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Rh 1794 he was dispatched to the duke of York's camp in Flanders with the views of his ministerial colleagues, but their advice could not counteract the military incapacity of the royal duke. When Pitt was frustrated in his intention of freeing the Roman Catholics from their political disabilities, Windham, who in religious matters always inclined to liberal opinions, was one of the ministers who retired from office in February 1801. He was a constant opponent of all negotiations for peace with France, preferring to prosecute the campaign at whatever cost until some decisive victory had been gained, and the temporary peace of Amiens, which was carried through under Addington's administration, did not meet with his approval. When he was ousted from the representation of Norwich in June 1802, a seat for the pocket borough of St Mawes in Cornwall was found for him. He declined a place in Pitt's new cabinet (May 1804) on the ground that the exclusion of Fox prevented the formation of an administration sufficiently strong in parliament and the country to cope with the dangers which threatened the safety of the nation, and he offered a general opposition to the measures which the prime minister proposed. On Pitt's death in January 1S06 the ministry of “All the Talents” was formed under the leadership of Lord Grenville, and Windham accepted the seals as secretary of state for war and the colonies. Fox's death necessitated several official changes; and a peerage was proposed for Windham, but he declined the proffered honour, and remained in office as long as the ministry existed. A general election took place in November 1S06 and Windham was elected for the county of Norfolk; but the election was declared void on petition, and he was compelled to sit for the borough of New Romney, for which he had also been elected. In 1807, when parliament was dissolved under the influence of the “No Popery,” cry of Spencer Perceval, a seat was found for Windham at Higham Ferrers. Liberty of religious opinion he uniformly supported at all periods of his life, and with equal consistency he opposed all outbreaks of religious fanaticism; hence with these convictions in his mind few of the domestic measures of the new ministers met with his approbation. Moreover, he disapproved of the expedition to the Scheldt, and thought the charges brought against the Duke of York, as commander-in-chief, required his retirement from office. At the same time he actively opposed the bill of Sir Samuel Romilly, his colleague on most political questions, for reducing the number of offences visited with the punishment of death. In July 1809 he received a blow on the hip whilst rendering assistance at a fire, which he thought little of at the time; but a tumour subsequently formed on the spot and an operation became necessary. This brought on a fever, and Windham rapidly sank. He died on the 4th of June 1810, and was buried in the family vault at Felbrigg.

His speeches were published in three volumes in 1806, with a memoir by Thomas Amyot, his private secretary while he was in office in 1806, and his Diary was edited by Mrs Henry Baring in 1866. The passages in the latter work relative to Dr Johnson's declining days have been of considerable use to the later editors of Boswell.  WIND INSTRUMENTS (Fr. instruments à vent, Ger. Blasinstrumente, Ital. strumenti da fiato), a numerous and powerful section of the orchestra, classified according to the acoustic properties of the instruments and to certain important structural features. The first great natural subdivision is that of (A) mouth blown, and (B) mechanically blown, instruments.

Section A falls into the classes of (1) wood wind, (2) brass wind, with their numerous subdivisions.

1. (a) Wood Wind.—Pipes without embouchure or mouthpiece, such as the ancient Egyptian nay, a long flute with narrow bore held obliquely, and the syrinx or pan-pipes, both of which are blown by directing the breath not into the pipe but across the open end, so that it impinges against the sharp edge of the rim. (b) Pipes with embouchure but no mouthpiece, such as the transverse flute, piccolo and fife; see and, (c) Pipes with whistle mouthpieces, an ancient contrivance, extensively used by primitive races of all ages, which finds application at the present day in the flageolet, the whistle, and in organ pipes known as the flue-work. A large class of medieval instruments, widely diffused but now obsolete, were known as recorders, beak or fipple-flutes, flûtes à bec, flûtes douces, flûtes anglaises (Fr.), Plock or Blockflöten, Schnabelflöten

(Ger.). (d) Reed instruments, by which are to be understood not reed pipes but instruments with reed mouthpieces, which subdivide again into two families owing to the very different acoustic conditions produced by the combination of a reed mouthpiece with (1) a cylindrical pipe and (2) a conical pipe. These combinations influence not only the timbre, but principally the harmonics obtained by overblowing and used to supplement the fundamental scale given out as the lateral holes are uncovered one by one; the practical difference to the performer may be summed up as one of fingering, (d1) comprises pipes with cylindrical bore with either single or double reed mouthpiece, such as the clarinet family, the obsolete batyphone (q.v.) and the family of cromornes (q.v.). To these we may add the aulos and tibia of ancient Greece and Rome, which at different times had single and double reed mouthpieces. These pipes all overblow a twelfth. (d2) Pipes with conical bore and either single or double reed mouthpiece. This class comprises the important members of the oboe family (with double reed) derived from the Schalmey and Pommer of the middle ages, the Schryari, an instrument which had an ephemeral existence, at the end of the 16th century and consisted of an inverted cone with a double reed placed within a pirouette or capsule, which had the result of restricting the compass of the instrument to the fundamental scale, for harmonics can only be produced when the reed is controlled by the lips (see ). The modern family of saxophones with single reed mouthpiece, intended to replace the clarinets in military bands, may be classed with the wood wind, although actually made of brass for durability. The same may be said of the sarrusophones, a family of brass oboes with double reed, invented by M. Sarrus to replace the oboe in military bands. To these we may add the Cheng (q.v.) or Chinese organ, consisting of a set of pipes arranged in a hollow gourd and sounded by means of free-reeds, the air being fed to the pipes in the reservoir by the mouth through a pipe shaped like the spout of a tea-pot. The Cheng is important, as embodying the principle of the harmonium. (e) Wooden tubes of conical bore having lateral holes and sometimes from one to three keys, played by means of a cup or funnel mouthpiece, such as the obsolete cornet (q.v.) or Zinke, which enjoyed such widespread popularity during the 16th and 17th centuries, and their bass the serpent. The bagpipe and its drones and chaunter are indirectly mouthblown, with the exception of the Union or Irish and of the Border bagpipes, and of the French bagpipe known as musette, in which the bag is fed with air by means of bellows, instead of through an insufflation pipe.

2. The Brass Wind consists of the following classes: (a) Tubes of fixed length, such as the natural trumpet and French horn, all medieval horns and trumpets, including the busine, the tuba, the oliphant, the hunting horn and the bugle, the classical buccina, cornu, lituus and tuba. The compass of all these was restricted to the few notes of the harmonic series obtained by overblowing. (b) Tubes of which the length is varied by a slide, such as the sackbut family, the slide trombone and slide trumpet. When the slide is drawn out the column of air is lengthened and the pitch proportionally lowered. Each position or shift of the slide enables the performer to overblow the harmonic series a semitone lower, (c) Tubes of which the length is varied by lateral holes and keys. To this class belong the keyed bugle and its bass the ophicleide, the obsolete keyed trumpet and the bass horns and Russian bassoon, which immediately preceded the invention of valves. The saxophones and sarrusophones might also be classed with these (see above, 1 d2). (d) Tubes of which the length is varied by valves or pistons. This class is the most modern of all, dating from the invention of valves in 1815, which revolutionized the technique and scoring for brass instruments. A rational subdivision of valve instruments is made in Germany into whole and half instruments (see and ), according as to whether the whole length of tubing comes into practical use or only half, or from the performer's point of view whether the fundamental note of the harmonic series can be produced, or whether the series begins with the second member, an octave above the first, in which case it is obvious that half the tubing is of no practical value. The principal piston instruments are: the whole instruments—contrabass and bass tubas, bombardons or helicons; the euphonium or tenor tuba; the half instruments—saxhorns, Flügelhorns, tenor horns, cornets, the valve trombone, valve trumpet and valve horn (French horn), and the Wagner tubas, which are really the basses of the French horn and are played with funnel-shaped mouthpieces. The brass wind is further divided according to the shape of the mouthpiece used. (a) With funnel-shaped mouthpiece, such as the French horn, tenor horn and Wagner tubas; and (b) with cup-shaped mouthpiece, comprising all the other brass wind instruments except the bugle, of which the mouthpiece is a hybrid, neither true funnel nor true cup.

Section B: Mechanically Blown Instruments.—This section consists mainly of instruments having the air supply fed by means of bellows; it comprises the two classes: (1) with keyboard, (2) without keyboard.

1. This includes all kinds of organs: the ancient hydraulic organ or hydraulus, differing from the pneumatic only in that water pressure was used to compress the air supply instead of the bellows

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 Sciences Morales et Politiques (for moral philosophy and politics).

The Académie des Sciences was founded by Louis XIV.—the Royal Society of London being founded, about the same time, by Charles II.

During the siege of Paris, Berthelot was President of the Scientific Committee of National Defence, and was occupied in the manufacture of explosives, and in 1883 he published, in two volumes, his work, Sur la Force des Matières Explosives. It is a valuable contribution to the science of the subject.

His other books are: Science et Philosophie (1886); La Révolution Chimique Lavoisier (1890); Traité Pratique de Calorimetrie Chimique (1893); Thermo-chimie Données et Lois Numériques, in two volumes (1897); La Synthèse Chimique (1897); Science et Morale (1897); Renan et Berthelot, Correspondance (1898); Chimie Végétale et Agricole, in four volumes (1899); Chimie Animale, Principes Chimiques de la Production de la Chaleur chez les Étres Vivants, in two volumes (1899); Science et Education (1901); and several volumes on historical chemistry which will be alluded to later in this chapter.

Berthelot was also a politician, and he formed part of the Cabinet of Monsieur Goblet, as Ministre de l'Instruction Publique in 1885, and was also a member of the

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 the most notable are the monuments of Bishops Edington, Wykeham, Waynflete, Cardinal Beaufort, Langton and Fox. The door of iron grills, of beautiful design, now in the north nave aisle, is considered to be the oldest work of its character in England; its date is placed in the 11th or 12th century. The mortuary chests in the presbytery contain the bones of Saxon kings who were buried here. The remains were collected in this manner by Bishop Henry de Blois (1129–1171), and again after they had been scattered by the soldiers of Cromwell. The choir stalls furnish a magnificent example of Decorated woodwork, and much stained glass of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods remains in fragmentary form. The library contains a Vulgate of the 12th century, a finely ornamented MS. on vellum.

In 1905 serious signs of weakness were manifested in the fabric of the cathedral, and it was found that a large part of the foundation was insecure, being laid on piles, or tree-trunks set flat, in soft and watery soil. Extensive works of restoration, including the underpinning of the foundations with cement concrete (which necessitated the employment of divers), were undertaken under the direction of Mr T. G. Jackson.

Relics of the monastic buildings are slight, and there are Early English arches and Perpendicular work in the deanery. Other old houses in the Close are very picturesque. Here formerly stood the house which Charles II. desired of Ken for Nell Gwyn. Ken refused it, but the king bore no malice, settling Nell Gwyn in another house near by, and afterwards raising Ken to the bishopric of Bath and Wells.

King Alfred founded a minster immediately north of the present site of the cathedral, and here he and other Saxon kings were buried. The house, known as Hyde Abbey, was removed (as was Alfred's body) to a point outside the walls considerably north of the cathedral, during the reign of Henry I. Here foundations may be traced, and a gateway remains. To the east of the cathedral are ruins of Wolvesey Castle, a foundation of Henry de Blois, where the bishops resided. On the southern outskirts of the city, in a pleasant meadow by the Itchen, is the Hospital of St Cross. This also was founded by Henry de Blois, in 1136, whose wish was to provide board and lodging for 13 poor men and a daily dinner for 100 others. It was reformed by William of Wykeham, and enlarged and mostly rebuilt by Cardinal Beaufort (1405–1447). The buildings form three sides of a quadrangle, with a lawn and sun-dial in its midst; while the fourth side is partly open, and partly formed by the magnificent cruciform church. The earliest parts of this building are late or transitional Norman, but other parts are Early English or Decorated. The work throughout is very rich and massive. St Cross is a unique example of a medieval almshouse, and its picturesqueness is enhanced by the curious costume of its inmates. It is still customary to provide a dole of bread and beer to all who desire it. The parish churches of Winchester are not of special interest, but the church of St Swithin is curious as occupying the upper part of the King's Gate. This gate and the West Gate alone remain of the gates in the walls which formerly surrounded the city. The West Gate is a fine structure of the 13th century. In the High Street stands the graceful Perpendicular city cross. The county hall embodies remains of the Norman castle, and in it is preserved the so-called King Arthur's round table. This is supposed to date actually from the time of King Stephen, but the painted designs upon it are of the Tudor period.

Winchester is famous as an educational centre, and in addition to Winchester College there are several modern preparatory schools here. The College of St Mary, lying to the south of the cathedral close, is one of the greatest of English public schools. While a monastic school was in existence here from very early times, the college was originated in 1387 by William of Wykeham, whose famous scheme of education embraced this foundation and that of New College, Oxford. The members on the foundation consisted of a warden, 10 fellows, 3 chaplains, 70 scholars and 16 choristers. The buildings were completed about 1395. The quadrangles, with the fine chapel, tower, hall

and cloister are noteworthy, and there are. extensive modern buildings.

The principal public buildings of the city are the gild-hall, public library and art school, museum, market house, mechanics institution and barracks. The parliamentary borough returns one member and falls within the Andover division of the county. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1931 acres.

History.—The history of the earliest Winchester (Winton, Wynton) is lost in legend; tradition ascribes its foundation to Ludor Rous Hudibras and dates it ninety-nine years before the first building of Rome; earthworks and relics show that the Itchen valley was occupied by Celts, and it is certain from its position at the centre of six Roman roads and from the Roman relics found there that the Caer Gwent (White City) of the Celts was, under the name of Venta Belganrum, an important Romano-British country town. Hardly any traces of this survive, but mosaic pavements, coins, &c., have been discovered on the south side of High Street. The name of Winchester is indissolubly linked with that of King Arthur and his knights, but its historical greatness begins when, after the conquest of the present Hampshire by the Gewissas, it became the capital of Wessex. Its importance was increased by the introduction of Christianity, although it was not at first the seat of a bishop, because, according to the later Winchester chronicler, King Cynegils wished for time to build a worthy church in the royal city; his son Cenwalh is said to have built the old minster. When the kings of Wessex became kings of all England, Winchester became, in a sense, the capital of England, though it always had a formidable rival in London, which was more central in position and possessed greater commercial advantages. The parallel position of the two cities in Anglo-Saxon times is illustrated by the law of Edgar, ordaining that the standard of weights and measures for the whole kingdom should be “such as is observed at London and at Winchester.” Under Alfred it became a centre of learning and education, to which distinguished strangers, such as St Grimbald and Asser the Welshman, resorted. It was the seat of Canute's government; many of the kings, including Ecgberht, Alfred, Edward the Elder and Canute, were buried there, and, in 1043, Edward the Confessor was crowned in the old minster. The city was sometimes granted as part of the dowry of a queen consort, and it was the home of Emma, the wife of Æthelred the Unready and of Canute, and later of Edith, the wife of the Confessor.

Winchester was very prosperous in the years succeeding the Conquest, and its omission, together with London, from Domesday Book is probably an indication of its peculiar position and importance; its proximity to the New Forest commended it to the Norman kings, and Southampton, only 12 m. distant, was one of the chief ports for the continent. The Conqueror wore his crown in state at Winchester every Easter, as he wore it at Westminster at Whitsuntide and at Gloucester at Christmas. The royal treasure continued to be stored there as it had been in Anglo-Saxon times, and was there seized by William Rufus, who, after his father's death, “rode to Winchester and opened the Treasure House.” In the reign of Stephen and again in the reign of Henry II. the Court of Exchequer was held at Winchester, and the charter of John promises that the exchequer and the mint shall ever remain in the city; the mint was an important one, and when in 1125 all the coiners of England were tried for false coining those of Winchester alone were acquitted with honour.

Under the Norman kings Winchester was of great commercial importance; it was one of the earliest seats of the woollen trade, which in its different branches was the chief industry of the town, although the evidence furnished by the Liber Winton (temp. Henry I. and Stephen) indicates also a varied industrial life. As early as the reign of Henry I. the gild of weavers is mentioned, and the millers at the same date render their account to the exchequer.

The gild merchant of Winchester claims an Anglo-Saxon origin, but the first authentic reference to it is in one of the

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 Bourgeois Cabinet as Ministre des Affaires Étrangeres in 1895. He was always a friend of England, and by his colleagues "was accused of having made too many concessions to this country." This led to Berthelot's retirement, as Baron de Mohrenheim of Russia (that country being France's ally) was dissatisfied with him. There was no entente cordiale in those days, and Russia was jealous of any concession made to England! France's friends abroad were uneasy on the subject of her foreign policy, as she was caught coquetting with England and Italy, and it was asked whether her policy had suddenly changed. In those days Russian jealousy of England was everywhere visible, and every attempt was made by the Czar's Government to thwart her policy. It is all changed now, as Berthelot suggested, and England is on the best of terms with France and Russia.

Concerning the Boer War, the following details may be of interest. It was stated that after sending the ever-memorable telegram to Kruger in January 1896, the German Emperor made overtures to France with a view to assist the Transvaal, but the French Government offered to support England if Germany intervened in favour of the Boers. Having been asked whether the above statements were true, Berthelot replied, on 21st October 1899, as follows:—

I see no harm, no State secret at stake, to prevent me from answering your letter, or from authorizing you to publish this. While I was


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 the book, when completed, did not satisfy the earl. It is evident that Martyn had no knowledge of history and no capacity for writing it. After his death the manuscript was revised in 1766 by Dr. G. Sharpe, master of the Temple, and again in 1771 by Dr. Andrew Kippis, and the work was privately printed in 4to about 1790. The book was deemed so unsatisfactory that nearly the whole impression was destroyed. One copy exists at Wimborne St. Giles, Dorset; another is in the British Museum; a third, having found its way into the hands of Mr. Bentley, the publisher, was edited in 1836 by [q. v.], but the editor's notes and additions increased the stock of errors about Shaftesbury (, Life of Lord Shaftesbury, Pref. p. xvi).

Martyn wrote a tragedy called ‘Timoleon,’ in which he may have had some help from Pope, who admired the subject (Works, ed. Elwin, i. 197, 212). It was brought out at Drury Lane on 26 Jan. 1729–30, and acted fourteen times with success (, Hist. of the Stage, iii. 252). On the first night the author's friends were so very zealous in expressing their approbation that ‘not a scene was drawn without a clap, the very candle-snuffers received their share of approbation, and a couch made its entrance with universal applause’ (, Harlequin Horace). The play, though frequently obscene and wanting in incident, is in some parts well written, the ‘strokes on the subject of liberty,’ which elicited the loudest applause, being probably contributed by Pope. The ghost scene in the fourth act was made up from the chamber scene in ‘Hamlet’ and the banquet scene in ‘Macbeth.’ In dedicating the handsomely printed edition (8vo, 1730) to George II, Martyn states that in the third act he has ‘endeavoured to copy from his majesty the virtues of a king who is a blessing to his people.’ Another edition was published during the same year with some additions.

Martyn wrote also ‘Reasons for establishing the Colony of Georgia, with regard to the Trade of Great Britain … With some Account of the Country, and the Design of the Trustees,’ 4to, London, 1733 (two editions).

Martyn's letters to his friend Dr. Thomas Birch, extending from 1737 to 1760, are contained in Additional (Birch) MS. 4313, in the British Museum.

MARTYN, ELIZABETH (1813–1846), Scottish vocalist. [See .]

MARTYN, FRANCIS (1782–1838), Roman catholic divine, born in Norfolk in February 1782, was sent to Sedgley Park school at the age of eight, and in 1796 was removed to St. Mary's College, Oscott. In 1805 he was ordained priest by Bishop Milner at Wolverhampton. It is stated that he was the first priest who went through his course of studies solely in England since the Reformation (Oscotian, new ser. iv. 17, 272). After being stationed for a short time at Brailes, Warwickshire, he was appointed to the mission of Louth, Lincolnshire. Subsequently he served the mission at Bloxwich, Staffordshire, and finally, in 1827, removed to Walsall, where he died on 18 July 1838. The Hon. and Rev. George Spencer preached the funeral sermon, which was printed (Birmingham, 1838, 8vo), with a memoir by the Rev. Robert Richmond.

A portrait of Martyn was engraved by Holl.

His chief works are:
 * 1) 'Homilies on the Book of Tobias, being a detailed History and familiar Explication of the Virtues of that Holy Servant of God,' York, 1817, 8vo.
 * 2) 'A Series of Lectures on the Sacrament and Sacrifice of the Holy Eucharist,' London [1827?]. He was a frequent contributor to the 'Orthodox Journal.'

MARTYN, HENRY (1781–1812), missionary, was born at Truro on 18 Feb. 1781. His father, John Martyn, had originally been a working miner in the Gwennap mines, Cornwall, but became by his own energy head clerk in the office of a Truro merchant. Henry, a delicate, consumptive boy, was at times subject to sudden outbursts of passion. At midsummer 1788 he was sent to Truro grammar school, and in October 1797, after failing to obtain a scholarship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, entered St. John's College, Cambridge, where in 1801 he graduated B.A. as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, though he had at first evinced a distaste for mathematics. On 5 April 1802 he was elected fellow of his college, and during the same year won as a middle bachelor the members' prize for a Latin essay. He at first intended to become a barrister, but Charles Simeon's remarks on the good done in India by the missionary, [q. v.], and the perusal of the life of [q. v.], led him to qualify himself for similar work. On 22 Oct-


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Rh (1910), a memorial to John Handley, a part of whose estate was bequeathed to establish industrial schools for the poor of Winchester, and an auditorium are owned by the municipality. The United States National Military Cemetery at Winchester contains the graves of 4480 Union soldiers, 2382 of them unknown, and adjoining it is the Confederate Stonewall Cemetery, with about 8000 graves. The manufacture of gloves is the leading industry; among the other manufactures are woollen and knit goods, flour, leather, lumber, paper and bricks. Electricity, generated at the Shenandoah river, is used for power in many of the factories.

A settlement was established in this vicinity as early as 1732. In 1752 the present name was adopted and the town was established by act of the colonial legislature. In 1756, during the Seven Years' War, George Washington, in command of the provincial troops of Virginia, established his headquarters here and built Fort Loudoun. The town was incorporated in 1779. The Virginia Gazette and Winchester Advertiser, the first newspaper published in the Shenandoah Valley, was established here in 1787. In the Civil War, Winchester, because of its position in the lower Shenandoah Valley, played a great part, and was several times the scene of engagements between the Union and Confederate forces—in 1862, Jackson's actions of Kernstown and Winchester; in the Gettysburg campaign, the capture of a Union garrison by Ewell (14-15 June 1863); and in Sheridan's campaign of 1864 the battle of Winchester or Opequon (Sept. 19, 1864), for all of which see. Winchester was chartered as a city in 1852 and in 1906 the corporate limits were enlarged.

See J. E. Norris (ed.), History of the Lower Shenandoah Valley (Chicago, 1890), and T. K. Cartmell, Shenandoah Valley Pioneers (Winchester, 1909).

 WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717–1768), German archaeologist, was born at Stendal in Brandenburg on the 9th of December 1717, the son of a poor shoemaker. He attended a gymnasium at Berlin and the school at Salzwedel, and in 1738 was induced to go as a student of theology to Halle. But he was no theologian, and he soon devoted himself with enthusiasm to Greek art and literature. With the intention of becoming a physician he attended medical classes at Jena; but means were insufficient and he was obliged to accept a tutorship near Magdeburg. From 1743 to 1748 he was associate-rector of a school at Seehausen in the Altmark. He then went to Nothenitz near Dresden as librarian to Count Henry von Bünau, for whose history of the Holy Roman empire he collected materials. The treasures in the Dresden gallery awakened an intense interest in art, which was deepened by association with various artists, and especially with A. F. Oeser, who afterwards exercised so powerful an influence over Goethe. Winckelmann's study of ancient literature had inspired him with a desire to visit Rome, and he became librarian to Cardinal Passionei in 1754. This compelled him reluctantly to join the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1755, before leaving for Rome, Winckelmann published his Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (“Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture”), followed by a pretended attack on the work, and a defence of its principles, nominally by an impartial critic. The Gedanken contains the first statement of the doctrines he afterwards developed, and was warmly admired not only for the ideas it contained but for its style. Augustus III., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, granted him a pension of 200 thalers, that he might prosecute his studies in Rome. He arrived in Rome in November 1755, became librarian to Cardinal Archinto, and received much kindness from Cardinal Passionei. After their deaths he was received as librarian and as a friend into the house of Cardinal Albani, who was forming his magnificent collection at Porta Salara. In 1763, while retaining this position, Winckelmann was made prefect of antiquities.

He devoted himself earnestly, at first with the aid of his friend A. R. Mengs, to the study of Roman antiquities, and gradually acquired an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. In 1760

appeared his Description des pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch, in 1762 his Anmerkungen über die Baukunst der Alten (“Observations on the Architecture of the Ancients”), including an account of the temples at Paestum. In 1758 and 1762 he visited Naples, and from his Sendschreiben von den herculanischen Entdeckungen (1762) and his Nachricht von den neuesten herculanischen Entdeckungen (1764) scholars obtained their first real information about the treasures excavated at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Winckelmann again visited Naples in 1765 and 1767, and wrote for the use of the electoral prince and princess of Saxony his Briefe an Bianconi, which were published, eleven years after his death, in the Antologia romana. His masterpiece, the Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (“History of Ancient Art”), issued in 1764, was soon recognized as a permanent contribution to European literature. In this work Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and the principles on which it seemed to him to be based. He also presents a glowing picture of the conditions, political, social and intellectual, which tended to foster creative activity in ancient Greece. The fundamental idea of his theory is that the end of art is beauty, and that this end can be attained only when individual and characteristic features are strictly subordinated to the artist's general scheme. The true artist, selecting from nature the phenomena fitted for his purpose, and combining them through the imagination, creates an ideal type marked in action by “noble simplicity and calm greatness”—an ideal type in which normal proportions are maintained, particular parts, such as muscles and veins, not being permitted to break the harmony of the general outlines. In the historical portion he used not only the works of art he himself had studied but the scattered notices on the subject to be found in ancient writers; and his wide knowledge and active imagination enabled him to offer many fruitful suggestions as to periods about which he had little direct information. Many of his conclusions based on the inadequate evidence of Roman copies have been modified or reversed by subsequent research, but the fine enthusiasm of the work, its strong and yet graceful style, and its vivid descriptions of works of art give if enduring value and interest. It marked an epoch by indicating the spirit in which the study of Greek art should be approached, and the methods by which investigators might hope to attain to solid results. To Winckelmann's contemporaries it came as a revelation, and exercised a profound influence on the best minds of the age. It was read with intense interest by Lessing, who had found in the earliest of Winckelmann's works the starting-point for his Laocoon.

Winckelmann contributed various admirable essays to the Bibliothek der schönen Wissenschaften, and in 1766 he published his Versuch einer Allegorie, which, although containing the results of much thought and reading, is not conceived in a thoroughly critical spirit. Of far greater importance was the splendid work entitled Monumenti antichi inediti (1767-1768), prefaced by a Trattato preliminare, presenting a general sketch of the history of art. The plates in this work are representations of objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained at all. Winckelmann's explanations were of the highest service to archaeology, by showing that in the case of many works of art supposed to be connected with Roman history the ultimate sources of inspiration were to be found in Homer.

In 1768 Winckelmann went to Vienna, where he was received with honour by Maria Theresa. At Trieste on his way back he was murdered in an hotel by a man named Arcangeli to whom he had shown some coins presented by Maria Theresa (June 8th, 1768). He was buried in the churchyard of the cathedral of St Giusto at Trieste.

An edition of his works was begun by Fernow in 1808 and completed by Meyer and Schulze (1808-1820). There are admirable studies of his character and work in Goethe's Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert (1805), to which contributions were made by Meyer and Wolf, and in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1902). The best biography of Winckelmann is by Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgenossen (2nd ed., 3 vols., Leipzig, 1898). A collection of letters, Briefe an seine Züricher Freunde, was published by Blümner (Freiburg, 1882).

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at the Quai d'Orsay events in the Transvaal did not fail to engage my attention from the humanitarian point of view, from that of our natural interests in Madagascar, and also from that of the important private interests concerned in the gold mines. I had occasion to correspond on this subject with our excellent Consul, Monsieur Aubert, and to give him all the help in my power. I also received the Envoy of the Boer Republic kindly, but without wishing to play with him that immoral game which consists in encouraging the weak in resistance in which one is not resolved to take part. Neither England nor Germany ever suggested to me an exchange of their views with those of the French Government on the question. I do not even remember what was the object of any conversation started either by Lord Dufferin, the Ambassador of England, or by Count Minister, the Ambassador of Germany, at my Wednesday receptions.

French sympathy was strongly enlisted in favour of the Transvaal, but France never dreamt of intervention in any form.

Berthelot had a remarkable memory, as the following words of one of his most intimate friends testify:—

One day I remember he was turning over before me the leaves of a copy of one of our important reviews. In a quarter of an hour he had reached the last page. I chaffed him, saying that he did not seem to attach much importance to its contents. He affirmed that he had read it. So I put him to the test, questioning him on each of the articles in the review. He replied without hesitation or error; he had actually read more than a hundred pages in a few minutes. Another recollection at the Académie des Sciences on one occasion someone made an allusion to a certain work, almost unknown, and two or three hundred years old. Berthelot gave the name of the author, mentioned the subject of the book, and indicated the place it occupied in the library of the Institut de France. I have seen at close quarters a good many illustrious men in my time, and there have only been three before whom I had the sentiment of grandeur: Berthelot, Renan, and Taine. What was most admirable about Berthelot was that, although he was universally acknowledged as a great scientist,


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Rh WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vatas, Lat. ventus, cf. “weather,” to be of course distinguished from to “wind,” to coil or twist, O. Eng. windan, cf. “wander,” “wend,” &c.), a natural motion of the air, a current of air coming from any particular direction or with any degree of velocity. For the general account of winds, their causes, &c., see. Winds may be classified according to the strength or velocity with which they blow, varying from a calm, a breeze to a gale, storm or hurricane; for the varying scale of velocity per hour of these see, and for the measurement . Another classification divides them into “regular” or “constant” winds, such as the (q.v.), and “periodic” winds, such as the (q.v.). There are many special winds, such as the “Föhn,” “chinook,” “mistral,” “harmattan,” “sirocco,” which are treated under their individual names. For the group of musical instruments known by the generic name of see that heading.  WINDAU (Russian Vindava, Lettish Wentepils), a seaport and sea-bathing resort of western Russia, in the government of Courland, at the mouth of the Windau, on the Baltic Sea, 110 m. by rail N.W. of Riga. Pop. (1897), 7132. It has a castle built in 1290. The harbour, 20 and 25 ft. deep, is free from ice all the year round. Timber, grain and other commodities are exported to the annual value of two to three millions sterling; the imports range between three-quarters and one million sterling.  WIND BRACES, in architecture, diagonal braces to tie the rafters of a roof together and prevent “racking.” In the better sort of medieval roofs they are arched, and run from the principal rafters to catch the purlins.  WINDEBANK, SIR FRANCIS (1582-1646), English secretary of state, was the only son of Sir Thomas Windebank of Hougham, Lines., who owed his advancement to the Cecil family. Francis entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1599, coming there under the influence of Laud. After a few years' continental travel (1605-1608), he was employed for many years in minor public offices, and became clerk of the council. In June 1632 he was appointed by Charles I. secretary of state in succession to Lord Dorchester, his senior colleague being Sir John Coke, and he was knighted. His appointment was mainly due to his Spanish and Roman Catholic sympathies. The first earl of Portland, Francis, Lord Cottington, and Windebank formed an inner group in the council, and with their aid the king carried on various secret negotiations, especially with Spain. In December 1634 Windebank was appointed to discuss with the papal agent Gregorio Panzani the possibility of a union between the Anglican and Roman Churches, and expressed the opinion that the Puritan opposition might be crippled by sending their leaders to the war in the Netherlands. Windebank's efforts as treasury commissioner in 1635 to shield some of those guilty of corruption led to a breach with Archbishop Laud, and the next year he was for a time disgraced for issuing an order for the conveyance of Spanish money to pay the Spanish troops in the Netherlands. In July 1638 he urged upon the king instant war with the Scots, and in 1640, when tumults were breaking out in England, he sent an appeal from the queen to the pope for money and men. He was elected in March 1640 member of the Short Parliament for Oxford University, and he entered the Long Parliament in October as member for Corfe. In December the House learnt that he had signed letters of grace to recusant priests and Jesuits, and summoned him to answer the charge, but with the king's connivance he fled to France. From Calais he wrote to the first Lord Hatton, defending his integrity, and affirming his belief that the church of England was the purest and nearest the primitive Church. He remained in Paris until his death on the 1st of September 1646, shortly after he had been received into the Roman communion.  WINDERMERE, the largest lake in England, in the south-eastern part of the (q.v.). It is in the county of Westmorland, the boundary with Lancashire running from the head southward along the western shore, round the foot and northward along about one-third of the eastern shore.

It forms a narrow trough with a slightly curved axis of 10½ m. The width at right angles to the axis never reaches 1 m. The area is 5.69 sq. m. The shores are generally steep, beautifully wooded and fretted with numerous little sheltered bays. The hills immediately surrounding the lake rarely reach 1000 ft., but the distant views of the mountains to the north and west contrast finely with the sylvan beauty of the lake itself. The middle of the lake, immediately opposite Bowness, is especially beautiful, for here a group of islands (Belle Isle, Thompson's Holme, the Lilies and others) divide the lake into two basins, the water about them seldom exceeding 50 ft. in depth. On the other hand, the greatest depth sounded in the northern basin is 219 ft., and in the southern 134. The lake receives the Rothay and Brathay streams at the head; Trout Beck also flows into the north basin, and Cunsey Beck from Esthwaite into the south. The lake is drained by the Leven. Steamers belonging to the Furness Railway Company ply regularly on Windermere, the chief stations being Lakeside, the terminus of a branch railway, beautifully situated at the foot, Ferry on the west shore below the islands, Bowness on the east and Waterhead, at the head, for Ambleside. The lake contains perch, pike, trout and char; there are several large hotels at Bowness and elsewhere on its shores.

The town of, above the eastern shore adjacent to (q.v.), is in the Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, and is the terminus of a branch of the London and North-Western railway from Oxenholme junction. Numerous mansions and villas have grown up in the vicinity. Here, from Orrest Head, in the grounds of Elleray, where lived Professor Wilson (Christopher North), superb views over the whole lake and its surroundings are obtained. In 1905 Bowness and Windermere were united as a single urban district.  WINDHAM, WILLIAM (1750–1810), English politician, came from an ancient family long resident at Felbrigg, near Cromer in Norfolk. His father. Colonel William Windham (1717–1761), was an adventurous soldier with a taste for languages, both ancient and modern; his son was born in Golden Square, London, on the 3rd of May 1750. He went to Eton, which he quitted in 1766 for the university of Glasgow, where he acquired the taste for mathematics which always distinguished him. In 1767 he matriculated as gentleman commoner at University College, Oxford, where he remained until 1771. He never took the degree of B.A., but qualified as M.A. on the 7th of October 1782, and received the degree of D.C.L. on the 3rd of July 1793. He made a tour in Norway in 1773 and visited Switzerland and Italy between 1778 and 1780. His maiden speech on the political platform was delivered at Norwich on the 28th of January 1778, when he vehemently opposed the prosecution of the American war. His entrance into public life took place in April 1783, when he went to Ireland as chief secretary to Lord Northington, the lord-lieutenant in the coalition ministry of Fox and Lord North. Windham was his own keenest critic, his distrust in his own powers and his disappointment at his own achievements being conspicuous on every page of his Diary. Sickness compelled his return to England early in July 1783, and he resigned his position in August; but change of scene and constant exercise restored him to health before the end of that year. In April 1784 he was returned to parliament as member for Norwich by a majority of 64 votes, thus scoring one of the few triumphs attained by the adherents of the coalition cabinet. This seat he retained until 1802, when he was beaten on account of his hostility to the peace of that year.

Though he strenuously opposed all proposals for parliamentary reform, to which most of the Whigs were deeply committed, Windham remained in alliance with that party until after the outbreak of the French Revolution, when he and several of his chief allies joined Pitt. The place of secretary-at-war was conferred upon him in July 1794, and he was at the same time created a privy councillor and admitted to a seat in the cabinet. Windham discharged the duties of his office with unflagging zeal, his efforts being particularly directed towards ameliorating the condition of the inferior grades of the army. In the autumn of

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he never lost his tenderness of heart. Madame Berthelot, it may be said, was all in all to him. He had often said that if she died he would not long survive her. But no one thought his prophecy would he realized so suddenly. His death is a great loss for the scientific world and for France, but it is a still greater loss for his friends.

Berthelot had a good heart in other circles than those of his own family. Although the most influential man of science in France, he greatly appreciated and aided the work of others. As an example of his goodness, it may be stated, en passant, that he presented over forty of the author's memoirs to the Académie des Sciences, all of which have been published in the Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. Dozens, yea hundreds, of scientists owe Berthelot a deep debt of gratitude.

Most of the honours awarded to men of science were bestowed upon Berthelot: besides these he was a Grand-Croix de la Légion d'Honneur (an order founded by Napoleon I.); Grand-Croix de l'Ordre Royal de Charles III. of Spain; Grand-Croix de l'Ordre Royal de l'Étoile de Roumanie; and he possessed other orders. Berthelot was made a senator for life. Life members of the French Senat are now fast dying out, and will become as extinct as the dodo.

Berthelot commenced his career in 1851—eight days before Louis Napoleon overthrew the Constitution by a coup d'état, and to commemorate the fiftieth


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 (1851-1901), or his scientific jubilee, there was an imposing demonstration of esteem and regard organized in honour of the event. Representatives of all countries, academies, societies, universities, etc., were present at this great meeting of 24th November 1901. It was more like the vast gatherings of ancient times than one in these democratic days. It was held in the amphitheatre of the historic Sorbonne, and here Berthelot received addresses and a beautiful gold medal (by Chaplain), the latter being subscribed for by most of the chemists of the world. The medal (the author possesses a replica in bronze of this medal) has on its obverse side a portrait of Berthelot in profile, and the following words: "Marcellin Berthelot. La Synthèse Chimique. La Science Guide l'Humanité"; and the reverse side pictures the great chemist at his table, Truth illuminating him with a torch, while France, holding a flag, presents him with a laurel crown. The inscription is as follows: "1851. Pour la Patrie et la Verité. 1901."

Not content with his great discoveries in every department of pure and applied chemistry, Berthelot produced the following unique and erudite books on


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 historical chemistry:—Les Origines de l'Alchimie (1885); Collection des Alchimistes Grecs, in three volumes (1887-88); Introduction à la Chimie des Anciens et du Moyen Âge (1889); and La Chimie au Moyen Âge, in three volumes (1893): the first is an "essai sur la transmission de la science antique"; the second on "l'alchimie syriaque"; and the third volume is on "l'alchimie arabe." These historical works are of the most learned kind, necessitating laborious researches in the libraries of Leyden, London, and Paris. Manuscripts in the Bibliotheque Nationale, that of St Mark at Venice, the palæographs of the tenth century, the alchemical papyri of Leyden of the third century, the ancient philosophies of Syria, Arabia, Greece, and those of the Middle Ages, were all utilized by Berthelot in writing the works mentioned above.

Concerning these books the Société Alchimique de France addressed him, at his jubilee, in the following words:—

The Society was founded for the purpose of investigating the researches, doings and sayings of the old alchemists.


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 indicates his inability to be responsive to the safety needs of his vessel in an emergency or that the accident occurred in a different manner from his testimony, or both.

Bank Effect

The possibility that the turn to the left by the SEADANIEL was due to bank effect was considered and rejected. The testimony of both the helmsman and the third mate of the SEADANIEL was that the SEADANIEL tended to steer to the right and required left rudder to hold the vessel on course. The need for left rudder before 2042 would indicate the vessel was too close to the left bank and being affected by the left bank rather than the right bank. It is clear from the existing testimony that the SEADANIEL did not approach the left bank. It would have been possible, after the SEADANIEL's slight course excursion to the right, to have approached the right bank sufficiently close to have discernible bank effect occur. Four factors, however, tend to rule out that bank effect alone caused this accident. First, the SEADANIEL's speed reductions would have minimized bank effect. Second, the pilot of the SEADANIEL saw the application of full left rudder on the SEADANIEL's rudder angle indicator. Third, the testimony of the experienced pilot of the TESTBANK was that the SEADANIEL's turn to the left was not a "sheer" as would have been expected if the effect of the bank had occurred. Fourth, application of left rudder coupled with bank effect would have enhanced the SEADANIEL's left turning movement and the rate of turn would have been more severe than the testimony indicates. Further, the master of the SEADANIEL testified that he did not believe his vessel turned left at all. Had a sheer due to bank effect occurred, it is hardly likely the master would not have been aware that it had. Thus, while the effect of the bank cannot be overlooked it must be ruled out based on the available evidence.

Regulations Affecting Packaged Shipment of Hazardous Material by Water

While no Federal regulations governing the waterborne shipment of PCP were in effect at the time of the accident, international recommendations concerning the stowage were in effect and were followed. If the U.S. Federal regulations that came into effect after the accident had been in effect before the accident, there would probably have been no change in the shipment, since the only substantial difference between the U.S. Federal regulations and the international recommendations for stowage is that the containers "should" be stowed under deck, if the alternative is available.

While the U.S. Coast Guard is the general enforcing agency for waterborne shipments of hazardous materials, there was no U.S. Coast Guard inspection of the contents, nor were any required. The U.S. Coast Guard port shipping checks are limited, when done, in part because the containers are generally sealed from the time of packaging. The seals may, of course, be broken, but such action would require special measures to insure that the security of the contents were not compromised. While the U.S. Coast Guard is charged with the responsibility for enforcement of the U.S. Department of Transportation's hazardous materials regulations for packaged shipments in vessels (49 CFR 171), the enforcement usually does not entail inspecting the contents of a sealed container loaded on a vessel to verify contents.

One aspect of the shipping regulations warrants attention for vessels navigating in two-way traffic in narrow canals. Most of the hazardous material containers were loaded in an exposed location either outboard or forward and all but one of the other hazardous material containers on deck were stored next to an exposed container. (See figure 4.) The stowage of containers holding hazardous materials in these exposed locations should be reexamined because of their susceptibility to damage by even a minor collision. The stowage of such containers near the centerline of a vessel may prevent minor collisions such as this accident from becoming major environmental events;


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 ! On 18th March 1907 a terribly dramatic event occurred, for both Monsieur and Madame Berthelot died within a few minutes of each other.

On the afternoon of 18th March he attended a meeting of the Académie des Sciences. Returning, he went to his wife's bedside, and devoted himself to cheering her in her suffering. At half-past five he withdrew with his sons to his study. There, with tears in the old man's eyes and trembling voice, he said to them: "My boys, if your mother were to die I could not survive her." His sons returned to their mother's room while the savant set himself resolutely to work in an effort to forget his troubles.

A quarter of an hour later Madame Berthelot's illness came to a sudden crisis, and before her husband could be called she had passed away. The eldest son went to his father's study and informed him of Madame Berthelot's death. The scientist, who was sitting writing, turned round in his chair as his son entered. Hearing the terrible news, he gasped "Mon Dieu!" and fell back in his seat with his hands clasped over his eyes. A minute later his hands fell limply to his side. Berthelot was dead! The great chemist succumbed to heart failure in the eightieth year of his age.


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Martyn 1803 he was ordained deacon at Ely, and served as Simeon's curate at Holy Trinity, Cambridge, taking charge of the neighbouring parish of Lol worth. In 1804 he proceeded M. A. He was on the point of volunteering for the Church Missionary Society, when a financial disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his unmarried sister of their patrimony, and rendered it necessary that he should earn sufficient to maintain them both. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy on the Bengal establishment of the East India Company in January 1805, being created B.D. at Cambridge during the same year. While waiting for a ship he acted as assistant curate to the Rev. Richard Cecil [q. v.] from February to July. He arrived at Calcutta in April 1806. After labouring for some months, chiefly at Aldeen, near Serampore, he proceeded in October to Dinapore, where he worked for a time among the Europeans, and was soon able to conduct service among the natives in their own vernacular. He also established native schools. His leisure was devoted to the acquisition of new languages and the translating of the New Testament into Hindustani. At the end of April 1809 he was transferred to Cawnpore, where he made his first attempt to preach to the natives, and had to endure frequent interruptions and even threats of personal violence. Before he left the city he had the gratification of seeing his work crowned by the opening of a church (30 Sept. 1810). He here completed his Hindustani version of the New Testament, and translated it twice into Persian. He translated the psalms into Persian, the gospels into Judoeo-Persic, and the prayer-book into Hindustani. When advised to recruit his health by taking a sea voyage, he obtained leave to visit Persia in order to correct his Persian New Testament, and to journey thence to Arabia, where he intended to prepare an Arabic translation. In January 1811 he left Bombay for Bushire, with letters from Sir John Malcolm to influential people there, at Shiraz and Ispahan. After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz, and, as the first English clergyman who had visited that place, was soon engaged in discussions with Mohammedan disputants of all classes. On 5 July 1812 he arrived at Tabriz, and made an unsuccessful attempt to present the shah with his translation of the New Testament. There he was seized with a fever, through which he was carefully nursed by Sir Gore Ouseley [q. v.], the English ambassador. Ouseley afterwards found an opportunity of laying the manuscript New Testament before the shah, and took it to St. Petersburg, where it was printed, under his superintendence, and put in circulation. After a temporary recovery Martyn decided on going by way of Constantinople to England, where he hoped to induce a lady, Miss Lydia Grenfell, to whom he had long been attached, to accompany him back to India. He left Tabriz on 12 Sept. 1812 and was hurried from place to place by a brutal Tartar guide ; though the plague was raging at Tokat, a fresh attack of fever compelled him to halt there. His illness took a fatal turn, and he died at Tokat on 16 Oct. 1812, with none but strangers to attend him. He was buried in the Armenian cemetery, and was given the funeral honours usually reserved for Armenian archbishops. His career of self-devotion created a profound impression, as Macaulay's epitaph, written in 1818, eloquently testifies (Works, edit. 180G, viii. 543). Under the name of Francis Gwynne he is made the hero of a religious novel entitled 'Her Title of Honour,' 1871, by Holme Lee (Miss Harriet Parr). Sir James Stephen extols Martyn as ' the one heroic name which adorns the annals of the Church of England from the days of Elizabeth to our own.' While her other apostolic men either quitted or were cast out of her communion, 'Henry-Martyn, the learned and the holy, translating the Scriptures in his solitary bungalow at Dinapore, or preaching to a congregation of five hundred beggars, or refuting the Mahommedan doctors at Shiraz, is the bright exception 'Essays' in Ecclesiast. Biog. p. 552). Martyn's 'Journals and Letters' appeared in two volumes in 1837 under the editorship of the Rev. (afterwards Bishop) Samuel Wilberforce. His other works, besides two volumes of sermons, are : 1. 'The New Testament translated into the Hindoostanee Language from the original Greek. By the Rev. II. Martyn. And afterwards carefully revised with the assistance of Mirza Fitrit and other learned Natives. For the British and Foreign Bible Society. Serampore, printed at the Missionary Press,' 1814, 8vo; another edition, London, printed by Richard Watts for the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1819, 8vo; another edition, printed in the Nagree character, for the British and Foreign Bible Society, Calcutta, 1817, 4to ; another edition, altered from Martyn's Oordoo translation into the Hindee language by the Rev. William Bowley, Calcutta, 1826, 8vo. 2. 'A Compendium of the Book of Common Prayer, translated into the Hindoostanee Language' (by the Rev. H. Martyn), Calcutta, 1814, 8vo; another edit, in which the Rev. D. Corrie had a share, was published at London, 1818, 8vo. 3. 'Novum Testament urn e Græca in Persicam Linguam a viro reverendo H. Martyno trans-


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 Berthelot received a public funeral, and his remains were placed in the Panthéon on 25th March 1907, side by side with those of his wife. The crowds which gathered to see the two bodies laid to rest together in the nation's great mausoleum proved the popularity and universal renown of Berthelot, who did perhaps as much for chemistry as Pasteur did for medicine, if not more; for not only did he open up new fields of inquiry and lead the way to innumerable discoveries and developments, but he practically founded new branches of science, namely, synthetic and thermo-chemistry. Berthelot was one of those "prodigious" men who honour every country and every epoch. He made science the highest and noblest end of man. With Berthelot science became a real creative power. He proved that organic and inorganic chemical laws are identical. He did not get so far, by the imperfect means at his disposal in his laboratory, as to create a leaf or a fruit, but he did produce certain essential parts of the whole. What a field did he open up to human activity! Chemistry at once created artificial substances akin to natural ones, and by leading the way in this immense field of discovery Berthelot placed himself in the foremost ranks of the benefactors of humanity.

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 Panthéon (the Westminster Abbey of Paris) was the church of St Geneviève, and its foundation stone was laid by Louis XV. in 1764. In 1885 it was secularized, under the name it now bears, and all traces of religious worship were removed. The frescoes in the interior, by Puvis de Chavannes, Laurens, Cabanel, and others, are among the finest compositions of the nineteenth century. In the crypt were buried the remains of Voltaire, Rousseau, Mirabeau, Marat, Victor Hugo, and others; and it was Berthelot who, in 1897, was instrumental in having Voltaire's and Rousseau's sarcophagi opened to see if their bodies had been tampered with, as stated, but the great philosophers' remains had not been removed. Berthelot, in examining the remains of Rousseau, found fragments of the winding-sheet substances of an antiseptic and aromatic nature, such as are used in embalming, some teeth, and even a little hair still adhering to the frontal part of the skull, and forming a sort of crown, or tonsure, like that of monks.


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Martyn latum in urbe Schiraz, nunc vero cura et sumptibus Societatis Biblicæ Ruthenicæ typis datum,' St. Petersburg, 1815, 4to. 4. 'The New Testament translated into Persian ... by H. Martyn. . . with the Assistance of Meerza Sueyid Ulee,' Calcutta, 1816, 8vo; 3rd edit. London, 1827, 8vo; another edit. Calcutta, 1841, 8vo; 5th edit. Edinburgh, 1846, 4to; 6th edit. London, 1876, 8vo; 7th edit. 1878, 12mo. 5. 'Controversial Tracts on Christianity and Mohammedanism, by the late Rev. H. Martyn. . . and some of the most eminent Writers of Persia, translated and explained. To which is appended an additional Tract ... by the Rev. Samuel Lee,' Cambridge, 1824, 8vo, with portrait of Martyn. 6. 'The Gospels and Acts in English and Hindusthani. St. Matthew. Translated by II. Martyn,' Calcutta, 1837, 8vo. 7. 'The Gospels translated into the Judeeo-Persic Language,' London, 1847, 8vo (the Persian translation in the Hebrew character). 8. 'The Book of Psalms translated into Persian' (two editions, with title-pages in Persian, but without place or date or printer's name), 4to.

A manuscript Hindustani translation of the Book of Genesis, in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, has been ascribed to Martyn, but it is doubtful whether it is in his writing (Sixty-sixth Rep. Brit, and For. Bible Soc, 1870, pp. 187-8). His portrait has been engraved after Hickey by Say, and also by Worthington and Woodman.

 MARTYN, JOHN (1699–1768), botanist, born 12 Sept. 1699 in Queen Street, London, was son of Thomas Martyn, a Hamburg merchant, who died in 1743. His mother, whose maiden name was Katharine Weedon, died in 1700. Martyn was sent to a neighbouring private school, and when he was sixteen was placed in his father's counting-house. Of studious tastes, he for some years only allowed himself four hours' sleep in the twenty-four. He seems to have been attracted to the study of botany at an early age. In 1716 he printed, but did not publish, 'The Compleat Herbal,' translated from that of Tournefort, 'with large additions from Ray, Gerard, &c.,' 2 vols. 4to. In 1718 he made the acquaintance of John Wilmer, an apothecary, who was afterwards demonstrator at the Chelsea Garden, and was by him introduced to William Sherard [q. v.] and to Dr. Patrick Blair, with whom he corresponded for many years. In 1720 he translated Tournefort's 'History of Plants growing about Paris; ' but, awaiting a new edition by Vaillant, did not print his work until 1732, so that his first published work (excepting, perhaps, the fragment of the 'Compleat Herbal') was an English translation of ' An Ode formerly dedicated to Camerarius,' from the epistle 'De Sexu Plantarum,' printed in Blair's 'Botanick Essays' (1720) as ' by J. Martyn, Φιλοβοτανικoς.'

He joined Wilmer and the apothecaries in their 'herborizings' and made many excursions on foot in the home counties, collecting plants, and afterwards insects, until his hortus siccus contained 1,400 specimens. The study of Csesalpinus directed his attention to fruits, seeds, and germination, so that he not only grew many seedlings but actually discussed with Blair the framing of a natural system of classification based upon the cotyledons.

About 1721 he made the acquaintance of Dillenius, and, with him, Dr. Charles Deering, Dr. Thomas Dale, Philip Miller, and others, established a botanical society, which for some six years met every Saturday evening at the Rainbow Coffee-house, Watling Street, Dillenius being president and Martyn secretary. To this society he read a course of lectures on botanical terminology, which he afterwards published as the first lecture of a course.

Martyn saw his friend Blair's 'Pharmaco-Botanologia' (1723-8) through the press, and was by him introduced to Sloane in 1724, in which year he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, an honour which he had previously declined through modesty. In 1725 he contributed an explanation of the technical terms of botany to Nathan Bailey's 'Dictionary,' and seems to have delivered his first public course of lectures on botany in London, which he repeated in the following year. Having, in conjunction with Blair, begun a collection of birds, apparently for anatomical purposes, he visited Wales by way of Bristol, returning by Hereford, Worcester, and Oxford, and twice made collections in Sheppey.

On the recommendation of Sloane and Sherard he was invited to lecture at Cambridge, and did so in 1727, printing for his pupils' use a 'Method us Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium,' which is Ray's


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66 Churchyards.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 138.
 * An Act to abolish the Punishment of the Pillory, except in certain Cases.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 139.
 * An Act to regulate the binding of Parish Apprentices.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 141.
 * An Act for enabling Ecclesiastical Corporate Bodies under certain Circumstances to alienate Lands for enlarging Cemeteries or
 * An Act to regulate the binding of Parish Apprentices.
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 141.
 * An Act for enabling Ecclesiastical Corporate Bodies under certain Circumstances to alienate Lands for enlarging Cemeteries or
 * 56 Geo. 3. c. 141.
 * An Act for enabling Ecclesiastical Corporate Bodies under certain Circumstances to alienate Lands for enlarging Cemeteries or
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 6.
 * An Act to make perpetual certain Parts of an Act of the Thirty-sixth Year of His present Majesty for the Safety and Preservation of His Majesty's Person . . . against Treasonable and Seditious Practices and Attempts.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 19.
 * An Act for the more effectually preventing Seditious Meetings and Assemblies.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 25.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words "An Act to explain," and ends with the words "charged by the said Act."
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 41.
 * An Act to repeal two Acts passed in the Fifty-fourth and Fifty-fifth Years of his present Majesty relating to the Office of the Agent General, and for transferring the Duties of the said Office to the Offices of the Paymaster General and Secretary at War.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 44.
 * An Act to allow Corps of Yeomanry . . . when assembled for the Suppression of Riots or Tumults to be quartered and billetted . . and to exempt Members in such Corps from serving the Office of Constable.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 52.
 * An Act to alter an Act passed in the Eleventh Year of the Reign of King George the Second for the more effectual securing the Payment of Rents, and preventing Frauds by tenants.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 53.
 * An Act for the more effectual Punishment of Murders and Manslaughters committed in Places not within His Majesty's Dominions.
 * }
 * An Act to repeal two Acts passed in the Fifty-fourth and Fifty-fifth Years of his present Majesty relating to the Office of the Agent General, and for transferring the Duties of the said Office to the Offices of the Paymaster General and Secretary at War.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 44.
 * An Act to allow Corps of Yeomanry . . . when assembled for the Suppression of Riots or Tumults to be quartered and billetted . . and to exempt Members in such Corps from serving the Office of Constable.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 52.
 * An Act to alter an Act passed in the Eleventh Year of the Reign of King George the Second for the more effectual securing the Payment of Rents, and preventing Frauds by tenants.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 53.
 * An Act for the more effectual Punishment of Murders and Manslaughters committed in Places not within His Majesty's Dominions.
 * }
 * An Act to alter an Act passed in the Eleventh Year of the Reign of King George the Second for the more effectual securing the Payment of Rents, and preventing Frauds by tenants.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 53.
 * An Act for the more effectual Punishment of Murders and Manslaughters committed in Places not within His Majesty's Dominions.
 * }
 * An Act for the more effectual Punishment of Murders and Manslaughters committed in Places not within His Majesty's Dominions.
 * }
 * }


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Martyn 'Catalogus,' arranged, not alphabetically, bat in accordance with Ray's own system, which Martyn employed through life. He continued to live in London, practising from 1727 to 1730 in Great St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, apparently as an apothecary, and lecturing both on botany and on materia medica. In 1728 he issued the first decade of his most magnificent work, ' Historia plantarum rariorum,' an imperial folio, with mezzotint plates by Kirkall, printed in colours, after Van Huysum; but, though by 1737 four more decades had been issued, the work had then to be discontinued for want of support.

In conjunction with Dr. Alexander Russel [q. v.] Martyn in 1730 started the well-known Thursday miscellany called 'The Grub Street Journal,' using himself the signature 'Bavius,' while Russel wrote as 'Mævius.' It survived until 1737, when two volumes of selections were published as 'Memoirs of the Society of Grub Street' (see, Pope, viii. 268).

Meanwhile, at Sloane's advice, he in 1730 entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and kept five terms, but his practice and his marriage prevented his graduating, and the title M.D. was appended to some of his papers in the ' Philosophical Transactions' merely by mistake. On the death of Bradley, in 1732, Martyn was elected professor of botany at Cambridge, in spite of attempts, probably based on his friendship with the Jacobite Blair, to discredit him as a nonjuror. His lectures, however, met with little encouragement : he felt the want of a botanical garden ; and from 1735 he ceased to lecture. In 1732 he entered into an agreement with the booksellers for an abridgment of the 'Philosophical Transactions,' and he accordingly published iive volumes between 1734 and 1756, comprising the 'Transactions' from 1719 to 1750. On the death of Dr. Rutty, however, he was unsuccessful in his candidature for the secretaryship of the Royal Society, the successful competitor, Dr. Cromwell Mortimer, being a relative of Sloane.

About 1737 Martyn received from Linnaeus a copy of his ' Flora Lapponica,' published in that year, and thus began a correspondence between them. Reference is made to this work by Martyn in the first volume of the last great literary undertaking of his life — an edition, with translation and natural history notes, of the works of Virgil. Of this he published the 'Georgicks' in 1741, the astronomical matters being revised by his friend Edmund Halley [q. v.], and the 'Bucolicks' in 1749 ; but only left some dissertations and notes on the 'Æneid,' which were issued posthumously.

Since 1730 Martyn lived when in London in Church Street, Chelsea, where he continued to practise medicine. In 1752 he retired from practice to Hill House, a farm on Streatham Common, and in 1762 he resigned his professorship. On his son Thomas (1735-1825) [q. v.] being elected in his place he presented to the university some two hundred botanical works, his /tortus siccus of 2,600 foreign specimens, his drawings of fungi, and his collections of seeds and materia medica. He suffered from gout in the head and stomach, and was thus unable to enjoy his farm. He accordingly returned to Chelsea about 1767, and there he died 29 Jan. 1768. He was buried on the north side of Chelsea churchyard. Martyn married in 1732 Eulalia, daughter of John King, D.D., rector of Chelsea and prebendary of York, by whom he had three sons and five daughters, four of the latter dying young. His first wife died in 1749 of cancer in the breast caused by a blow received in the street. He married secondly, in 1750, Mary Anne, daughter of Claude Fonnereau, merchant, of London, by whom he had one son, Claudius, who became rector of Ludgershall, Buckinghamshire, and died in 1828.

Among Martyn's chief botanical correspondents were Blair, Philip Miller, Dr. Richardson (of North Bierley, Yorkshire), Sloane, Houstoun, Blackstone, Collinson, Boerhaave, Bernard de Jussieu, and Linnaeus. Some of his letters, given by his son to Sir Joseph Banks, are preserved in the botanical department of the British Museum.

Martyn introduced valerian, peppermint-water, and black currants into pharmacy, and, in addition to his published writings, made careful studies of history and modern languages, and collected material for an English dictionary, so that Pulteney may well style him ' indefatigable ' (Sketches of the Progress of Botany, ii. 215). His friend Dr. Houstoun dedicated to him the bignoniaceous genus Martynia. Of thirteen papers contributed by him to the ' Philosophical Transactions,' one describes a journey to the Peak, another a well-boring yielding purgative water at Dulwich, and several refer to observations of the aurora and of an earthquake experienced at Chelsea in 1749-50.

Besides the works mentioned above, Martyn wrote: 1. 'Tabulæ synopticæ Plantarum officinalium ad Methodum Raianam dispositte,' London, 1726, fol. 2. 'Treatise on the Powers of Medicines,' by Boerhaave, translated, London, 1740, 8vo. S. Transla-


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Rh I soon perceived that from this none but false results could be obtained. By considerably widening the circuit of the spiral, it advanced nearer and nearer to the upper bow of the magnet; so that by removing the armature, not only the sudden disappearance of the magnetism in it, but also the sudden removal which took place at the same time from that upper part of the magnet (the bay of the horseshoe) acts on the spirals, and indeed unequally with unequal diameters of the spiral; the electromotive power becomes thus greater in larger spirals than it would otherwise be. On this account I took two strong rectilinear magnetic systems, each of which consisted of ten single magnet bars; I laid them with their opposite poles against one another so that they lay in a straight direction, and brought the iron cylinder which had served me in the above-mentioned experiments as an armature to the horseshoe magnet, between their poles, while the spirals covered the cylinder; upon this I let the magnet be suddenly drawn by two assistants from each other in opposite directions.

I wound at first ten convolutions of wire No. 2 round the iron cylinder upon this I wound ten convolutions of wire No. 2 round a wooden disc, the wooden disc was perforated in the centre, into which the iron cylinder was inserted. The observation gave

I observed the deviation of the wider spirals between the narrower, in order that the fault which might have originated by diminishing the magnetic power of the magnet systems might be estimated: we therefore have The length of the wire of the multiplier and of the conducting wires (reduced to the diameter of the first) was as in the former experiments, i. e. they amounted together to $$673\cdot 25$$, or $$L + l = 673\cdot 25,\, \lambda$$ however is for the narrower convolutions $$= 28$$, and for the wider $$\lambda' = 203$$.


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618 By means of formula (A.) we shall therefore obtain for the narrow spirals for the wide spirals therefore the relation of the electromotive powers, or }therefore not deviating much from 1, that is, the electromotive power is in both spirals the same.

I endeavoured in a more striking manner to confirm this position by the following experiment: I wound the wire No. 2 in six convolutions round a great wooden wheel of 28 inches in diameter, and placed the wheel on the iron cylinder. After having completed, as in the former cases, the experiment, I wound also six convolutions of the same wire immediately round the same iron cylinder, where also, as above, the convolutions again were 0·73 inch in diameter. The experiment gave Here the proportion of both electromotive powers approaches still more nearly to unity than in the former case, although the proportion of the diameter of the spirals is $$= 1 : 38.3$$. We may therefore regard as a tiling proved by experiment, the position, that

Since however a spiral wire inclosing the armature presents to the action of the magnetism in the armature a length greater in proportion as its diameter or its distance from the armature is greater, it follows from the law just discovered that the electromotive action of the magnet upon one and the same particle of the wire decreases in the simple ratio of the distance. This is as it were the reversal of the law demonstrated by Biot in the field of electro-magnetism, which, as is known, states that the action of an electric closing wire upon a magnetic needle decreases in the simple ratio of the distance; and it follows from our


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Rh as from those of Biot, that the action of a particle of the electric currents which encircle the magnet upon every particle of the spiral, is in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distance.

It also immediately follows from the law just demonstrated that the electric current produced in the various wire rings which inclose the armature, by its removal from the magnet, is in the inverse ratio of the diameter of the rings; for the electromotive power is the same in every ring, but the resistance it suffers in being conducted increases as the diameter of the rings; therefore the electric current, the quotient of the electromotive power, by the resistance it suffers, decreases as the diameter of the rings increases.

I have also again made these experiments with the horseshoe magnet, since in this case the convolutions of the wires had always the same magnitude. I here employed ten convolutions, which I formed from the wires No. 1, No. 3, and No. 4, and in which the diagonals were in the same proportion as the numbers 233 : 839 : 1661. The entire length of the convolutions in each sort was 33 inches. The deviations are contained in the following table.

If we now combine the observations No. 1, at the beginning and end of the series of experiments, and take their mean, we have the following deviations: From the proportion of the diagonals in which that of the wire of the multiplier is expressed by 274, we find the following reduced lengths (referred to the wire of the multiplier or No. 2) of our three spirals,


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620 {| the equation (A.) gives therefore or, if the two last electromotive powers be compared with the first, the proportions Both propositions differ so little from unity that we are fully warranted in concluding that the electromotive power which the magnet produces in the wire No. 1 is quite as strong as those in the wires Nos. 3 and 4, although the latter possesses a diagonal almost four and seven times greater, and therefore that the electromotive power is independent of the thickness of the wires. A second confirmation of this position is found in the following experiment previously made: Consequently we have for consequently Here also the proportion is so near to unity that we may from this, combined with the above results, regard it as an established truth, that
 * $$\lambda\,\; = 38.81$$|| therefore || $$L + l + \lambda\,\; = 712.06$$,
 * $$\lambda'\, = 10.78$$ ||| ||  $$L + l + \lambda'\, = 684.03$$,
 * $$\lambda = .\,5.44$$ || | || $$ L + l + \lambda= 678.69$$,
 * }
 * $$\lambda = .\,5.44$$ || | || $$ L + l + \lambda= 678.69$$,
 * }
 * }

From this law again it immediately follows that in rings of wires of various thickness surrounding the armature of the magnet, the electric


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Rh current produced by its removal is directly as the diagonals of the wires; for the electromotive power remains the same, but the resistance it experiences in being conducted decreases inversely as the diagonals; consequently the electric currents, or the quotients of the electromotive powers by the diagonals, increase as the diagonals.

Nobili and Antinori have in their first paper on the electrical phænomena produced by the magnet (Poggendorff's Annalen, 1832, No. 3) already determined the order in which four different metals are adapted to produce the electric current. They arrange them in the following order,—copper, iron, antimony, and bismuth.

It is particularly striking that this order is the same as that which the above metals occupy also in reference to their capacity of conducting electricity; and the idea suddenly struck me whether the electromotive power of the spirals did not remain the same in all metals, and whether the stronger current in the one metal did not arise from its being a better conductor of electricity than the other. With this view, therefore, I examined four metals, namely, copper, iron, platina, and brass, and pursued the following course: In order to avoid entirely the influence of different conduction, I brought at the same time into the metallic conducting circle through which the electric current had to pass, two spirals, equal in all respects excepting that they were of different metals, binding the one end of the first with the one conducting wire, the one end of the second with the other conducting wire, and connected the two ends of the spirals which had remained free with a distinct copper connecting wire. I now brought first the one spiral upon the iron armature of the horseshoe magnet, and proceeded in the same way with it as in the former experiments, and then the other. In this manner the resistance which the electric current suffered in each process was naturally quite the same.—I must also remark that I carefully avoided all thermo-electric disturbing forces, as I surrounded the places of connection of the various wires with several layers of blotting-paper, and after having arranged the apparatus I always waited several hours in order to give the places of connection time to take the temperature of the room.

The experiments themselves are as follows:


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622 {|
 * rowspan=2 | || rowspan=2 | || colspan=4 |Angle of deviation. || rowspan =2 | Mean.
 * 1 ||| 2 ||| 3 ||| 4
 * rowspan= 5 |Copper and iron spirals ||| Copper spir. on the || rowspan=2| 17·3 || rowspan=2| 17·4 || rowspan=2| 17·6 || rowspan=2| 17·7 || rowspan=2| 17·500
 * armature
 * rowspan=2| Iron spirals ||| 17·3 ||| 17·6 ||| 17·5 ||| 17·9 ||| 17·575
 * 17·3 ||| 17·4 ||| 17·6 ||| 18·1 ||| 17·600
 * Copper spirals ||| 17·4 ||| 17·4 ||| 17·8 ||| 18·2 ||| 17·700
 * rowspan = 5 | Copper and platina spirals ||| Copper spir. on the || rowspan=2| 15·2 || rowspan=2| 15·4 || rowspan=2| 15·8 || rowspan=2|15·8 ||  rowspan=2|15·500
 * armature
 * rowspan=2|Platina spirals ||| 15·7 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·9 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·600
 * 15·7 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·8 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·575
 * Copper spirals ||| 15·4 ||| 15·8 ||| 15·3 ||| 15·9 ||| 15·600
 * rowspan=5 | Copper and brass spirals. ||| Brass spir. on the || rowspan=2|18·4 || rowspan=2| 18·3 || rowspan=2| 18·4 || rowspan=2|18·2 || rowspan=2|18·350
 * armature
 * rowspan=2|Copper spirals ||| 18·5 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·1 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·275
 * 18·4 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·5 ||| 18·4 ||| 18·375
 * Brass spirals ||| 18·4 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·325
 * }
 * armature
 * rowspan=2|Platina spirals ||| 15·7 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·9 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·600
 * 15·7 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·8 ||| 15·4 ||| 15·575
 * Copper spirals ||| 15·4 ||| 15·8 ||| 15·3 ||| 15·9 ||| 15·600
 * rowspan=5 | Copper and brass spirals. ||| Brass spir. on the || rowspan=2|18·4 || rowspan=2| 18·3 || rowspan=2| 18·4 || rowspan=2|18·2 || rowspan=2|18·350
 * armature
 * rowspan=2|Copper spirals ||| 18·5 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·1 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·275
 * 18·4 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·5 ||| 18·4 ||| 18·375
 * Brass spirals ||| 18·4 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·325
 * }
 * armature
 * rowspan=2|Copper spirals ||| 18·5 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·1 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·275
 * 18·4 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·5 ||| 18·4 ||| 18·375
 * Brass spirals ||| 18·4 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·325
 * }
 * 18·4 ||| 18·2 ||| 18·5 ||| 18·4 ||| 18·375
 * Brass spirals ||| 18·4 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·3 ||| 18·325
 * }
 * }

If we now combine the single means together and convert the decimals of the degrees into minutes, we obtain from this table the following results:

Since in this case the resistances remain the same for every pair of observations, our chief equation (A.) gives, when treated as before, the following proportions of the electromotive powers, if we designate them for copper, iron, platina, and brass with $$x,\, x',\, x,\, x'$$:

These three proportions are all of them so near to unity that there will exist no doubt as to the fact, that wires of copper, iron, platina, and brass suffer one and the same electromotive action; and that I may be allowed to extend the same position by analogy, even to all other metals and substances in general, until direct experiments shall have left the matter beyond all doubt. We shall have therefore the law,

"that the electromotive power which the magnet produces in spirals


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Grimm's Household Tales, Volume 1/Hans in Luck

Hans im Glück (1837) Elektitaj Fabeloj de la Fratoj Grimm\Feliĉa Joĉjo Juan en la prosperidad


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Rh of wires of different substances, but in every other respect placed in exactly the same circumstances, is completely the same for all these substances".

Hence again it immediately follows that in two perfectly equal wire rings of different substance, surrounding the magnetic armature, the electric currents which are produced by taking the armature off or placing it on the magnet, are in direct proportion as the capacities of the substances for conducting electricity. Silver and copper wires therefore are the most advantageous.

From the latter observations we shall easily be able to deduce the capacity of the four metals for conducting, if we make a second similar observation, in which instead of bringing into the circle of the electric current two spirals of different metals, we make use of two of the already used copper spirals, and then place either of them on the armature, and determine the angle of deviation. Let this angle be called $$\alpha$$; and, for the other spirals, in the order in which they followed in the observation (therefore the copper spiral, with that of iron, platina, and brass), let these angles be designated by $$\alpha',\, \alpha\,$$ and $$\alpha'$$. Further, let the combined lengths of the wire of the multiplier of the conducting wires and that of the connecting wire of both spirals (all reduced to the diameter of the wire of the multiplier) be called $$L$$; but the lengths, which are equal in all the spirals, reduced also to the same diameter, be $$\lambda$$; we will further designate by $$1,\, m',\, m,\, m'$$, the conductive power of the metals in the above order, where that of the copper is also expressed by $$1$$.

If we take the general formula (A.), namely we must here, since the wires are no longer of the same kind, substitute for the resistance $$(L + l + \lambda)$$, the resistances since they stand in inverse proportion to the capacities of conduction; we have therefore four equations (in which, according to the law just found, $$x' = x = x'$$ are $${}= x$$),


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1896.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 56.
 * An Act to amend the Laws in respect to forfeited Recognizances in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 62.
 * An Act to abolish certain Offices and to regulate certain other Offices in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 64.
 * An Act to abolish certain Offices and regulate others in Scotland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 68.
 * An Act to amend the Laws relating to Sheriffs in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 70.
 * An Act to relieve Persons impugning the doctrine of the Holy Trinity from certain Penalties in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 87.
 * An Act to amend two Acts passed in the forty-fifth year of his present Majesty, and in the last Session of Parliament, for the making more effectual provision for the Prevention of Smuggling.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 91.
 * An Act to enable Justices of the Peace to settle the Fees to be taken by the Clerks of the Peace of the respective Counties and other Divisions of England and Wales.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 93.
 * An Act to regulate the Costs of Distresses levied for Payment of Small Rents.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 100.
 * An Act to renew the Powers of exonerating Small Livings and Charitable Institutions from the Land Tax, and for making further Provision for the Redemption of the Land Tax.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 108.
 * An Act for the Regulation of levying Tolls at Fairs, Markets, and Ports in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act to regulate the issuing of Extents in Aid.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words " An Act to repeal," and ends with the words " other Provisions in lieu thereof."
 * }
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 91.
 * An Act to enable Justices of the Peace to settle the Fees to be taken by the Clerks of the Peace of the respective Counties and other Divisions of England and Wales.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 93.
 * An Act to regulate the Costs of Distresses levied for Payment of Small Rents.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 100.
 * An Act to renew the Powers of exonerating Small Livings and Charitable Institutions from the Land Tax, and for making further Provision for the Redemption of the Land Tax.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 108.
 * An Act for the Regulation of levying Tolls at Fairs, Markets, and Ports in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act to regulate the issuing of Extents in Aid.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words " An Act to repeal," and ends with the words " other Provisions in lieu thereof."
 * }
 * An Act for the Regulation of levying Tolls at Fairs, Markets, and Ports in Ireland.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act to regulate the issuing of Extents in Aid.
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words " An Act to repeal," and ends with the words " other Provisions in lieu thereof."
 * }
 * 57 Geo. 3. c. 117.
 * An Act the title of which begins with the words " An Act to repeal," and ends with the words " other Provisions in lieu thereof."
 * }
 * }
 * }


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624 consequently, by division, from which equations $$m',\, m,$$ and $$m'$$ may be found.

For our case, $$L$$ is $${}= 849$$ inches, $$\lambda = 84.1$$, $$\alpha = 21^{\circ}\; 52'$$, $$\alpha' = 17^{\circ}\; 36'$$, $$\alpha = 15^{\circ}\; 34'$$, $$\alpha' = 18^{\circ}\; 20'$$, hence we have

We might still find these values more exactly if the lengths of the wires were greater; but this investigation did not properly come within the scope of this paper, I therefore defer it till another occasion.

In the following experiments I suppose the magnet for the production of the electric current to be given here, therefore the question is to determine those spirals of a certain metal which act most advantageously with this magnet and its cylindrical armature, which is likewise given. Further, I suppose the spirals, together with their free, not wound ends, to consist of one and the same wire; moreover, it is self-evident that every other property of the ends of the wires not belonging to the electromotive spirals may be reduced to those above mentioned, if we know the length, the diagonal, and the conducting power of the pieces of wire brought into the circle.

It is easy to see that by increasing the convolutions ad infinitum we do not also increase the strengths of the current ad infinitum. In the first place,—the number of convolutions of a given wire is limited by


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Martyn tioix of Dr. Walter Harris's Latin 'Treatise of the Acute Diseases of Infants,' 1742, 8vo. 4. 'Nineteen Dissertations and some Critical Remarks upon the Æneids of Virgil,' London, 12mo, 1770.

 MARTYN or MARTIN, RICHARD (d. 1483), bishop of St. Davids, was LL.D. of Cambridge University, where he was probably educated. In April 1469 he was archdeacon of London, and before 1471 became a member of the king's council. In that year he was collated to the prebend of Ealdland in St. Paul's Cathedral (28 July), acted as one of the commissioners to treat for a perpetual peace with Scotland (, Fœdera, v. iii. 6), and was appointed chancellor of the marches for life (Cat. Motul. Pat. 316 b). In 1472 he was commissioned to treat with the Burgundian ambassadors concerning the surrender of Henry of Richmond (, v. iii. 14; cf. ), and became a master in chancery, an office which he retained until 1477 (, Judges, iv. 388). On 28 Nov. he was collated to the prebend of Pratum Minus in Hereford Cathedral. It is scarcely probable, though just possible, that he is identical with the Richard Martin, the Franciscan and professor of divinity, who was made bishop of Waterford and Lismore ; by a papal bull, dated 9 March 1472 (cf., Annales Minorum, xv 46 , Series Episcoporum ; , Fasti, i. 121 ; , i. 536; , Liber Munerum, v. 63). On 10 March 1473-4 Martyn was collated to the prebend of Putston Minor in Hereford Cathedral, and in 1475 a successor was appointed to the see of Waterford and Lismore (ib.) In 1476 Martyn was archdeacon of Hereford, king's chaplain, and apparently prebendary of Hoxton, London. On 17 June a royal warrant was addressed to him to provide for the carriage to Fotheringay of the shrine of the king's father, Richard, duke of York, and to impress workmen and materials. In 1477 he was appointed chancellor of Ireland for life (Cal. Rotul. Pat. p. 323;, iii. 52), but appears never to have performed the duties of that office (cf., Chancellors of Ireland, i. 128-135), and was succeeded by William Sherwood, bishop of Meath, in 1480 or 1482 (Cal. Hot. Pat. p. 326 b; , and , Antiquities). Martyn was also appointed in 1477 ambassador 'along with Thomas Langton [q. v.] to Castile to treat concerning the proposed marriage between Prince Edward and Isabella, eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella (, v. iii. 75; Leland, Itinerary, iv. i. 86), and on 26 Feb. 1477-8 he was collated to the prebend of Huntingdon in Hereford Cathedral. He was one of the triers of petitions in the parliament which met on 16 Jan. 1478 (Mot. Parl. vi. 167; Stubbs, iii. 215).

In 1480 Martyn was collated to the prebend of Moreton Magna in Hereford Cathedral, and in February 1481-2, through the favour of Edward IV, and as a reward for his political services, he was granted custody of the temporalities of the see of St. Davids. He received papal provision on 26 April, made profession of obedience on the 8th, and was consecrated on 28 July. On 9 April 1483 Edward IV died, and Martyn, who had been chancellor to Edward V when Prince of Wales, was one of the young king's council, but he died before 11 May in the same year, and was succeeded by Thomas Langton. He was buried under a large marble slab in St. Paul's Cathedral, where he had endowed the choristers with an exhibition (, St. Paul's, pp. 15, 246, 255). He procured for the town of Presteign in Radnorshire the grant of a market and other privileges.

The identity of name has caused Martyn's confusion with another Richard Martin who was rector of Ickham, vicar of Lydd, both in Kent, guardian of the Greyfriars at Canterbury, suffragan of the archbishop, and fellow of Eton College; he died in 1502, leaving by his will, dated 9 Nov. 1498, and proved on 9 March 1502-3, his library to the convent of Greyfriars at Canterbury (cf., Athenæ Cantabr. ii. 621); having no see, he styled himself, as was usual in such cases, simply 'Episcopus ecclesiæ Catholicæ' (cf. , Cranmer, i. 52). A third Richard Martyn was vicar of Hendon from 29 June 1478 till his death in 1480, and was doubtless the Richard Martyn who became archdeacon of Berkshire on 30 Dec. 1478. [Cal. Rotul. Patent, pp. 316 h, 321, 323, 326b; Cal. Rotul. Pari. vi. 167; Rymer's Fœdera, v. iii. 6, 14, 75; Grants of Edward V (Camden Soc.), pp. viii, 3; Leland's Itinerary, iv. i. 86, Collectanea, i. 324; Dugdale's St. Paul's, pp. 15, 246, 255; Godwin, ed. Richardson, p. 584; Wharton's Anglia Sacra, i. 64, 790; Strype's Cranmer, i. 52; Newcourt's Repertorium, i. 61, 146, 163; Willis's Cathedrals, ii. 584, St Davids, p. 114; Lascelles's Liber Munerum, v, 63; Le Neve, ed. Hardy; Wadding's Annales Minorum, vi. 167; Wares's Ireland; Cotton's Fasti, i. 121; O'Flanagan's Chancellors of Ireland, i. 128-35; Cooper's Athenæ Cantabr. i. 521; Alumni Eto-