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 heads, and more especially a bone needle, were definitely of the cave class, so well represented in the caves of Dordogne. Again, below the cave-earth was a breccia formed of limestone and sandstone pebbles cemented together by a calcareous paste. In this also were found implements and bones of bears.

The succession of strata indicated above may be taken as typical of the caverns used by palaeolithic man, the breccia and stalagmite flooring being in themselves proof of a very considerable age, while the association in the former, or under the latter, of remains of human handiwork, with bones of extinct animals, may be safely taken to show contemporaneous existence.

Once the mind has fairly grasped the fact that man was living at so remote a time, it is a simple and natural conclusion that he should have provided himself with weapons and tools more or less rudely fashioned from the stones he found ready to his hand. The analogy of the recently extinct Tasmanian is sufficient to show that even the meanest savage is not without such aids. But the caves of France, of the same palaeolithic period, and used by men theoretically in the same stage of culture, bring before us a race of artists of first-rate capacity, who for accuracy of observation, and for skill in indicating the character and peculiarities of the animals around them, have never been surpassed. Such a statement sounds like a contradiction in terms. We are dealing with human beings whose intellect, to judge by their physical characters, should be on a level with that of the Fuegian or the Australian black, and far below that of the Maori or the Sandwich Islander. Yet none of these gentle and relatively cultured brown races produced anything in the nature of art that can in any sense be compared with the masterly drawings or sculptures of the cave-men of France. The best-known of the engravings, that of the mammoth on a piece of ivory, is in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. It is evidently intended to be nothing more than a sketch, the lines of the finely curved tusks being repeated several times in the desire for accuracy. But the heavy lumbering walk of the ponderous beast, his attitude, and even the character of the hairy hide, are all shown or suggested with a skill and freedom that not only denotes daily familiarity with the thing represented, but a most complete mastery of the art of translating the idea into simple line. This mammoth-drawing is probably the most important and monumental of its class, but there are many others that possess artistic qualities not less remarkable, while they have in addition a grace and beauty of line not less astonishing. One of these, in the British Museum, the head of an ibex-like creature, is outlined with a decision and refinement that can scarcely be surpassed, and many other sketches in horn or stone in the same collection show a keen appreciation of the characteristic features of the different animals as well as a masterly deftness in the handling of the graving-tool. If we are forced to marvel at the graphic skill of the cave-men, their sculptures in the round are on a still higher plane, as may be seen in the figures of reindeer in ivory in the British Museum. While they are not highly finished, they show a complete understanding of the animal’s peculiar forms and contours, which are rendered in a direct, unhesitating way that should betoken a long period of artistic training and an executive power uncommon at any time. These drawings and sculptures have always been appreciated and even regarded as being of a much more advanced style than was to be expected among men who are always classed in the lower grades of culture. But enough stress has not hitherto been laid on the artistic quality of the work, which would be considered fine at any time in the world’s history. This high artistic level was attained by a race of men whom we cannot credit with any great intellectual equipment; men, moreover, who were engaged in a daily struggle for the barest necessaries of life, in a trying climate and surrounded by a fauna whose means of attack and defence were infinitely superior to their own. There are many astonishing problems in archaeology, but none so badly in need of solution. Had the discovery been confined to a single drawing or even to a single site, fraud or a misreading of the conditions might have been alleged, but the case is very different. The drawings and sculptures have been found generally enough in France to demonstrate that such artistic power was fairly common, while the question of the authenticity and period of the discoveries has long since been satisfactorily settled. It is true that the climatic conditions in pleistocene France were more favourable to man than was the case farther north, but even an agreeable climate does not necessarily produce an artistic race; if it were so, the Polynesians would probably be the greatest artists the world has ever seen. The physical remains of palaeolithic man, even when found under unquestionable conditions, are, however, so scanty, that it is unlikely that the important question of the race or races inhabiting central and northern Europe will ever be settled by their means. The evidence at present is in favour of two very different types, one dwarfish and brutal (Canstadt), the other more advanced and noble in physical character (Cro-Magnon). To the latter were due the artistic productions, and until further physical evidence is forthcoming recourse must be had to the most minute examination of the objects themselves and to accurate observation of the conditions under which they are found. So far as our present materials go, these are the only means by which more light may be thrown on the many problems of early man.

In spite of the unquestioned and unquestionable character of palaeolithic discoveries in general, it must not be assumed that there has been an absence of falsification, forgery, and what the French call “mystification”; on the contrary, such attempts to meet the demand have been common enough. Apart from Edward Simpson, who was notorious as “Flint Jack” in the middle of the 19th century, many others, both in England and on the continent of Europe, have devoted themselves to this peculiar industry. Boucher de Perthes tried to conquer the scepticism of some of his friends who doubted the human origin of the Abbeville flints, by unwisely offering his workmen a reward for the discovery of human bones in the same beds. The Moulin Quignon jaw was accordingly produced, and became the subject of much controversy; but the evidence finally showed that it had originally come from elsewhere. The cave drawings also have found their imitators in modern times. One Meillet, a man of education, took a special pleasure in the production of spurious examples, and even published an account of his pretended discoveries. But here, as in all the attempts at imitation of the cave drawings, the modern efforts were betrayed by their poor artistic quality, and a comparison of the new discoveries with the old was generally enough to disclose the forgery. Two drawings on bone of a wolf and a bear, declared to have been found in a cave at Thayingen in Switzerland, were afterwards shown to have been copied from a child’s picture-book. In Switzerland also a brisk trade was carried on some years ago in false antiquities said to come from the Lake-dwellings; and fantastic types of tools and implements were placed on the market. In Italy, too, a lively discussion has taken place of late years over the authenticity of curiously shaped flint implements from the neighbourhood of Verona; while America has provided similar food for discussion in the well-known Lenapé stone and the Calaveras skull. The former bears drawings of the French cave type, while the latter if genuine would carry back the story of man in the American continent before Pliocene times.

An apparent break in the continuity of man’s history in Europe occurs at the end of the palaeolithic period. Attempts have been made to bridge the gap by means of a “mesolithic” period (, middle); but it would not seem probable that the missing links will occur at all events so far north as Britain. We leave palaeolithic man in a cold climate, surrounded by a somewhat mixed fauna that formed his prey. We know him as a hunter and artist, but the remains show that he had no knowledge of pottery till towards the close of the period. Among the humbler arts he practised at least sewing, and lived in caves or took shelter at the base of overhanging rocks; but like the Australian, he frequently camped in the open. His successor of the later Stone Age (neolithic) we find to be a very different character and with very

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Rh terminals. Some feet further to the west were the fragments of an olive- coloured glass cup (fig. 2), of a type fairly common in Kent, having bands of hollow claw-like projections round the body which widens towards the mouth.

Towards the west end of the grave lay in a very crushed condition a large bucket or tub which must have been placed over the thighs of the deceased warrior. It was 2 feet in diameter with an iron frame and bronze covering, and contained the remains of two glass tumblers 1 1 inches high and 4 inches wide at the mouth, similar in size and colour to the specimen already mentioned. In it were also two large drinking-horns (fig. 5), terminating in an exceptionally fine example of the Teutonic bird-ornament (fig. 5b) ; and one of a smaller size, all with bronze and silver-gilt mounts of excellent workmanship. Two other silver rims were included, which seem to have belonged to barrel-shaped cups of thin wood such as have been found in south-east England, at Croydon, Surrey ; Broomfield, Essex ; and Faversham, Kent. The rims in all these cases are very much alike, but the Taplow and Faversham specimens are peculiar in having rather solid mounts in the form of a human head placed at intervals across the fragile gilt band (fig. 53) ; while the more usual representation of the human features is seen in repousse on the triangular mounts round the opening of the horns (fig. 4).

North-west of the large bucket and on a somewhat higher level was a long iron spearhead 26 inches long, pointing west. This was originally barbed, and belongs to the so-called ' angon ' type, and found more commonly in Belgium and the north of France. Near this was another bucket, similar to that in the south-east corner of the grave ; and along the western end several minor objects were met with, including another glass tumbler, the fourth, and a drinking-horn ; a second spear- head of the ordinary socketed kind, a silver-gilt ornament of crescent shape, and about thirty cylinders of bone, about an inch in height, the ends closed by discs united by a silver pin. These last were doubtless meant for use in some game resembling draughts, and may be compared with several of horses' teeth in the Gibbs collection from the King's Field, Faversham.

All the objects enumerated were more or less crushed between stout planks which had been placed both above and below the body ; and herein lies one of many resemblances to the interment at Broomfield, Essex. The similarity in the direction of the two graves has already been noticed, and in both cases the body was apparently laid with the head at the east end. In both graves also a large bowl or tub, placed midway between the longer sides, contained two horns, two glass vessels, and two wooden cups. Both sword and spear were on the north side of either interment, and shield-boss or bosses in the north-east corner. In the middle of the south side both had a circular bowl standing on a tall foot, and at either end of this side one or two buckets. Such a series of coincidences must be more than accidental, and goes far towards connecting

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Rh the leaders, if not the hosts, of Teutonic blood who made the Thames their highway to the interior, and buried some of their greatest in ground they had won in its vicinity at Faversham, at Broomfield, and at Taplow.

In the British Museum are a sword and shield-boss from a warrior's grave in Windmill Field, Hitcham, near Taplow ; and at Newport Pag- nel, in the northern angle of the county, about midway between the county towns of Buckingham and Bedford, there seems to have been a West Saxon settlement, which was no doubt in touch with both those centres during the early period. An Anglo-Saxon cemetery at the east end of the town has not been systematically examined, but has yielded interesting relics from time to time. The first discoveries were made early in 1900 while gravel was being dug in a field on the Tickford Park Estate, and remains of unburnt burials were brought to light. By the side of male skeletons, placed on the gravel about 3 feet from the surface, three iron swords of the usual double-edged type were dis- covered, while an iron spearhead was generally found beside the skull. In what must have been the grave of a man was found a cup of amber glass, while in that of a woman was found a larger number of articles. At the head had been placed a small bucket, the bronze hoops of which had been forced on to the skull and were mistaken for part of a head-dress ; besides this was a bronze hair-pin, and a small iron knife, such as is found in nearly all unburnt burials of this period, lay across the breast. The arms had been encircled by strings of variously coloured beads of glass, as was the case at Kempston only 10 miles distant to the east, in the neighbouring county of Bedford ; while the bronze brooches met with all seem to have belonged to a very common type, with a flat circular face ornamented by incised rings in a very simple style. Pieces of charred wood and bones of the ox, horse, or sheep were considered with some reason to have been the remains of the funeral feast at the grave-side ; and a remarkable feature in at least one part of the cemetery was the arrangement of the graves in two concentric circles, with the feet all pointing to the centre, where some person of importance is supposed to have been interred. A similar grouping of the graves has been observed at Cuddesdon, Ox- fordshire ; at Shoeburyness, Essex ; and at Vendhuile, a Frankish site in the department of Aisne, France.

Once a footing was gained in this desirable region, the West Saxon never retired till driven southward of the river for half a century or more by his Anglian rivals, who, presumably, came down from the Trent valley. It is possible that from the accession of Penda in 626 the Anglians of Mercia gradually penetrated into Buckinghamshire, per- haps along the Watling Street through what is now Northampton- shire ; and it is generally supposed that Archbishop Theodore, who reorganized the English Church, turned Dorchester-on-Thames into a

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Rh Mercian see about the year 679. Whether the districts of Ayles- bury and Buckingham had by this time passed under the rule of the Mercian ./Ethelred cannot now be determined ; but Caedwalla of Wessex recovered territory north of the Thames after his accession in 686, so that the Mercian see of Dorchester had only a few years of existence.

The next century however saw the rapid expansion of the Anglian dominion of the Midlands ; and though the West Saxon defeat in 733 at Somerton (perhaps in Oxfordshire) was retrieved by Cuthred in 752 at Burford, the battle of Bensington in 777 (779) was a crushing blow to Wessex, and everything north of the Thames was thenceforth in Mercian hands till the revival of Wessex under Egbert fifty years later, and the consolidation of the English kingdom. A coin of Offa (757-96) found at Mentmore may be looked upon as a souvenir of the final Mercian occupation of Buckinghamshire. It will thus be seen that there is good reason for the scarcity of Anglian relics in Buckinghamshire ; and at least before the general acceptance of Christianity, there was a marked difference in the orna- ments worn by the two peoples as well as in their funeral customs. Not a single specimen of the distinctive long brooch of the Eastern counties and the north, where the Anglians mostly settled, has been recorded from the county, and only two instances of the Anglian rite of cremation have come to light within its borders. Two urns of the ordinary type of dark pottery, rudely ornamented and made without the wheel, were found in 1859 near Tythrop House, at the extreme west end of Kingsey village. Both were filled with human bones in a frag- mentary condition, and in one of them was also a coin of the em- peror Hadrian, who died in 138 another instance of imperial money continuing in circulation for centuries. An iron spearhead of an ordinary Anglo-Saxon type illustrated from the same site may have belonged to either of these or to an unburnt burial.

The later history of Anglo-Saxon Buckinghamshire, subsequent to the spread of Christianity in this district about the middle of the seventh century, seems to be represented by a solitary relic in the museum at Aylesbury. It is a stirrup of iron, with a rectangular loop, belonging to a type usually associated with the Danish invaders of the ninth and tenth centuries ; and a certain number inlaid with brass may be seen in the British Museum, chiefly from the Thames and the Witham. Another is preserved at Canterbury and was found in the neighbourhood, while one with inlaid decoration of interlaced animals has been illustrated from Mottisfont near Romsey, Hants.

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N proportion to its area Buckinghamshire receives a fairly liberal allowance of space in Domesday Book. As against its twenty-one pages Oxfordshire, which ' marches with ' its western border and has a slightly larger area, occupies but fifteen, while Berkshire, a slightly smaller county, is only allotted sixteen. In Middlesex, although the survey appears to be extremely full, the proportion to area is no greater than in the case of Bucks. Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, how- ever, although between them not quite half as large again as this county, occupy twice the number of pages. At a time when arable land was the chief source of wealth, its hills and its then extensive woodlands can hardly have admitted of Buckinghamshire being reckoned a rich county, in spite of its fertile valleys ; but it is not probable that the space allotted to a county in Domesday had much, if anything, to do with its wealth or its population.

The determining factor in this matter was really the amount of detail that the authorities decided to include. Domesday Book, we must always remember, is only a compilation from original returns for the Hundreds, which included, we have reason to believe, many details in addition to those which appear in that compilation. It is possible that the Domesday Commissioners themselves varied, on their several circuits, in the amount of detail they asked for, but it was clearly the compiler who was chiefly responsible for cutting down the information supplied on certain points in the inquiry. Apart from a certain fulness of detail in this county, its survey, fortunately for us, contains a few of those personal touches which make the men and women even of that remote period something more than mere names. The first information found in an entry after the name of the holder of the land is the number of ' hides ' at which it was assessed. The ' hide ' was merely a unit of assessment, of which the ' virgate ' was a quarter, and this assessment was of arbitrary character, being based on a unit of 'five hides.' In Buckinghamshire this unit becomes peculiarly prominent, as in the neighbouring counties of Bedford and Cambridge, and even the casual reader can hardly fail to be struck by the large number of manors assessed at such sums as 5, 10, 15,

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Rh 20, or 30 hides. But the prevalence of this system can only be pro- perly realized when the vills which had been divided among several holders are laboriously reconstructed. Mr. Ragg, the translator of the Domesday text, has compiled elaborate tables for each Hundred, showing how the vills were held, and to these I am indebted for two examples taken from neighbouring and important vills.

There are several other instances to be found in Mr. Ragg's tables.

Domesday students cannot speak so confidently about the plough- lands in the record as they can about its ' hides.' These, it will be found, often approximate or even coincide with the hides in number. Yet they are at times far fewer or far more numerous, while at Wing, assessed at only five hides, there was land for no fewer than forty ploughs. A good illustration of these variations is afforded by the Earl of Chester's lands. On two of his manors the number of the ploughlands was exactly equal to that of the hides, but the two others, Mentmore and Shenley, though each of them possessing ten ploughlands, were respec- tively assessed at eighteen and at two hides. Although the frequent coincidence of hides and ploughlands in number might suggest a rough or a conventional estimate, the record of the ploughs that actually were or ' could be ' employed on the manor proves that we are dealing with real areas of arable land. Great obscurity, however, still surrounds the subject.

Immediately after the schedule of holders of lands in the county, Domesday deals with the king's manors, here only seven in number. Three at least of these had been King Edward's own, Aylesbury, Wend- over, and Brill, while three others are entered as having been held by Harold. Buckingham itself, though entered separately as being the county town, was also (with Bourton) a royal manor with ploughlands, mill, and meadow. The chief feature of interest about these royal manors is the revenue the king derived from them. Domesday usually records so great an increase in that revenue since King Edward's days as to suggest that either the Normans had proved grossly extortionate, or the old rents before the Conquest had remained unduly low. The latter is by no means an improbable view, for there is evidence in other counties of old conventional rents being received from royal manors irrespective of their value.

In any case the rise was sharp. Aylesbury and Wendover had formerly ' rendered ' 25 each ' by tale ' yearly ; from Aylesbury was now

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Rh exacted 56 in money weighed and assayed, with 10 'by tale ' in re- spect of the (market) toll, and from Wendover 38 of money weighed and assayed. From Brill was exacted as much as from Wendover, be- sides 12 of similar money 'for the forest,' although it had formerly paid but 18 by tale. Buckingham, again, which under King Edward had ' rendered' no more than 10 by tale, was now called upon to pay 16 in blanch (albo) silver.

The technical term ' blanch silver,' in use at the Exchequer of the twelfth century, has had some learning expended on it. Our Bucking- hamshire evidence tends to show that Domesday used it as equivalent to ' weighed and assayed ' money ; and this is considered probable by the latest writers on the subject. In that case the payment in blanch silver involved an increased exaction of about a shilling in the pound. It should be observed that the three manors in which the king had succeeded Harold made their payments, one of them in ' weighed and assayed ' money, and two in ' blanch silver.' This, as in the case of the other manors, supports the view that the two phrases meant the same thing. The character of these payments deserves careful study, because they are peculiar to the king's demesne. Even the seventh and last manor entered under ' Terra Regis,' namely (part of) Biddlesden, is not so dis- tinguished, it being only an escheat and not part of the demesne ; the lands of Earl Aubrey, which he had lost before the Survey, are normally entered apart, under his name, in Domesday, but probably because he had held but this estate in the county they are here, as it were, tacked on to the king's lands.

The manors which Harold had held present some difficulty. It seems to have been the practice of the Conqueror to look on these as his peculiar spoil and to annex them to the Crown demesne ; and accord- ingly in Buckinghamshire (Princes) Risborough, together with Harold's lands in Swanbourne and in Upton near Slough, underwent this fate. On the other hand, Wooburn was given to Remi, Bishop of Lincoln, while Harold's share of Ellesborough was held at the time of the Survey by William son of Ansculf (de Picquigny). But of the latter manor Domesday records, in a slightly obscure phrase, that his father Ansculf had obtained it, by the king's command, in exchange for half Risborough ' contra Radulfum Talgebosch.' The character and object of this ex- change is complicated by the fact that Ansculf certainly, and Ralf (we shall find) probably, had been sheriffs of this county, for sheriffs, as Domesday shows in the adjoining county of Herts, were apt at times to confuse the king's manors with their own. All that we can say is that Ansculf must have somehow obtained possession of a moiety of Princes Risborough, and that he was given the Ellesborough estate as compensation for its loss.

The difficulty is caused not so much by the fact that the Wooburn and Ellesborough estates were valued at the time of the Survey like any

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Rh others, as by their values under the Confessor receiving the same treat- ment, while those of the three estates annexed by the Conqueror are entered as ' renders.' In other words, although these lands had all alike been held by Harold, Risborough, Swanbourne, and Upton are recorded to have ' rendered' £10, £1 10s, and 1£5 respectively ; Wooburn and Ellesborough are entered as having been 'worth' £15 and £9 As Domesday uses the two words carefully and by way of distinction, one is tempted to suggest that the three manors differed in character from the two, the more so as there is reason to believe that in the adjoining county of Herts the lands entered as Harold's had really been Crown manors. It might, again, be suggested that the three had really been ' comital ' manors, held, that is, by Harold in his official capacity as the earl. Professor Maitland indeed has said that

one of the best marked features of Domesday Book, a feature displayed on page after page, the enormous wealth of the house of Godwin, seems only explicable by the supposition that the earlships and the older ealdormanships had carried with them a title to the enjoyment of wide lands. . . The greater part of the land ascribed to Godwin, his widow and his sons, seems to consist of comttales villa.

Mr. Freeman, however, considered that Buckinghamshire was which he based largely on the number of Leofwine's ' men ' within it.
 * probably ' within the earldom of Harold's brother, Leofwine, a belief

So far as the lands they held are evidence, there is nothing to tell us which of the brothers had been earl in this county. Leofwine had held six estates as against Harold's five, but their annual value was about £13 less. Those of Tostig, the third brother, were only three in num- ber, but were worth rather more than those of Harold himself. It is worthy of notice that while the Bishop of Bayeux had obtained, as in Kent, Surrey, and Hertfordshire, the whole of Leofwine's land, save only Halton, this latter had gone to the Archbishop of Canterbury. For in the adjoining county of Middlesex Leofwine occurs as having held at Edward's death the vast manor of Harrow, which had similarly passed to Lanfranc in 1086, and had done so, clearly, because it formed part of the possessions of his see. From this we may conjecture that if Halton passed, unlike the rest of Leofwine's land, into the hands of Lanfranc, it was because the see of Canterbury had claims to its pos- session, and that this was also why Lanfranc obtained the important manor of ' Nedreham,' which had been held by Tostig. For Godwine and his sons are accused of being apt to encroach on the lands of the Church, and Tostig is charged in the English Chronicle with having ' robbed God.' Turning from the lands of the three brothers to their ' men ' within the county, we find that, as Mr. Freeman observed, Leof- wine had a good number ; but Harold had almost as many. On the whole, therefore, one cannot say that Domesday affords much evidence for the tenure of the earldom by Leofwine.

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Orton, Edward

ORTON, ôr'tȯn, Edward, American educator and geologist: b. Deposit, N. Y., 9 March 1829; d. Columbus, Ohio, 16 Oct. 1899. He was graduated from Hamilton College in 1848, and later studied at Andover and at Harvard and entered the ministry. In 1856 he took the chair

of natural science at the Albany State Normal School, from 1859 to 1865 he was principal of the preparatory academy of Chester, Orange County, N. Y., accepting in the latter year the chair of natural science at Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, where in 1872 he was elected president. In 1873 he was called to the presidency of the newly-founded Ohio State Agricultural and Mechanical College, which has since become the Ohio State University. His university work was of great value, as he was a natural teacher and organizer in addition to his scholastic attainments. He was assistant on the geological survey of Ohio in 1869-77, and in 1882 was appointed State geologist, which position he filled until his death, and he frequently served on, and wrote sections of the reports for, the United States geological surveys. He resigned his presidency of the college in 1881, but continued to fill the chair of geology during his life. In 1896 he was president of the Geological Society of America. Among his works are ‘Economic Geology of Ohio’ (1883-88); ‘Petroleum and Inflammable Gas’ (1887), etc.


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Rh The Archbishop of Canterbury's land, which follows that of the king, consisted of three manors, ' Nedreham ' and Halton (of which I have spoken), and (Monks) Risborough, which, like the king's manor of (Princes) Risborough, was assessed at 30 hides. ' Nedreham ' is of interest for the singular transaction by which, but a few years after the date of the Survey, Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, agreed with William Rufus to fortify the enceinte of Rochester castle with a stone wall in re- turn for possession of the manor.

To the see of Winchester there here belonged two extensive manors, while the Bishop of Lincoln who had removed his throne from Dorchester (Oxon) can only be said with certainty to have suc- ceeded Wulfwig his predecessor in one, namely Buckland, which Godric, a brother of Wulfwig, had held. Another brother of Bishop Wulfwig, 'Alwine' by name, had held Westbury (by Shenley ?); indeed, before as after the Conquest it was at times a profitable matter to be the brother or nephew of a prelate. Wulfwig had several ' men ' in the county, but Remi did not obtain their lands. He succeeded, how- ever, his predecessor in the richly endowed livings of two royal manors, as we shall find when dealing with church endowments.

It was as a son of the Conqueror's mother and not, of course, as a prelate that Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, received, here as elsewhere, so large a share of the spoils. The record of his Buckinghamshire lands fills more than three columns, and at four places he had for tenant no less a man than his fellow-prelate, Gilbert, Bishop of Lisieux. When his great fief was forfeited, it was broken up into baronies, representing the holdings of his chief tenants, which were thenceforth held directly from the Crown. It is followed in the Survey by those of Geoffrey, Bishop of Coutances, and of a far more interesting man, Gilbert 'Maminot,' Bishop of Lisieux, the Conqueror's friend and physician, and an astrologer. He held here two manors as a tenant-in-chief in addition to those spoken of above, which came to him, doubtless, as a member of the Courbepine family, who were vassals of Bishop Odo. The Gilbert Maminot who held of the latter at Leckhampstead was probably a nephew and name- sake of the Bishop of Lisieux.

The manors held in Buckinghamshire by English religious houses were but few in number, the county having no local abbey such as that of Abingdon in Berkshire or St. Albans in Hertfordshire. Denham had been given to Westminster Abbey before King Edward's death, but we are not told how or when that house had acquired its lands at East Burn- ham ; we only learn that from its former holders there was due a custom- ary annual payment to ' the minster of Stanes.' Although ' Stanes ' is

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Orton, Edward, Jr.

ORTON, Edward, Jr., American industrial chemist: b. Chester, N. Y., 8 Oct. 1863. He received (1884) the degree E.M. at Ohio State University and became (1884-88) chemist and superintendent of blast furnaces. The regular manufacture of high silicon alloy of iron, “ferro-silicon,” in the United States was introduced first by him, at the Bessie Furnace, New Straitsville, Ohio, 1887-88. In the latter year he entered the ceramic industries of Ohio, managing several plants till 1893. He was the first to start the agitation (1893) that brought into being (1894) the first United States school for teaching the technology of the clay, glass and cement industries and he was director till 1916. From 1902-06 and from 1910-16 he was dean of the College of Engineering of Ohio State University, and from 1899-1906 he was State geologist of Ohio. He has written ‘Clays of Ohio and the Industries Established Upon Them’ in Ohio Geological Survey, Vol. V (1884); ‘The Progress of the Ceramic Industry’ (1903), besides a number of technical articles and reports published in the periodicals.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Orton, James

ORTON, James, American Congregational clergyman, naturalist and traveler: b. Seneca Falls, N. Y., 21 April 1830; d. on Lake Titicaca, Peru, 25 Sept. 1877. He was graduated from Williams College in 1855, pursued theological studies at Andover and entered the ministry in 1860. He was professor of natural science in Rochester University in 1866, and the next year conducted an exploring party of students across South America, on the geology and physical history of which he was an authority. He was professor of natural history in Vassar College 1869-73, and at the time of his death was attached to an exploring expedition in Peru. His works include ‘The Andes and the Amazon’ (1870); ‘Underground Treasures’ (1872); ‘Liberal Education of Women’ (1873); ‘Comparative Zoology’ (1875).


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Rh the Domesday name of Stone in this county, I am disposed to think that this entry refers to Staines, Middlesex, which is just across the border ; for Stone is more than twice as far from East Burnham, and Staines, moreover, belonged, by the time of the Survey, to Westminster Abbey. There seems, however, to be no trace of a ' minster ' or specially important church at Staines.

Foreign monks had already begun to receive endowments in English lands ; from the Count of Mortain his abbey of Grestain re- ceived manors at Ickford and Marsh Gibbon, and the monks of St. Nicholas one at Crafton, while the noble abbey of La Couture at Le Mans obtained from Walter GifFard lands at Great Woolstone. Very shortly after Domesday the abbey of the Holy Trinity on Mont St. Catherine above Rouen received the manor (mansionem) of Tingewick from Ilbert de Laci, who held it, at the Survey, of the Bishop of Bayeux' fee, his original charter of donation, with equestrian seal attached, being still preserved in the archives of Winchester College. The occurrence of the Count of Mortain as a tenant-in-chief in the county left an impress on its feudal history deeper than that created by the holdings of his brother the Bishop of Bayeux. For the knight's fees upon his lands enjoyed the peculiar privilege of paying only two- thirds (or rather less) of the amount exacted from other fees. Thus the existence of his fief became of lasting importance. Although through- out England it was known as the fief of Mortain, it was alternatively styled in this district the Honour of Berkhampstead from the count's great castle of that name just beyond the eastern border of the county. Accordingly we find in the feudal returns of 1302-3 and 1346 'the Honour of Berkhampstead ' entered by itself at the end of the Bucking- hamshire Hundreds, and the holdings therein (which represent Domes- day manors of the count) distinguished as ' de parvo feodo de Morteyne.' The count's predecessor at Berkhampstead, ' Edmar Atule,' had held but one Buckinghamshire manor, namely Bledlow, which, however, was by far the largest of those that the count was holding here in 1086.

The Earl of Chester's lands call for no special notice, but those of Walter Giffard, which follow them in the record, constitute the most important fief in the county. Extending over five columns of the record, and assessed in all at as nearly as possible three hundred hides, his lands may be reckoned from that standpoint as representing between a sixth and a seventh of the whole county. The great fief of Walter, who was himself a Domesday Commissioner, extended over ten counties, and on it there had been enfeoffed before 1166 nearly a hundred knights. But its head was in Buckinghamshire, where Domes- day mentions his park at Long Crendon, and of which county he became earl a few years, probably, after the date of the Survey. Owing to there having been a succession of Walter Giffards, it has never been quite possible to distinguish one from the other, but the Domesday baron was probably the son of the Walter who fought at the Conquest. The

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Rh which entirely replaces (Œ. Phellandrium in the district. The water buttercups include Ranunculus heterophyllus, R. divaricatus, R. peltatus, R. fluitans, and the pondweeds are Potamogeton natans, P. Friesii, P. interruptus,P. pectinatus, P. zostertefolius, P. pusillus, P. crispus and P. densus, but P. polygonifolius and P. alpinus appear to be absent. The canal gives the sedges Carex paniculata, C. acuta, Eleocharis acicularis; and the meadow crane's-bill (Geranium pratense) is a not uncommon plant near the Ouse. There are few marshes or bogs from a botanical point of view, since the undrained portion although wet is singularly poor in uliginal vegetation, and is represented by such mesophytes as Carex vulpina and C. flacca, Galium palustre, Glyceria plicata and G. fluitans, Apium nodiflorum, Juncus lampocarpus and J. glaucus.

There is a very small marsh near Winslow of a very different character, since it resembles the rich marshes which occur at Headington in Oxfordshire and at Cothill and Hinksey in Berkshire. As drainage has been already begun, it is probably doomed to disappear in the not distant future. In it I was enabled to notice for the first time as plants of Buckinghamshire the black bog-rush (Schaenus nigricans) and the rush (Juncus obtusiflorus), and also the following interesting species, the butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris), the marsh helleborine (Epipactis palustris), the marsh thistle (Cnicus pratensis), the sedges Carex pulicaris, C. flava, C. Goodenowii, C. panicea, C. Hornschuchiana, the bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella), the fragrant orchid (Habenaria conopsea), and the bee orchid (Ophrys apifera), the latter in an unusual station; the milk-wort (Polygala vulgaris), the bedstraw Galium uliginosum, while in close contiguity in a gravelly field grew the upright form of the soft clover (Trifolium itriatum var. erectum) and the chickweed (Cerastium arvense). The railway banks near Swanbourn have the zig-zag clover (Trifolium medium), and in the brickyard near there are some very fine examples of Lotus tenuis.

On the railway banks near Hanslope there is a very abundant growth of a hawkweed, a native of eastern and central Europe, namely Hieracium preealtum, and near it is another plant which is either a hybrid of that species with H. Pilosella, or possibly H, pratense. Some short distance away the yellow chamomile (Anthemis tinctoria) is also abundantly naturalized for a considerable distance, and nearer the border of Northamptonshire the gold of pleasure (Camelina saliva) is plentiful, and other aliens such as Caucalis latifolia, Salvia verticillata, Bromus arvensis and B. squarrosus, Chenopodium ficfolium and others have been found.

At Castlethorpe the calamint (C. parvifolia) occurs, but it may be possibly a relic of cultivation as it grows near Castle Close. Here too the fiddle dock (Rumex pulcher) and the grass Poa compressa occur, and near Hanslope I added Carex pendula to the county many years ago. Near Olney, where the limestone comes to the surface, the gypsophilous grass Brachypodium pinnatum so abundant on the oolite in Oxfordshire, but so rare in this county, is found. From Lavendon the wild everlasting pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) has been recorded, and the grass-leaved pea (L. Nissolia) is found near Wavendon.

which is also in the main drainage of the Ouse, is so named from a small stream whose sources are chiefly in the Dunstable Downs, one issuing from the chalk near the Beacon Hill between Ivinghoe and Edlesborough, another near Pitstone Green, and there are several other feeders from the Cretaceous rocks. Another tributary comes from the high ground of Cublington and Stewkley (496 feet) and joins the chalk streams to the south of Leighton Buzzard, between which place and Fenny Stratford it is reinforced by several streams coming from the western side of the hills of Stewkley North End, Drayton Parslow and Mursley, while on the east side the rich district of Brickhill and Woburn Sands also drain into it. A small brook which rises in Bedfordshire near Ridgmount, and passes through Salford, Milton Keynes and Broughton, joins the Ouzel near Willen, and the Ouzel itself shortly after enters the Ouse near Newport Pagnell.

The district is contained within the following limits: Starting from the place near Great Linford station, where the Grand Junction Canal is near the Ouse, the separating line from the Ouse district, which has been already described, passes from Newport Pagnell to the Bedford county boundary at Broad Green, which is near North Crawley, following the county boundary in a southernly direction to Wavendon, Linslade, and then by Edlesborough to Little Gaddesden, where Hertfordshire takes the place of Beds, and the limit is the boundary of that shire in its eccentric and arbitrary separating line, as it is traced across the Chilterns. The boundary of the Ouzel district passes by Aldbury to the main line of the London and North-

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Rh Western railway, and although not scientifically correct we adopt the railway as the separating line from the Thame district hereafter to be described as far as to Cheddington station; thence our dividing line is traced by Wingrave, Aston Abbots, and passing to the east of the Cottesloes to Stewkley and Mursley, where the Ouse district limits it on the western side till it touches the starting-point near Great Linford; for the last few miles, that is from Simpson to Linford, the Grand Junction Canal is adopted as the dividing line, but strictly speaking it is not quite accurate, as a small portion to the west of the canal near Willen actually drains into the Ouzel but it is thought better to choose a definite rather than an obscure line in this instance.

The country comprised within these limits is remarkable from the fact that the streams cut through or across the lines of strata, so that in it are represented the Lower Chalk, the Upper Greensand, the Gault, the Lower Greensand, the Kimeridge and Oxford Clays, as well as the Ouse Drift Gravels. Not only are the geologic strata thus richly represented, but the scenic character offers a very pleasing contrast to the dull monotony of so much of the Ouse district, and the vegetation is also of a most interesting nature. Some parts of the Dunstable Downs are among the highest points of the county, being over 800 feet, while at the juncture of the Ouse and Ouzel the surface of the water is only about 180 feet above sea level. The Chalk downs are in places covered with aboriginal turf, in which grow such plants as the ragwort (Senecio campestris), the orchids Orchis pyramidalis and Ophrys apifera, the squinancy-wort (Asperula cynanchha), the horse-shoe vetch (Hippocrepls comosa), the lady sfingers (Anthyllis Pulneraria), the grasses Bromus erectus, Avena pubescent and A. pratensis, and in one place above 700 feet in altitude the adder's tongue (Ophioglossum vulgatum), and the box (Buxus sempervirens) has been claimed to be a native plant. In some places the downs have been brought into some kind of agrarian cultivation, and in these arable fields we have glaring masses of colouring produced by the white mustard (Brassica alba) and the sainfoin (Onobrychts viciafolius), and as more interesting constituents to the botanist, Fumaria densiflora, F. Vaillantii and F. parviflora, the pignut (Carum Bulbocastanum), which is found in no other district of the county, the candytuft (Iberis amara); while the grasses Festuca rigdia and Phleum nodasum are frequent plants.

On the Upper Greensand two umbelliferous plants, Carum segetum and Caucalis nodosa, are found, especially on dry sunny banks near villages. When we come to the Lower Greensand, which is so well represented between Leighton Buzzard, Heath and Great Brickhill, and still more interestingly between Great Brickhill, Little Brickhill and Bow Brickhill and Woburn Sands, we see the richest botanizing ground in north Bucks. This portion of the county is very picturesque, and in places clothed with pine woods, which reach an elevation of about 520 feet. The flora of the Brickhill woods on the Greensand has already been rather fully described, but we may refer to the flora of some other parts which has not already been mentioned. Between Great Brickhill and Heath there are some very interesting cornfields and heathy ground. In the former the rather rare cudweed (Filago apiculata) is plentiful, and the cress Teesdalia nudicaulis also occurs in abundance; the tower cress (Arabis perfoliata) is very local, as is its wont, and the swine's succory (Arnoseris pusilla) is limited to a very small area; one or two forms of the wild pansy were found here for the first time in Britain, and the chickweed (Cerastium semidecandrum) occurs as the variety viscosum, and also in another variety which is apparently undescribed. In the heathy ground the buck's-horn plantain (Plantago Coronopus), the sheep's scabious (Jasione montana), the golden rod (Solidago Virgaurea), and the pearlwort (Sagina ciliata) are found.

In a marshy wood and in moist, open ground in this neighbourhood, the marsh fern (Lastrea Thelypteris), the golden saxifrage (Chrymplenium oppasitifolium), the sedges Carex paniculata, C. disticha and C. rostrata grow. A pond near Little Brickhill, and almost at the highest level (namely 513 feet), is remarkable for its containing the pondweed (Potamogeton alpinus), the sedge Carex Pseudo-cyperus, the water buttercup (Ranunculus heterophyllus), and the charads Chara hisplda and Tolypella glomerata.

The adjoining pasture fields have the lady's mantle (Alchemilla vulgarii) and quantities of the orchid Orchis morio, which is locally abundant in the district. Duncombe Wood affords the herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia}, the gromwell (Lithospermum officinale), the butterfly orchid (Habenaria chloroleuca). The hedgerows and waysides in the district of the Brickhills have several interesting species including the mint (Mentha longifolia), the calamint (Calamintha officinalis or montana), the hound's-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), the bur parsley (Anthnscus vulgaris or Cerefolium Anthriscus), and the downy rose (Rosa tomentosa or mollissima, not mollis).

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Rh Near Water Stratford the pondweed Potamogeton alpinus grows in the river, and the marshy ground near yields Polygonum mite. In the low fenny ground near Simpson the celery (Apium graveolens) is probably native. The reed-mace (Typha angustifolia) and a somewhat intermediate form grows near Bletchley, and in arable fields a form of the bur parsley (Caucalis nodosa var. pedunculata) grows with the umbels distinctly stalked. By a brook near Salford the willow herb (Epilobium roseum) grows with some hybrids with E. parviflorum and E. obscurum, and a willow which is a triandra hybrid. In the Moulsoe woods the violet {Viola sylveitris) is frequent.

The sawwort (Serratula tinctoria) grows in some wet meadows near Brickhill, and the local Scirpus sylvaticus is also found.

Near Soulbury in some marshy ground, partly woodland, there is a luxuriant growth of the great horsetail (Equisetum maximum) the marsh lousewort (Pedicularis palustris), the sedges Carex distans, C. fava, C. echinata, the cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), and the small club rush (Scirpus setaceus).

Near Linslade there is an abundant growth of a rush which by many botanists is considered to be a hybrid of Juncus glaucus with J. efusus, i.e. the J. diffusus, and with it grows in an unusual station the heath stitchwort (Stellaria graminea) as a very broad-leaved form.

There are not many introduced species in this district; such as occur are chiefly near flour mills, where the siftings of foreign wheat containing seeds of such plants as Brassica elongata, Setaria viridis, Sisymbrium altissimum occasionally germinate in the vicinity.

The railway lines have been the means of bringing in the rocket (Diplotaxis muralis) and the eastern vetch (Vicia villosa), which grows near Leighton Buzzard.

The winter heliotrope (Nardosmia or Petasites fragrans) is naturalized near Wavendon, and in waste places about Woburn Sands Atriplex hortensis var. rubra, Oxalis corniculata, Hesperis matronalis, grow.

This district takes its name from a stream whose waters in part rise from the Oolitic rocks of Quainton, partly from Stewkley Hill and in part from the Cretaceous hills near Tring, and in its feeders in their early course cut across several different strata, uniting near Aylesbury. The main stream passes through Lower Winchenden to Notley Abbey, where a small brook which has come from Brill and Waddesdon joins it, and just before reaching Thame it is reinforced by the Ford brook which has drained the Gault meadows from Bishopstone to Tythrop. There are also several brooks which issue from the base of the Portland stone on the western side of Brill and Chilton and flow into Oxfordshire, joining the Thame in the neighbourhood of Shabbington and Worminghall.

The Thame district of Buckinghamshire has its counterpart in my Flora of Oxfordshire, but in the plan adopted here for Bucks there is included a small piece of country which, belonging as it does to the Ray drainage, had a separate district No. 4 in my Flora of Oxfordshire, and belongs to the Cherwell basin. It would have been more accurate to make the portion of Bucks drained by the Ray a district or a sub-district, but the limitations of it shall be described, and as it is of small extent and since it closely resembles in soil the adjacent country drained by the tributaries of the Thame, and because the Cherwell itself belongs to the main drainage of the Thames, there appear no sufficiently cogent reasons for keeping it distinct.

The Thame district is thus defined: On the north it is bounded by the Ouse district already described, that is from Poundon to Stewkley. On the west it is limited by the county of Oxford, from near Poundon to Piddington and Brill; then the boundary passes to the west of Boarstall, so that the interesting decoy and the remains of the fortified house are included in Bucks; it then traverses a very secluded sylvan district by Studley and Shabbington Wood to Worminghall and Thame, the stream itself for the last four miles having been the boundary. From Tythrop the boundary is an artificial one. The separating line from Oxfordshire is traced to the Common Leys near Towersey, and then by Shittle Green to Bledlow Cross, where its western boundary to Radnage is my division No. 7, the Lower Thames of my Oxfordshire Flora. It then takes the summit-level of the Chilterns in an easterly direction towards Lacey Green, the southern boundary being now the water parting of the Thame on the one side, and the tributaries of the Wycomb stream on the other as far as Hampden, when the water parting of the tributaries of the Amersham water and the Chess replace that of the Wycomb stream as far as the border of Hertfordshire near Tring

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Rh Park. In its way it crosses Combe Hill at 840 feet elevation, the highest point in the county.

From Combe Hill it goes toward the North East past Miswell to Tring; thence in a northerly direction to near Bulborne on Upper Icknield Way; thence nearly along the London and North- Western Railway to Seabrook, with the Ouzel district on the east; thence by Cheddington across the hill at Mentmore to Aston Abbots, and thence northwards to Stewkley North End; it then touches the Ouse district, and forms its northern boundary by Whitchurch, Oving, Quainton, Botolph Claydon, to Poundon.

The portion drained by the Ray is included in a line drawn from Poundon to Botolph Claydon, Quainton, Waddesdon station, and along the Wootton tramway to Muswell Hill, and thence by the Oxfordshire county boundary to Poundon.

The country contained within the Thame drainage is well diversified, the highest point in the county being within its area, while the Thame near Tythrop is only 230 feet above the sea. The prospect from Beacon Hill near Tring, and from Combe Hill near Wendover is of a very noble and beautiful kind, the reservoirs of Wilstone and Tring giving additional beauty, as water is usually lacking in midland scenery, while the views obtained from the top of Brill or Muswell Hills have a pleasing feature in allowing the observer to see all parts of a distant horizon and not merely a segment of a circle. The vegetation of the area is also a varied and interesting one. In addition to the plants mentioned as growing on the Chilterns in the Ouzel districtand the chief absentee is Carum Bulbocastanum we have recorded for the beautiful slopes of the chalk escarpment the musk orchis (Herminium Monorchis), the military orchid (Orchis militaris), a great rarity now limited to three or four of the chalk counties of the Upper Thames, the fly orchis (Ophrys muscifera), the winter green (Pyrola minor), the henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), the frog orchis (Habenaria viridis), the tower cress (Arabis hirsuta), the grass Bromus interruptus, the vetch Vida sylvatica, with its elegantly pencilled petals, the meadow sage (Salvia pratensis), the bedstraws Galium sylvestre (limited to this district) and G. erectum, the gentian (G. germanica), the chalk milkwort (Polygala calcarea), the eyebright (Euphrasia curta), the umbellifer Pimpinella major. The small flowered buttercup (Ranunculus parviflorui), occurs on gravelly ground near Bledlow, and in clayey soil the local sedge Carex axillaris occurs in one locality, the mint Mentha longifolia grows near Ellesborough and near Kimble the alkanet (Anchusa sempervirens) is naturalized. In the Dinton meadows the snake's-head (Fritillara meleagris) is plentiful, and white-flowered forms are not unfrequent. On the churchyard wall of Dinton Erinus alpinus is naturalized. At Stewkley South End there is a small marsh near a stream in which the bedstraw Galium uliginosum, and the dwarf valerian (Valeriana dioica) grow, and a field not far distant is the only known locality for the water avens (Geum rivale) in the north of the county, and only one is known for the south, namely that of the Chalvey meadows near Eton, and it is unknown for Northamptonshire although so frequent in many parts of Britain. In the Thame meadows near the town of that name the rush Juncm compressus grows sparingly. At Brill, 566 feet in altitude, the henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is rather common, and the water buttercup (Ranunculus Drouetif) grows.

On the walls at Marsh Gibbon the stonecrop (Sedum dasyphyllum) is found; it is very frequent on the Coralline Oolite in Berkshire, where it may be native, but it is one of the rarest of the plants of Bucks. Sison segetum and Caucalis nodosa are found by the roadside near Ludgershall. At Boarstall, by the old moat, there is a considerable growth of the dock (Rumex maritimus), while near the decoy the cut-leaved form of the elder (Sambucus nigra var. laciniata), the jonquil (Narcissus biftorus) and the large daffodil (Narcissus major) are doubtless relics of cultivation.

The cultivated fields in the vicinity have the hawksbeard (Crepis biennis), as well as C. taraxacifolia, and the bushy hedgerows of the district contain fine examples of the roses Rosa glauca and R. systyla, as well as the hawthorn (Cratagus oxyacanthoides) and a probable hybrid of it with C. Oxyacantha.

There are not many introduced species in this district, but one of the ' duck farms ' near Brill has a plentiful growth of the cress Lepidium Draba, which when once introduced is difficult to eradicate, and on the London and North- Western Railway the white mignonette (Reseda alba) grew near Marsh Gibbon station.

This has its counterpart to some extent in the district ' No. 7. The Thames or Lower Thames' of my Flora of Oxfordshire, but it more closely resembles district 'No. 5. The

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The New International Encyclopædia/Orthopoda

ORTHOP'ODA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk. ὄρθός, orthos, straight, correct + ποῦς, pous, foot). An order of dinosaurs, in the system of Gadow, embracing the groups Stegosauria and Ornithopoda of Marsh. See the sections on these groups under.


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Rh Loddon or Lower Thames' of my Flora of Berkshire, except that as the Bagshot Sands are not represented in our county the botany is of a much less interesting character.

The ' Thames ' district is circumscribed by the following boundaries : On the north-west the boundary line is the water-parting of the Wycombe streams from those which drain into the Thame, but as this is a chalk area with the drainage chiefly underground it is difficult to make a definite line of demarcation. We trace it as best we may from Hampden by Loosely Row to the Oxfordshire county boundary near Radnage, and then that arbitrary division is followed in its eccentric course to the south of Stokenchurch by Cadmore End, Ibstone, Hollandridge, Stonor Park, to Middle Assendon and Henley Park, where it touches the river Thames. From this place to Old Windsor the river divides the district from Berkshire, and all that portion of Berkshire on the opposite side is included in the district No. 5 of my Flora of that county. Opposite Runnymede, from the point where Surrey replaces Berkshire, the boundary of our district is again rather artificially drawn along the Wyrardisbury, or to use the modern spelling, Wraysbury road, to Langley station on the Great Western Railway, and thence by the side of Langley Park to the north-west of Alderbourne Bottom and passing to the north of Fulmer, but again turning in a south-eastern direction it skirts Gerrard's Cross Common (which is included in this district), and then passes along the high ground above Chalfont St. Peter's ; taking in Later's Green Common and Seer Green, it proceeds by Ongar Hill and Penn House through Penn Woods to Great Kingshill, then to Prestwood, and eventually joins the Thame district at Hampden.

The name is given to the district because the river Thames flows for so long a distance along the western and south-western side, and hence necessarily drains a considerable portion of its area, but there is also a subsidiary stream, which might be utilized to form another district were it considered advisable, but as both streams drain very similar country and the geological strata in both are similar, and as the area is not unwieldy, the portion drained by the Wye or Wycombe Brook is incorporated with the Thames. The Wye issues from the southern slopes of the chalk, and the valley it occupies from West Wycombe to Bourne End where it flows into the Thames is utilized for the Wycombe branch of the Great Western Railway. The Wye is a pretty chalk stream with, where unpolluted by man, clear sparkling water, and in its course flows so swiftly that in more places than one it is markedly different from our normally sluggish streams, for it can murmur as it flows by Loudwater, a significant name. Watercresses are extensively grown in the stream, and several large manufactories of paper have been established on its banks on account of the clearness of its waters.

The country comprised in this district is very pleasant and fairly diversified, but the strata represented in it are wholly Cretaceous or belong to the Eocene formations of the Reading Beds and the London Clay, with extensive beds of High and Low Level Alluvium.

There are great tracts of woodlands on the Chalk, the chief constituents of which have been enumerated under that heading, and there are also extensive, and we are glad to say at present unenclosed, commons with an attractive flora, as well as the dry fields, and occasional grassy banks of the Upper and Lower Chalk areas. The London Clay is sufficiently impervious to make marshy ground even at considerable elevations, as at the top of Lane End Common, nearly 600 feet in altitude. In that place and on Moor Common we have many interesting species, several of which have not been found in the county north of the Chilterns ; they include the petty whin (Genista anglica), which is very abundant, the dwarf willow (Salix repeni), the upright pearlwort (Cerastium quaternellum, better known under its old name of Mœnchia), the pearlwort Sagina ciliata, the water milfoil (Myriophyllum alternifolium), the water purslane (Peplis Portula), the water honewort (Apium inundatum), the lousewort (Pedicularus sylvatica), the clovers Trifolium filiforme and T. striatum, the lady's traces (Spiranthes autumnalis or Gyrostachis), the spotted orchid (Orchis ericetorum), the small crowfoot (Ranunculus parviflorus) ; and Burnham Beeches is one of the few localities for the deer's grass (Scirpus cæspitosus), the club rush (Eleocharis multicaulis), the white beak rush (Rynchospora alba]), for the cross-leaved heath (Erica Tetralix), the Lancashire asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum), the marsh St. John's wort (Hypericum eludes), for the charad (Nitella translucent), the bladder wort (Utricularia major or neglecta). It is also the home of the sedges Carex pulicaris, C. echinata, C. flava, C. panicea, C. paniculata, C. rostrata, C. binervis, C. pilulifera, C. leporina ; the pondweeds Potamogeton polygonifolius and P. pusillus, the bog-bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), the cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), the grasses Molinia varia, Festuca ovina var. paludosa, the hawkweeds Hieracium boreale, H. sciapbilum and H. umbellatum, the marsh violet (Viola palustris), the butterwort (Pinguicula vuigaris), the sundews Drosera rotundifolia and D. intermedia or longifolia but not D. anglica, the

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Rh most important of his under-tenants in this county was Hugh de Bolbec, whose heir and namesake held of the fief, eighty years later, twenty knight's fees. As the founder of the house of Giffard was Osbern de Bolbec, Hugh may well have been a relative of his lord ; he was him- self a tenant-in-chief, not only here but in Oxfordshire and Hunting- donshire, his lands being afterwards represented by a Buckinghamshire barony of ten knight's fees. Swaffham Bulbeck, which he held in Cambridgeshire under Walter Giffard, preserves the name which he brought with him from the source of a Norman 'beck,' and which his heirs, the Earls of Oxford, adopted long afterwards as a title for their eldest sons.

The next important baron on our list is William Peverel, the founder of the Peverels ' of Nottingham,' whose great fief was forfeited by Henry II. at his accession and became thenceforth known as the Honour of Peverel of Nottingham. Subsequent surveys of this Honour enable us to trace the - fate of William's Buckinghamshire manors. Different was the fate of the wide estates of William son of Ansculf de Picquigny (' Pinchengi '), to which three columns are devoted. The son of a former sheriff of the county, and lord of that extensive fief which lay in twelve counties and had Dudley Castle for its head, William was succeeded by the Paynels, who left their mark upon the county in the name of Newport Pagnel, which one of his manors derived from them, and in the existence of Tickford Priory, which they founded as a cell of Marmoutier. Nor was the fief broken up until the death of John de Someri, the Paynels' heir, in the fourteenth century.

The occurrence among the Buckinghamshire tenants-in-chief of Robert de ' Todeni,' lord of Belvoir, is chiefly due to his succession, here as in other counties, to a great English thegn, Osulf son of Frane. Of greater importance is the fief which follows, that of Robert de ' Oilgi.' Although in the present department of the ' Calvados ' there are no fewer than four Ouillys from which he might have been named, the fact that Domesday records the important manor of Masworth to have been held of him by Ralf Basset, while Thurleigh (Beds) was held of him by Richard Basset, would suggest that Ouilly-le-B asset, to the west of Falaise, was the spot from which he came. His fief has to be considered in conjunction with two others in this county, those, namely, of Roger d'lvry and of Miles Crispin. For a curious tradition of sworn brotherhood between Robert and Roger'is so far supported by Domesday that it points to a connexion between them. In this county we find them entered as holding Stowe jointly under the Bishop of Bayeux, and they had both succeeded, in some of their manors, Azor the son of Toti. In Oxfordshire they held at Arncot jointly under the abbot of Abingdon, at Noke also, in my opinion, under William, Earl of Hereford, and were joint founders of St. George's chapel within Oxford Castle. But

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The New International Encyclopædia/Orthoptera

ORTHOP'TERA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk. ὄρθόπτερος, having upright wings, from ὄρθός, orthos, straight, correct + πτερόν, pteron, wing). A large and important group of insects comprising the forms known as the straight-winged insects, and including the grasshoppers or true locusts, long-horned grasshoppers

katydids), crickets, cockroaches, walking-sticks, and leaf-insects, and the praying mantis or rear-horse (qq.v.). The mouth parts are fitted for biting, and the metamorphoses are incomplete, the young when first hatched closely resembling the adult insects except in lacking wings. The eggs are few in number, and as a rule are laid in specialized egg-cases, although with some they are deposited without such cases, and with a few are scattered singly. The fore wings are somewhat thickened, but are not as tough as the wing-cases of beetles, and when at rest lie closed upon the back so as to protect the abdomen and the hind wings. They are known as ‘tegmina.’ The hind wings function in flight, and are delicate and usually folded like a fan. About 10,000 species exist, which makes it a small order when compared with the Hymenoptera, the Coleoptera, and the Lepidoptera, but, in spite of the comparatively small number of eggs, many of the species are tenacious of life and apparently very prolific, and swarm in enormous numbers of individuals, as in the case of the destructive and migratory locusts. One of the striking peculiarities of the order is that we find here most highly developed the ability to produce sounds of a more or less musical character, by rubbing one part of the body, modified for the purpose, upon another. This capability thus to make sounds is confined to the male sex, and its object is to attract the female; and this ability belongs only to the families which jump (the Saltatoria); the runners, walkers, and graspers (Cursoria, Gressoria, and Raptoria) make no sound, but in these groups the phenomena of protective and aggressive resemblances are very highly developed, especially in the tropical forms. In these groups the wings seem to be of little use as organs of flight, but they are of striking value in ornamentation and in concealment. This is especially true with the Phasmidæ and Mantidæ, where the effectiveness of color and pattern is extraordinary, the tegmina resembling plant structures with remarkable minuteness of detail. Even the eggs are so modified as to resemble the seeds of plants.

Orthoptera are among the oldest of fossil insects. Cockroaches were numerous and varied in Paleozoic time, and the other families are numerously represented in Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks.

Consult: Sharp, Cambridge Natural History (London, 1895); Comstock, Manual for the Study of Insects (Ithaca, 1898); Howard, The Insect Book (New York, 1902); Lugger, Annual Report of the State Entomologist of Minnesota (Minneapolis, 1898); Scudder, North American Orthoptera (Cambridge, 1897).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Ortigueira

ORTIGUEIRA, or'tḗ-gā'ḗ-rȧ. A town in the Province of Coruña, Spain, picturesquely situated in a beautiful valley at the head of a land-locked bay 23 miles northeast of Ferrol. The harbor is well sheltered, but shallow, and has no wharves; the town is chiefly noted for its romantic surroundings and for the good sea-bathing afforded. Population (commune), in 1887, 17,563; in 1900, 18,975.


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 different surroundings. The configuration of the land in which he lived is practically the same as we now see it. The severe arctic conditions with the appropriate fauna had entirely disappeared, and the introduction of new arts must have radically changed his daily life. The most important of these are the training of domestic animals, agriculture, and the development of pottery. What were the burial rites of palaeolithic man we have at present no means of knowing, but for his neolithic successor we know that these were matters of great moment. The abundance of arrowheads of flint indicate the common use of the bow and arrow as a weapon, while the art of weaving marks an immense stride in the direction of comfort and civilization. Of the form and construction of his dwelling we have only a limited knowledge, derived with some uncertainty from the analogy of the dwellings for the dead (barrows) and more certainly from the remains of the villages found erected on piles on the shores of lakes.

A much-debated question arises here that cannot be passed over. The changes just mentioned are not such as would be produced by internal causes alone. Much of the evidence is in favour of neolithic man being an immigrant, coming into northern and central Europe long after palaeolithic man and his characteristic fauna had disappeared. Where did the earlier race go and who are its modern representatives, if any? The answers to this question are many. W. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that the reindeer was followed by man in its journey to the north after the retreating glaciers, and that the modern representative of palaeolithic man is the Eskimo. His arguments are ingenious but unconvincing; they mainly consist in the similarity of the habits of both races in using harpoons and implements of similar form and make, their power of carving and drawing on bone, the absence of pottery, disregard of the dead, &c. As to the positive evidence, it is almost enough to say that the Eskimo, like the cave-men, used the material nearest to hand that served their purpose, and that nothing is more remarkable than the similarity of primitive weapons used by widely separated peoples; while the negative evidence as to the absence of pottery is of little value; their conditions of life would allow them neither to make it nor keep it. Till recently we had no evidence at all of the treatment of the dead by palaeolithic man, but this is no longer the case; the discoveries in the Grottes de Grimaldi, Monaco, show several methods of burial, near a hearth, or in rude stone cists (see Dr Verneau in L’Anthropologie, xvii. 291). A stronger argument would be furnished if it could be shown that by his physical character the Eskimo is an intruder in his present home, and is unrelated to his neighbours. But this has not yet been done, and the skulls of the Eskimo do not resemble any of those hitherto found in the caves. In fact, what evidence there is on the subject is rather against than in favour of the wanderings northward of the inhabitants of the caves. There are indications, on the other hand, that in the south of France, in the Pyrenees, the reindeer was in existence, with man, at a later period than that of the caves, while the type of skull is that of Cro-Magnon. Here, therefore, it may be that something like a bridging of the gap between palaeolithic and neolithic times may be forthcoming. But it still remains to be found, and for the present we must be content with uncertainty.

The neolithic period has often been loosely called the age of polished stone, from the fact that in no case has a polished or ground stone implement been found in a palaeolithic deposit. The term is not only loose but inaccurate. In the first place, there is no reason why the cave-men should not be found to have polished a stone implement on occasion, for they habitually polished their weapons of bone. Secondly, neolithic man was by no means uniform in his methods; he polished or ground the surfaces of such tools or weapons as would be improved by the process; but to take a common instance, he found that the efficacy of his arrow-point was sufficient when chipped only, and polishing is only occasionally found, as in Ireland. Many other implements also are found in neolithic times with no trace of grinding and yet with every appearance of being complete.

The most trustworthy evidence with regard to this and the succeeding archaeological periods is to be found in the grave-mounds. For the earlier part of the neolithic age, however, these are by no means fruitful of relics. From their shape they are called in England “long barrows” to distinguish them from the round barrows which belong to a succeeding time, though evidence is being accumulated to show that this division is not of universal application. Long barrows are by no means of such frequent occurrence in Britain as the round variety; they are most common in Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Dorset, and occur as far north as Caithness. Some of them contain within the mound a stone chamber, at times with a gallery leading to it, and in the chamber the interment or interments took place. Similar barrows have been found on the continent of Europe, and both in Britain and abroad have one feature in common, viz. that no metal, with possibly the exception of gold, has ever been found in them. This similarity of burial custom, though it may conceivably indicate intercourse, certainly does not prove identity of race, as has been sometimes claimed. The type of skulls found in the interment is clear evidence against such an assumption.

In Britain, the burials were at times by inhumation only, and occasionally a great number of bodies were interred in the same barrow: at others, cremation had preceded burial. Another remarkable feature is that in many instances it is certain from the relative position of the bones of the unburnt burials that the corpse had been allowed to decay before the burial took place. This curious practice is known among many savage tribes of the present day. Its occurrence in Britain has been adduced in favour of the prevalence of cannibalism at this time, and not altogether without reason. While metal is entirely absent in the long barrows (and in fact relics of any kind are very rarely found), it is significant that in the succeeding round barrows also metal occurs but seldom, and then always of the types attributed to the earliest part of the Bronze Age. When, therefore, the mound pottery is of a class that may well be anterior to metal, and no metal is found with the burial, it is not unreasonable to assign such barrows to the Stone Age. A similar argument may be applied to the stone implements, but in the opposite direction. Many stone implements are found either isolated, or perhaps with no other relics that serve to fix their period. The material alone is often considered sufficient evidence of their being before the age of metals; but it is at any rate quite certain that a large number of stone axes, more particularly those with a socket for the handle, belong really to the Bronze Age. This uncertainty makes any account of the neolithic age difficult, unless the material is taken as the main basis.

Neolithic man, like his forerunners, still recognized that flint and allied stones provided the best material for his cutting and piercing implements, though he made use to a great extent of other hard stones that came ready to his hand. The mining of flint was undertaken on a large scale, and great care was taken to get down to the layer containing the best quality. In Norfolk, at Grime’s Graves, and in Sussex, at Cissbury near Worthing, the flint shafts have been carefully explored by William Greenwell, General Pitt-Rivers and others. The system was to sink two shafts some little distance apart and deep enough to reach the desired flint-bed, and the two shafts were then joined by a gallery at the bottom. At Grime’s Graves large numbers of deer’s horns were found, which had evidently been used as picks, as is proved by the marks found in the chalk walls; and the horn had been trimmed for the purpose. Cups of chalk were also found in the galleries and were believed to have been used as lamps. At Cissbury great quantities of unfinished and defective implements were found in the work, as well as horn tools, as in Norfolk. At such factories the primitive appliances correspond very closely with those in use among existing savages. The pebble was used as a hammer or an anvil, and the more delicate flaking was done by pressure with a piece of horn rather than by blows. Naturally enough the number of completed implements found in these factories is small; the finished tools would be bartered at once and carried away from the factory. All the animal remains found in these pits belong to present geological conditions, thus emphasizing what has been stated above, that the absence of polished implements is no evidence for great age. Many other factories have been found in Britain, in Ireland and on the continent of Europe: at Grovehurst in Kent, at Stourpaine near Blandford, at Whitepark Bay, county Antrim, and in Belgium at Spiennes. Among the North American Indians the method would seem to have been somewhat different. After journeying to the site of a suitable quality of stone, they did not always complete the implements on the spot, but made a number of oval chipped disks of good stone which they carried away and worked up into the required implements at their leisure. These disks bear a strong likeness to some of the ovate implements from the Drift in Europe; in fact, but for the difference of surface condition or patina, they would be identical.

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Portal:Commerce

Trade

 * The Past, Present and Future Trade of the Cape Colonies with Central Africa by Emil Holub (1879)

Free trade

 * England under free trade: an address delivered to the Sheffield Junior Liberal Association, 8th November, 1881 by George Webb Medley

Trade agreements

 * Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (2015)

Newspaper and Magazine articles

Handel

title: Portal:Commerce


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Portal:Public finance

Taxation

 * Local taxation and poor law administration in great cities (1869) by William Rathbone

title: Portal:Public finance


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The New International Encyclopædia/Ortler

ORT'LER, or. The highest peak of the Austrian Empire, on the border of the Tyrol, 68 miles southwest of Innsbruck. It rises to a height of 12,790 feet from the northern portion of the Ortler group, in the chain of the Rhætian Alps. It was first ascended in 1804.

The view from the summit is the most imposing of the Eastern Alps.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Ortolan

ORTOLAN (Fr. ortolan, from It. ortulano, ortolan, gardener, from Lat. hortulanus, gardener, from hortus, garden). A European bunting (Emberiza hortulana) having a plumage of mixed browns, black, and white. It appears in the autumn in great flocks on both coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, when it returns from its summer home and breeding places in the far north. No bird is so highly esteemed by epicures, and vast numbers are used for the table. It is taken chiefly by nets. See Plate of.

In America the name is given to both the bobolink (‘reed-bird’) and the sora-rail, neither of which has the slightest relation to an ortolan, but both of which are small birds, much sought after in the fall in the Middle States, as a delicacy.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Orton, Edward

OR'TON, (1829-99). An American educator and geologist. He was born in Deposit, N. Y., graduated at Hamilton College in 1848, and studied at Lane Theological Seminary, at the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard, and at Andover Theological Seminary. He taught successively at the State Normal School, Albany, N. Y., at the Chester (N. Y.) Academy, and at Antioch College, of which he was also president in 1872-73. He was first president of the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College (now Ohio State University) (1873-81), and was professor of geology there from 1873 to 1899. He was an assistant State geologist (1869-82), was State geologist (1882-99), served for a time on the geological surveys of the United States, of Kentucky, and of Kansas, and was president of the Geological Society of America (1896), and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1898-99). He was essentially an economic geologist, and specialized in the study of oil and gas, developing several well-known theories, notably the ‘anticlinal theory,’ and becoming widely known as an authority on the nature and geological occurrence of these products. He wrote portions of vols. i., ii., and iii. of the Reports of the Ohio Geological Survey, and a large part of vols. v., vi., and vii., besides numerous papers in the geological magazines and papers on petroleum, gas, and asphalt in the Kentucky Geological Reports (1891), and in the Report of the United States Geological Survey (1887).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Orton, James

ORTON, James (1830-77). An American naturalist, born at Seneca Falls, N. Y. He graduated at Williams College in 1855, and then studied theology at the Andover Seminary. In 1860 he returned from an extensive trip through Europe and Palestine, and was ordained a Congregational minister. He became professor of natural science in Rochester University in 1866, in the next year he took charge of a scientific expedition across South America, and in 1873 took part in an expedition to Lima and Lake Titicaca. From 1869 to the time of his death he was professor of natural history in Vassar College. He published The Miner's Guide and Metallurgist's Directory (1849); The Andes and the Amazon (1870); and Comparative Zoölogy (1875).


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 {|align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" 1. French Drift. 2. English Drift. 3. French transition (Le Moustier). 4. French Cave Period. 5. English Cave Period.
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 rising of Lambert Simnel, when he proved himself most active in his opposition to the Earl of Kildare, who supported the pretender. In 1491 he was created by grant captain and governor of the army about to be sent to Kilkenny against the rebels, and in the following year received by patent the castle and manors in Meath, Kilkenny, and Tippenay which had belonged to the earldom of Marsh.

Ormonde was appointed lord-treasurer of Ireland on 15 June 1492, in the place of Lord Portlester, the father-in-law of Kildare, an office which he held for not quite two years; on his resignation he was granted an annuity of 100l. and the constableship of Limerick Castle (Patent, 16 June, 9 Hen. VII, m. 28). Owing to the continued absence of Thomas, the seventh earl of Ormonde, in England, the leadership of the Butler family devolved upon Sir James, who was deputed by the earl to act with full authority on his behalf; and so fully was this authority exercised and recognised that the annalists speak of him as Earl of Ormonde (Book of Howth; Cal. State Papers; Carew MS. p. 106), and his enemies accused him of styling himself Earl of Ormonde, and of plotting to secure his legitimation (, Letters and Papers, Earl of Kildare to Earl of Ormonde, ii. 66).

While Sir James was thus exercising the headship of the family, the Butlers entered into their great feud with the Geraldines. A skirmish between the two parties had taken place on the appointment of Sir James as treasurer, and was followed by more serious encounters in 1493. The rival factions attacked and harried each other's lands in turn in that year. In the course of the struggle a meeting of the two parties was arranged, and a public discussion of their grievances took place in the church of St. Patrick in Dublin; but the mutual recriminations of the speakers, and the temper of the town populace, led to an interchange of blows and a promiscuous discharge of arrows. Sir James fled to the chapter-house, and there barricaded himself, fearing the treachery of the earl, and from this retreat he only emerged on the lord-deputy putting his hand through a hole in the door cut for the purpose, in order to assure him of his good intentions (, iii. 77). The quarrel between Sir James Ormonde and the Earl of Kildare was further embittered owing to the support given by the latter to Sir Piers Butler, the heir-at-law to the earldom of Ormonde, by which policy, says the 'Book of Howth,' 'the Earl of Wormond was kept short and occupied in his own county' (Book of Howth; Carew MS. p. 106). Sir James appears to have gone over to England to state his accusations against Kildare in person. His efforts seem to have been rewarded with success, as the earl was attainted in Poynings' parliament, 1494, and was for two years imprisoned in England before he returned to Ireland again as deputy. in 1496.

In 1494 Ormonde joined Sir Edward Poynings' army and marched into Ulster against the supporters of Perkin Warbeck, and during the next two years he was in frequent communication with the king's council, and received payment for his gallowglasses. In 1497 Sir James met his death at the hands of his kinsman. Sir Piers Butler (Carte, following Stanihurst, gives 1618 as the date; but see History of St, Canice, by Graves and Prim, p. 196). Sir Piers, in a letter to Thomas, earl of Ormonde (quoted ib. p. 194), recounting the circumstances from his point of view, tefls how he had been kept out of his land, and imprisoned by Sir James, and how the latter haa shown lus intention to kill him. 'After the which,' says he, 'it fortuned me sodenly in the open field, not ferr from Kilkenny, to meete with hym, and so, by the grace of God, which wold that every ill dede shold be punyshed the same. Sir James and I. . . rencountred and fought togeders so long till God had wrought his will upon hym.' .  ORMSBY, WILLIAM (d. 1317). [See .] ORNSBY, GEORGE (1809–1886), antiquary, born on 9 March 1809 at Darlington, Durham, was eldest son of George Ornsby, of the Lodge, Lanchester, in the same county, where the family had been settled from the time of Henry VIII. Robert Ornsby [q. v.] was his younger brother. His father, an accomplished scholar, instructed his sons at home until his death in 1823. George was then sent to Durham grammar school. After practising for a time as a solicitor in Durham, he entered University College, Durham, as a theological student in 1839. In 1841 he was ordained, and held in succession the curacies of Newburn, Northumberland (1841–3); Sedgefield, Durham (1843–4); and Whickham, in the same county (1845–50). In July 1850 he was inducted to the vicarage of Fishlake, South Yorkshire. The charge of this small


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 Eothuile’ (now Trawoholly, near Ballysadare, co. Sligo).

In 1562, on Brian Ballagh's death, Hugh Gallda O'Rourke, a half-brother of Brian-na-Murtha, was installed the O'Rourke, but in 1564 he was slain by his own people at Leitrim—a murder in which Brian-na-Murtha was accused of being an accomplice. The O'Rourkes now declared Brian-na-Murtha to be the O'Rourke; but Hugh Boy O'Rourke, another half-brother, was supported as his rival by O'Neill. Hugh Boy was slain in 1566 by the Cinel Connell at Ballintogher, near Killerry, co. Sligo, in order that Brian, who was a grandson of Manus O'Donnell, might rule over them. From the first O'Rourke was constantly embroiled in quarrels with his kinsmen and disputes with the English, and he habitually maintained a force of some five hundred Scots in his pay. In 1576 he was ravaging Annaly, and in 1578 his chief stronghold, Leitrim, was captured by one of Sir Nicholas Malby's captains, and placed in the hands of Brian's nephews. Soon after he came to terms with the deputy, was knighted at Athlone on 7 Oct. 1578, and allowed to regain possession of Leitrim. But in the autumn of 1580 he was again in rebellion. On Sir Nicholas Malby's advance, O'Rourke sent away his women, and dismantled Leitrim; it was refortified by Malby, after a brisk encounter with O'Rourke, who attacked Malby with twelve hundred men, of whom five hundred were Scots. On Malby's departure, O'Rourke laid siege to the garrison, but was compelled to raise it on the president's reappearance. In November O'Rourke invaded Connaught, and slew half a company of Malby's soldiers. For the next few years he was chiefly occupied in fighting against his nephews Teige, Oge, and Brian, the former of whom died a captive in O'Rourke's hands in 1583, while the latter was put to death by some of O'Rourke's men two years later. He also had frequent bickerings with the government on the subject of his rent, but these never reached the height of open hostility.

Late in 1588, however, O'Rourke was brought into more serious collision with the government. The composition in Connaught had been favourable to him; nominally his jurisdiction over the people of his country was restrained; but so large a share of land was given to him absolutely that he found himself stronger than ever, and refused to acknowledge the governor of Connaught, maintaining that he was under no man except the lord deputy himself. He now gave shelter, and even arms, to many of the Spaniards wrecked on the west coast of Ireland during the flight of the armada; and when commanded by royal proclamation to give them up, he refused; for these services Philip II sent him a friar with a letter of thanks. The Spaniards whom he supported are said to have numbered a thousand, and O'Rourke urged their commander, Antonio de Leva, to make common cause with him against the English government; but the Spaniard refused without a commission from Philip, in search of which he set sail. The government now made a determined effort to suppress O'Rourke. The task was originally entrusted to Clanricarde; but in June 1589 O'Rourke was suddenly attacked by Sir Richard Bingham himself at Dromore, and, after six months' struggle and some desperate encounters, he was forced to flee from his country in November 1589. For more than a year he was sheltered by MacSweeny, but in February 1590–1 he went to Scotland to seek aid from James VI; by him he was delivered into English hands, for a sum of money, it is said, and brought to London, where he was imprisoned in the Tower until his trial, which took place in Westminster Hall in the ensuing November. He was accused of having stirred various people to rebellion, of having ‘scornfully dragged the queen's picture att a horse-taile, and disgracefully cut the same in pieces;’ and given the Spaniards entertainment, &c. O'Rourke, who understood no English, declined to submit to trial by twelve men, or by any one except the queen in person. He was condemned and executed as a traitor at Tyburn. On the scaffold he refused the offices of Meiler Magrath [q. v.], archbishop of Cashel, whom he taunted with having turned from a Franciscan into a protestant. He also declined to bow before Elizabeth, and, when taunted with bowing to images, remarked that there was ‘a great difference between your queen and images of the saints.’

O'Rourke was a hard fighter, courageous, generous, and of great pride; Sir George Carew, writing to Perrot, described him as ‘in his beggarly fashion a proud prince;’ and Sir Nicholas Malby said he was ‘the proudest man living on earth.’ He has been generally identified with the Irish rebel mentioned by Bacon in his essay ‘Of Custom and Education,’ who petitioned to be hanged with a gad or with instead of a halter, a petition which, says Sir Richard Cox, was doubtless granted (Hibernia Anglicana, i. 399); Cox's remark is attributed by O'Donovan in his edition of the ‘Four Masters’ to Bacon, and Hardiman (Irish Minstrelsy, ii. 428) uses it as a test for a tirade against Bacon. O'Rourke is also said, on insufficient authority, to have gained the


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 {|align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" 1. Flint and stone implements, England. 2. Flint arrow-heads, England. 3. Arrow-heads, Ireland. 4. Flint and stone implements, Denmark. 5. Flint implements, France. 6. Flint implements, Egypt.
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