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January 11, 1905

The first cost of a motor car should be high enough to insure a low cost of maintenance. The best “coefficient of economy” is that which represents primarily the lowest possible cost of maintenance, not per gross ton-mile, as it is oftentimes considered, but per unit of useful results; and in the second place the lowest possible ﬁrst cost. The least expensive to maintain of two “white elephants” would be a bad bargain at any price. Likewise we may say that a motor car, to be economical, must not only operate at a low cost of maintenance but operate well with a maximum burden. Another way of putting it is to say the first cost is a matter of no serious moment, provided the cost of the useful result is quite within bounds.

There are many details in a motor car, each one of which must be thought out with a degree of care wholly at variance with the demands of any other class of machinery. A car may be well built and prove to be very serviceable indeed, and still be a very bad choice, for the reason that the design may not be in accord with (a) the materials afforded by the market; (b) the methods in vogue in the up to date shop. Hence the ﬁrst cost may be inﬂated. To illustrate: A coin, for instance, might be gold, of full weight and ﬂawless; yet the methods of manufacture might be such as to make the cost of production more than the value of the coin.

Motor cars up to the present time have successfully eluded the grasp of the poor man, and it is believed that the poor man will never be rich, so that “Mahomet must go to the mountain." Sometimes it does seem as if motor cars would ever be costly, both ﬁrst and last, but history repeats itself, and it has ever been a trait of history to see the unexpected.

On the Continent the "poor" man receives no consideration, hence no attempt is made to make the cost of the car conform to the man's pocket. In America the poor man has greater wants, and demands every innovation—at a price. It is for this reason that "cheap," half baked cars are not the product of successful makers; and, also, on this very account American manufacturers are bound to lead in the long run, because the majority of buyers (a) cannot pay a high price; (b) will not buy an inferior product; (c) do offer a wholesome opportunity to makers of car who continually strive to lower the cost, but who positively will not lower the standard of quality.

It costs approximately $25,000 to design and construct one single runabout, provided the design is new and worked out in promoting and jobbing shops. On the other hand, cars of this class are furnished to buyers by responsible makers for not far from one-fiftieth of that cost, while in so far as quality is concerned the experiment car, not withstanding its enormous cost, is likely to prove a flat failure.

To a limited extent the commercial ﬁeld has been invaded, but the road ahead is long and rough. Critics are wont to complain about tires. As a matter of fact, tire troubles are brought about to a vast extent through the wholly bad practice of making cars much heavier than need be. A setting hen will bring out a brood of chickens and not fracture a single egg, while a small boy and a brick would shorten the chicken crop. Tires, too, will wear depending upon treatment; that is to say, tires are thoroughly commercial just as they are, but heavy, cumbersome cars are not. Improvements in cars have been marked, and many more im-

provements may be expected. The first big electric truck the writer had to work upon weighed something like 7,000 pounds, and felt very much abused under a burden of 1 ton. The ﬁrst big steam truck the writer was connected with weighed nearly 6,000 pounds and refused to run at all.

It cost a lot of money to learn that conventional machinery designs would not suit in motor car work; and it was hard to forget that a bridge building factor of safety was not a factor of safety at all in automobile construction. As illustrative of the changes wrought, consider the following: According to Seaton the thickness of cylinder walls should be:

$${P \times D \over 5000}+0.6 = inches$$

in which P is the maximum pressure on the piston in pounds per square inch, and D the diameter of the cylinder in inches. For a 6 inch cylinder this would give (for cast iron}

$$Thickness = 340 \times 6 \over 5000 + 0.6 = 1.008 inches$$

Now let us compare with this the actual present practice in automobile gasoline motor construction, which is to give the cylinder walls a thickness

$$T = {P D \over 7200} inches$$

so that for the case in point

$$T = {360 \times 6 \over 7200} = 28 inch$$

Considering cast iron with an ultimate tensile strength of 18,000 pounds per square inch and 3,600 pounds per square inch non-shock working load, it would be impossible to build a commercial motor car and at the same time take Seaton's advice. On the other hand, there are a vast number of cars in which the motor cylinder walls are quite as thin as that given by the above formula. It is believed that, notwithstanding the apparent safety of the above formula, some allowance should be made for deformities in the casting. and with this in view the formula stands revised, as follows:

$$T = {P D \over 7200} + 0.125 = thickness of walls in inches.$$

Illustrative of the use of this formula reference may be had to Fig. 1 of a cylinder in which

$$T = {379 \times 4.75 \over 7200} + 0.125 = 0.375 inch$$

thickness of walls about the piston in its bottom position. The thickness of the wall below the piston head with the piston at the bottom of the stroke was left

$$T = {379 \times 4.75 \over 7200} = 0.25 inches.$$

This cylinder was tried out at some length in a runabout type of car during the year 1903, and, in so far as this phase of the problem was concerned, the results were very satisfactory. It is possible, of course, to consider a slight thinning of the cylinder walls, without assuming great risks, but for thoroughly good work it is believed the walls are thin enough.

The maximum pressure given, i.e., 379 pounds per square inch, is none too high when the shock effect is taken into account. Referring again to Fig. 1, it will be found that the port walls are three-six-teenths inch thick. This thickness is very much more than what a calculation would dictate, but here the "foundry question" is paramount and the port walls are made just as thin as possible consistent with the foundry chances. In the case of this particular cylinder the head is covered by “combustion chamber covers," and is so proportioned that. considering the strength of machine steel covers, a rupture of the head would not he imminent. If, however, the head of a cylinder is made integral the shape of the head must receive consideration, else deformation, due to pressure, may become a source of trouble, at least in cylinders of large proportions.

A very good shape, economical both in point of weight of metal required as well as space occupied, is that represented by a flattened ellipse. The thickness of the head

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66 MINOR MENTION

W.C. Jaynes, of Buffalo, will handle the Pope-Toledo during the coming year.

Fred P. Brand, formerly of the Locomobile Company, is now with the Electric Vehicle Company.

The Marion Motor Car Company will be represented in Buffalo by J. A. Cramer this year.

The New York agency for Matheson cars has been secured by Shepard Brothers, of 500 Fifth avenue.

The automobile repair shop of Estes Ruggles & Son, of Ware, Mass., was damaged by ﬁre recently.

Roy A. Fay has been appointed business manager of the Harvard Automobile Company, of Cambridge, Mass.

The Reed-Underhill Company, of Boston, Mass., will have the agency for the Stearns car for the coming season.

Harrington's Auto Station No. 1, Worcester, Mass., has taken the agency for Thomas cars in that county for 1905.

The Briscoe Manufacturing Company, of Detroit, Mich., are negotiating for a factory in the neighborhood of New York city.

There is a rumor aﬂoat that the Baldwin Automobile Company, of Connellsville, Pa., are about to resume the manufacture of cars.

The Fischer Special Manufacturing Company, of Cincinnati, makers of spark coils, etc., have moved into a new factory at 2076 Reading road.

The Overland Rubber Company, of Denver, Col., have been appointed representatives of the tire department of the Diamond Rubber Company, of Akron, Ohio.

Henry M. Leland, vice president of the Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing Company, of Detroit, has been appointed general manager of the Cadillac Automobile Company.

The Reo Motor Car Company, of Philadelphia, has been organized to sell Reo cars. F. W. Stockbridge has been appointed manager, and quarters have been secured in the Mink Arcade in Penn square.

The Apperson Brothers Automobile Company, of Kokomo, Ind., have opened a branch office at 66 West Forty-third street, under the management of L. A. Hopkins, formerly treasurer of the Brooklyn Automobile Company.

A large touring car belonging to H. O. Stone, of Chicago, was struck by a Milwaukee avenue cable train last week, and the chauffeur, D. E. Tobin, and two friends were hurled into the street and severely injured, Tobin fatally.

The Michigan Automobile Company, of Grand Rapids, Mich., have moved to new quarters in the Thum Block on Ottawa street, where increased facilities are offered. They will have the agency for the Pope-Toledo, Cadillac, White and Buick cars during 1905. The Standard Engine and Automobile Company has entered into an agreement with citizens of Greenwood, Ind., by which a factory is secured for the manufacture of automobiles.

W. H. Webster writes that he is now with the Maxwell-Briscoe Company, 317 West Fifty-ninth street, New York city, having severed his connection with the automobile department of John Wanamaker.

A new building is being built on the corner of Fourth and Ripley streets, Davenport, Ia., the ﬁrst ﬂoor of which will be occupied by the Burck Auto Carriage and Implement Company as a salesroom and garage.

The Merkel Motor Company, of Milwaukee, by F. P. Rugee, president, and W. I. Merkel, secretary, have ﬁled an amendment to their charter decreasing the capital stock from $200,000 to $100,000 and changing the board of directors from three to ﬁve members.

At a meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of New York city, on January 5, Albert R. Shattuck addressed the members on the subject of good roads, and asked them to indorse a resolution urging the expenditure of $50,000,000 on the highways of the State.

The Randliff Motor Car Company, recently organized, have secured the premises formerly occupied by the Suto Car Company, at 24 and 26 Columbus avenue, Boston. They are the Eastern representatives of the Panhard & Levassor and the Maxwell, Briscoe Company.

The Moline Automobile Company, East Moline, Ill., have appointed the Buck Auto, Carriage and Implement Company, of Davenport, Ia., agents for Davenport, Rock Island, and a number of neighboring counties on both sides of the Mississippi, and the Mead Cycle Company agents for Chicago and vicinity.

Upon the recommendation of the Bureau of Combustibles, Fire Commissioner Hayes, of New York, has revoked the license granted to Tadini F. Gerome, proprietor of an automobile garage and repair shop at 71 South Washington square, on the ground that the conditions there are in violation of the rules of the department.

The Matheson Motor Car Company, of Holyoke, Mass., have purchased a plot of land on the Grand boulevard, Detroit, Mich., and expect to build a factory on it in the spring. A Detroit office has been opened at 910 Hammond Building, in charge of F, A. Hinchman. He has recently been elected treasurer, and F. F. Matheson secretary.

The capital stock of the New York Sporting Goods Company has been increased to $100,000, and they have received permission to amend their charter to cover the manufacture and sale of motor cars and supplies. They have secured the building at 17 Warren street, New York city, which will be used for sales purposes. Roger F. Murray has been added to their board of directors.

On January 2 a 100 mile track race was held at Dallas, Tex., and was won by Ollie Savin, driving E. H. R. Green's Pope-Toledo, in 2 hours, 6 minutes and 42 3.5 seconds. There were ﬁve starters.

The Evans Automobile Company, of Columbus, Ohio, recently organized, have elected the following officers: J. Cyrus Morrison, president; Smiley Caldwell, vice president; George W. Smith, secretary; Charles E. Leist, treasurer, and William E. Evans general manager. Quarters have been secured at 63 Fay street, and the company propose to do a general automobile business, including a livery service.

An application for a charter of incorporation under the laws of Pennsylvania has been made by Joseph S. Mack, William E. Butler, Willis A. Heath, John M. Mack, W. C. Mack, A. F. Mack, Leo E. Schimpff and Louis Meyer, for an intended corporation to be called the Mack Brothers Motor Car Company, for the manufacture of motors, cars, vehicles, boats, locomotives, automobiles and machine and hardware specialties. The Weaver-Hirst foundry plant, of Allentown, Pa., has been acquired by the company, whose present factory is in Brooklyn, N. Y.

Spaces at the Detroit Automobile Show, which opens on February 13, have been allotted to Cadillac Automobile Company, Packard Motor Car Company, Stirling Auto Company, Northern Manufacturing Company, Waverley, Pope-Toledo Company, Maxwell-Briscoe Company, I. P. Schneider, Welch Motor Car Company, E. R. Thomas Motor Car Company, Pungs-Finch Motor and Gas Engine Company, Reid Manufacturing Company, C. H. Blomstrom Motor Company, Olds Motor Company, Wayne Automobile Company, W. H. Weber, White Sewing Machine Company, Ford Motor Company, Young & Miller, Reliance Motor Car Company, Humber Motor Company, C. F. Splitdori. Standard Oil Company, Briscoe Manufacturing Company, American Lubricator Company, Gray & Davis, Hartford Rubber Company, B. F. Goodrich Rubber Company, Veeder Manufacturing Company, Morgan & Wright, Schug Manufacturing Company, Firestone Rubber Company, Badger Brass Manufacturing Company, Rose Manufacturing Company, Diamond Rubber Company, Concentrated Acetylene Company, Twentieth Century Manufacturing Company, Monnier Cycle Supply Company, Fawkes Rubber Company, Warner Gear Company, Fisk Rubber Company, G & J Tire Company, Automobile Equipment Company, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, McDonald, Wessels & Ames Company, Matchless Metal Polish Company, Armstrong & Co., S. F. Bowser & Co., Detroit Steel Products Company.

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Page:The Holy Bible, containing the Old & New Testament & the Apocrypha.djvu/976

Rh :Who put on ornaments of gold upon your apparel.
 * How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle!
 * O Jonathan, thou wast slain in thine high places.
 * I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan:
 * Very pleasant hast thou been unto me:
 * Thy love to me was wonderful,
 * Passing the love of women.
 * How are the mighty fallen,
 * And the weapons of war perished!

it came to pass after this, that David enquired of the Lord, saying, Shall I go up into any of the cities of Judah? And the Lord said unto him, Go up. And David said, Whither shall I go up? And he said, Unto Hebron. So David went up thither, and his two wives also, Ahinoam the Jezreelitess, and Abigail Nabal's wife the Carmelite. And his men that were with him did David bring up, every man with his household: and they dwelt in the cities of Hebron. And the men of Judah came, and there they anointed David king over the house of Judah. And they told David, saying, That the men of Jabesh-gilead were they that buried Saul.

And David sent messengers unto the men of Jabesh-gilead, and said unto them, Blessed be ye of the Lord, that ye have shewed this kindness unto your lord, even unto Saul, and have buried him. And now


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II] the Lord shew kindness and truth unto you: and I also will requite you this kindness, because ye have done this thing. Therefore now let your hands be strengthened, and be ye valiant: for your master Saul is dead, and also the house of Judah have anointed me king over them.

But Abner the son of Ner, captain of Saul's host, took Ish-bosheth the son of Saul, and brought him over to Mahanaim; and made him king over Gilead, and over the Ashurites, and over Jezreel, and over Ephraim, and over Benjamin, and over all Israel. Ish-bosheth Saul's son was forty years old when he began to reign over Israel, and reigned two years. But the house of Judah followed David. And the time that David was king in Hebron over the house of Judah was seven years and six months.

And Abner the son of Ner, and the servants of Ish-bosheth the son of Saul, went out from Mahanaim to Gibeon. And Joab the son of Zeruiah, and the servants of David, went out, and met together by the pool of Gibeon: and they sat down, the one on the one side of the pool, and the other on the other side of the pool. And Abner said to Joab, Let the young men now arise, and play before us. And Joab said, Let them arise. Then there arose and went over by number twelve of Benjamin, which pertained to


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Rh the son of Saul, and twelve of the servants of David. And they caught every one his fellow by the head, and thrust his sword in his fellow's side; so they fell down together: wherefore that place was called Helkath-hazzurim, which is in Gibeon. And there was a very sore battle that day; and Abner was beaten, and the men of Israel, before the servants of David.

And there were three sons of Zeruiah there, Joab, and Abishai, and Asahel: and Asahel was as light of foot as a wild roe. And Asahel pursued after Abner; and in going he turned not to the right hand nor to the left from following Abner. Then Abner looked behind him, and said, Art thou Asahel? And he answered, I am. And Abner said to him, Turn thee aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay thee hold on one of the young men, and take thee his armour. But Asahel would not turn aside from following of him. And Abner said again to Asahel, Turn thee aside from following me: wherefore should I smite thee to the ground? how then should I hold up my face to Joab thy brother? Howbeit he refused to turn aside: wherefore Abner with the hinder end of the spear smote him under the fifth rib, that the spear came out behind him; and he fell down there, and died in the same place: and it came to pass, that


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II] as many as came to the place where Asahel fell down and died stood still. Joab also and Abishai pursued after Abner: and the sun went down when they were come to the hill of Ammah, that lieth before Giah by the way of the wilderness of Gibeon.

And the children of Benjamin gathered themselves together after Abner, and became one troop, and stood on the top of an hill. Then Abner called to Joab, and said, Shall the sword devour for ever? knowest thou not that it will be bitterness in the latter end? how long shall it be then, ere thou bid the people return from following their brethren? And Joab said, As God liveth, unless thou hadst spoken, surely then in the morning the people had gone up every one from following his brother. So Joab blew a trumpet, and all the people stood still, and pursued after Israel no more, neither fought they any more. And Abner and his men walked all that night through the plain, and passed over Jordan, and went through all Bithron, and they came to Mahanaim. And Joab returned from following Abner: and when he had gathered all the people together, there lacked of David's servants nineteen men and Asahel. But the servants of David had smitten of Benjamin, and of Abner's men, so that three hundred and threescore men died.


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Rh Gerontic. Old age, often expressed by irregular roughening of sculpture, thickening of the lip, and, finally, more or less marked loosening of the coil, as in page 525, Figure 343: 1-14, representing an extreme instance.

Each of these stages may be subdivided by use of the prefixes ana-, meta-, para-. Thus ananeanic signifies an early neanic substage; metaneanic, mid-neanic; and paraneanic, a late neanic substage, or almost full grown.

The collector should take a few young shells, as the sculpture of the embryonic stage is often so delicate that it is frequently imperfect or entirely lost from the apices of adults.

Types.—The term type, which has served without ambiguity for many years, seems to me preferable to "holotype" which is equivalent in meaning, both referring to the specimen originally described of a species or subspecies. Reference to the museum number and the location of type specimens is included in the Distribution paragraph, immediately following the type locality, these abbreviations being used:

Names of other institutions and collections are written in full.

When an author specifies "cotypes," or when there are several examples in his original lot, neither specified as type, one specimen has often been taken as a "lectotype". In a few other cases, where the type material has been lost, a "neotype" has been selected. "Paratypes" are specimens other than the type, which were before the author of a species and more or less directly referred to in the original account.

References.—To save space in a work already too long, the references to literature have been restricted to those thought to be most useful. Many European references to the older species, though useful in their day, have now only a minor historic interest; those concerned with them are referred to the works of W. G. Binney and L. Pfeiffer. As W. G. Binney's several monographs of 1869, 1878 and 1885 contain substantially the same descriptive matter and figures of shells, reference has usually been made only to the Terrestrial Mollusks V, 1878, as this contains Binney's anatomical work, and reprints of the exquisite figures of Volume III.

In only special cases references are given to Tryon's Monograph of the Terrestrial Mollusca of the United States, in American Journal of Conchology II-IV, 1866-1868; and to his work in the Manual of Conchology I-IV, 1885-1888. Several lists, such as the Classified Catalogue published in Nautilus XI, XII, 1897-8, are also omitted. These


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 PREFACE

More than fifty years have passed since publication of the last general work upon land mollusks of the United States and British America, W. G. Binney's Manual of American Land Shells, 1885. I believe that no one publishing work on our land mollusks at that time is still living. The progress of a generation of malacologists is thus to be recorded here, in addition to a summary of the previous work which we inherited.

In the limits set for this work, it is not possible to cover all aspects represented in the work of many naturalists during the past half century. Only the fundamental subjects, description, classification and distribution of our land snails are treated somewhat fully. The, comprising more than half of the species and subspecies of our fauna, form the subject of the present volume.

American land snails have been a favorite study with me since boyhood; during most of that time chiefly as an occupation of evenings and in the intervals of other work. A field acquaintance with them, begun as a student in Iowa, has been continued in vacations and collecting trips in the southern Appalachians, the Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas; in Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and many other states. But in much of the territory covered in this book, materials were gathered chiefly by friends and correspondents. Among these I may mention especially, Mr. James H. Ferriss, who shared his collections with the Academy, and Dr. H. Burrington Baker, whose work in the southern Appalachians and in Montana, Idaho and Oregon, generously placed at my disposal, has greatly extended our facilities. In the mountain states we have had many contributions from the late Professor Junius Henderson and from Professor T. D. A. Cockerell. In California, Mr. Allyn G. Smith and George Willett were especially helpful. Mr. E. P. Chace and Mrs. Chace supplied valuable material, and Dr. S. S. Berry contributed paratypes of many species. Dr. A. F. Archer gave series of his extensive collections from Michigan to Alabama, and Mr. John P. Oughton supplied Canadian material. Many others, whose names appear in the text, have assisted with particular species or essential data.

(III)


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IV I am also indebted for information and the loan of precious typo material to Dr. Paul Bartsch of the National Museum, Mr. William J. Clench of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Dr. G. Dallas Hanna and Leo G. Hertlein of the California Academy of Sciences, Dr. Frank C. Baker, University of Illinois, Dr. Stanley T. Brooks, Carnegie Museum, and Mr. Calvin Goodrich, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. Dr. Bernard Rensch lent type material from the Zoologisches Museum in Berlin, and Lieut.-Col. A. J. Peile compared various specimens with types in the British Museum. The book is much the better for this friendly cooperation.

In the Academy the long task of preparing the work has been constantly encouraged by the President, Mr. C. M. B. Cadwalader, whose interest made the publication possible. Mr. J. A. G. Rehn, Chairman of the Publication Committee, gave liberally of his time and expert knowledge of engraving and printing. Mr. V. S. L. Pate assisted in preparing the manuscript for the press. In the proofreading I owe much to Mr. C. Bernard Peterson's accurate eye. He also prepared the Index.

Finally, the illustrations of shells, which, in a descriptive work on mollusks are considered as essential as the text, have mostly been prepared by Miss Helen Winchester, whose collaboration has been indispensable to the usefulness and the appearance of the work.


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Rh And they took up Asahel, and buried him in the sepulchre of his father, which was in Beth-lehem. And Joab and his men went all night, and they came to Hebron at break of day.

Now there was long war between the house of Saul and the house of David: but David waxed stronger and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed weaker and weaker.

And unto David were sons born in Hebron: and his firstborn was Amnon, of Ahinoam the Jezreelitess; and his second, Chileab, of Abigail the wife of Nabal the Carmelite; and the third, Absalom the son of Maacah the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur; and the fourth, Adonijah the son of Haggith; and the fifth, Shephatiah the son of Abital; and the sixth, Ithream, by Eglah David's wife. These were born to David in Hebron.

And it came to pass, while there was war between the house of Saul and the house of David, that Abner made himself strong for the house of Saul. And Saul had a concubine, whose name was Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah: and Ish-bosheth said to Abner, Wherefore hast thou gone in unto my father's concubine? Then was Abner very wroth for the words of Ish-bosheth, and said, Am I a dog's head, which against Judah do shew kindness this day unto the house of


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 LEGISLATIVE AND LEGAL

Rewards for Automobile Arrests Legal.

The trouble between automobilists in general and the authorities of Patchogue, L. I., in particular were revived last week by the decision of judge Smith, of Brooklyn, in the case of R. W. McNeil, a taxpayer of Brookhaven, who had sought to have the supervisors of Nassau County restrained from paying the rewards which were claimed by the various deputy sheriffs for making arrests for violations of the automobile speed laws. Messrs. Niles and Johnson, who are also counsel for the American Automobile Association, appeared for McNeil.

Judge Smith’s opinion, which was favorable to the supervisors, and consequently establishes the legality of such rewards, is in part as follows:

“Section 230 of the county law provides that ‘all expenses necessarily incurred by the district attorney in criminal cases, or proceedings arising in his county.’ shall be a county charge. Substantially this provision of law was in effect at the time of the decision of the Court of Appeals in the case of The People, ex rel Gardner, against the Supervisors of Columbia County, 134 New York, page 1. In that case Justice Bradley, in his opinion, speaking of the district attorney, says ‘it was his duty to conduct prosecutions for crimes committed in his county, the expenses necessarily incurred by him in criminal cases arising therein were county charges. This duty to conduct prosecutions may fairly be construed to embrace whatever is essential to bring the criminal to trial, as well as proceedings in the trial.’

“In the absence of an authority to the contrary, the offering of a reward for evidence which shall lead to a conviction of persons guilty of offenses which were notoriously being constantly committed, cannot be declared to be not properly essential to bring offenders to trial for their offenses. Very much must be left to the discretion of the district attorney. This action is based on the entire lack of power to offer the reward, and not upon the abuse of the discretion in offering the reward.

“The above statement is based upon the assumption that the district attorney offered the reward of which complaint is made. The plaintiff claims that the rewards were in effect offered by the supervisors. The supervisors do not contend that they have any authority to offer rewards for evidence which shall lead to a conviction of a crime committed within their county. They have no such power, but in this case they did not offer the reward or direct the offering of the reward. They, in terms, requested the district attorney to offer the reward; he was at liberty to refuse their request. There was no direction or request as to the form of the offer. If the district attorney chose to advertise in his offer that it was made pursuant to a resolution of the board it was probably done to assure any person that acted upon his offer that his claim would undoubtedly be allowed by the body which had the lawful power to audit and allow it. The essential point is that the board did not attempt to control the discretion of the district attorney, so that his offer of the reward was an act for which he is alone responsible and which was within his power. It follows that the complaint must be dismissed with costs.”

Opinion on West Virginian County Court Ruling.

On October 5 the County Court of Grant County, West Virginia, made an order that “All persons be, and are hereby prohibited from running and operating automobiles or machines of like character upon any of the highways in this county. Anyone violating the provisions of this order will be subject to a penalty of one hundred ($100) dollars.”

The executive committee of the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers, Incorporated, took the matter in hand at its last meeting, and directed its counsel, Charles Thaddeus Terry, to prepare an opinion on the validity of the order for the beneﬁt of David L. Luke, a resident of the county, and of all other persons interested. Mr. Terry has prepared a memorandum of authorities and arguments which show:

1. That this order is an illegal usurpation by the County Court of Grant County, of the powers of the Legislature.

2. It is in violation of both the United States and West Virginia constitution, in so for as it deprives citizens of both liberty and property without due process of law.

3. It is in excess of the police powers of the State, and is a deprivation of both liberty and property without due process of law.

4. It discriminates between the users of the highways and deprives automobilists of the equal protection of the law, and is therefore void.

The arguments in the case may be seen and copied at the association's offices. It is not unlikely that similar cases will arise in other directions, in which case the association will be glad to supply the members, or anyone else interested, with the details of Mr. Terry’s arguments.

, Pa.—Upon a petition filed by the Diamond Drill and Machine Company and Clement & Sons, Judge McMichael has appointed George De B. Myers receiver for the Union Motor Truck Company.

New incorporations.

The Reo Motor Car Company, New York city. Capital, $10,000. Incorporators, R. E. Olds, C. Andrade, R. M. Owen.

Curtis Automobile Company, Milwaukee. Capital, $10,000. Incorporators, Orin L Curtis, Harry Landauer, Frank Thanhouser.

Ardsley Motor Car Company, Yonkers. N. Y. Capital, $75,000. Directors, Theodore S. Fuller, Frederick P. Fuller, A. E. Rittenhouse.

Fuller & Walch, Yonkers, N. Y. To sell automobiles. Capital, $10,000. Incorporators, Frederick P. Fuller, Theodore S. Fuller, A. S. Andrews.

The E. R. Clark Automobile Company. Springﬁeld, Mass. Capital, $10,000. Incorporators, Edward R. Clark, Edgar A. Stoddard, Ralph W. Stoddard.

Toronto Gas and Gasoline Engine Company, Toronto, Ont. Capital, $300,000. Directors, J. Laishley, L. C. Laishley, Robert Hunter.

The Evans Automobile Company, Columbus, Ohio. Capital, $30,000. Incorporators, I. Cyrus Morrison. G. W. Smith, W. E Evans, Smiley Caldwell, Charles E. Leist.

Orlando F. Weber Company, Milwaukee, Wis. To manufacture automobiles and automobile parts. Capital, $80,000. Incorporators, Urlando F. Weber, Alfred Reeke, A. F. Soliday.

The Middleton Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee, to manufacture automobiles and automobile parts. Capital, $200,000. Incorporators, William C. Middleton, Frederick S. Middleton, Albert S. Schrewe.

United States Automobile Company, Rochester, N. Y. Capital, $200,000. Directors, Harry S. Woodworth, Henry H. Love, John A. Barhite, Austin F. Crittenden, Charles F. Garﬁeld, Henry H. Kingston, Jr.; J. Foster Wamer.

The Edmunds & Jones Manufacturing Company, Detroit, Mich. To manufacture automobile lamps, etc. Capital, $6,500. Incorporators, George Edmunds, William T. Jones, George Roberts, Edward C. Humphreys, Harry W. Brooks.

The Gordon Bennett Race.

The French Government has sanctioned the Gordon Bennett Cup race to be held over the Circuit Auvergnat, which has been selected by the Automobile Club of France for the event. The club has offered a trophy to be known as the Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, which will be competed for over the same course and at the same time as the Gordon Bennett race. There is some discussion regarding the restriction of the eligibility to drive in this race to the nationality of the cars entered. That is that only Frenchmen be allowed to drive on the French team, and so on. Hitherto there has been no such restriction.

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III] Saul thy father, to his brethren, and to his friends, and have not delivered thee into the hand of David, that thou chargest me to day with a fault concerning this woman? So do God to Abner, and more also, except, as the Lord hath sworn to David, even so I do to him; to translate the kingdom from the house of Saul, and to set up the throne of David over Israel and over Judah, from Dan even to Beer-sheba. And he could not answer Abner a word again, because he feared him.

And Abner sent messengers to David on his behalf, saying, Whose is the land? saying also, Make thy league with me, and, behold, my hand shall be with thee, to bring about all Israel unto thee. And he said, Well; I will make a league with thee: but one thing I require of thee, that is, Thou shalt not see my face, except thou first bring Michal Saul's daughter, when thou comest to see my face. And David sent messengers to Ish-bosheth Saul's son, saying, Deliver me my wife Michal, which I espoused to me for an hundred foreskins of the Philistines. And Ish-bosheth sent, and took her from her husband, even from Phaltiel the son of Laish. And her husband went with her along weeping behind her to Bahurim. Then said Abner unto him, Go, return. And he returned.


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Rh And Abner had communication with the elders of Israel, saying, Ye sought for David in times past to be king over you: now then do it: for the Lord hath spoken of David, saying, By the hand of my servant David I will save my people Israel out of the hand of the Philistines, and out of the hand of all their enemies. And Abner also spake in the ears of Benjamin: and Abner went also to speak in the ears of David in Hebron all that seemed good to Israel, and that seemed good to the whole house of Benjamin. So Abner came to David to Hebron, and twenty men with him. And David made Abner and the men that were with him a feast. And Abner said unto David, I will arise and go, and will gather all Israel unto my lord the king, that they may make a league with thee, and that thou mayest reign over all that thine heart desireth. And David sent Abner away; and he went in peace.

And, behold, the servants of David and Joab came from pursuing a troop, and brought in a great spoil with them: but Abner was not with David in Hebron; for he had sent him away, and he was gone in peace. When Joab and all the host that was with him were come, they told Joab, saying, Abner the son of Ner came to the king, and he hath sent him away, and he is gone in peace. Then Joab came to


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 of beautifully sculptured Hindu pillars, and the adjoining Kutab Minar, the tallest minaret or pillar in the world, being 238 feet in height, rising from a base having a diameter of 47 feet to 9 feet at its summit, are among what have been fitly termed "the many architectural glories of Delhi." Outside the city to the north are the Kudsia gardens with their interesting ruins, and about a mile to the north-west of the Mori gate is the historic ridge which formed such a prominent feature in the last siege of Delhi, and from which a most extensive view can be obtained of the city and suburbs.

The streets of Delhi and the roads round about the city are vile, full of great holes, and dusty to the last degree. But once fairly clear of the city, we strike the Grand Trunk Road, after crossing the Jumna Bridge, where we pay toll, receiving eight tickets for two annas — why eight, we cannot say. The bridge is wood-paved and is 2,640 feet long, the railway running overhead. The road from this point for many miles is like a racing track, undulating here and there, with a good deal of shade up to Ghaziabad (twelve miles). This city is entered by a large gateway, to get to which one has to turn off the road to the left. There is nothing of interest here, but Kellner's Refreshment Rooms and a P. W. D. Bungalow close to the gateway. It will hardly be necessary to suggest that cyclists will patronize the former. The next village of any importance is Dadri, 12 miles further on, and after that Sikandarabad, another 12 miles, and then Bulandshahr, the road for the last 20 miles rising very gradually. The Dâk Bun-


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20 of those days, was pretty low. They were coarse, vulgar, ignorant men, full of lurid oaths; their persons emitted an unpleasant odor of cheap rum and stale tobacco; they had a jargon of their own and were so illiterate as to be unable to speak or write their own language with any degree of correctness. In a certain sense the captains were good sailors, but their knowledge and ambition were limited to dead reckoning, the tar bucket and marlinspike, a wife in every port, and plenty of rum and tobacco with no desire or ability to master the higher branches of navigation and seamanship. Mariners that a landsman delights to refer to as "real old salts," of the Captain Cuttle and Jack Bunsby species, are amusing enough, perhaps, in the hands of a skilful novelist, but not at all the class of men that one would willingly select to assist in carrying forward the commerce of a great maritime nation.

Then the stupid and obsolete Tonnage Laws encouraged and almost compelled an undesirable type of vessels, narrow, deep, flat-sided, and full-bottomed—bad vessels in a seaway, slow, and often requiring a considerable quantity of ballast, even when loaded, to keep them from rolling over.

It is, of course, always hazardous to deal in generalities, but I think that this may be accepted as a fair description of the merchant marine of Great Britain up to 1834, when the Underwriters at Lloyd's and the better class of ship-owners founded Lloyd's Register of Shipping, to provide for the proper survey and classification of the merchant ships of Great Britain. This first important step

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 what was mistaken by me the other day, when in search of a good depôt, for this lake—very dissimilar indeed), bears 158°, distant about two miles, along almost a valley. Saw some of the natives on the way here, and sent Mr. Hodgkinson and Bullenjani back for one of them to forward a letter to Camp Depot, to desire them to move on to this place, so much more desirable for a depôt than where they now are. Turned out the animals, to await their return. In the meantime, three lubras arrived on the opposite side of the lake, and we called them over. Shortly after, Mr. Hodgkinson and the black came back: we had some luncheon, started the lubras back to the cart at the depôt with a note requesting them to advance to this lake, and, at 1·25, started on a bearing of 345° along the side of the lake, and, at 2·45, left the north-east sweep of the lake; then, on a bearing of 32°, over sand ridges and salt-bush flats. Very open country till within one mile of camp at Ghinany, a large creek, about sixty to eighty yards wide, and from twenty to thirty deep, on which we found a number of natives just finishing their day's fishing. They had been successful, and had three or four different sorts of fish, viz., the catfish of the Murray, the nombre of the Darling, and the brown perch, and I think I observed a small cod. They offered, and I took several, which were very good; they promised to bring more in the morning. We came


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 upon and crossed a large flooded wooded polygonum flat, which continued close to the camp. Distance travelled, twenty-five and three-quarters miles.

19th. Early this morning, about eighty natives of all sorts, healthy and strong, visited the camp, and could not be coaxed or driven away. I think they would have tried to help themselves were it not from fear of the arms; how they came to know their deadliness, I cannot say. Altering one of the camel-saddles that has hurt one of their backs, and caused us to be late in starting. Started 8·40 Immediately crossed creek to Toorabinganee, a succession of reaches of water in a broad creek, some apparently deep; spelled half an hour, crossed creek, and went over very high sand hills, pretty well grassed, with a little saltbush of various kinds, with some flooded and salt-bush flats, and arrived at Luncheon Place, an island often, now partly dry on south-eastern side, in an extensive irregular lake of about eight and a half to nine miles long, by an average of one and three-quarters to two miles. Very hot. Name of lake, Canna Canta-jandide. Thought I might be able to cross it at the narrowest place with the horses and camels, instead of going all round, as it put me out of my course. Sent Mr. Hodgkinson to ascertain its depth, and found it too deep, so had to go round. Arrived at Luncheon Place at


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 12·10, and started again 3·40, and travelled to east end of lake, bearing 202°, till 4·17; then course of 27°, over exceedingly high and abrupt sand hills, with poor miserable flats between them; towards the end of our day's journey, over a rather more flat country, with large dry beds of lakes or swamps, as dry as ashes, with a salt-like appearance, the only vegetation being a few scattered bushes of samphire, and an occasional salt-bush—a more dreary country you could not well imagine. Arrived at Lake Moolion-dhurunnie, a nice little lake, nearly circular, and nearly woodless, about one and a half miles diameter, at 6·55 Abundance of good water, and plenty of feed—clover, and some grass. Bearing of creek that fills lake, 350°; east end, 87°; west end, 303°; north side, 15°. Distance travelled, twenty-eight miles. On arrival at lake, saw several native fires, which, on our lighting ours, were immediately put out. Saw nothing of them.

Sunday, 20th. At daylight about ninety to a hundred natives, of all sorts, visited us; they were not so unruly as those of the morning before, having evidently had some communication with whites—using the word "Yanaman" for horse, as in Sydney, and one or two other words familiar to me. Plenty of fish of all sorts in the lake, although not very deep. Cuddibaieni bears 100°. The natives here say that the whites have left above


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Rh in a much needed reform was followed in 1837 by the appointment of a committee by Parliament to investigate the general condition of shipping engaged in foreign trade. The committee reported as follows:

"The American ships frequenting the ports of England are stated by several witnesses to be superior to those of a similar class amongst the ships of Great Britain, the commanders and officers being generally considered to be more competent as seamen and navigators, and more uniformly persons of education, than the commanders and officers of British ships of a similar size and class trading from England to America, while the seamen of the United States are considered to be more carefully selected, and more efficient. American ships sailing from Liverpool to New York have a preference over English vessels sailing to the same port, both as to freight and the rate of insurance; and, the higher wages being given, their whole equipment is maintained in a higher state of perfection, so that fewer losses occur; and as the American shipping having increased of late years in the proportion to 12¾% per annum, while the British shipping have increased within the same period only 1½% per annum, the constantly increasing demand for seamen by the rapidly growing maritime commerce of the whole world, the numbers cut off by shipwrecks, and the temptations offered by the superior wages of American vessels, cause a large number of British seamen every year to leave the service of their own country, and to embark in that of the United States; and these comprising chiefly the most

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 place, and are now at Undaganie. I observed several portions of European clothing about their camps as on our course we passed them. At the camp we found twenty to thirty more natives, principally aged and children; and on the opposite side of the lake there was another encampment, in all numbering about 150 souls. The sand hills in our course were exceedingly high on the western side, but pretty hard; but on the eastern side almost precipitous, and soft drift-sand; a dray or cart might get east, but I cannot fancy it possible it could return. An exceedingly hot day, wind north. On our way, the natives informed us that the natives we had left in the morning had murdered the man said to be at the end of our day's stage. On some of the ridges, and on crossing a large flat creek, I observed two new trees or shrubs (they are both); from one I obtained some seeds like beans, and rather a nice tree; the other, when large, at a distance looks like a shea-oak, having a very dark butt, and long, drooping, dark-green, narrow leaves, and did not appear to have any seeds at present. Started at 7·17. Till 9·38 nine miles, on a bearing of from 100° to 105°. At 8·18 sighted a large timbered creek, distant one mile, for about seven miles, 360° to 140°. At 9·38 observed a large, dry, salt lake, bearing 341°, north-west arm 330°, north arm 355°, distance to


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42 valley is a crow-fly distance of some ten or twenty miles. Stand on one of the brinks with the desert behind you; the rocky descent falls from your feet to the strip of plain below, and away over the floods of the summertime, or the green of the growing winter-time, or the golden harvests of the spring, you are faced by the opposing wall of rock rising to the other desert. The recesses in those rock fronts were carved long ago into cavernous temples and tombs, and the salients into mighty effigies of kings and gods. Egypt, in this long sunken belt, was anciently civilised because all the essential physical advantages were here combined for men to work upon. On the one hand were a rich soil, abundant water, and a powerful sunshine; hence fertility for the support of a population


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 point of north bank nine miles. Bullenjani informed us that a large lake lay on a bearing of 110°, some distance off, named Mum Murri Ando. At 10·15 started on a fresh course of 64°, crossing, 11·15, a small salt lake, rapidly drying up. At 11·30 altered course to 100°. At 11·35 to 12·50 spelled on sand hill, waiting for the camels, they feeling the effects of the steep sand hill. At 1·9 altered course to 116°; at 1·15 altered course to 161°; at 1·53 changed to 47°; and at 2·20 reached Lake Kadhiberri. Found plenty of water, and watered the horses (the camels some distance behind quite unable to keep up), and at once proceeded northward along the side of a large, beautifully-timbered, grassed, and clovered swamp (or creek, about one and a half miles across), to ascertain the fact as to the presence of a European, dead or alive, and there found a grave rudely formed by the natives; evidently not one of themselves, sufficient pains not having been taken, and from other appearances, at once set it down as the grave of a white, be he who he may. Returned to lake to await the coming of the camels, which was not till about 5 Determined in the morning to have the grave opened and ascertain its contents. Whilst I went to top of sand hills, looking round me, Mr. Hodgkinson strayed a short distance to some old deserted native huts, a short distance off, and


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22 and competent of our mariners, produce the double effect of improving the efficiency of the American crews, and in the same ratio diminishing the efficiency of the British merchant service."

In 1843 a circular was issued from the Foreign Office to all British consuls requesting information on the conduct and character of British shipmasters, especially with regard to the "incompetence of British shipmasters to manage their vessels and crews, whether arising from deficiency of knowledge in practical navigation and seamanship, or of moral character, particularly want of sobriety." The consular reports revealed a startling condition of affairs, requiring immediate attention, and led to the establishment in 1847, of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade, with authority to supervise maritime affairs. From such unpromising material the formation was begun of the greatest merchant marine that has ever existed.

Meanwhile, one of the most important branches of British commerce, the East India trade, had been following an independent career, for the ships of the East India Company, although engaged in commercial pursuits, were under the direct patronage of the government, and cannot be regarded as forming part of the merchant marine of Great Britain. Yet as this Company had an important bearing upon the mercantile affairs of the nation, I propose to review as briefly as possible some of its remarkable exploits.

"The United Company of Merchant Venturers of England trading to the East Indies" was familiarly known as the "John Company," and among those

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Rh in affluence. On the other hand was a smooth water-way within half a dozen miles or less of every field in the country. There was also motive power for shipping, since the river-current carried vessels northward, and the Etesian winds—known on the ocean as the trade winds—brought them southward again. Fertility and a line of communications—man-power and facilities for its organisation; there are the essential ingredients for a kingdom.

We are asked to picture the early condition of Egypt as that of a valley held by a chain of tribes, who fought with one another in fleets of great war-canoes, just as later tribes have fought on the river Congo in our own time. Some one of these tribes, having defeated its neighbours, gained possession of a longer section of the valley, a more extensive material basis for its man-power, and on that basis organised further conquests. At last


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Rh endowed with a larger bump of reverence, as the "Honorable John Company"; but by whatever name it may be called, this was the most gigantic commercial monopoly the world has ever known, since the days when the merchants of Tyre claimed the exclusive right to send their ships across certain waters known by common consent as Tyrian Seas.

The East India Company was founded in the year 1600, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The subscribed capital of £72,000 was expended on the first voyage in five vessels with their cargoes. This fleet consisted of the Dragon, of 600 tons, her commander receiving the title of Admiral of the squadron; the Hector, 300 tons, with a Vice-Admiral in command; two vessels of 200 tons each; and the Guest, a store ship of 130 tons. Four hundred and eighty men were employed in the expedition, including twenty merchants as supercargoes. The vessels were all heavily armed and were provided with small arms and an abundance of ammunition. They cost, with their equipment, £45,000, and their cargoes £27,000.

Friendly relations were formed with the King of Achin, in Sumatra, and a station, known in those days and long afterward as a "factory," was established at Bantam, in Java. The fleet returned to England richly laden with silks and spices in 1603. In 1609 the Trades Increase, of 1209 tons, the largest ship launched in England up to that time, was built, but she was wrecked and became a total loss on her first voyage. Sir Henry Middleton, her commander, died soon after. This was an unfortunate expedition and resulted in heavy losses

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44 the whole length of the valley was brought under a single rule, and the kings of all Egypt established their palace at Thebes. Northward and southward, by boat on the Nile, travelled their administrators—their messengers and their magistrates. Eastward and westward lay the strong defence of the deserts, and at the northern limit, against the sea pirates, a belt of marsh round the shore of the Delta.

Now carry your mind to the 'Great Sea,' the Mediterranean. You have there essentially the same physical ingredients as in Egypt but on a larger scale, and you have based upon them not a mere kingdom but the Roman Empire. From the Phœnician coast for two thousand miles westward lies the broad water-way to its mouth at Gibraltar, and on either hand are fertile shorelands with winter rains and harvest sunshine. But there is a distinction to be made between the dwellers along the Nile banks and those along the Mediterranean shores. The conditions of human activity are relatively uniform in all parts of Egypt; each of the constituent tribes would have its farmers and its boatmen. But the races round the Mediterranean became specialised; some were content to


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Rh till their fields and navigate their rivers at home, but others gave most of their energy to seamanship and foreign commerce. Side by side, for instance, dwelt the home-staying, corn-growing Egyptians and the adventurous Phœnicians. A longer and more sustained effort of organisation was therefore needed to weld all the kingdoms of the Mediterranean into a single political unit.

Modern research has made it plain that the leading seafaring race of antiquity came at all times from that square of water between Europe and Asia which is known alternatively as the Ægean Sea and the Archipelago, the 'Chief Sea' of the Greeks. Sailors from this sea would appear to have taught the Phœnicians their trade in days when as yet Greek was not spoken in the 'Isles of the Gentiles.' It is of deepest interest for our present purpose to note that the centre of civilisation in the pre-Greek world of the Ægean, according both to the indications of mythology and the recent excavations, was in the Island of Crete. Was that the first base of sea-power? From that home did the seamen fare who, sailing northward, saw the coast of the rising sun to their right hand, and of the setting sun to their left hand, and named the one Asia and the other Europe? Was it from Crete that


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24 to the Company, but in 1611 the Globe cleared 218%, and in the following year the Globe, Thomas, and Hector turned over profits amounting to 340% upon the capital invested. Other successful voyages followed, so that in 1617 the stock of the Company reached a premium of 203%.

The East India Company had its troubles, to be sure, which were many and great, yet it increased in power, wealth, and strength, until at the close of the eighteenth century it had become possessed of a large portion of the continent of India, maintaining its own armies, forts, palaces, Courts of Directors, Boards of Council, Governors, and Typeans. Eventually, this Company became the ruler of more than one hundred million human beings, not naked savages, but civilized men and women, many of whose ancestors had been learned scholars and merchant princes long prior to the invasion of Britain by the Roman, Dane, and Saxon.

It is not, however, with the political affairs of this Company that I wish to deal, but rather with the ships and the men who navigated them. The princely emoluments known as "indulgences" in which the captains and officers of these ships participated, naturally attracted the attention of parents and guardians, so that younger sons, otherwise destined for a life of ill-requited repose in the church, the Army, or the Navy, found lucrative service with the East India Company. These perquisites, which were handed out by the Honorable Court of

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46 the sea-folk settled round the other shores of the Ægean 'sea-chamber,' forming to this day a coastal veneer of Greek population in front of peoples of other race a few miles inland ? There are so many islands in the Archipelago that the name has become, like the Delta of Egypt, one of the common descriptive terms of geography. But Crete is the largest and most fruitful of them. Have we here a first instance of the importance of the larger base for sea-power? The man-power of the sea must be nourished by land- fertility somewhere, and other things being equal—such as security of the home and energy of the people—that power will control the sea which is based on the greater resources.

The next phase of Ægean development teaches apparently the same lesson. Horse-riding tribes of Hellenic speech came down from the north into the peninsula which now forms the mainland of Greece, and settled, Hellenising the earlier inhabitants. These Hellenes advanced into the terminal limb of the peninsula, the Peloponnese, slenderly attached to the continent by the isthmus of Corinth. Thence, organising sea-power on their relatively considerable peninsular base, one of the Hellenic tribes, the Dorians, conquered Crete, a smaller though completely insular base.


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 Rh, were no doubt intended to be of pleasing variety and magnitude. The Company adhered strictly to promotion by seniority as vacancies occurred, from ship to ship when necessary. Captains were appointed to their ships before launching, in order that they might superintend their equipment and get them ready for sea. Midshipmen were appointed by the Court of Directors, and no youth of less than thirteen or over eighteen years was eligible. Second mates were required to be at least twenty-two, chief mates twenty-three, and commanders twenty-five years of age.

Captains were entitled to fifty-six and one half tons of space on board the ships commanded by them, which they might use at their discretion, either to collect the freight or to carry cargo on their own account, credit being furnished by the company for the latter purpose at the usual interest. The rate of freight ranged from £35 to £40 per ton, though in 1796 the Admiral Gardner, a ship of 813 tons, commanded by John Woolmore, Esq., was chartered for "six voyages certain" from London to India and return, at £50 for every ton of cargo carried. Even at the lowest rate of £35 per ton, the voyage out and home of about eighteen months yielded a captain some £3955, and if he carried goods on his own account, as was usually the case, he realized a much larger sum. Captains were also allowed primage, which was a percentage upon the total gross freight earned by the ship, and the passage money for passengers carried, except the Company's troops, less the cost of living. Considering that the passage money to or

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text: Author:Gustav Arthur Cooper

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Translation:Internal Security Act, BE 2551 (2008)

Phra Bat Somdet Phra Paraminthra Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej is graciously pleased to proclaim that: Whereas it is desirable to bring into existence a law on internal security; And whereas it is aware that this Act contains certain provisions giving rise to the restriction of personal rights and freedoms, in respect of which sections 29 and 31 incorporating sections 32, 33, 34, 36, 41 and 43 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand so permit by means of the legal provisions;

Be it enacted by the King's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the National Legislative Assembly, as follows:

This Act shall be cited as the "Internal Security Act, BE 2551 (2008)".

This Act shall come into force as from the day following the date of its publication in the Government Gazette.

In this Act:

"Internal security operation" means, for the sake of public order or national security, the measures to preserve, control, solve and restore the state of normalcy from any situation which is the result of an act of a person or group of persons exposing or likely to expose life and limb or property of the citizens or the State to injury;

"Commission" means the Internal Security Operations Commission;

"Commander" means the Internal Security Operations Commander;

"State agency" means a government agency, state enterprise, public organisation, local government agency and other state agency, but not including the courts and the constitutionally independent organs;

"State authority" means a government officer, official or employee of a state agency;

"Competent authority" means a person authorised by the Commander to execute this Act;

"Province" includes Bangkok;

"Provincial Governor" includes the Governor of Bangkok.

The Prime Minister shall be in charge of this Act.

There shall be established in the Office of the Prime Minister an Internal Security Operations Command, called "ISOC" in brief, having the authority and responsibility as to the internal security operations.

The ISOC shall be a special government agency directly subject to the Prime Minister. With respect to the ISOC, the administrative procedure, administration of business, structure, separation and authority of agencies and human resources shall be determined by the Council of Ministers.

The Prime Minister, in his capacity as Head of Government, shall be the Internal Security Operations Commander, called "ISO-Com" in brief. He shall be the chief of the government officers and officials in the ISOC and responsible for the administration of its business. The Commander-in-Chief of the Army shall serve as the Deputy Internal Security Operations Commander.

The Commander may appoint the Assistant Internal Security Operations Commanders from the government officers attached to the ISOC or other state authorities as he finds expedient, taking into account the structure and separation of internal agencies of the ISOC.

The Chief of the Land Staff shall be the Secretary General of the ISOC and responsible for its administrative and technical business.

The Deputy Commander, Assistant Commanders and Secretary General shall be empowered to command the ISOC's government officers, officials and employees subordinate to the Commander and shall have other authority as given by the Commander.

The Commander, in the name of the Office of the Prime Minister, shall be competent to carry out legal transactions, to sue, to be sued and to undertake all activities dealing with the authority of the ISOC.

The Commander may, by written authorisation, allow the Deputy Commander to exercise his duties and powers under this Act on his behalf.

The ISOC shall be a government agency under the law on budgeting procedure and the law on treasury reserves.

The ISOC shall be invested with the following authority:

(1)	 To monitor, examine and assess the possibility of the situations likely to give rise to the threats to internal security and report it to the Council of Ministers for further actions;

(2)	 To supervise the internal security operations; prescribed that for such purpose, the ISOC shall be given the authority to propose to the Council of Ministers for approval the plans and guidance for relevant activities and actions, and that the state agencies shall abide by those plans and guidance after they have been approved by the Council of Ministers;

(3)	 To supervise, cooperate on and support the actions of the pertinent state agencies in the execution of the plans and guidance under (2); prescribed that for such purpose, the Council of Ministers may authorise the ISOC to supervise the actions of the state agencies as determined by it;

(4)	 To strengthen the public awareness of the duty to defend the Nation, Faiths and King, the love and harmony amongst the national people, and the public participation in the prevention and solution of the problems affecting the national security and social order;

(5) 	 To carry out other activities as provided by the laws or as required by the Council of Ministers, National Security Council or Prime Minister.

In addition to the powers which may be authorised according to the law on national government organisation, the Commander may authorise the RSO-Coms, PSO-Coms, directors of the centres or chiefs of the agencies called otherwise to exercise his authority under this Act on his behalf.

For the purpose of the ISOC's exercise of its authority under this Act, the state agencies shall send the state authorities to serve the ISOC as required by the Commander, and the personnel administration centres or other organs with the like authority and in charge of those agencies shall provide substitute staff for them as necessary, but not exceeding the number of the staff members sent.

There shall be an Internal Security Operations Commission consisting of the Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister designated by the Prime Minister as President; the Minister of Defence and the Minister of Interior as Vice Presidents; the Minister of Justice, the Minister of Information and Communication Technology, the Permanent Secretary for Defence, the Permanent Secretary for Foreign Affairs, the Permanent Secretary for Interior, the Attorney General, the Secretary General of the National Security Council, the Director of the National Intelligence Agency, the Director of the Bureau of Budgets, the Secretary General of the Civil Service Commission, the Secretary General of the Public Sector Development Commission, the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, the Commander-in-Chief of the Air Forces, the Commissioner General of the National Police, the Comptroller General and the Director General of the Department of Special Investigation. as Commissioners; and the Secretary General of the ISOC as Commissioner and Secretary. The Commander shall appoint not more than two government officers of the ISOC as Assistant Secretaries.

The Commission shall have the authority to monitor and render to the ISOC the advice and recommendations concerning the activities within the authority of the ISOC. The Commission shall also have the following authority:

(1)	 To lay down the rules governing the supervision of and the cooperation with the pertinent state agencies on the internal security operations;

(2)	 To lay down the rules governing the administration of business of the ISOC, RSOCs and PSOCs;

(3)	 To issue the regulations governing the budgets, finance, treasury, supplies and administration of property of the ISOC;

(4)	 To set up the Board of Advisers to the ISOC, with due regard to the participation of the public sectors; prescribed that the Board shall at least consist of the experts or persons experienced in the fields of political science, public administration, law, science and technology, protection of rights and freedoms of the public, peaceful solution of problems, national security defence and mass media, and the it shall bear the duty to propose the solution of possible problems or prevention of possible threats and provide advice as required by the Commission;

(5)	 To set up the sub-commissions or working teams to carry out the duties given by the Commission;

(6)	 To discharge other duties as prescribed by this Act or other laws.

In case of need to undertake the internal security operations in the areas of any Regional Army, the Commission, upon recommendation of the Commander, may resolve to permit such Regional Army to establish a Regional Security Operations Command, called "RSOC" in brief.

The RSOCs shall be the agencies directly subject to the ISOC. They shall be led by the Regional Army Commanders who serve as the Regional Security Operations Commanders or "RSO-Coms" in brief and have the duty to be responsible for and to provide supports to the internal security operations in their respective Regional Army areas as authorised by the Commander.

For the purpose of the execution of duties of a RSOC, the Commander shall be empowered to direct the government officers and employees of the Regional Army, as well as the government officers, officials and employees of the state agencies in the areas concerned to regularly or periodically serve the RSOC according to the recommendations of the RSO-Com.

The RSO-Com shall be the chief of the government officers, officials and employees having been directed to serve his RSOC and shall be responsible for the administration of its business.

With respect to the RSOCs, the structure, separation and authority of agencies, human resources and internal administration shall be determined by the Commander, upon the recommendations of the RSO-Coms.

The ISOC and the Regional Armies shall support the activities of the RSOCs by providing personnel, budgets and property as required by the RSO-Coms. Furthermore, the provisions of section 9 shall apply to the RSOCs mutatis mutandis.

For the purpose of encouraging the participation in the solution of possible problems or prevention of possible threats, the RSO-Com may set up a Board of Advisers to his RSOC, consisting of the president and other members numbering not more than fifteen and appointed from the persons extensively accepted and respected by the citizens in the areas concerned. The Board shall be given the duty to recommend the solution of possible problems or prevention of possible threats and to provide advice as required by the RSO-Com.

For the purpose of supporting and assisting a RSOC in the exercise of its authority under section 11, the RSO-Com, with the approval of the Minister of Interior and the Commander, may establish in a province forming part of the Regional Army areas a Provincial Security Operations Command or "PSOC" in brief. The PSOC shall be an agency directly subject to the RSOC and shall bear the duty to be responsible for and to provide supports to the security operations in the areas of its province as authorised by the Commander. The Provincial Governor shall act as the Provincial Security Operations Commander who is called "PSO-Com" in brief and is the chief of the government officers, officials and employees of the PSOC and responsible for the administration of its business.

With respect to the PSOCs, the structure, separation and authority of agencies, human resources and internal administration shall be determined by the Commander.

The ISOC and the provinces shall support the activities of the PSOCs by providing personnel, budgets and property as required by the PSO-Coms. Moreover, the provisions of section 9 shall apply to the PSOCs mutatis mutandis.

For the purpose of encouraging the participation in the solution of possible problems or prevention of possible threats, the PSO-Com may set up a Board of Advisers to his PSOC, consisting of the president and other members numbering not more than thirteen and appointed from the persons extensively accepted and respected by the citizens in the areas concerned. The Board shall be given the duty to recommend the solution of possible problems or prevention of possible threats and to provide advice as required by the PSO-Com.

Where arises a situation affecting the national security but a state of emergency under the law on public administration in state of emergency needs not to be declared yet, whilst the situation possibly lasts for a long period and its management falls within the authority or responsibility of several state agencies, the Council of Ministers may, by resolution, authorise the ISOC to prevent, suppress, discontinue, subdue and solve or mitigate the said situation within the fixed areas and time limit. This resolution shall be announced to the public.

When the situation under paragraph 1 has come to an end or is capable of being solved by the state agencies of general authority, the Prime Minister shall, by announcement, terminate the authorisation conferred upon the ISOC pursuant to paragraph 1 and shall at once inform the House of Representatives and the Senate of the outcome.

In carrying out the activities authorised under section 15, the ISOC shall also enjoy the following authority:

(1)	 To prevent, suppress, discontinue, subdue and solve or mitigate the situations affecting the national security to the extent authorised in pursuance of section 15;

(2)	 To draw up the plans for the activities under (1) and propose them to the Commission for approval;

(3)	 To monitor, pursue and expedite the activities conducted or integrated by the relevant state agencies and state authorities for the implementation of the plans under (2);

(4)	 To order a state authority whose behaviour is likely to imperil the national security or impede the internal security operations to leave the determined area.

In preparing the plans under (2), the ISOC shall hold the joint conferences with the Secretariat General of the National Security Council and the state agencies concerned. In this regard, the ISOC shall also produce the contingency plans for each expected situation.

Upon deliverance of an order by virtue of (4), the ISOC shall communicate it to the state agency to which the state authority in question is attached and such state authority shall report to his state agency at once. In this regard, the state agency shall remove the state authority from his office or from his functions in the areas specified in the said order.

If, for the purpose of exercising the authority referred to in paragraph 1, the ISOC needs to execute the powers or duties which are, by whatever law, placed in the hand or responsibility of any state agency, the Council of Ministers may, by resolution, appoint any ISOC office holder as an officer or competent authority under such law, or direct the state agency in question to surrender the powers or duties placed in its hand or responsibility by such law to the ISOC, or permit the ISOC to jointly execute them; prescribed that this resolution must be effective within the determined areas and time limit and must also contain the criteria and procedure for the execution of the powers concerned.

In case of need to exercise the authority under section 16 in any specific area so as to solve the problems caused by a situation affecting the national security, the Commander, with the approval of the Commission, may establish a centre or agency called otherwise to take charge of one specific mission or more.

With respect to the centre or agency called otherwise under paragraph 1, the structure, human resources, administration of business, authority, supervision, monitoring or governance shall be determined and published in the Government Gazette by the Commander, with the approval of the Commission. Furthermore, the provisions of section 9 shall apply mutatis mutandis to the centre or agency called otherwise under paragraph 1, whilst the powers of the Commander shall be vested in the director of such centre or the chief of such agency.

For the purpose of preventing, suppressing, discontinuing, subduing and solving or mitigating certain situations in the areas under section 15, the Commander, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, may stipulate the following in the form of ordinance:

(1)	 A requirement that the relevant state authorities perform or refrain from any specific activity;

(2)	 A ban on entry into or an order to leave the determined areas, buildings or places during the operations; prescribed that this ordinance shall not apply to the persons allowed by the competent authorities or persons exempted;

(3)	 A ban on leaving residences during a determined period;

(4)	 A ban on carrying weapons outside residences;

(5)	 A ban on using communication routes or vehicles or the conditions on the use thereof;

(6)	 A requirement that certain persons perform or refrain from any specific activity as to electronic tools or applications, with a view to preventing the treats to life and limb or property of the citizens.

The ordinance under paragraph 1 may also contain certain criteria, time clauses or conditions, but may not place the public in immoderate difficulty.

In existing their authority under section 16 (1), the Commander and the competent authorities designated by the Commander shall, according to the Code of Criminal Procedure, become the senior administrative or police officers and be entitled take part in the inquiries.

If, in the exercise of its authority under section 16 (1), the ISOC causes an innocent citizen to incur injury, it shall appropriately compensate him therefor, subject to the criteria and conditions laid down by the Council of Ministers.

If, in the areas which the ISOC is authorised by the Council of Ministers to address according to section 15, any person who has committed an offence affecting the national security as determined by the Council of Ministers appears to have repented thereof and surrenders himself to a competent authority, or such person is found by a judicial police officer following an inquiry that he has committed the offence out of his mental error or stupidity and the provision of an opportunity for him to reform himself would be beneficial to the internal security operations, the judicial police officer shall submit to the Commander the inquiry files concerning the said accused together with his own opinion.

If the Commander concurs with the opinion of the judicial police officer, he shall render the files and his opinion to a public prosecutor to further make good application to the court. If the court thinks fit, it may deliver the accused to the Commander to further be trained at a determined place for not more than six months and may also stipulate other conditions for him.

The court may undertake the measure under paragraph 2 only when the accused consents to the said training and conditions.

If the accused has passed the training and has well observed the conditions stipulated by the court, the right to bring a criminal case against him shall be excluded.

The competent authorities functioning in the areas under section 15 may be furnished with special allowances by the Council of Ministers.

Subject to the rules of the Council of Ministers, any competent authority under paragraph 1 who incurs illness, death, disability, infirmity or loss of organ in consequence of the functioning shall be entitled to other benefits in addition to those already given by the laws.

All ordinances, announcements, orders or actions under this Chapter shall not be subject to the law on administrative procedure.

It shall be the courts of justice which are competent to address the cases based upon an ordinance, announcement, order or action under this Chapter. In the event that a court needs to indicate certain provisional measures or reliefs under the Code of Civil Procedure or Code of Criminal Procedure, whichever applies, the court shall also require the officer or competent authority issuing the ordinance, announcement or order or undertaking the action in question to appear and demonstrate certain facts, information or reasons to further be considered for the sake such indication.

Any person who contravenes an ordinance issued under section 18 (2), (3), (4), (5) or (6) shall be liable to imprisonment for not more than one year, or a fine of not exceeding twenty thousand baht or both.

The affairs, property, budgets, debts, rights, government officers, officials, employees and human resources of the Internal Security Operations Command under the Order of the Office of the Prime Minister No. 205/2549, Re: Establishment of Internal Security Operations Command, dated 30 October 2006, shall all be transferred to the Internal Security Operations Command under this Act.

The Southern Border Provinces Administration Centre and the Civilian, Police and Military Joint Command under the Order of the Office of the Prime Minister No. 207/2549, Re: Administration of Southern Border Provinces, dated 30 October 2006, shall become the centres or agencies called otherwise under section 17 of this Act.

 * Prime Minister.
 * Prime Minister.

The grounds for promulgation of this Act are as follows: Certain persons or groups of persons currently bring about the security problems of various serious characteristics and capable of quick expansion to the extent resulting in extensive and complicated impacts and likely to sway the independence and territorial integrity, cause unrest amongst the Nation and endanger the public order. In order to promptly prevent and suppress the possible harms, it is expedient to bring into existence a key agency to take charge the internal security operations, to cooperate with every government agency on the pertinent activities in an integrated manner, to encourage the public participation in the security maintenance and defence, to strengthen the local powers against the possible harms both in time of peace and in time of threats to local security, and to provide the specific measures and mechanisms for controlling the exercise of powers at each level of seriousness of the situations and for effectively and unitedly handling these situations. It is therefore necessary to enact this Act.


text: Translation talk:Internal Security Act, BE 2551 (2008)


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pennsylvania

PENNSYLVANIA (see ). During 1910-20 there was a great increase in the industrial developments of Pennsylvania, largely as a result of the World War. From 1914 until American participation in 1917, the Allied Governments expended many millions of dollars among the steel, ammunition and other establishments, bringing to the state a period of prosperity the extent of which was apparent when the Liberty Loans and war taxes disclosed the accumulated wealth. The state maintained its rank as the second state in population and in industry.

The pop. of the state in 1920 was 8,720,017, an increase of 1,054,906 over 1910. The rate of increase, 13.8%, was considerably lower than that of the preceding decade, 21.6%. In 1920 the pop. of the 15 largest cities of the state was: Philadelphia, 1,823,158; Pittsburgh, 588,193; Scranton, 137,783; Reading, 107,784; Erie, 93,372; Harrisburg, 75,917; Wilkes-Barre, 73,833; Allentown, 73,502; Johnstown, 67,327; Altoona, 60,331; Chester, 58,030; Lancaster, 53,150; Bethlehem, 50,358; York, 47,512; and McKeesport, 46,781.

War Period.—Pennsylvania sent 297,891 men into the U.S. army, of whom 53,419 were regulars, 21,350 national guardsmen, and 223,122 drafted. There were 31,063 Pennsylvanians in the navy, 16,872 of whom enlisted in the naval reserve, 13,772 in the regular navy, and 419 in the national naval volunteers. The state was represented by 5,422 men in the marine corps, making a total of 334,376 men and women in the national armed forces. In addition it had 1,600 Y. M.C.A. workers, 147 Knights of Columbus secretaries, and 129 welfare workers under the Society of Friends. In the army Pennsylvania suffered 35,042 casualties, of which 7,898 were deaths. Financially, 559,936 Pennsylvanians subscribed $315,834,950 to the First Liberty Loan; 881,207 subscribed $549,963,700 to the Second Loan; 2,026,973 subscribed $467,758,550 to the Third Loan; 2,349,252 subscribed $812,217,400 to the Fourth Loan; and 1,289,764 subscribed $564,173,200 to the Victory Loan, making a total of $2,709,947,800 for the five loans, a per capita of $312.92 as compared with the per capita throughout the United States of $232.31. The war taxes of the state were: 1917, $589,056,143.20; 1918, $446,811,191. The American Red Cross in its two campaigns in Pennsylvania raised $27,283,990.90 or 10% of the total for the whole country. The Red Cross membership in the state at the close of 1918 was 1,669,758 adults and 1,451,057 juniors, the latter being 86.12% of the school population. Pennsylvania gave approximately $3,000,000 to the war welfare work of the Knights of Columbus. The two Y.M.C.A. drives in the state netted $6,562,516.23.

More than 85,000 men and women were employed in the six Pennsylvania shipyards on the Delaware river in 1918. The Hog I. plant near Philadelphia built no cargo vessels of 7,500 dead-weight tons apiece and 12 transports of 8,000 tons. The Harriman yard at Bristol, of the Merchants' Shipbuilding Corp., built 32 cargo vessels of 9,000 tons apiece; William Cramp & Sons at Philadelphia built four tankers of 10,000 tons apiece and nine steel ships, all but one of which were of more than 9,000 tons. Likewise it launched 35 destroyers during the war period and 13 subsequently. The Chester yard of the Merchants' Shipbuilding Corp. built 28 cargo ships and tankers averaging 8,000 tons apiece and several small naval vessels. The Sun Shipbuilding Co. at Chester built 14 ships averaging 11,000 tons apiece and four cargo ships of 10,000 tons apiece. It also constructed nine mine-sweepers for the navy. The yard for wooden ships of the Traylor plant at Cornwells Heights built eight vessels of 3,500 tons each. The Federal Government spent $46,396,266.80 in housing war workers in the state, $23,021,000 being spent by the Emergency Fleet Corp. for shipbuilders, and $23,375,266.80 by the U.S. Housing Commission.

(Author:Albert E. McKinley)


text:
Page:Democratic Ideals and Reality (1919).djvu/60

48 Some centuries passed, during which the Greeks sailed round the southern headlands of the Peloponnese into the Ionian Sea, and colonised along the shores of that sea also. So the peninsula came to be a citadel in the midst of the Greek sea-world. Along the outer shores of the twin waters, Ægean and Ionian, the Greek colonists were but a fringe exposed to attack from behind. Only in the central peninsula were they relatively, although as the sequel shows not absolutely, safe.

To the eastern, outer shore of the Ægean the Persians came down from the interior against the Greek cities by the sea, and the Athenian fleet carried aid from the peninsular citadel to the threatened kinsfolk over the water, and issue was joined between sea-power and land-power. A Persian sea-raid was defeated at Marathon, and the Persians then resorted to the obvious strategy of baffled land-power; under King Xerxes they marched round, throwing a bridge of boats over the Dardanelles, and entered the peninsula from the north, with the idea of destroying the nest whence the wasps emerged which stung them and flew elusively away. The Persian effort failed, and it was reserved for the half-Greek, half-barbaric Macedonians, established in the root of the Greek Peninsula itself, to


text:
Page:Democratic Ideals and Reality (1919).djvu/61

Rh end the first cycle of sea-power by conquering to south of them the Greek sea-base, and then marching into Asia, and through Syria into Egypt, and on the way destroying Tyre of the Phœnicians. Thus they made a 'closed sea' of the Eastern Mediterranean by depriving both the Greeks and the Phœnicians of their bases. That done, the Macedonian King Alexander could advance light-heartedly into Upper Asia. We may talk of the mobility of ships and of the long arm of the fleet, but, after all, sea-power is fundamentally a matter of appropriate bases, productive and secure. Greek sea-power passed through the same phases as Egyptian river-power. The end of both was the same; without the protection of a navy commerce moved securely over a water-way because all the shores were held by one and the same land-power.

Dingbat 001.jpg Dingbat 001.jpg Dingbat 001.jpg Dingbat 001.jpg Dingbat 001.jpg

Now we go to the Western Mediterranean. Rome there began as a fortified town on a hill, at the foot of which was a bridge and a river-wharf. This hill-bridge-port-town was the citadel and market of a small nation of farmers, who tilled Latium, the 'broad land' or plain, between the Apennines and the sea.


text: Author:Albert Edward McKinley

title: Author:Albert Edward McKinley


text: Author:Virginia Kjellesvig-Waering

title: Author:Virginia Kjellesvig-Waering


text:
Page talk:Pennsylvanian invertebrates of the Mazon Creek Area, Illinois Eurypterida.djvu/14

Potential Authors

 * So far failed to find usable author information for these individuals listed in scan:

James Konecny

 * Known to be collector of invertebrate specimens prepared to loan exhibit as stated or implied on this page c. 1963.

Harry C. Witmer

 * Known to be collector of invertebrate specimens prepared to loan exhibit as stated or implied on this page c. 1963.

Michael Moore

 * Known to be collector of invertebrate specimens prepared to loan exhibit as stated or implied on this page c. 1963.
 * Listed amongst "other volunteers" (i.e. not "Research Assistants and Associates") of the Chicago Natural History Museum in Report of the Director to the Board of Trustees for the year 1959. This same document credits Michael Moore of Hinsdale, Illinois as being donor of "fossil fishscale and anthracite coal."
 * On page 93, he is identified as residing in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Dr. Henry B. Roberts

 * This page states attachment to United States National Museum.
 * VIAF entry: 11931083; missing expansion of "B." in name. No birth or death year.
 * Smithsonian Institution Archives gives birth year 1910; death year 1973; confirms association with United States National Museum 1956-1973.

Dr. Donald Baird

 * This page states attachment to Museum of Comparative Zoology (perhaps associated with Harry Blackmore Whittington who shared this duty?)
 * Donald Baird biographical summary at slight variance with above - same person?


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pennsylvania, University of

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF (see ). In 1910 the Henry Phipps Institute for the study, treatment and

of tuberculosis was transferred to the university. In 1912 the college was divided into three separate departments—the college, the Towne scientific school, and the Wharton school of finance and commerce. In 1914 the school of education was established, with a four-year course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Education; since then there has been held every spring at the university “Schoolmen's week,” and teachers from all over the state assemble to take part in conferences and discussions. By a merger in 1916 the Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia became an integral part of the university as its graduate school of medicine, and in 1918 another merger was effected with the Philadelphia Polyclinic and College for Graduates in Medicine. In 1917 a course in military science was established to qualify students for commissions as reserve officers. In 1920 the laboratory of hygiene and public health became the school of hygiene and public health.


text: Author:Edgar Fahs Smith

title: Author:Edgar Fahs Smith