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Rh DeGrey, limiting the area of the pastoral land; but Mr. Cowle saw splendid country to the South, and there is good land in patches on the DeGrey and its affluent, the Oakover; but the valley of the Strelly is closed in by granite ranges, with volcanic ridges appearing through them (F. H. Gregory), and similar rocky hills limit the valley of the Shaw to the West. On the Sherlock the sandstone hills rise in bold bluffs 300 feet above the pools of permanent water, and sandstone forms the surface of the spinifex district towards the East. Throughout this district scattered trees are found on the plains, and white gums in many of the river valleys, as well as about the sources of the Sherlock. The long low coastline is broken, near the centre, by the promontory which forms Nickol Bay and its adjacent islands; but neither Cossack, on its South-Eastern side, nor Tien Tsin, beyond Cape Lambert, its Eastern boundary, afford good accommodation for trade. Port Robinson has, however, been recently opened in Hampton Sound to the West; it is protected by Enderby and other islands to the North, and is accessible by Mermaid Passage, between them and the Legendre islands, to the North-West of Nickol Bay. Beyond Cape Latouche Treville, to which the plains of spinifex extend, the face of the country changes its character, presenting an aspect totally different from that of any other part of the Colony. The coast becomes rocky; the points and headlands are extended in numerous islands, of which also there are many outlying the coast, which is indented with bays and harbors throughout its entire length, many of the first class, with deep water close to the shore. Beyond Cape Leveque, King Sound opens to the South-East, and is about 90 miles in depth by 25 in greatest breadth, and, further Eastward, Prince Regent's River and many other narrow but deep inlets, with


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44 steep rocky sides, stretch deep into the land. This coast will be found clearly detailed on the Admiralty chart, but is too intricate and broken for general description. The only portion of the interior at all known is the valley of the Glenelg, which was examined by both Grey and F. H. Gregory; and if it may be taken as typical of the rest, the future importance of this part of West Australia can hardly be over estimated.

The Glenelg has its sources in the sandstone precipices of Stephen Range, the limit of Grey and Lushington's explorations, to the South of the 16th parallel of South latitude, and has its final outlet to the sea in Doubtful Bay, some 35 miles to the West, under the same parallel; and the line between these points forms the chord of the irregular arc of the course of the river. After descending from the rocky gorges of the sandstone range it flows with a deep and rapid current for about 20 miles in a North-West direction, through a valley rich with the disintegrations of the basaltic hills which now bound its valley to the East, and from which descend numerous streams of fresh water, to the base of the hills of the same character, rising at the foot of the sandstone range which separates it from Prince Regent's River, from which, at this point, it is distant only about 13 miles. These ranges trend North-West and South-East, as do the inlets of the coast, showing a change here in the axis of elevation, and, in consequence, the valley widens to the North-West, so that its affluent, the Gardner, which drains this part of the valley, has an extent of 15 miles, and the northern portion is a net work of running waters. From its North-East angle, where it falls over rocks, the course of the Glenelg is Westerly at the base of Mounts Eyre, Sturt, and Lyell, basaltic peaks rising 700 feet above the plain, which is everywhere fertile

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Rh and rich in vegetation, and, for the most part, thinly wooded with large timber. This plain rises gradually to the North, to Harrington Downs, which are well grassed and watered. The sandstone ranges to the North-East are clothed with a forest of pine timber. From the rapids at the North-East angle, the Glenelg is broad and deep, and navigable for 20 miles, but its mouth, in Maitland Bay, is divided by an island into two narrow channels, accessible only to vessels of about 100 tons. It was entered by the Flying Foam, schooner, 32 tons, in 1864. George water is about 7 miles long and 4 broad, and is probably connected with Brecknock harbor, some 15 miles to the North; it opens by two narrow channels into Doubtful Bay, which has an area 8 miles in length by 6 in breadth, with deep water and sheltered to the West by islands forming a safe and commodious harbor. The Eastern shores are, however, formed of mangrove swamps, and it is separated from the valley of the Glenelg by rugged sandstone bill a rising 700 feet above the sea.

Prince Regent's River may be taken as an example of others on this coast. It opens to the sea in Brunswick Bay, among numerous islands which, with the indentations of the coast, form many large and safe harbors. Its entrance is covered to the North-West by a group of islands, which also protect Hanover Bay to the East. Below these it is 4 miles wide with 30 fathoms water; about 5 miles further it narrows to about ¾ of a mile, and then expands in St. George's basin, a noble sheet of water 10 miles long and nearly 7 broad, with two islands to the North-West, and from 8 to 14 fathoms water. Beyond the basins the river is continued through a narrow gorge for 15 miles, with water shoaling gradually to 2 fathoms. From the extremity, and from every gorge and ravine on


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46 either side, perennial streams of fresh water pour down. These are clothed with luxuriant vegetation (forests of pine trees were found by Grey on the hills on the South side), among which the pandanas and fern are most notable; and the whole country is not less rich in animal than in vegetable life, both by land and water.

The tides on this coast rise from 25 to 35 feet.


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94 opportunity offered. Many Norman nobles followed the example of Hugh de Grandmesnil and Humphrey de Tilleuil, threw up their commands, and returned to their own country, a proceeding which William resented by depriving them of the possessions he had bestowed upon them in England. The Norman army was speedily reinforced by the arrival of fresh adventurers from Normandy and other parts of the Continent, and it was not long before the king found occupation for their swords. Godwin, Edmund, and Magnus, three sons of Harold, had, immediately after the defeat at Hastings, sought a retreat in Ireland, where, having met with a kind reception from Dermot and other princes of that country, they projected an invasion of England; and they hoped that all the exiles from Denmark, Scotland, and Wales, assisted by forces from these several countries, would at once commence hostilities, and rouse the English against their haughty conquerors. They landed in Devonshire, but found Earl Beorn, at the head of some foreign troops, ready to oppose them, and, being defeated in several actions, they were obliged to retreat to their ships, and return with great loss to Ireland. The efforts of the Normans were now directed to the north, where affairs had fallen into the utmost confusion. Robert de Comine, who with 1,200 Norman lances had attacked Durham, and massacred a few defenceless men, was surprised in the town by the exasperated people, and put to death, with the whole of his followers. This success animated the inhabitants of York, who, rising in arms, besieged in the castle William Malet, their governor. Two years afterwards the Danish troops landed from 240 vessels; Osberne, brother to King Sweyn, was entrusted with the command of these forces, and he was accompanied by Harold and Canute, two sons of that monarch; Edgar Atheling appeared from Scotland, and brought along with him Cospatrick, Waltheof, Siward, Bearne, Merleswain, Adelin, and other leaders, who, partly from the hopes which they gave of Scottish succours, and partly from their authority in those parts, easily persuaded the warlike and discontented Northumbrians to join the insurrection. Malet, that he might better provide for the defence of the citadel of York, set fire to some houses which lay contiguous; but this expedient proved the immediate cause of his destruction. The flames, spreading into the neighbouring streets, reduced the whole city to ashes. The enraged inhabitants, aided by the Danes, took advantage of the confusion to attack the castle, which they carried by assault, and put the garrison, consisting of three thousand men, to the sword.

This success gave the signal for the inhabitants of many other parts of England to show their hatred of the Normans. Hereward, a noble of East Anglia, assembled a considerable force, and taking a position on the island of Ely, made successful incursions in the country round him.

The English, in the counties of Somerset and Dorset, rose in arms and assaulted Montacute, the Norman governor; while the warlike inhabitants of Cornwall laid siege to Devon and Exeter, which, from a grateful recollection of the clemency William had shown them, remained faithful to his interests.

Edric the Forester laid siege to Shrewsbury, and made head against Brient and Fitz-Osborn, who commanded there. In short, the whole nation rose, like a man suddenly awakened from a dream, and seemed resolved to atone for the abjectness of their previous submission, by a vigorous and well-organised resistance to their oppressors. William, however, appeared undismayed by the storm lowering on every side around him; and little as he can be said to have had Justice upon his side, it is impossible not to admire the energy and courage with which he met danger.

Calling his army together, he marched rapidly towards the north, where the rebellion appeared the most formidable, knowing that a defeat there would strike terror to the rest of the insurgents.


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 three other storeys, the uppermost storey being an open loggia, which gives that depth of shadow obtained in Italy by a projecting cornice. It is almost the only building in Belgium without the usual gable, the centre block being carried up above the eaves and terminated with an entablature supporting at each end a huge obelisk, and in the centre what looks like the miniature representation of a church. The only other classic building is the Renaissance portion of the town hall at Ghent, which is very inferior to the older Gothic portion.

What is wanting in the town halls, however, is amply replaced by the magnificence of the houses built for the various gilds, as for instance those of the Fishmongers at Malines (1580), of the Brewers, the Archers, the Tanners and the Cordeliers (rope-makers) at Antwerp, and, in the Grande Place at Brussels, the gilds of the Butchers, the Archers, the Skippers (the gable end of which represents the stern of a vessel with four cannons protruding), the Carpenters and others. Besides these, and especially in Antwerp, are to be found a very large series of warehouses, which in the richness of their decoration and their monumental appearance vie with the gilds in the evolution of a distinct style of Renaissance architecture—a type from which the architect of the present day might derive more inspiration than from the modest brick houses of Queen Anne’s time.

In domestic architecture, the best-preserved example of the 16th and 17th centuries is the Musée Plantin at Antwerp, the earliest portion of which dates from 1535. This was bought by Ch. Plantin, who was employed by Philip of Spain to print all the breviaries and missals for Spain and the Netherlands; the fortune thus acquired enabled him and his successors to purchase from time to time adjoining properties which they rebuilt in the style of the earlier buildings. After 1637 the buildings followed the style of the period, but up to that date they were all erected in brick with stone courses and window dressings round a central court. Internally the whole of the ancient fittings are retained, including those of the old shop, the show-rooms, reception rooms and the residential portion of the house, with the wainscotting and Spanish leather on the walls above, panelled ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, &c., the most complete representation of the domestic style of Belgium.

Of ecclesiastical architecture in the Renaissance style there are scarcely any examples worth noting. The tower of the church of St Charles Borromeo at Antwerp (1595–1610) is a fine composition similar in many respects to Wren’s steeples, and the nave of St Anne’s church at Bruges is of simple design and good proportion. The Belgian churches are noted for their immense pulpits, sometimes in marble and of a somewhat degraded style. The finest features in them are the magnificent rood-screens, in which the tradition of the Gothic examples already quoted seems to have been handed down. In the cathedral at Tournai is a fine specimen by Cornelius de Vriendt of Antwerp (1572), and there is a second at Nieuport, both similar in design to the example from Bois-le-Duc now in the Victoria and Albert Museum; and in the church of St Leonard at Léau is a tabernacle in stone, over 50 ft. high, in seven stages, with numerous figures by Cornelius de Vriendt (1550).

In Holland, nearly all the principal buildings of the Renaissance date from the time of her greatest prosperity when the Dutch threw off their allegiance to the Spanish throne (1565). With the exception of the palace at Amsterdam (1648–1655), an immense structure in stone with no architectural pretensions, there are no buildings in Holland in which the influence of the purer style of the Italian revival can be traced. Internally the great hall of the palace and the staircase in the Louis XIV. style are fine examples of that period.

The earliest Renaissance town hall is that of the Hague (1564), situated at the angle of two streets, which is an extremely picturesque building, in fact one of the few in which the architect has known how to group the principal features of his design. The Renaissance addition made to the old town hall of Haarlem is a characteristic example of the Dutch style. The walls are in red brick, the decorative portions, consisting of superimposed pilasters with mullioned and transomed windows, cornices and gable end, all being in stone. Inside this portion of the town hall, which is now a gallery and museum, is an ancient hall (not often shown to visitors) in which all the decorations and fittings date from the 17th century. There is a second example of an ancient hall in the Stadthuis at Kampen, one of the dead cities of the Zuyder Zee, which served originally as a court of justice, and retains all its fittings of the 16th century, including a magnificent chimneypiece in stone, some 25 ft. high and dated 1543.

The town hall at Bolsward in Friesland is another typical specimen of Dutch architecture, in which the red brick, alternating with stone courses running through the semi-detached columns which decorate the main front, has given variety to the usual treatment of such features. The external double flight of steps with elaborate balustrade, and the twisted columns which flank the principal doorway, are extremely picturesque, if not quite in accordance with the principles of Palladio or Vignola.

A similar flight of steps with balustrade forms the approach to the entrance doorway (on the first floor) of the town hall at Leiden, where the rich decoration of the centre block and its lofty gable is emphasized by contrast with the plain design of the chief front.

In the three chief cities in Holland, the Hague, Amsterdam and Rotterdam, there are few buildings remaining of 17th-century work, so that they must be sought in the south at Dordrecht and Delft, or in the north at Leiden, Haarlem, Alkmaar, Hoorn, Enkhuisen, or, crossing the Zuyder Zee into Friesland, in Leeuwarden, Bolsward, Kampen and Zwolle, the dead cities. In all these towns ancient buildings have been preserved, there being no reason to pull them down. Of the entrance gateways at Hoorn there is an example left, of which the lower portion might be taken for a Roman triumphal arch, so closely does it adhere to the design of those monuments, extending even to a long Latin inscription in the frieze. The tower (1531–1652), built to protect the entrance to the harbour, has no gateway. There are some old buildings in Kampen, in one of which the entrance gateway is a simple and fine composition in brick and stone, the chief characteristics of the gateways here being the enormously high roofs of the circular towers flanking them. A finer and more picturesque grouping of roofs exists in the entrance gateway (Amsterdam Gate) at Haarlem, which is perhaps, however, eclipsed by those of the Waaghuis at Amsterdam with its seven conical roofs.

The Waaghuisen, or weighing-houses for cheeses, are, next to the town halls, the most important buildings in Holland, and in fact vie with them in richness of design. The example at Alkmaar possesses not only an imposing front with gable in three storeys, but a lofty tower with belfry. At Deventer the main building is late Gothic (1528), in brick and stone, with an external double flight of steps and balustrades added in 1643.

The Fleesch Halle (meat-market) at Haarlem, also in brick and stone, is of a very rococo style, but notwithstanding all its vagaries presents a most picturesque appearance.

The domestic architecture of Holland and the shop fronts retain more of their original dispositions than will be found in any other country. At Hoorn, Enkhuisen and other towns, there has virtually been no change during the last 200 years. In the more flourishing towns as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the increasing prosperity of the inhabitants led them in the latter portion of the 17th and in the 18th centuries to adapt features borrowed from the French work of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., without, however, their refinement, luxuriance or variety, so that although substantial structures they are extremely monotonous in general effect.

Before proceeding with “modern architecture,” to which the styles now discussed have gradually led us, we have still another important architectural style to describe, in Mahommedan architecture. The term “Mahommedan” has been selected in preference to “Saracenic,” because it includes a much wider field, and enables us to bring in many developments which could not well come under the latter title. It was the Mahommedan religion which prescribed the plan and the features of the mosques, and it was the restriction of that faith which led to the principal characteristics of the style. The term “Saracenic” could hardly be applied to the architecture of Spain, Persia or Turkey.

The earliest mosques at Mecca and Medina, which have long since passed away, were probably of the simplest kind; there were no directions on the subject in the Koran, and, as Fergusson remarks, had the religion been confined to its native land, it is probable that no mosques worthy of the name would have ever been erected. In the first half-century of their conquest in Egypt and Syria the Mahommedans contented themselves with desecrated churches and other buildings, and it was only when they came among the temple-building nations that they seemed to have felt the necessity of providing some visible monument of their religion. The first requirement was a structure of some kind, which should indicate to the faithful the direction of Mecca, towards which, at stated times, they were to turn and pray. The earliest mosque, built by Omar at Jerusalem, no longer exists, but in the mosque of ʽAmr at Cairo (fig. 54), founded in 643 and probably restored or added to at various times, we find the characteristic features which form the base of the plans of all subsequent mosques. These features consist of (a) a wall built at right angles to a line drawn towards Mecca, in which, sunk in the wall, was a niche indicating the direction towards which the faithful should turn; (b) a covered space for shelter from the sun or inclement weather, which was known as the prayer chamber; (c) in front of the prayer chamber, a large open court, in which there was a fountain for ablution; and (d) a covered approach on either side of these courts and from the entrance. The materials employed in the earlier mosque were all taken from ancient structures, Egyptian, Roman and Byzantine, but so arranged as to constitute the elements of a new style. The columns employed were not always of sufficient size, and therefore in order to obtain a greater height, above the capitals were square dies, carrying ranges of arches, all running in the direction of Mecca; to resist the thrust, wood ties were built in under the arches, so that the structure was of the lightest appearance. The same principle was observed in the mosque of Kairawan, in Tunisia (675), and in the mosque of Cordova (786–985), copied from it. Similar wooden ties are found in the mosque of El Aksa and the Dome of the Rock at

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Massachusetts Indians

MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS. At the time of the English settlement of Massachusetts the territory was occupied by five Algonquin tribes. The Pennacooks were in the northeast, partly in what is now New Hampshire; the Massachusetts on the bay of that name; the Nausets on Cape Cod; and west of them the Pokanokets or Wampanoags in the southeast. Central Massachusetts was occupied by the Nipmucks or Nipnets; the western part was

uninhabited. All of these tribes were friendly except the Nausets, who had had frequent collisions with the crews of French and English ships. The Plymouth settlers effected a peace with the Nausets, and made a treaty with Massasoit, chief of the Pokanokets. (See .) The Massachusetts colony entered into similar relations with the Massachusetts and Pennacooks. In 1644 the Mayhews on Martha's Vineyard, and in 1646 John Eliot, began missions to the Indians; and in 1651 Eliot's converts were formed into a community at Natick. For their use he translated the Bible into their language (New Testament, Cambridge, Mass., 1661; whole Bible, 1663). By 1674 the praying Indians or converts numbered 3,200, of whom 1,100 were in Massachusetts, 600 in Plymouth, and 1,500 in Martha's Vineyard. A growing discontent among the Indians culminated in 1675 in what is known as King Philip's Indian war. It began with the rising of the Pokanokets under Philip Metacomet or Pometacom, son of Massasoit; the Nipmucks followed, then the Narragansetts, and finally the Pennacooks. Though not apparently a concerted plot, the rising was almost simultaneous, and all the Massachusetts frontier settlements were ravaged. Even the praying Indians caught the contagion, and numbers joined the enemy. The colonists finally conquered the savages, and the war ended with the death of Philip, Aug. 12, 1676. The Pennacooks after this withdrew in a great measure, joining tribes to the east or in Canada. The other tribes quieted down, having lost heavily, and many having been sent off to the West Indies as slaves. From time to time lands were assigned to the declining communities, and the Indians have gradually mingled with negroes and whites. A careful census in 1861 showed an aggregate of 1,610 Indians or half-breeds in the state: 306 on Martha's Vineyard, at Christiantown, and Gayhead; 438 at Marshpee and Herring Pond, Cape Cod; 12 at Natick; the rest being the Punkapog, Fall River, Hassanamisco, Dudley, Yarmouth, Dartmouth, Mamattakeeset, Tumpum, Deep Bottom, and Middleborough bands, with some stray parties. Since then the tendency has been to assimilate them with the rest of the population. In the United States census of 1870 only 151 Indians are returned from Massachusetts, the rest being counted as white or negro.—For the study of the Massachusetts dialect of the Algonquin, materials are supplied by Eliot's “Indian Grammar Begun” (Cambridge, 1664; Boston, 1832), and “Indian Primer” (Boston, 1720); Cotton's “Vocabulary of the Massachusetts Language” (Cambridge, 1830); and the elaborate studies of Eliot's Bible made by J. Hammond Trumbull, published as yet only in fragments.


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Massasoit

MASSASOIT, a sachem of the Wampanoags, died in the autumn of 1661, about 80 years of age. His dominions extended over nearly all the southern part of Massachusetts, from Cape Cod to Narragansett bay; but his tribe, once estimated at 30,000 in number, had shortly before the landing of the pilgrims at Plymouth been reduced by a disease supposed to have been yellow fever to about 300. On March 22, 1621, three months after the founding of Plymouth, he appeared there with 60 warriors, armed and painted, for the purpose of forming a friendly league with the white men. Although the tribe were reputed cruel and treacherous, the very open and friendly greeting of Massasoit so favorably impressed Gov. Carver, that after the necessary and imposing formalities were concluded, he formed in behalf of the colony a treaty of peace and mutual protection with the Wampanoags, which for 50 years was sacredly kept. The friendly disposition of Massasoit toward the colonists never relaxed. His residence was within the limits of what is now the town of Warren, R. I., near an abundant spring of water, which still bears his name. Roger Williams, when banished from the Massachusetts colony, on his way to Providence, was entertained by him for several weeks at this place. Massasoit was humane and honest, never violated his word, and constantly endeavored to imbue his people with a love of peace. He kept the pilgrims advised of any warlike designs toward them by other tribes. In person, says Morton in his “Memorial,” he was “a very lusty man in his best years, an able body, grave of countenance, and spare of speech.” His family consisted of his wife, two brothers, three sons, a daughter, two sons' wives, and a grandson.

His two eldest sons were named Mooanum and Pometacom. Soon after the death of Massasoit these sons went to Plymouth and requested the pilgrims to give them English names. The court named them Alexander and Philip. The former became chief sachem, died within a year, and was succeeded by Philip.


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 Jerusalem (built 691), so that they became one of the characteristics of the style. For constructional reasons, however, this method of building was not always adhered to, and in the mosque of Tulun (fig. 55) in Cairo (879), the first mosque in Egypt, built of original materials, we find an important departure. The arcades, instead of running at right angles to the Mecca wall, are built parallel with it, on account of the great thrust of the arches, all built in brick (fig. 56). The wood ties would have been quite insufficient to resist the thrust, and in the case of this mosque were probably used to carry lanterns.

The mosque of Tulun is the earliest example in which the pointed arch appears throughout, and it forms the leading and most characteristic constructional feature of the style in its subsequent developments in every country, except in Barbary and Spain, where the circular-headed horse-shoe arch seems to be preferred. As it is also the earliest mosque in which the decoration applied is that which was by inference laid down in the Koran, some allusion to the restrictions therein contained, and the consequent result, may not be out of place. The representation of nature in any form was absolutely forbidden, and this applied generally to foliage of all kinds, and plants, the representation of birds or animals, and above all of the human figure. The only exceptions to the rule would seem to be those found in the very conventional representations of lions carved over the gateways of Cairo and Jerusalem and in the courts of the Alhambra. It was this restriction which produced the extremely beautiful conventional patterns which are carried round the arches of the mosque of Tulun, and are found in the friezes, string-courses and the capitals of the shafts, and when these patterns form the background of the text of the Koran in high relief, in the splendid Arabic characters, it would be difficult to find a more beautiful decorative scheme in the absence of natural forms. As the mosque of Tulun was built by a Coptic architect, and its decoration is evidently the result of many years of previous developments, it is probably to the Copts that its evolution was due. The second type of decoration is that which is given by geometrical forms, and either in pavements or wall decorations in marble, or in the framing of woodwork in ceilings, or in doorways, the most elaborate and beautiful combinations were produced. The third type of decoration is one which in a sense is found in the origin of most styles, but which, restricted as the Mahommedans were to conventional representations, received a development of far greater importance, and in one of its forms—that known as stalactite vaulting—constitutes the one feature in the style which is not found in any other, and which, from the western coast of Spain to the east of India, at once differentiates it from any other style.

A complete account, with illustrations of the origin of the stalactite will be found in the Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects (1898) The earliest example is found in the tomb of Zobeide, the favourite wife of Harun al-Rashid, at Bagdad, built at the end of the 8th century. This tomb, octagonal in plan, and of modest dimensions, was vaulted over by a series of niches in nine stages or levels rising one above the other, and brought forward on the inside, so that the ninth course completed the covering of the tomb. It was built in this way to save centreing, each niche when completed being self-supporting. There is a second tomb at Bagdad, of later date—the tomb of Ezekiel,—constructed in the same way, except that in each stage the niches are built not one over the other but astride between the two, and this is the way in which in subsequent developments it always appears to have been built. Its application to the pendentives of the portals of the mosque at Tabriz and Sultaniya was the next development; and when some two centuries later it is found in Europe, in the palaces of the Ziza at Palermo, dating from about the beginning of the 11th century, it has lost its brick constructive origin, and, being cut in slabs of stone, has become simply a decorative feature. Its earliest example in Egypt is in the tomb of ash-Shafi’ī at Cairo, built by Saladin about 1240. Here and in all subsequent examples throughout Egypt and Syria it is always carved in stone. In the Alhambra another material was employed, the elaborate vaults being built with a series of small moulds in stucco. In the ceilings of the mosques at Cairo it was frequently carved in wood, and consequently lost all trace of its origin.

Two other decorative features, but having a constructive origin, are (1) the alternating of courses of stone of different colour, probably derived from Byzantine work, where bands of brick were employed; and (2) the elaborate forms given to the voussoirs of the arches of the Mecca niche.

Having now described the principles which ruled the plans of the mosques and formed the motifs of their architectural design, it remains to take the principal examples in the various countries where the style was developed.

Although the tendency of modern research points to Persia as the country in which the first development of the art took place, and we have already referred to two tombs at Bagdad, in which the earliest examples of a stalactite vault are found, so far as remains are concerned nothing can be traced earlier than the work of Ghazan Khan (1294), whose mosque at Tabriz, half in ruins, is the earliest example.

It is to Egypt therefore we turn first. There still exist—and sometimes in good preservation—mosques and other buildings in Cairo of every period showing the development of the Mahommedan style, from the 9th to the 17th century. Owing to the magnificent material at their command—for unfortunately more of it was taken from the ancient Egyptian monuments than from the quarries—a much purer style was evolved than in Persia; and owing to the absence of rain those ephemeral structures built in brick and covered with stucco, which in other countries would long have passed away, retained the crispness of their flowing ornament, which is still as sharp and well defined as when executed. We have already referred

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Adit

ADIT (Lat. aditus, entrance), a horizontal passage made into mines for the purpose of draining them, and also for the extraction of their products at the lowest convenient level. In very mountainous regions adits often present the readiest means of access to the mineral veins known to exist in the interior of precipitous hills. Enormous sums have been expended in the silver region of Mexico in these exploring adits. One of the most

adits in the world is that of Klausthal, in the Hartz, which is 6½ miles long, and passes upward of 300 yards below the church of Klausthal. Its excavation lasted from the year 1777 till 1800, and cost about $330,000. The adit which drains the district of Gwenap, in Cornwall, is estimated with its branches to extend a distance of 30 miles; its mouth is in a valley near the sea, and from it are discharged the superficial waters of numerous mines, as also all the water pumped up in them to its level. One of the most extensive adits in the world was commenced in the beginning of the present century by the Austrian government, and is called by the name of Joseph II. Its mouth is in the banks of the river Gran, in Hungary, and it passes by the mines of Hodritz toward those of Schemnitz, about 10 miles. The object of its construction is partly to explore for new veins, and in part to drain mines already in operation. A work of similar magnitude has been undertaken in the Washoe mining district of Nevada, for the purpose of developing the Comstock lode. It is known as the Sutro tunnel, and the plan was to commence at the Carson river, 150 feet above the stream, and to excavate a space of 12 by 14 feet to a distance of 19,790 feet, when the lode would be cut at a depth of 1,898 feet below the outcrop. A cross tunnel was to be constructed along the ledge about 12,000 feet, to connect with all the mines, and four shafts were to be sunk for ventilation. A company for its construction received large privileges from congress in 1866, and afterward application was made for a government subsidy. A commission was appointed to examine the project, which early in 1872 reported unfavorably, estimating the cost at $4,418,329. The work was not then far advanced, but has since been vigorously prosecuted both upon the main tunnel and the shafts.

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Letter in the Perfect Diurnal

The [Mill]mount was very strong of itself and manned with 250 of their principal men, Sir Arthur Aston being in it, who was governor of the town;which when they thought it vain to make any further resistance, which, if they had, would have killed some hundreds of our men before we could have taken it. Lieutenant-Colonel Axtell, of Colonel Hewson's regiment, with some twelve of his men, went up to the top of the mount and demanded of the Governor the surrender of it ; who was verystubborn, speaking very big words, but at length was persuaded to go into the windmill on the top of the mount, and as many more of the chiefest of them as it would contain, where they were disarmed, and afterwards all slain.

title: Letter in the Perfect Diurnal


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Adirondack Mountains

ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, the principal group of mountains in New York, extending from the extreme N. E. corner of the state in a S. S. W. direction toward its centre, occupying portions of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and Hamilton counties. The Catskills, S. of the Mohawk river, may be regarded as their extension in this direction. In the western part of Essex county these mountains have their greatest development, and present the highest peaks of any of the northern spurs of the Appalachian chain, Mount Washington in New Ham p shire alone excepted. They rise from an elevated plateau, which extends over this portion of the country for 150 miles in latitude and

100 in longitude, and is itself nearly 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest summits are those of Mounts Marcy, St. Anthony, McMartin, Seward, Emmons, and McIntyre. The first of these reaches the height of 5,337 feet above the level of the sea. St. Anthony, McMartin, and Seward are supposed to be about 5,000 feet high, and the other two summits about 4,000 feet each. These mountains are in ranges, which have a general N. N. E. and S. S. W. direction; but being formed not of stratified, but of granitic rocks, they lack that precision of outline which characterizes the mountains of the same Appalachian system in the middle and southern states. For the same reason the peaks assume more of the conical form, the slopes of the mountains are more abrupt, and the scenery wilder and grander than among the mountains of the

rocks. The Saranac and the Ausable, whose sources are among these mountains, run in nearly parallel lines toward the northeast, discharging their waters into Lake Champlain. They define upon the map the position of the valleys, which have the same general arrangement throughout the whole chain, and to some extent the position of the ranges of mountains also. In the other direction, the Boreas, the Hudson, and the Cedar rivers, which all unite below into the Hudson, define the extension of the valleys of the Ausable and its branches on the S. declivity of the great plateau; and further west the chain of lakes, including Long lake, Raquette lake, and the Fulton lakes, lie in the same line with the valley of the Saranac, and mark its extension from the central elevation of the plateau toward the southwest. The drainage of this table land is toward Lake

Champlain on the east, the St. Lawrence on the northwest, and the Hudson on the south. The sources of many of the streams which flow in these different directions often interlock with each other; and the numerous lakes and ponds with which they connect lie almost upon the same horizontal plane. The elevations of many of these sheets of water are given by Prof. Benedict, and nearly all of them are included between 1,500 and 1,731 feet above the level of the sea, the latter being the elevation of Raquette lake. The great numbers of these lakes and rivers easily navigable to the light canoe of the Indian, with occasional portages past the rapids and falls, gave to this district in former times features of great interest. The deer, moose, caribou, bear, beaver, and otter were abundant throughout this region, and, with the numerous varieties

of fish, among them the salmon trout and the pike, of those excellent qualities only met with in our northern inland waters, gave to that ancient race nearly all they required for sustenance. The game, excepting the caribou, still linger about the Adirondacks. The mountains are covered with forests, groves of birch, beech, maple, and ash succeeding to the evergreens, among which the most common are the hemlock, spruce, fir, and cedar, with the valuable white pine intermixed with, and overtopping the rest. In the lower lands along the streams a denser growth of the evergreens is more common, forming almost impenetrable swamps of cedar, tamarack or hackmatack, and hemlock. The white pine is the most valuable product of this region; and the numerous rivers, which served as roads for reaching every part of it, now answer the same purpose

for coaveying this valuable timber to market. So important has the pine upon these mountains become, that large sums have been expended in removing the obstructions of the streams, and in opening new outlets to the lakes, by which in the spring freshets the logs could be run down. As may well be supposed, this mountain region offers little inducement to the permanent settler. Only along the wider bottoms of the Saranac and the Ausable, the fertile alluvial soil, the wash of the mountains, tempts to cultivation.

The Adirondacks from Placid Lake.

—About 40 years ago the discovery of enormous masses of magnetic iron ore in the very heart of the mountains led to the establishment of the village of Adirondack, in the township of Macomb, on the western border of Essex county, about 50 m. W. of Lake Champlain. Iron works were erected on a scale of considerable magnitude; but the final result was that the distance from market, the scarcity of labor, and the difficulties of transportation made the enterprise unprofitable in spite of the excellence and abundance of the iron, and the works are now wholly abandoned.—Of late years the whole northern wilderness of New York has come to be popularly known as the Adirondacks, and is much resorted to, not only by sportsmen, but by tourists of both sexes, for whose accommodation taverns have been established at convenient distances. All travelling there is done by means of boats of small size and slight build, rowed by a single guide, and made so light that the craft can be lifted from the water and carried on the guide's shoulders from pond to pond or from stream to stream. Competent guides, steady, intelligent, and experienced men, can be hired at all the taverns, who will provide boats, tents, and everything requisite for a trip. Each traveller should have a guide and a boat to himself, and the cost of their maintenance in the woods is not more than a dollar a week for each man of the party. The fare is chiefly trout and venison, of which there is generally an abundance to be procured. A good-sized valise or carpet-bag will hold all the clothes that one person needs for a two months' trip. There are several routes by which the Adirondacks can be reached, but the best and easiest from New York is that by Lake Champlain. The steamer from Whitehall will land the traveller at Port Kent, nearly opposite Burlington, Vt., where coaches are always waiting to take passengers, six miles, to Keeseville. Here conveyances for the wilderness can always be had.


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Cape Cod

CAPE COD, the sandy peninsula extending into the Atlantic ocean which forms the S. E. extremity of Massachusetts, and is coextensive with Barnstable county. This tongue of land, commencing at the line between Plymouth and Sandwich, extends E. about 35 m., its width beyond Sandwich rarely exceeding 8 m. It then bends N. and gradually N. W., extending about 30 m. further. The curve still continues around to the W., S., and E., enclosing the fine landlocked harbor of Provincetown. This latter portion does not average half the width of the former, and is greatly indented by bays, both on the outer and inner sides. The northern extremity is called Race point. On this there is a revolving light 155 ft. above the level of the sea, in lat. 42° 3' 40" N., lon. 70° 14' 48" W. There are many other lighthouses upon the cape, and the so-called Cape Cod light is on the Clay Pounds (highlands), 200 ft. above high-water mark, in lat. 42° 2' 24" N., lon. 70° 4' 18" W. This is a fixed light. Cape Cod bay is the body of water included in the arm of the cape and opening into Massachusetts bay on the north.—Cape Cod was discovered May 15, 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold. To the “mighty headland,” as he called it, he gave the name of Cape Cod, from the quantity of codfish taken

off its shores. His people landed and spent a day wandering about, the first authenticated visit of whites upon the coast of Massachusetts. It continued to be known to the occasional voyagers of this period; but on Nov. 9, 1620, it was made memorable by the arrival of the Mayflower, which brought to New England the first company of permanent settlers, and the next day cast anchor in the harbor of Provincetown. Here, on the 11th, before the company disembarked, was drawn up the famous compact by which they became a body politic, subject “to such government and governors as should by common consent” be chosen. At that time the extremity of the cape does not appear to have been so entirely destitute of agricultural interest as it has since become. The pilgrims found on the shores patches where the Indians had planted corn, and obtained supplies of the grain. Mention is also made of their bringing back to the vessel a boat load of juniper. The lower portion of the cape is for the most part a waste of barren sand hills, covered here and there with a little beach grass; among them are found numerous ponds, by the sides of which a little arable land is occasionally obtained; and along the shores are extensive salt-water marshes. Toward the head of the cape pitch-pine and oak trees of several species form extensive forests, in which the pines predominate. The cape is more destitute of rocky formations than of trees. Not a ledge raises itself anywhere above the sand, nor is one met with in sinking wells, until passing in a northerly direction beyond the bounds of Plymouth. Bowlders are abundant, and often of great size, particularly near the head of the cape. The depth of sand is nowhere known; about Provincetown it is kept in motion by the winds, and its hills are shifting dunes. The curved form of the extremity suggests the possibility of its having been produced by the prevalence and preponderance of the N. E. winds, the heavy surf rolling up the sands upon the shore, and the winds moving them gradually toward the S. W.—Though a sandy district, the cape is no barren waste; its numerous bays furnish many harbors, and about these are thriving villages which are the nurseries of seamen, and have furnished the masters of many of the best ships of the American merchant service.

title: The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Cape Cod


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Elizabeth Islands

ELIZABETH ISLANDS, a group of 16 small islands, constituting the town of Gosnold, Dukes co., Mass., lying between Vineyard sound on the S. E. and Buzzard's bay on the N. W., and extending about 16 m. S. W. from Cape Cod, from which they are separated by a narrow channel known as Wood's Hole; pop. in 1870, 99. The principal islands, commencing at the north, are Naushon, about 8 m. long by 1 to 2 m. wide; Pasque, about 2 m. long; Nashawena, 3 m.; and Cuttyhunk, 2½ m.; they are separated from each other by narrow channels.

They were discovered in May, 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold, after whom the town is named; he called the last mentioned island Elizabeth, in honor of the queen, a name since transferred to the group. On a rocky islet situated in a pond on this island a fort and storehouse were built, and the foundations of the first colony in New England were laid. Upon the return of Gosnold, about a month later, the colonists refused to remain, and the design of effecting a settlement was abandoned. Until 1864 the group formed a part of the town of Chilmark. The islands are noted for their beauty, have a delightful summer climate, and afford rare opportunities for fishing. On the E. shore of Naushon is Tarpaulin cove, a harbor much frequented by wind-bound vessels on the passage from Boston to New York. This island, which is well wooded and contains an abundance of deer, was the favorite residence, in the early part of the century, of James Bowdoin, the diplomatist, who had here a fine mansion furnished with a large library, philosophical apparatus, and a picture gallery. It is now the property of a Boston gentleman, who has here his summer residence; and it is much resorted to by artists. Pasque and Cuttyhunk are occupied by New York clubs for boating and fishing purposes. About 2 m. N. and W. of Cuttyhunk and Nashawena is Penikese, comprising about 100 acres, formerly owned and occupied as a summer residence by John Anderson of New York, who in April, 1873, gave the island with the buildings and furniture (reserving the right of residing on a promontory of about 15 acres at the E. extremity) to Prof. Agassiz as a site for a summer school of natural history. He also gave to the institution the sum of $50,000 as a fund for its maintenance. The school, known as the “Anderson School of Natural History,” was opened in the summer of 1873, and is to be carried on in connection with the museum of comparative zoölogy at Cambridge.


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96 deposed for simony, and for intrusion into the Papacy. These crimes of Stigand were mere pretences, since the first had been a practice not unusual in England, and was never any where subjected to a higher penalty than resignation of one of the sees; the second was a pure ceremonial; and as Benedict was the only pope who then officiated, and his acts were never repealed, all the prelates of the Church, especially those who lived at a distance, were excusable for making their applications to him.

Stigand's ruin, however, was resolved on, and was prosecuted with a great severity. The legate degraded him from his dignity; the king confiscated his estate, and cast him into prison, where he continued in poverty and want during the remainder of his life. (A.D. 1070.)


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fossil Footprints

FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS, or Ichnolites (Gr. ἴχνος, a track, and λίθος, a stone), in geology, impressions originally made by animals in clay or in sand, and preserved in the shale or sandstone rock resulting from the solidification of those materials. Under these names have been included markings of various forms in rocks of very different geological ages. Some of these markings, though doubtless made by animals, are not the impressions of their feet, but have been produced wholly or in part by their tails or their carapaces; and to these, although truly ichnolites or track-stones, the name of fossil footprints does not therefore apply. It will, however, be convenient to include under this head all the markings of animals found in rocks. Recent impressions of the feet of quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, and the markings made by crustaceans, mollusks, and worms, may be studied on the shores of tidal waters, where successive layers of mud and sand preserve them in the accumulating sediments; and the careful study of these by Dawson has thrown much light on some of the markings found in earlier rocks. To begin with the ichnolites found in rocks of cenozoic or tertiary age, we may notice those in the eocene of the basin of Paris, where, in the marls which are interstratified with the gypsum beds which there abound, are found a great variety of markings. Prominent among these are the trilobed footprints of several species of palæotherium, a large pachyderm allied to the modern tapir, besides those of anoplotherium, an animal more nearly allied to the ruminants, and of certain carnivorous mammals. In addition to these are tracks of various land and fresh-water tortoises, of a gigantic bird, and of crocodiles, iguanas, and great batrachians or frog-like animals. The bones of many of the mammals whose tracks are here met with occur in the gypsum beds which are inter stratified with the marls; but there were evidently numerous species of which the bones have not been discovered, and which are consequently known to us only by their foot marks. The whole condition of things here shows that there then existed numerous small lakes of fresh water, the shores

of which were frequented by great numbers of pachyderms of numerous species, and by beasts of prey which occasionally devoured them, the tooth marks of the carnivora being found on the bones of the former. It will thus be seen that it is only in rare localities that the conditions necessary for the formation and preservation of these foot marks occur, and it is a fortunate chance which exposes them for our inspection. It was not till 1859 that these were discovered in the neighborhood of Paris.—In the mesozoic period the footprints of the trias or new red sandstone are remarkable for their number and variety, and also for the interest which attaches to the history of their discovery in the valley of the Connecticut river, where they are very abundant. Attention was first called to these so-called bird tracks by Mr. Dexter Marsh, and they were subsequently studied by Dr. James Deane and by Prof. Edward Hitchcock, who after a careful examination of them concluded that they were truly the footprints of birds; and they were therefore called by him ornithichnites or bird tracks. He ascertained their existence in numerous localities, and showed that they occur at intervals through a thickness of 1,000 ft. of sandstones and shales. He further remarked that although the beds bearing the tracks are now inclined at angles of from 5° to 30°, they must have been horizontal at the time the impressions were made; and showed that their occurrence throughout so great a thickness of strata could only be accounted for by supposing that the surface was subsiding during the deposition of these rocks. Some of these tracks were of gigantic size, one of them measuring 10 by 16 in., and recurring at intervals of from 4 to 6 ft. along the surface of the rocky bed; these distances indicating the length of the strides made by the animal. A careful study of these markings during many years convinced Prof. Hitchcock that many of them were made not by birds, but by batrachians or huge frog-like animals; and in an elaborate report by him, published by the state of Massachusetts in 1856, he showed that the ichnolites of the red sandstone had been found in not fewer than 38 localities, extending over a length of 90 m., with a breadth of 2 or 3 m., in the Connecticut valley. The markings known to him were referred to as many as 119 species of animals, including quadrupeds, birds, lizards, batrachians, tortoises, fishes, crustaceans, insects, and worms. While most of these markings were made on land, others were apparently produced by animals like fishes, swimming near the bottom. The surfaces of many of the beds bear the marks of waves or ripples, and others are distinctly marked by rain drops. The collection of these ichnolites made by Prof. Hitchcock, and now in the museum of Amherst college, is very great, and shows more than 8,000 individual tracks. A few remains of bones and coprolites have been found in the sandstones

of this formation, but they have not thrown much light upon the animals producing the tracks. Footprints have since been met with in the sandstones of the same formation in New Jersey, and in their probable equivalents, the lower triassic sandstones of Lancashire and Cheshire in England, and also at Hildburghausen in Saxony. These European footprints have a rude resemblance to the human hand, and were for some time regarded as the marks of an unknown quadruped, to which was given the name of cheirotherium, a supposed marsupial allied to the kangaroo. The track are of considerable dimensions, and those of the hind and fore feet differ greatly in size. They have since, however, been referred with greater probability to the labyrinthodon, an animal allied to the crocodiles, to which may be due some of the footprints of the Connecticut valley. But besides these five-toed and four-footed animals, were those which made the three-toed biped impressions at first regarded as the tracks of birds, and very abundant in the Connecticut sandstones. Prof. Hitchcock finally recognized the fact that some of these animals had huge tails, which had left their impressions, and smaller fore feet or paws, which they sometimes put to the ground; and he then referred them to a kind of bird-like lizards. More recent studies of the fossil remains of these animals, which have been carefully made by various naturalists, and especially by Cope, have made us acquainted with that curious class of animals, the dinosaurs. These creatures constituted numerous genera and species, some of gigantic size, others comparatively small; some feeding on plants, and others carnivorous; but all remarkable for presenting a higher type of reptilian organization than any now existing, and approaching in some respects to the birds and in others to the mammalia. Among the vegetable feeders of this group was hadrosauros, a gigantic animal, 20 ft. or more in height, with huge bird-like legs and feet, a lizard-like tail, a diminutive head, and small fore feet or hands, feeding on plants; while lælaps was an equally huge carnivorous animal of somewhat similar organization. The animals which made the so-called bird tracks in the sandstones of the Connecticut valley were probably similar to these.—If we go backward to the palæozoic period, we find in its upper portion, in the rocks of the coal formation in Pennsylvania, footprints which probably belong to an air-breathing frog-like animal related to the labyrinthodon of the mesozoic. Footprints, apparently of batrachian reptiles, are also found in the carboniferous formation of Nova Scotia. These, so far as we know, are the oldest air-breathers, and the remains of animals of this kind which abound in the rocks of this region have been described and figured by Dawson. In the great series of palæozoic rocks beneath the coal, comprising the Devonian, Silurian, and Cambrian, we have numerous ichnolites,

but, so far as we know, belonging, unlike those which we have described, solely to fishes or to invertebrate animals. The sandstones at the base of the coal in Nova Scotia are marked with the tracks of a crustacean allied to the limulus or king crab; and to an animal of that kind are ascribed those curious markings found in the beds of the Potsdam sandstone at several localities in the St. Lawrence valley near Montreal, to which the name of protichnites has been given. These tracks, at first supposed to be the footprints of a large tortoise-like animal, show the presence of several pairs of walking feet and of a flexible tail. In the same sandstone beds are singular ladder-like markings, which have been called climactichnites. Dr. Dawson has in this connection studied carefully the habits of the king crab, and has shown that when walking on the sands it produces impressions very like protichnites, and when using its swimming feet, markings like climactichnites were the result. In the Chazy and Clinton divisions of the lower palæozoic in New York and in Canada are curious bilobate markings, which were supposed to be the impressions of a marine plant, and received the name of rusophycus, but according to Dawson are really casts of burrows, connected with footprints consisting of a double series of transverse markings, so that a comparison of them with the trails and burrows of limulus justifies the conclusion that they were produced by trilobites. To these markings he has given the name of rusichnites, and has recognized the existence of similar forms in the carboniferous, which he refers to the trilobites of the genus Phillipsia found in these beds. The curious markings which have been called cruziana, from the lower Cambrian rocks, were probably produced by crustaceans not dissimilar to those which made rusichnites. Curious parallel notched grooves in pairs, found in the carboniferous of Nova Scotia, have been described and figured by Dawson under the name of diplichnites, and referred by him, with great probability, to fishes having pectoral or ventral fins armed with spines; while in rocks of the same age and still older, down to the base of the Cambrian, are numerous grooved and striated markings, some of which may have been produced by the feet or spinous tails of swimming animals. Other markings are with probability ascribed to lingula, which, as Prof. Morse has shown, crawls in a worm-like manner over the surface; while others still are perhaps produced by the trailing of seaweeds drifting with tides or currents. Certain markings of this kind have been regarded as impressions of the stems of plants, and, occurring in the oldest Cambrian rocks, have received the name of eophyton. According to Dawson, however, they are more probably the grooves produced by swimming crustaceans; and he includes under the name of rabdichnites all those rod-like markings. Various imitative markings are met with in rocks,

which are probably not due to any organic bodies. Such are the rill marks produced by running water on the surface of soft argillaceous layers, which sometimes simulate fronds of ferns or seaweeds, or the tracks of worms.—The literature of this subject is considerable, and, as will be seen from the facts already given, the study of ichnolites is one of much geological interest. Besides the publications of Hitchcock, see Lyell's “Student's Manual of Geology,” and a paper on the subject by Dawson in the “American Journal of Science” for January, 1873.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nightingall, Miles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nimmo, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nimmo, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbet, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ninian


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbet, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbet, John (1627?-1685)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbet, John (1609?-1687)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbet, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nisbett, Louisa Cranstoun


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nix, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, Anthony


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, Francis Russell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nixon, Samuel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noake, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nobbes, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nobbs, George Hunn


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, Mark


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, Matthew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, Samuel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, William Bonneau


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noble, William Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nobys, Peter


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nodder, Frederick P.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noel, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noke, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nolan, Frederick


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nolan, Lewis Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nolan, Michael


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nollekens, Joseph (1737-1823)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nollekens, Joseph Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Non Fendigaid


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Nonant, Hugh de


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Noorthouck, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Norcome, Daniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Norcott, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Norden, Frederick Lewis


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/451

 to two of the earlier mosques, those of ʽAmr in Old Cairo and of Tulun. The next in date, and built also in brick, is the mosque El Hakim (c. 1003). The mosque of El Azhar (“the Splendid”) was founded about 970, but entirely rebuilt in 1270 and enlarged in 1470. It is the university, and its Liwan or prayer chamber is the largest in Cairo, there being 380 columns carrying its roof.

The mosque of al-Zahir (founded 1264) is now occupied as barracks. In one of its entrance porches the arches are decorated with the well-known zigzag or chevron ornament, and a second porch with cushion voussoirs, features found elsewhere only in Sicily, so that the mosque was probably built by masons brought from thence. Then follows a series of mosques: Kalaun (1287); al-Nāsir (1299–1303); Merdani (1338); all based on the same plan as those described with a large courtyard surrounded by porticoes. The mosque of al-Nāsir has a portal with clustered piers and pointed and moulded orders. This is said to have been brought over as a trophy from Acre, but it is more probable that Syrian masons were imported to carry on the style introduced by the Crusaders.

The mosque of Sultan Hasan (1357–1360) marks an important change in the scheme of its plan, which served afterwards as a future model (fig. 57). It consists of a central court, 117 ft. by 105 ft. open to the sky, and instead of the covered porticoes on each side there are immense recesses covered over with pointed vaults. The prayer chamber is 90 ft. deep, 90 ft. high to the apex of the vault and 69 ft. wide, a greater span than any Gothic cathedral, and only exceeded in dimensions by the great hall of the palace at Ctesiphon built by the Sassanian dynasty. The mosque covers a large area, and would seem to have been occupied by four religious sects, whose rooms, situated on the outer side, are lighted by windows in eight or ten storeys, giving the appearance of a factory. Its entrance portal, 60 ft. to 70 ft. high, is the finest in Egypt, and is only exceeded in dimensions by those of the Persian and Indian mosques. The vestibule is covered by a dome with stalactite pendentives, and is perhaps the most complete and perfect example in Cairo. Beyond the prayer chamber is the tomb of the founder, which is covered by a dome. This, according to Poole, was not originally a feature in Saracenic mosques. A dome, he says, has nothing to do with prayer and therefore nothing with a mosque. It is simply the roof of a tomb, and only exists when there is at least a tomb to be covered. The greater number of the mosques in and outside Cairo are mausoleums, which accounts for the large number of domes found there.

Of the tombs of the caliphs, outside Cairo, the most important is the tomb of ash-Shafiʽī, reputed to have been built by Saladin but now quite changed by restoration. The tomb of Barkuk, in which the courtyard plan of Sultan Hasan is retained, has porticoes round it, which are of much more solid construction than those in earlier examples, and carry small domes. The two great domes on the east side and the minarets on the west are among the finest in Cairo. The tomb-mosque of Kait Bey (c. 1470), though comparatively small, is the finest in design and most elegant of its type in Egypt. Here the central court is covered by a cupola lantern (fig. 58), and the ceiling over the prayer chamber and other recesses is framed in timber and elaborately painted and gilded. The tomb is at the south-east corner, and is covered with a dome in stone, beautifully carved with conventional designs. In some of the mosques by the side of the portal is a fountain enclosed with bronze grilles, and above it a small room sometimes used as a school with open arcades on two sides. This feature in the mosque of Kait Bey, with the portal on its right, the lofty minaret beyond, and the great dome at the farther end, makes it the most picturesque in aspect of any Cairene mosque. (For plan see, fig. 3.)

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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Hartz

HARTZ (Ger. Harz, or Harzgebirge), the most northwestern mountain range in Germany, between lat. 51° 30' and 52° N., and lon. 10° 10' and 11° 30' E. It separates the waters of the Weser from those of the Elbe. This range is divided into two parts, Upper and Lower Hartz, lying W. and E. of the Brocken. Their principal axis, which extends in a direction about W. N. W., E. S. E., is not far from 60 m. in length. The width of this main chain, as from Wernigerode to Ilfeld, is about 18 m. The highest summit is the Brocken, a mountain of feldspathic granite, which by its easy decomposition has caused the mountain to assume a rounded graceful form. It rises to the height of 3,737 ft., and overlooks all the surrounding country. The Rosstrappe stands near by in the same group, and is of somewhat inferior elevation to the Brocken, from which it is separated by formations of argillaceous slates and the lower limestones. It is composed of granite in which quartz predominates, giving to the rock a more indestructible character and to the mountain a more rugged aspect than that of the Brocken. The Rammelsberg is a mountain of argillaceous slate and the older sandstones, reaching the height of about 1,200 ft. above the plain near the town of Goslar. The district comprising these mountains is principally made up of granitic rocks, which form the highest summits, and of gneiss, argillaceous slates, and metamorphic

limestones and sandstones, which are grouped around, and penetrated by, the granites. Various rocks of the upper secondary, from the grès bigarré or new red sandstone to the chalk, repose unconformably upon the older formations around their marginal outcrop. The more elevated portions of the district are rough and dreary, with a sterile soil and a cold climate. Numerous streams take their rise in the Hartz mountains. Tributary to the Elbe are the Helme, which flows through the deep and beautiful valley called the Goldene Aue, and the Zorge, on the south; the Eine, Selke, and Bode, on the east; and the Holzemme on the north. The Ilse, which forms several fine cataracts in its course, the Ecker, Radau, and Ocker, on the north, and the Innerste, Söse, and Sieber, on the west, flow into the Weser. The valleys, being well watered, are very fertile, and produce abundant pasturage, and large herds of cattle are reared here. This district is also well wooded, and timber forms an important article of export. But the mines, chiefly of lead, silver, copper, zinc, and iron, are the principal source of the wealth of this region. The other minerals found here are sulphur, arsenic, granite, marble, and gypsum; and in the east are a number of important salt springs. For many centuries the mines have been industriously worked, and the business connected with them gives employment to about 30,000 persons. The mines belong chiefly to the province of Hanover (Prussia) and Brunswick; the former possessing those at Clausthal and Andreasberg, in the Upper Hartz, and the latter a portion of those in the Rammelsberg near Goslar. Those of the eastern Hartz are in the territory of Anhalt. The Rammelsberg mines were opened about the year 970, those of the Upper Hartz mostly in the 16th and 17th centuries; and the chief towns upon their sites, as those above named and Altenau, Zellerfeld, Lautenthal, Wildemann, and Grund, were founded in consequence of the discoveries of the mineral resources beneath the surface. These mining towns (Bergstädte) are entitled to special privileges, and no business is conducted in them but what is connected with mining and metallurgy. Clausthal is the headquarters of these operations. The council which has general charge of the mines meets here, and here are a mint and a school of mines, the latter furnished with a fine collection of minerals and models of mining and other machinery. The mines of the Upper Hartz belong either to the group at Clausthal or that of Andreasberg. In the former the veins follow several lines of fracture in an E. and W. direction. One passes through the town of Zellerfeld, extending from Wildemann to Clausthal, a distance of 3 m. They produce argentiferous galena, copper pyrites, and blende in a quartzose gangue, intermixed with calcareous spar, brown spar, heavy spar, and spathic iron. They are remarkable for spreading out in thin branches through a great breadth of rock, and at Clausthal these

strings are profitably explored throughout a width of 300 ft. The famous drainage level of these mines is noticed in the article. The mines and city of Andreasberg are situated upon the steep slope of a mountain of argillaceous and silicious slates. The whole area occupied by the former is hardly a mile square. Rich silver ores are found here in small veins, as the antimonial sulphuret of silver and ruby-red silver of the dark and light varieties. Argentiferous galena is also a product of these mines. At this locality is found the deepest mine in the world. It is upon an argentiferous vein, which has been followed to the depth of more than 2,500 ft. from the surface, the last 800 ft. since about the year 1820. The richest ores are found in courses which extend only about 100 ft. in length on the vein. The best of these was struck at a depth of about 2,160 ft., and has continued highly productive to the greatest depth named. The Rammelsberg mines produce similar ores to those of the Upper Hartz district. On account of the extreme hardness of some of the veinstones of these mines, it has been the practice, instead of attempting to drill the rock for blasting, to build a large fire against the face of the vein, and leave this to act upon the ingredients, like the arsenic and sulphur, which may be volatilized, and thus cause the mass to be easily attacked and broken down to some extent. Various other ores have been obtained in the Hartz besides those named. Iron mines have been extensively worked; ores of antimony have been produced to some extent, as also those of cobalt and manganese. A small quantity of gold has also been found in Anhalt. The rare metal selenium has been extracted from the seleniuret of lead of the same district. The Mansfeld bituminous copper slates are singular ores, of so low a percentage that the copper pyrites disseminated through them is not visible, yet they have been long profitably worked in the Lower Hartz. The annual production of the Hartz mines, not including that of the Rammelsberg, which also yields 5 lbs. of gold, is about 40,000 lbs. of silver, 5,000 to 6,000 tons of lead, 150 tons of copper, and 10,000 tons of iron.—The population of the Upper and Lower Hartz speak different dialects. Besides the Brocken or Blocksberg, which plays an important part in the popular legends and fairy tales of Germany, and which is immortalized in Goethe's “Faust,” there are many remarkable localities in the Hartz, as the Stauffenberg, with the ruins of the castle of Henry the Fowler, the castle of Falkenstein, the Alexisbad, &c. The Teufelsmühle, Rosstrappe, and the valley of the Bode are renowned for their fine and peculiar scenery; and two curious caves, Baumannshöhle and Bielshöhle, are interesting on account of their fossil bones.

The Brocken.

title: The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Hartz


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Hartzenbusch, Juan Eugenio

HARTZENBUSCH, Juan Eugenio, a Spanish author, born in Madrid. Sept. 6, 1806. His father was a German carpenter. He was educated by the Jesuits and intended for the church, but

becoming interested in literature, he translated a number of French and Italian comedies and prepared for the stage several of Calderon's plays. He also composed many short poems. In 1835 he became a stenographer on the staff of the Gaceta de Madrid. In 1836 an original drama by him, entitled Los amantes de Teruel, was played with success, and he afterward produced many others. He has also published critical editions of the works of Tirso de Molina (12 vols., Madrid, 1839-'42), of Calderon (4 vols., 1849-'51), of Alarcon (1852), and of Lope de Vega (4 vols., 1853). Among his own works are Cuentos y fábulas (2 vols., 1861), Obras de encargo (1864), and Obras escogidas (2 vols., Leipsic, 1865). In 1852 he was named president of the theatrical council, and he has been since 1862 director of the national library.


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Page:History of England (Froude) Vol 3.djvu/336

316 On the 1st of July a bill was read enacting that, whereas in the Parliament of the year preceding 'a godly Act was made for the abolishment of diversity of opinion concerning the Christian religion,' the provisions of which, for various reasons, had not been enforced, for the better execution of the said Act the number of commissioners appointed for that purpose should be further increased; and the bishops and the bishops' chancellors should be assisted by the archdeacons and the officials of their courts. This measure, like the attainder, was passed unanimously. On the 5th a general pardon was introduced, from which heretics were exempted by a special proviso. The new spirit was rapid in its manifestation. The day after (for it was not thought necessary to wait for a letter from Germany) the Cleves' marriage was brought forward for discussion; and the care with


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The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Harvard, John

HARVARD, John, the founder of Harvard college, born in England, probably in Middlesex, died in Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 24, 1638. He was educated at the university of Cambridge, and having emigrated to America was made a freeman of the colony of Massachusetts, Nov. 2, 1637. The following year, as appears from the town records, a portion of land was set off for him in Charlestown, where he exercised the ministry. In April, 1638, he was appointed one of a committee “to consider of some things tending toward a body of laws.” These are the only particulars known of his life. His property at his death was worth about £1,500, one half of which he gave for the erection of the college which bears his name; but part of this bequest, we are told, was diverted from its original purpose. He also left to the college a library of more than 300 volumes. A monument to his memory was erected in the burial ground of Charlestown by the alumni of the university, and inaugurated with an address by Edward Everett, Sept. 26, 1828.


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Page:Democratic Ideals and Reality (1919).djvu/234

222 Therefore let the idealists who, now that the nations are locked into a single world system, rightly see in the League of Nations the only alternative to Hell on Earth, concentrate their attention on the adequate sub-division of East Europe. With a Middle Tier of really independent States between Germany and Russia they will achieve their end, and without it they will not. Any mere trench-line between the German Powers and Russia, such as was contemplated by Naumann in his Central Europe would have left German and Slav still in dual rivalry, and no lasting stability could have ensued. But the 'Middle Tier,' supported by the outer nations of the World League, will accomplish the end of breaking-up East Europe into more than two State-systems. Moreover, the States of that Tier, of approximate equality of power, will themselves be a very acceptable group for the recruitment of the League.

Once thus remo the temptation and opening to World-Empire, and who can say what will occur among the German and Russian peoples themselves? There are already indications that Prussia, which, unlike England or France, is a purely artificial structure, will be broken into several Federal States. In one region the Prussians belong by history to


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Final Act of the Congress of Vienna/Act III

His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, his Majesty the King of Prussia, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, wishing to give effect to that Article of their respective treaties which relates to the neutrality, liberty, and independence of the city of Cracow and of its territory, have appointed, to fulfil their benevolent intentions in this respect, namely:

His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, the Sieur Clement Winceslas Lothaire, Prince de Metternich-Winnebourg-Ochsenhausen, Knight of the Golden Fleece, Grand-Cross of the Royal Order of St. Stephen of Hungary, Knight of the Orders of St. Andrew, St. Alexander Newsky, and of St. Anne of the First Class, Grand-Cordon of the Legion of Honour, Knight of the Order of the Elephant, of the Supreme Order of the Annunciation, of the Orders of the Red and Black Eagle, of the Seraphim of Sweden, of St. Joseph of Tuscany, of St. Hubert, of the Golden Cross of Wurtemburg, of the Order of Fidelity of Baden, of St. John of Jerusalem, and of several others, Chancellor of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, Curator of the Academy of the Fine Arts, Chamberlain, Privy Counsellor to his Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, his Minister of State, of Conference and of Foreign Affairs, and his Plenipotentiary at the Congress;

His Majesty the King of Prussia, the Prince Hardenburg, his Chancellor of State, Knight of the Grand Order of the Black Eagle and of the Red Eagle, of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and of the Iron Cross of Prussia, of the Orders of St. Andrew, St. Alexander Newsky, and of St. Anne of the First Class of Russia, Grand-Cross of the Royal Order of St. Stephen of Hungary, Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, Knight of the Order of St. Charles of Spain, of the Supreme Order of the Annunciation, of the Seraphim of Sweden, of the Elephant of Denmark, of the Golden Eagle of Wurtemburg, and of several others, his First Plenipotentiary at the Congress; and

His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, the Sieur Andrew Count Rasoumoffsky, his Privy Counsellor, Knight of the Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alexander Newsky, Grand-Cross of the Order of St. Wolodimir, and his First Plenipotentiary at the Congress;

who, after having exchanged their full powers, found in good and due form, have agreed upon, concluded, and signed the following Articles:

ART. I. Cracow with its territory, shall be considered for ever as a free, independant, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of the Three High Contracting Powers.

ART. II. The territory of the free city of Cracow shall have for its frontier, on the left bank of the Vistula, a line which shall commence at the village of Wolica, on the spot where a rivulet falls into the Vistula, and ascend this rivulet by Clokoscielnicki as far as Czulice, so that these villages are comprised in the free city of Cracow: From thence, passing along the frontiers of the villages, it shall continue by Dziekanovice, Garlice, Tomaszow, Karniowice, which shall also remain to the territory of Cracow, to the point where the limit, which separates the district of Krezezovice from that of Olkusz, commences: From thence it shall follow the limit between the two districts above-mentioned, till it reaches the frontier of Prussian Silesia.

ART. III. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria being anxious, on his part, to improve the commercial relations and good understanding between Gallica and the free city of Cracow, grants in perpetuity to the city of Podgorze, bordering on the river, the privileges of a free commercial city, with the same advantages as enjoyed by the city of Brody. The freedom of commerce shall extend to a line of 500 hundred toises from the barriers of the suburbs of the city of Podgorze. In virtue of this privilege, which, however, is not to affect the rights of sovereignty of his Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty, Austrian custom-houses shall be established in no places but those situated beyond the above-mentioned line, nor shall any military establishment be formed which can menace the neutrality of Cracow, or prevent the freedom of commerce which his Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty is desirous of affording to the town and district of Podgorze.

ART. IV. In pursuance of this concession, his Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty has determined to grant permission for the city of Cracow to extends its bridges over to the right bank of the Vistula, and to fasten its boats at those places through which it has always been in the habit of communicating with Podgorze. The city shall be at the expense of repairing the bank where its bridges are anchored or moored. It shall also be at the expense of repairing the bridges, as well as the ferry-boats provided for the season, when a bridge of boats cannot be maintained. Should there, however, be any relaxation, neglect, or ill-will, in the establishment, the three Courts shall, if any such facts be proved, order such a police, at the charge of the town, as may be competent to guard against any abuses of this description in the future.

ART. V. Immediately after the signature of the present Treaty, a joint Commission shall be appointed, composed of an equal number of commissioners and engineers, to mark out the line of demarcation, to place the boundary-posts, to describe the angles and bearings, and to construct a map containing a local description, so that no misunderstanding or doubt may in future arise upon these points. The boundary-posts, describing the territory of Cracow, shall be numbered and marked with the arms of the Power bordering on that territory, and of those of the free city of Cracow. The frontiers of the Austrian territory, opposite to that of Cracow, being formed by the Thalweg of the Vistula, the Austrian boundary-posts shall be fixed on the right bank of that river. The circle comprehending the free commercial territory of Podgorze shall be pointed out by particular posts, marked with the arms of Austria, and bearing the inscription, "Free Line of Commerce." Wolny, Okrog, Dlahandlu.

ART. VI. The three Courts engage to respect, and to cause to be respected, at all times, the neutrality of the free city of Cracow and its territory, and no armed force shall enter it under any pretence whatsoever.

On the other hand, it is understood, and expressly stipulated, that the free city arid territory of Cracow shall not afford any asylum or protection to runaways, deserters, or persons under prosecution, belonging to the countries of either of the three Contracting Powers, and that, on the demand of their surrender by the competent authorities, such individuals shall be arrested without delay, and delivered up, under a proper escort, to the guard appointed to receive them at the frontier.

ART. VII. The three Courts having approved of a constitution, by which the free city of Cracow and its territory shall be regulated, and which is annexed to the present Article as an integral part thereof, respectively guarantee that constitution. They moreover engage, respectively to appoint a Commissioner, who shall proceed to Cracow, to act in concert with a temporary and local Commission, composed principally of individuals holding public situations, or of persons of character. Each of the three Powers shall, for this purpose, make choice of a candidate, either from the nobility, the clergy, or the commonalty. Each of the commissioners of the three Courts, shall fill the office of President, alternately, by the week. He who shall first preside shall be appointed by ballot, and the President shall enjoy all the rights and privileges belonging to that office. This committee shall be employed in laying down the constitutional bases in question, and shall carry them into effect. It shall also have the gift of the first official appointments; excepting, however, those who may have been appointed to the senate by the High Contracting Parties, who, for this time, reserve to themselves the right of choosing some well known persons. It shall also employ itself in assembling and putting into action the new government of the Free city of Cracow and its territory. It shall enter into immediate communication with the existing administration, and is authorized to make all such changes therein as may be necessary for the public service, so long as this temporary state of affairs shall continue.

ART. VIII. The constitution of the free city of Cracow and its territory, does not admit of the right, or establishment, of customhouses. The city is, however, permitted to levy barrier-duties and bridge-tolls.

ART. IX. In order to establish a fixed regulation with regard to the tolls to be collected on the bridges and roads of the free city of Cracow, which are to be levied in proportion to the expense required to keep them in repair, it has been agreed that a general tarif shall be made by the Commission specified in the 7th Article. This tarif shall only apply to goods, beasts of burden, or of draught and cattle. It shall not apply to individuals, except at those times when the passage must be effected by water.

The toll-houses shall be established on the left bank of the Vistula.

The same Commission shall also agree upon the principles concerning the currency.

ART. X. All the rights, obligations, advantages, and privileges, stipulated by the three High Contracting Parties, in the Articles relative to individuals possessing property under different governments, to a general amnesty, to free trade and navigation, are equally granted to the free city of Cracow and it's territory.

In order to facilitate the provisioning the city and territory of Cracow, the three High Courts consent to allow fire-wood, coals, and every other article of first necessity, freely to pass and repass through the territory of the city of Cracow.

ART. XI. A Commission shall regulate the rights of property, and the rents to be paid by the peasantry on ecclesiastical and crown lands, in the manner best calculated to relieve and ameliorate that class of individuals.

ART. XII. The free city of Cracow shall preserve for itself and upon its territory, the privileges of the post. Each of the three Courts, however, shall have the option of establishing either their own post-office at Cracow, for mails proceeding to and from their states, or merely to appoint a secretary at the post-office at Cracow, to superintend this department. The postage of foreign letters, and of those of the interior, shall be settled in the regulations to be agreed upon, by the Commission mentioned in the 7th Article.

ART. XIII. Whatever may be found in the free city and territory of Cracow, to have been national property of the duchy of Warsaw, shall, as such, belong in future to the free city of Cracow. This property shall constitute one of its financial funds, and the revenue arising therefrom shall be applied to the support of the academy, to other literary institutions, and principally to the improvement of the means of public education. The revenues arising from the barrier duties and bridge-tolls, are, from their nature, to be appropriated to keeping the bridges and highways in repair; both in the free city as well as in the territory of Cracow, the government shall be responsible for the execution of this part of the public service, so necessary to intercourse and commerce.

ART. XIV. The revenues of the free city of Cracow; being so regulated that the surplus of the expenses of administration shall be appropriated to the purposes mentioned in the preceding Article, the city of Cracow shall not be called upon to contribute towards the payment of the debts of the duchy of Warsaw, and, on the other hand, it shall have no share in the reimbursements which may be made to that duchy. The inhabitants of Cracow shall always be at liberty to submit the arrangement of their private claims to the Commission which shall be authorized to settle the accounts.

ART. XV. The buildings and library belonging to the academy of Cracow, its landed property, and mortgaged capital, together with all the privileges which it at present enjoys, are hereby secured to it.—Permission shall be granted to the inhabitants of the neighbouring Polish provinces to repair to that academy, and to study there, as soon as it shall be regulated conformably with the intentions of each of the three High Courts.

ART. XVI. The Bishopric of Cracow, and the Chapter of that free city, as well as all the secular and regular clergy, shall be continued. The funds, endowments, immoveable effects, rents, or collections, which constitute their property, shall be secured to them. The Senate, however, shall be at liberty to propose to the Assemblies of December, a different mode of expenditure from that which may exist, if it shall be proved that the present appropriation of the revenues, especially with regard to public instruction and the distressed situation of the inferior clergy, has been conducted in a manner contrary to the intention of the founders. In every change to be made, the same formalities shall be observed as are usual in respect to the adoption of a law of the state.

ART. XVII. As the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishopric of Cracow is not to extend to the Austrian and Prussian territories, the nomination of the bishop of Cracow is specially reserved to his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, who, on this particular occasion, shall make the first nomination agreeably to his own choice. In future, the Chapter and Senate shall each have the privilege of recommending two candidates for that appointment, from among whom his said Majesty shall select the new bishop.

ART. XVIII. A copy of the Articles, before-mentioned, as likewise of the constitution which forms a principal part of them, shall be formally deposited, by the joint commission designated in the 7th Article, with the archives of the free City of Cracow, as a permanent proof of the generous principles adopted by the three High Powers in favour of the free City and territory of Cracow.

ART. XIX. The present Treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged in six days.

In faith of which the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed thereunto the seal of their arms.

Done at Vienna, the 21st April, 3d May, 1815.

Signed


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 4/Francesca of Rimini


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Page:The Works of J. W. von Goethe, Volume 12.djvu/277

Rh I am too much alone here to decide; and I write you this long story of my whole position, that you may be good enough to summon a council of those who love me, and who, being on the spot, know the circumstances better than I. Let them, therefore, determine the proper course for me to take, on the supposition of what, I assure you, is the fact, that I am myself more disposed to return than to stay. The strongest tie that holds me in Italy is Tischbein. I should never, even should it be my happy lot to return a second time to this beautiful land, learn so much in so short a time as I have now done in the society of this well-educated, highly refined, and most upright man, who is devoted to me, both body and soul, I cannot now tell you how the scales are gradually falling from off my eyes. He who travels by night takes the dawn for day, and a murky day for brightness: what will it be when the sun rises? Moreover, I have hitherto kept myself from all the world, which yet is getting hold of me by degrees, and which I, for my part, was not unwilling to watch and observe with stealthy glances.

I have written to Fritz a joking account of my reception into the Arcadia; and indeed it is only a subject of joke, for the Institute is really sunk into miserable insignificance.

Next Monday week Monti's tragedy is to be acted. He is extremely anxious, and not without cause. He has a very troublesome public, which requires to be amused from moment to moment; and his play has no brilliant passages in it. He has asked me to go with him to his box, and stand by him as confessor in this critical moment. Another is ready to translate my "Iphigenia;" another, to do I know not what, in honour of me. They are all so divided into parties, and so bitter against each other. But my countrymen are so unanimous in my favour, that if I gave them


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Page:Railways Act 1921 (ukpga 19210055 en).pdf/24

[Ch. 55.] (4) The provisions of the to this Act shall apply to persons who were at the date of the introduction of the Bill for this Act officers and servants of the Railway Clearing House as if the Railway Clearing House were an amalgamated company and those officers and servants were officers and servants of a constituent company.

Power of trustees to invest in securities of amalgamated companies.

15. For the purposes of the provisions of the, and the Trusts (Scotland) Acts, 1861 to 1910, relating to the securities in which trustees are authorised to invest trust funds, an amalgamated company or a company constituted by a preliminary amalgamation scheme shall be treated as if it were a railway company in Great Britain incorporated by special Act of Parliament and had, in each of the ten years immediately before the date of amalgamation, paid a dividend at the rate of not less than three per centum per annum on its ordinary stock.

Power to make orders as to working of railway companies

16.—(1) With a view to securing and promoting the public safety, or the interests of the public, or of trade, as to working or of any particular locality, the Railway and Canal of railway companies. Commission may, on the application of any body of persons representing any such interests, by order require any railway company or companies, or the Minister may, on the application of any such company or companies, by order authorise the company or companies, to afford such reasonable railway services, facilities, and conveniences upon and in connection with its undertaking or their undertakings (including the provision of such minor alterations and extensions and improvements of existing works as will not involve in any one case an expenditure exceeding one hundred thousand pounds) as may be specified in the order :

Provided that, if on any such application a company satisfies the Railway and Canal Commission that under all the circumstances the capital required for the purpose cannot be provided or expended as proposed without prejudicially affecting the interests of the then existing stockholders, the order shall not be made: 20