitchen- or scullery-maid, in short, are to assist the cook in everything in which she may require aid; to keep the scullery and all kitchen utensils clean. The duties of a kitchen-maid and scullery-maid are almost identical, and the only reason that exists for retaining the two names is that in large establishments, where two kitchen-maids are kept, it is useful to distinguish them as kitchen-and scullery-maid, the former doing the more important, and the latter the coarser, work of the kitchen.


text: User:Bubbly

title: User:Bubbly


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anne of Denmark


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40 ADVICE TO COOKS AND KITCHEN-MAIDS

Importance of Cooking.—A good cook has every reason to magnify the office she holds, for her work influences not only the comfort but also the health of the whole household, and mindful of this responsibility she will take care to study both the needs and tastes of those whose food she prepares. With invalids and people in delicate health this care is of the utmost importance.

Try and realize for yourself the importance of your post. Whether your employers are working hard in professions or business, or leading a comparatively leisured existence, whether they have poor appetites or large ones, good cooking of their food is absolutely necessary to their health.

Make a rule to send everything up to table really well cooked. Do not regard this as an impossibility, for it can be done.

If you are told to prepare anything you are not certain about, have the courage to say so and ask your mistress's advice. How many dishes and dinners have been spoilt because cooks have been too proud to confess ignorance!

Accidents, of course, will happen (though but rarely with proper precautions); fires will not always burn, nor ovens bake as they should; but if the joint, or whatever it may be, cannot be done to time, do not send it up raw, but ask for a little grace. If anything is really spoilt (as even with care it sometimes is) confess the fact, and do not send up a dish calculated to take away people's appetites.

Cleanliness.—A dirty kitchen is a disgrace to all concerned. Good cookery cannot exist without absolute cleanliness. It takes no longer to keep a kitchen clean and orderly than untidy and dirty, for the time that is spent in keeping it in good order is saved when culinary operations are going on and everything is clean and in its place. Personal cleanliness is most necessary, particularly with regard to the hands.

Dress.—When at your work, dress suitably; wear short dresses, well-fitting boots, and large aprons with bibs, of which every cook and kitchen-maid should have a good supply, and you will be comfortable as you never can be with long dresses, small aprons, and slipshod shoes, the latter being most trying in a warm kitchen, which may very likely have a stone floor. A maid-servant's working dress, with its neat and becoming cap, is far from ugly, and nothing is more suitable for them whilst at their work.

Neatness should be studied by all engaged in domestic work. It will repay those who practise it a thousand fold by constantly saving them needless work.

Clear as you go; do not allow a host of basins, spoons, plates, etc., to accumulate on the dresser or tables while you are preparing the dinner. By a little management and forethought much confusion may be saved in this way. It is as easy to put a thing in its place when it is done with as to continually remove it to find room for fresh


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Rh requisites. For instance, after making a pudding, the flour tub, paste-board, and rolling pin should be put away, and any basins, spoons, etc., taken to the scullery, neatly packed up near the sink, to be washed when the proper time arrives.

Economy.—Never waste or throw away anything that can be turned to account. In warm weather any gravies or soups that have been left from the preceding day should boiled up and poured into clean pans. Full directions with regard to stock pots, digesters and other economies of the kitchen will be found in a later chapter.

Go early every morning to your larder (which, like the kitchen, ought to be kept perfectly clean and neat), and while changing plates, looking to your bread pan (which should always be emptied and wiped out every morning), take notice if there is anything not likely to keep, and acquaint your mistress with the fact. It is better if there is a spare cupboard in the kitchen to keep any baked pastry there, and thus preserve its crispness.

Kitchen Supplies.—Do not let your stock of pepper, salt, spices, seasonings, herbs, etc., dwindle so low that there is danger of finding yourself minus some very important ingredient, the lack of which may cause much confusion and annoyance. Think of all you require when your mistress sees you in the morning, that she may give out any necessary stores. If you live in the country have your vegetables gathered from the garden at an early hour, so that there is ample time to get rid of caterpillars, etc., which is an easy task if the greens are allowed to soak in salt and water an hour or two.

Punctuality.—This is an indispensable quality in a cook. When there is a large dinner to prepare get all you can done the day before or early on the morning of the day. This will save a great deal of time and enable you, with good management, to send up your dinner in good time and style.

Cleansing of Cooking Utensils.—This is one of the cook's most important duties, and one that should never be neglected or put off from one day to another. When you have washed your saucepans, fish kettle, etc., stand them before the fire for a few minutes to get thoroughly dry inside before putting away. They should then be put in a dry place in order to escape rust. Put some water into them directly they are done with, if they have to stand some time before they are washed. Soups or gravies should never be allowed to stand all night in saucepans. Frying pans should be cleaned (if black inside) with a crust of bread, and washed with hot water and soda. It is a good plan to have a knife kept especially for peeling onions, but where this is not done the one used should be thoroughly cleaned. If the tin has worn off copper utensils, have it immediately replaced. Clean your coppers with turpentine and fine brick dust, or waste lemon skins and sand, rubbed on with flannel, and polish them with a leather and a little dry brick dust. Clean tins with soap and whiting, rubbing on with a soft rag or


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive 1930–31, and 1940–41: (1) however eager the people were to take up arms, insurrection had to be correctly timed in order to exploit both maximum confusion in enemy ranks and the fullest support from the non-committed; (2) little faith could be placed on defectors from enemy forces — reliance had to rest rather "chiefly on the great masses of the people"; (3) bases for the support of operations had to be carefully prepared beforehand. According to its own histories, the ICP began in 1941 to prepare for a general uprising in Vietnam. In Cochinchina, up until April 1945, the ICP continued to operate largely underground and without much regard for the Viet Minh mantle; in Tonkin, however, all ICP undertakings were given Viet Minh identity. Throughout Vietnam, the ICP initiated patient political action: the dissemination of propaganda, the training of cadres, the establishment of a network of cells down to hamlet level. The Central Committee of the ICP adopted this four point program in 1941:

 * "1. Develop new organizations among the people, and consolidate those which exist within the Viet Minh.

 * 2. Expand organizations into the cities.

 * 3. Organize the minority peoples within the Viet Minh.

 * 4. Form small guerrilla groups."

The Viet Minh assigned priority to political tasks ahead of military missions. Cadres were repeatedly impressed with the essentiality of a properly prepared political and material base for guerrilla warfare. Even where the latter was countenanced, they were enjoined to put "reliance on the masses, continual growth, extreme mobility, and constant adaptation." In the mountainous region of North Vietnam above Hanoi the first permanent Viet Minh bases were established in 1942–1943. Then followed shadow government by Viet Minh agents, and in September, 1943, after the people had been well organized, the first locally recruited guerrilla forces were fromedformed [sic] under Viet Minh auspices. Not until December 22, 1944, was the first unit of the Viet Minh Liberation Army created, but there is little evidence of concerted guerrilla operations until after March, 1945; by that time the underground organization was pervasive. As of the end of 1944, the Viet Minh claimed a membership of 500,000, of which 200,000 were in Tonkin, 150,000 in Annam, and 150,000 in Cochinchina. The aim was for each village to have a Viet Minh committee, responsive to a hierarchy of committees; in most instances where the village committee existed, it was in a position to challenge the government authority. According to Giap, by 1945 the Viet Minh was the government in many areas:

 * "There were regions in which the whole masses took part in organizations of national salvation, and the village Viet Minh Committees had, as a matter of course, full prestige among the masses as an underground organization of the revolutionary power."

On 9 March, 1945, the Japanese overturned the Vichy regime in Indochina, and set up the Emperor of Annam, Bao Dai, as the head of a state declared independent of France, but participating in the Greater East Asia Rh

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42 flannel, wiping them with a dry cloth, and lastly with a soft dry cloth or leather.

Washing of Dishes, Etc.—Do not be afraid of hot water in washing up dishes and dirty cooking utensils; as these are essentially greasy, lukewarm water cannot possibly have the effect of cleansing them thoroughly, and soda in the water is a great saving of time as is also a fresh supply of hot water.

After washing the plates and dishes wash out your dish tubs with a little soap, soda and water, and scrub them often; wash the dish cloth also and wring it out, and after wiping out the tubs stand them to dry.

Pudding cloths and jelly bags should have immediate attention after being used; the former should be well washed, scalded, and hung up to dry. Let them be perfectly aired before being put away. No soda should be used in washing pudding cloths.

The Sink.—Do not throw anything but water down the sink, as the pipe is liable to get choked, a state of things which causes both expense and annoyance. At least three times a week pour a pailful of boiling soda water down every trap, for this prevents accumulation of fat, which more often than anything else stops up sink pipes.

Try to realize how important this duty is; bad smells (often caused by a stoppage in the sink pipes) are most disagreeable and dangerous.

Whilst a cook should be versed in all the details of her position, a mistress should never forget her own duty of seeing that the laws of economy, cleanliness and order are not neglected by her servants. The servants who reflect that some day they will probably need neatness, cleanliness and economy in their own homes, and for their own benefit, will feel grateful to the employer who insists on the practise of these virtues.


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 CHAPTER IV

Writers on Domestic Economy, etc.—There are few of those who have turned their attention to domestic economy and architecture, who have written on these important subjects with better effect than Sir Benjamin Thompson, an American chemist and physicist, better known as "Count Rumford," a title of nobility bestowed upon him by the King of Bavaria. He did not, however, go very deeply or fully into the design and construction of that part of the dwelling-house which is chiefly devoted to cookery purposes, when he declared that "the construction of a kitchen must always depend so much on local circumstances that general rules can hardly be given respecting it," and again that "the principles on which this construction ought in all cases to be made are simple and easy to be understood." These principles resolved themselves, in his estimation, into adequate room and convenience for the cook.

Definition of the term Kitchen.—The Anglo-Saxon cicen, the Danish Krökken, the German Küche, and the French Cuisine are all related to the Latin word coquere—to cook. The word kitchen probably dates from the end of the twelfth century, when the English language began to take concrete form. Chaucer, who died in 1400, makes use of the word in the "Canterbury Tales," the best example of the English language of that day. Shakespeare (1564–1616) speaks of the kitchen as a cook-room, clearly indicating its use in the sixteenth century; while Spenser (1552–1599) says the hostess

Here is undoubtedly meant a room in which the meal was to be served.

Requisites of a Good Kitchen.—That Count Rumford is perfectly right Rh


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Rh any of that fear of intrusion which a stranger must necessarily feel.

You may be perhaps amused that an Annual Bazaar for the benefit of the Anti Slavery Course has been held in Boston for the last 15 years. The state of sentiment considered it has been very succesful, & has furnished a large proportion of the funds by which Anti Slavery publications & Literature have been maintained sustained. For the last few years it has been held in Hall and several of the evenings (for the Bazaar continues open ten days) have been devoted to


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullard, Robert Lee

BULLARD, ROBERT LEE (1861-), American soldier, was born at Youngsboro, Ala., Jan. 15 1861. He graduated from West Point in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892. He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War, and in the Philippines from 1902 to 1904. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator for the U.S. provisional Government in Cuba, and the following year was superintendent of public instruction there. In 1911 he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. He commanded the Second Brigade of the 1st Division of the A.E.F. in France in 1917 and was made major-general N.A. From the middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July following he commanded the 1st Division and from Oct. 1918 to the following July the Second Army. In Nov. 1918 he was appointed major-general in the regular army.


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 conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a chemical change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious, in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual facts, and the immense importance of this operation as well as of the related ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes, there is no question.

When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there can be no reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct, namely, that the metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular rearrangement of some kind. When it is of a chemical character, the process is one of cementation, due to the occlusion of gases in the molecules of the metals.

Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrangement might be selected from the extensive range of workshop operations. The following are a few only:—when a boiler-maker bends the edges of a plate of steel or iron by hammer blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages (heats), at each of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable cooling down during the time work is being done upon it. The result is that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have been subjected to this treatment; and this brittleness is not uniformly distributed, but is localized, and is a source of weakness, inducing a liability to crack. If, however, the plate when finished is raised to a full red heat, and allowed to cool down away from access of cool air, as in a furnace, or underneath wood ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The plate has been annealed, and is as safe as it was before it was flanged. Again, when a sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very widely different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by drawing out in a press—a cartridge case being a familiar example—it is necessary to anneal it several times during the progress of the operation. Without such annealing it would never arrive at the final stage desired, but would become torn asunder by the extension of its metallic fibres. Cutting tools are made of steel having sufficient carbon to afford capacity for hardening. Before the process is performed, the condition in which the carbon is present renders the steel so hard and tough as to render the preliminary turning or shaping necessary in many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation. To lessen this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is brought to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It can then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently hardened or tempered. When a metallic structure has endured long service a state of fatigue results. Annealing is, where practicable, resorted to in order to restore the original strength. A familiar illustration is that of chains which are specially liable to succumb to constant overstrain if continued for only a year or two. This is so well known that the practice is regularly adopted of annealing the chains at regular intervals. They are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red heat, continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the annealing the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than afterwards.

In these examples, and others of which these are typical, two conditions are essential, one being the grade of temperature, the other the cooling. The temperature must never be so high as to cause the metal to become overheated, with risk of burning, nor so low as to prevent the penetration of the substance with a good volume of heat. It must also be continued for sufficient time. More than this cannot be said. Each particular piece of work requires its own treatment and period, and nothing but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results from removing the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire, or covering with non-conducting substances.

The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed in the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process, castings are made of white iron,—a brittle quality which has its carbon wholly in the combined state. These castings, when subjected to heat for a period of ten days or a fortnight, in closed boxes, in the presence of substances containing oxygen, become highly ductile. This change is due to the absorption of the carbon by the oxygen in the cementing material, a comparatively pure soft iron being left behind. The result is that the originally hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without fracturing.

The distinction between hardening and tempering is one of degree only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing. Hardening, in the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece of steel about as hard as it can be made—“glass hard”—while tempering indicates some stage in an infinite range between the fully hardened and the annealed or softened condition. As a matter of convenience only, hardening is usually a stage in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first, and “let down” to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat for tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due to the long established practice of estimating temperature by colour tints; but this is being rapidly invaded by new methods in which the temper heat is obtained in furnaces provided with pyrometers, by means of which exact heat regulation is readily secured, and in which the heating up is done gradually. Such furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings, cams, small toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But for the cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers’ shops, the colour test is still generally retained.

In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour, experience is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees of light; steels of different brands require different treatment in regard to temperature and quenching; and steels even of identical chemical composition do not always behave alike when tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has, therefore, to be treated at first in a tentative and experimental fashion in order to secure the best possible results. The larger the masses of steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Excessive length and the presence of keen angles increase the difficulties of hardening. The following points have to be observed in the work of hardening and tempering.

A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the purpose for which it has to be used. There are a number of such grades, ranging from about 1½ to ½% content of carbon, and each having its special utility. Overheating must be avoided, as that burns the steel and injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never to heat any grade of steel to a temperature higher than that at which experience proves it will take the temper required. Heating must be regular and thorough throughout, and must therefore be slowly done when dealing with thick masses. Contact with sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of lead and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required, and when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the gas furnaces have the same advantages in a more handy form. Quenching is done in water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures, and sometimes in solids. Rain water is the principal hardening agent, but various saline compounds are often added to intensify its action. Water that has been long in use is preferred to fresh. Water is generally used cold, but in many cases it is warmed to about 80° F., as for milling cutters and taps, warmed water being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil is preferred to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters. Mercury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and so does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates, and in the spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the steel. This is the reason why long and large objects are moved vertically about in the water during quenching, to bring them into contact with fresh cold water.

There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the hardeners, who are very particular about the composition of their baths, various oils and salts being used in an infinity of combinations. Many of these are the result of long and successful experience, some are of the nature of “fads.” A change of bath may involve injury to the steel. The most difficult articles to

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullen, Arthur Henry

BULLEN, ARTHUR HENRY (1857-1920), British man of letters, was born in London Feb. 9 1857 and educated at the City of London school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was the son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the Printed Books at the British Museum. In earlier life he was a schoolmaster, but subsequently devoted himself to literary work. He became known as an authority on Elizabethan literature, and particularly for his discoveries of long-lost lyrics in the Bodleian and Christ Church libraries at Oxford, and his rediscovery of Campion in 1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see ). For several years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence & Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare Head press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which he conducted until his death, but which was afterwards sold to B. H. Blackwell of Oxford. He died at Stratford-on-Avon Feb. 29 1920.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullen, Frank Thomas

BULLEN, FRANK THOMAS (1857-1915), British novelist, was born in London April 5 1857 and was educated for a few years only at a dame school and Westbourne school, Paddington. When he was nine years old his school life came to an end, and he was employed as an errand boy for a time. In 1869 he went to sea, serving before the mast, and travelled to all parts of the world in various capacities including that of chief mate. In 1883 he gave up this seafaring life and became a clerk in the Meteorological Office until 1889. His reputation was made over the publication of The Cruise of the “Cachelot” (1906); and he also wrote, amongst other books, Idylls of the Sea (1899); Sea Wrack (1903); The Call of the Deep (1907) and A Compleat Sea Cook (1912), besides many articles and essays. He died at Madeira March 1 1915.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Co-Prosperity Sphere. This unification of Vietnam by the faltering Japanese under the ineffectual Annamese Emperor opened new political opportunity for the Viet Minh. On April 6, 1945, the ICP Central Committee directed the forming of a shadow government throughout Vietnam, to extend to every echelon of the society, prepared to mobilize the whole people for war. In May, 1945, a Viet Minh "liberated zone" was established near the Chinese border.

Whatever may be said for the distortion of the historical record by communist historians to magnify the importance of the Viet Minh, it is fact that the American O.S.S. during World War II dealt with the Viet Minh as the sole efficient resistance apparatus within Vietnam, for intelligence and for aid in assisting downed allied pilots. It also seems clear that in terms of popular reputation in Vietnam, no Viet political movements save the ICP and the Viet Minh added to their stature for their wartime activities.

 * (5)

As the war drew to a close, the Viet Minh proved to be as adroit strategically as it had showed itself on the tactical level — or, as Truong Chinh, the Secretary General of the ICP was careful to point out in 1946, the ICP proved to be adroit. According to Truong Chinh, on August 13, 1945, the Party, informed of Japan's collapse, decided to preempt Allied occupation of Vietnam, and hurriedly convened a Viet Minh congress that had been pending since June:

 * "During the historic Congress, the Indochinese Communist Party advocated an extremely clear policy: to lead the masses in insurrection in order to disarm the Japanese before the arrival of the allied forces in Indo-China; to wrest power from the Japanese and their puppet stooges and finally as the people's power, to welcome the allied forces coming to disarm the Japanese troops stationed in Indo-China."

A possibly more accurate record — since it jibes with other accounts and alludes to spontaneous local uprisings in advance of Party's "order for general revolution" — was published by the DRV in September, 1946:

 * "These epoch-making developments prompted the Viet Minh Party to convene without further delay the National Congress. A revolutionary committee was cratedcreated [sic] and the general revolution was ordered on the night of August 13, immediately after the news of Japan's unconditional surrender.

 * "On August 16, the National Congress opened at Tan Trao, a locality in Thai Nhuyen province, in the liberated zones. Sixty representatives from all parts of the country came to learn additional details on the order for the General Revolution. The home and foreign policies of the Revolutionary

Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  : Government were mapped out and the Viet Nam people's Liberation Committee, which became later the Provisional Government of the Viet Nam Democratic Republic, was created.

 * "At this historical gathering, the Viet Minh Party laid down a clear-cut program which bore on the following points:

 * a) to disarm the Japs before the entry of Allied forces into Indochina;

 * b) to wrest the power from the hands of the enemy;

 * c) to be in a position of authority when receiving the Allied Forces.

 * "In some areas, the order for the general revolution was not received. Acting on their own initiative, members of the Viet Minh Front ordered a general mobilization and led the population into the fight for power. Thus, on August 11, our compatriots of Ha Tinh took up arms against the Japanese fascists while uprisings also took place at Quang Ngai.

 * "On August 14 and 15, our forces seized numerous enemy advanced positions in the vicinity of the liberated zones.

 * "On August 16, with the news of the Japanese capitulation, millions of people throughout the country rose up to the occasion and a general attack on Japanese barracks and military establishments began.

 * "On August 17–18, huge demonstrations took place in the capital city of Hanoi. The fight for power effectively started here, on the 19, with the local militia forces going over to the Revolutionists' side. Spearheaded by youth formations, the people's army under the command of the Viet Minh forced their way into the compounds of the Home Ministry Building. Governor Phan ke Toai had already fled with his closest collaborators. The Tran trong Kim puppet government promptly gave way while at the former capital of Annam, Emperor Bao Dai signed his act of abdication in the presence of representatives of the Viet Minh Central Headquarters.

 * "Thus, a new Power came into being, as the people's Revolutionary Government was officially proclaimed and was given the unqualified support of the entire population.

 * "A few days later, members of the National Liberation Committee met in session in Hanoi. In view of the changed situation, the New Power was re-organized and a provisional Government which included several non-party members was established with Ho Chi Minh as its president."

Rh

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Ho Chi Minh issued an "Appeal for General Insurrection" following the August 16 conference:

 * "...This is a great advance in the history of the struggle waged for nearly a century by our people for their liberation.

 * "This is a fact that enraptures our compatriots and fills me with great joy.

 * "However, we cannot consider this as good enough. Our struggle will be a long and hard one. Because the Japanese are defeated, we shall not be liberated overnight. We still have to make further efforts and carry on the struggle. Only a united struggle will bring us independence.

 * "The Viet Minh Front is at present the basis of the struggle and solidarity of our people. Join the Viet Minh Front, support it, make it greater and stronger!

 * "At present, the National Liberation Committee is, so to speak, in itself our provisional government. Unite around it and see to it that its policies and orders are carried out throughout the country!

 * "In this way, our Fatherland will certainly win independence and our people will certainly win freedom soon.

 * "The decisive hour in the destiny of our people has struck. Let us stand up with all our strength to free ourselves!

 * "Many oppressed peoples the world over are vying with each other in the march to win back their independence. We cannot allow ourselves to lag behind.

 * "Forward! Forward! Under the banner of the Viet Minh Front, move forward courageously!"

The hapless Bao Dai — the first Vietnamese to govern a nominally united, independent nation in nearly a century — on August 18, 1945, dispatched to General de Gaulle of France the following poignant and prophetic message:

 * "I address myself to the people of France, to the country of my youth. I address myself as well to the nation's leader and liberator and I wish to speak as a friend rather than as Head of State.

 * "You have suffered too much during four deadly years not to understand that the Vietnamese people, who have a history of twenty centuries and an often glorious past, no longer wish,

Rh

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