text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Francis Joseph I.

FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1830-1916), Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (see ). — In the last years of his reign Francis Joseph continued to strive to preserve peace for his realm, while maintaining the prestige of Austria-Hungary and her position as a Great Power. Perceiving that this aim was threatened by the confusion reigning in the Balkans, he agreed to the plan of his Foreign Minister, Aehrenthal, to take advantage of the Young Turk movement to annex the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied in 1878, and to embody them permanently in the monarchy. During the serious crisis following on the annexation Francis Joseph backed Aehrenthal with the whole weight of his influence, and subsequently supported him in his endeavours to restore friendly relations with the Great Powers which had been signally disturbed by the annexation, and to put an end to the risk of international conflicts. By his personal intervention he in fact repeatedly succeeded during the years 1908 to 1914 in averting dangers threatening the peace of Europe. When in 1912 the Balkan wars, which he had untiringly but unsuccessfully striven to avert, began, he thought they were the gale before the hurricane, and when, in Aug. 1913, the Peace of Bucharest provided a provisional settlement he expressed the opinion that this peace was only the breathing space before a fresh war. The behaviour of the Serbs filled him with the greatest anxiety. When the murder of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, led the Vienna Government to take energetic measures against Serbia, Francis Joseph hesitated to follow, and it was with a heavy heart that he gave his consent to the dispatch of the severe ultimatum to Serbia, and, after its rejection, to the declaration of war. He did not believe that the war could be localized, as he would have wished it to be, and was pessimistic about the chances of a world war. Even then he was of the opinion that “war is beyond our strength,” and said he would be glad if the monarchy escaped “with a black eye.” The attitude of the rulers of Italy and Rumania offended him deeply, and strengthened his doubt of a favourable outcome of a war against an ever-increasing number of adversaries. Francis Joseph stood immovably by the alliance with Germany, to whose ruler he was bound by a friendship based on reciprocal liking; it never occurred to him to separate from his ally. He would never have agreed to a separate peace; yet he favoured and supported every endeavour to put an end to the war by a peace which should safeguard the interests of all his allies and the position of Austria-Hungary as a Great Power.

In all questions affecting the constitution of the monarchy, and in particular the relations between Austria and Hungary, Francis Joseph continued in the later years of his reign to stand by the principles of the Ausgleich of 1867. He would not consider the federalization of the Empire, but stood unmoved on the basis of dualism. He went a long way to meet the efforts of the Hungarian Government for independence, but refused energetically during this period demands tending towards the severing of the remaining bonds between the two halves of the monarchy, especially that of the united army. In the increasingly violent conflicts between the different nationalities inhabiting the Cis-Leithan territories Francis Joseph stood above party. This was all the easier for him on account of his indifference towards all the nationalities of his vast realm, even towards the Germans, although to the end of his life he felt himself to be a German prince. As in the earlier part of his reign, so in the last decade, the separate nationalities were favoured or neglected, but always played off one against the other. The meaning of viribus unitis for Francis Joseph was to use all in the interests of the dynasty. But national consciousness had grown so strong that this policy had no success. The concessions which he granted in the years just before the war to the Slav peoples increased their self-confidence, and led them to make ever greater demands, the non-fulfilment of which caused a weakening of

their sentiment for the dynasty. As the differences between the national parties represented in the Austrian Parliament became in the course of years so great that there was no prospect of effective coöperation, Francis Joseph ignored parliamentary activity from 1914 onwards. Experience of the World War led the old Emperor to recognize that he had done the Austrian-Germans an injustice; but isolated attempts to alter the trend of affairs had no lasting effect, and in the end he let things take their course. When he died, severe inroads had been made on the affection of the Austrian peoples; what remained was only just sufficient to disguise the disappearance of loyalty to the dynasty.

As years went on the Emperor became more and more lonely. His son had committed suicide in 1889, his wife had been murdered in 1898; of his brothers only the youngest was still alive, and he resided at a distance and in the strictest seclusion. There had never been any cordial relationship with the heir to the throne, Francis Ferdinand; and with the years, especially after Francis Ferdinand had married Countess Sophie Chotek, the estrangement between the two men increased, so that personal intercourse became rare. Among the remaining members of the Imperial House Francis Joseph only cared to frequent the circles of his two daughters, Gisela and Marie Valerie, and their children. He was bound by ties of true friendship to Katherina Schratt, formerly an actress at the Burgtheater, and in her society he spent his sparingly measured hours of recreation. The summer he usually spent at the watering place of Ischl, and there he devoted himself to the chase, the only pleasure for which he cared passionately to the end of his life.

The Emperor had long enjoyed excellent health. It was not until he had passed his 75th year that disease of the respiratory organs began. In 1911 this became so serious that a catastrophe was feared. All the preparations for Francis Ferdinand's accession were made. But the old Emperor recovered; and his physical as well as his mental energy improved from year to year, so that he was able in the first two years of the World War to transact fully all the business of government. It was only in the year 1916 that his faculties began to fail. He died peacefully of a fresh attack of his old malady on Nov. 21 1916.

Francis Joseph was not one of those of whom contemporaries, especially those at a distance, form any definite impression. The reserve which he observed even towards the great majority of his advisers made it more difficult to penetrate his real nature. He had a deep sense of his exalted position as a ruler. To the end of his days he remained profoundly convinced that the Empire over which he ruled was his empire, and the peoples his peoples. This conception of the majesty of the office bestowed on him by God found expression in his bearing. He always maintained a regal attitude. He showed kindliness and winning courtesy to everyone. Nothing was farther from him than posing, and no one ever heard him utter sonorous phrases; but he avoided any kind of intimacy even in his intercourse with members of the Imperial House, and, even with them, knew how to maintain his distance. His intellectual gifts were not remarkable, but he possessed sound common-sense and wit. He had a strikingly good memory for persons and events. As a ruler he was a model of the sense of duty. From early morning to evening he attended to business with clock-like regularity, and dealt with all the documents laid before him with the greatest punctuality. This industry and his exact memory made him one of the best authorities in all Government affairs. He sometimes startled his ministers by his intimate knowledge of the details of the business in hand, and occasionally embarrassed them. But he went no further than the details, and lacked the power of surveying the whole. He also lacked, especially in his later years, the ability to take the initiative in important questions, to form independent resolutions and to carry them to their logical conclusions. In an ever-increasing degree he left the decision to his responsible ministers. He was not without skill in the choice of his advisers, but had an instinctive dislike for men whom he felt to be his intellectual superiors. He also disliked people of proud and upright character, and even within the family circle he preferred those who were more subservient. He was essentially cold in

with great self-control increased by practice. Among the European rulers he enjoyed, during the last decades of his reign, great respect, which he owed to his age, experience, personal amiability, blameless conduct, and above all the fact that his word could always be relied upon. He was a faithful son of the Catholic Church, and looked up with reverence to the Holy Father; but, quite in the spirit of the traditions of his House, he guarded the rights of the dynasty and of the State with the utmost tenacity, even against the Pope. He took no interest in the arts and sciences, being in this respect more of a Lorrainer than a Habsburg; but whenever he expressed an opinion on these subjects, he showed a decided aversion from the modern tendencies.

(Author:Alfred Francis Pribram)


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/469

1896. 1. It shall be lawful for Her Majesty the Queen to assign a pension to the chairman or to any deputy chairman of the court of a of quarter sessions for the county of London:—

 * (a) after such chairman or deputy chairman shall have attained and deputy the age of seventy years, if he shall then have completed chairman, fifteen years service; or
 * (b) after such chairman or deputy chairman shall have completed fifteen years service, if he shall attain the age of seventy years before having completed fifteen years service; or
 * (c) in the event of such chairman or deputy chairman being disabled by permanent infirmity from the performance of the duties of his office.

Provided that no such pension shall exceed in amount two-thirds of the salary of the chairman or deputy chairman as the case may be.

2. It shall be lawful for a Secretary of State, in case chairman or deputy chairman shall be absent by reason of sickness or other unavoidable cause, or shall be absent on such other occasions as may be allowed by such Secretary of State to appoint a barrister of not less than ten years standing to act as chairman or deputy chairman in the absence of such chairman or deputy chairman, as the case may be, and in case the chairman and deputy chairman shall both be absent as aforesaid, to appoint two barristers of not less than ten years standing to act as chairman and deputy chairman during the absence of such chairman and deputy chairman. There shall be paid to every barrister so appointed the sum of five pounds five shillings for every day on which he shall sit and act as chairman or deputy chairman.

3. It shall be lawful for the chairman of the court of quarter Appointment sessions for the county of London for the time being to appoint any person he may think fit and proper to be his clerk, and to remove such clerk at his pleasure. There shall be paid to such clerk a salary at a rate not exceeding two hundred and fifty pounds a year.

4. It shall be lawful for the deputy chairman of the court of quarter sessions for the county of London for the time being to appoint any person he may think fit and proper to be his clerk chairman and to remove such clerk at his pleasure. There shall be paid to such clerk a salary at a rate not exceeding one hundred and fifty pounds a year.

5. Every pension, fee, and salary paid under this Act shall be paid by the London County Council out of the county fund as a general county purpose.

6. Section forty-three of the London County Council (General Powers) Act, 1895 (pension to chairman of court of quarter sessions), shall not apply to any chairman appointed after the passing of that Act.

7. This Act may be cited as the Quarter Sessions (London) Act, 18956.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/470

450

E it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:

1. From and after the passing of this Act the powers exercisable by the Secretary of State on application under section eight of the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880, shall extend to the making of an order prohibiting, for special reasons mentioned in the application, the taking or killing of particular kinds of wild birds during the whole or any part of that period of the year to which the protection of wild birds under that Act does not extend, or the taking or killing of all wild birds in particular places during the whole or any part of that period.

2. Public notice of any order made under this Act shall be given in the manner required by the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1894, with respect to orders made under that Act.

3. The powers exercisable under the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1894 by the county council of an administrative county are hereby declared to be exercisable by the council of a county borongh, and any expenses incurred by the council of a county borough under that Act or this Act may lie defrayed out of the borough fund or borough rate.

4. Where any person is convicted of an offence against this Act or the principal Act, the court may, in addition to any penalty that may be imposed, order any trap, net, snare, or decoy bird used by such person for taking any wild bird to be forfeited.

. This Act shall apply to Scotland with the substitution of the Secretary for Scotland for a Secretary of State.

This Act shall not extend to Ireland.

This Act may be cited as the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1896, and shall be construed with the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880, the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1881, and the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1894, and those Acts and this Act maybe cited collectively as the Wild Birds Protection Acts, 1880 to 1896.

E it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/491

AD. 1896] cxlix. An Act for conferring further powers upon the London and North Western Railway Company in relation to their own undertaking and other undertakings in which they are interested jointly with other Companies and also for conferring powers upon the Great Western Railway Company and the Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company and for other purposes. (London and North Western Railway.)

cl An Act for empowering the Visiting Committee of the North Wales Counties Lunatic Asylum to execute works for supplying the said Asylum with water and for other purposes. (North Wales Counties Lunatic Asylum (Water Supply).)

cli. An Act to confer further powers upon the Portsmouth Street Tramways Company and for other purposes. (Portsmouth Street Tramways.)

clii. An Act to enable the Corporation of Yeovil to construct an additional Reservoir and other waterworks and to raise money for the purpose by borrowing on mortgage or otherwise. (Yeovil Corporation Waterworks.)

cliii An Act to extend the time for the compulsory purchase of lands and completion of Works authorised by the Weaver Navigation Act 1893 and for other purposes. (Weaver Navigation.)

cliv. An Act to enable the Mayor Aldermen and Burgesses of the Borough of Preston to construct further works to borrow additional moneys for the purposes of the Ribble Navigation and Preston Dock Undertaking and for other purposes. (Ribhle Navigation.)

clv. An Act to authorise the Burntisland Harbour Commissioners to construct a Wet Dock and other works to provide for an alteration of the constitution of the Commissioners and to confer on the Commissioners the North British Railway Company and the Magistrates and Town Council of Burntisland further powers with reference to the Harbour and for other purposes. (Burntisland Harbour.)

clvi. An Act to confer further powers on the North Cornwall Railway Company. (North Cornwall Railway.)

clvii An Act to confer further powers on the Metropolitan District Railway Company and for other purposes, (Metropolitan District Railway.)

clviii. An Act for authorising the construction of works for supplying Sea Water to certain parts of London and other places and for other purposes. (London Sea Water Supply.)

cllx. An Act to confer additional powers upon the North Eastern Railway Company for the construction of works and the acquisition of additional lands and for other purposes. (North Eastern Railway.)

clx. An Act to confer further powers on the Caledonian Railway Company in relation to their undertaking to confer running powers and facilities on the Caledonian Railway Company and the Glasgow and South Western Railway Company over certain Railways of those Companies respectively to extend the time for the sale of superfluous lands of the Cathcart


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/492

472 District Railway Company to revive and extend the time for the purchase of lands for and for the completion of certain Railways and works of the Caledonian Railway Company and the Railways and works authorised by the Dumbarton and Balloch Joint Line &c Act 1892 and for other purposes. (Caledonian Railway.)

P. clxi. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Board of Trade under the Gas and Water Works Facilities Act 1870 relating to Amersham Beaconsfield and District Water Burnham and District Water East Huntingdonshire Water Hemel Hempstead Water Maidstone Water and Tilehurst Pangboume and District Water. (Water Orders Confirmation.)

P. clxii. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order made by the Local Government Board for Ireland under the Public Health (Ireland) Act 1878 relating to the Urban Sanitary District of Armagh. (Local Government Board (Ireland) Provisional Order Confirmation (No. 2).)

P. clxiii. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order made by the Local Government Board for Ireland under the Public Health (Ireland) Act 1878 relating to the Rural Sanitary District of Listowel. (Local Government Board (Ireland) Provisional Order Confirmation (No. 11).)

P. clxiv. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Education Department under the Elementary Education Acts 1870 to 1893 to enable the School Boards for Acton Brighton-and-Prestoii United District Chiswick Linthwaite Swansea United District and Willesden to put in force the Lands Clauses Acts. (Education Departmenl Provisional Orders Confirmation (Acton &c.).)

P. clxv. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order made by the Board of Trade under the Railway and Canal Traffic Act 1888 relating to the Classification of Merchandise Traffic and the Schedule of Maximum Rates and Charges of the Lee-on-the-Solent Light Railway Company the Liverpool St. Helens and South Lancashire Railway Company the Wrexham and Ellesmere Railway Company and the Donoughmore Extension Light Railway Company Limited. (Mailway Rates and Charges (Lee-on-the-Solenl Light Railway &c.) Order Confirmation.)

P. clxvi. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Board of Trade under the Tramways Act 1870 relating to Blyth and Cowpen Tramways Oldham Ashton-under-Lyne Hyde and District Electric Tramways Potteries Extension Tramways and Swansea (Constitution Hill) Tramway. (Tramways Orders Confirmation (No. 2).)

P. clxvii. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders of the Local Government Board relating to Abergele and Pensarn Bridgnorth Caerphilly Knighton Litherland Swansea and Teignmouth. (Local Government Board's Provision Orders Confirmation (No. 2).)


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/493

A.D. 1896.] P. clxviii. An Act to conirm certain Provisional Orders of the Local Government Board relating to the Urban District of Blackpool and the Rural Districts of Chelmsford Hartley and South Mimms. (Local Government Board's Provisional Orders Confirmation (No. 16).)

P. clxix. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders of the Local Government Board relating to Cheltenham Shrewsbury and Warrington. (Local Government Board's Provisional Orders Confirmation (No. 20).)

P. clxx. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order of the Local Government Board relating to Wolverhampton. (Local Government Board's Provisional Order Confirmation (No. 21).)

P. clxxi. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order of the Local Government Board relating to Nottingham, (Local Government Board's Provisional Order Confirmation (No. 22).)

P. clxxii. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order of the Local Government Board relating to the Borough of Longton. (Local Government Board's Provisional Order Confirmation (No. 24).)

P. clxxiii. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order made by the Education Department under the Elementary Education Act 1870 to enable the School Board for London to put in force the Lands Clauses Acts. (Education Department Provisional Order Confirmation (London).)

P. clxxiv. An Act to confirm a Provisional Order of the Board of Agriculture relating to the Regulation of Darwen Moor in the Borough of Darwen. (Commons Regulation (Darwen) Provisional Order Confirmation.)

P. clxxv. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Board of Trade under the Electric Lighting Acts 1882 and 1888 relating to Allerton Little Woolton Much Woolton Childwall and Garston Bath and Merthyr Tydfil. (Electric Lighting Orders Confirmation (No. 7).)

P. clxxvi. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Board of Trade under the General Pier and Harbour Act 1861 relating to New Ross and Weston-super-Mare. (Pier and Harbour Orders Confirmation (No. 3).)

P. clxxvii. An Act to confirm certain Provisional Orders made by the Board of Trade under the General Pier and Harbour Act 1861 relating to Emsworth and Oban. (''Pier and Harbour Orders Confirmation (No. 5).'')

P. clxxviii. An Act for conferring further powers on the Aldershot Gas and Water Company for the construction of a Tramroad and the acquisition of lands for that purpose the defining and extending their limits of Water Supply also empowering the Company to enter into an agreement with the North Camp and Farnborough District Gas Company Limited the raising of additional capital and for other purposes. (Aldershot Gas and Water.)


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/494

474 clxxix. An Act to confer further borrowing powers on the Provost Magistrates and Town Council of the Burgh of Kilmarnock in respect of their Water Undertaking. (Kilmarnock Corporation Water.)

clxxx. An Act to enlarge and alter the scope of the Meal Charity created by the Trust Disposition and Settlement of John Ogilvie for the benefit of the Poor of the Parishes of Airth and Bothkennar in the County of Stirling and for other purposes. (Ogilvie Meal Charity.)

clxxxi. An Act to authorise the construction of certain Street Improvements and the taking of lands in the Parish o Saint Mary Abbotts Kensington in the County of London and for other purposes. (Kensington (James Street Area) Improvements.)

clxxxii. An Act to enable the Manchester Ship Canal Company to alter certain works authorised by the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 and the Manchester Ship Canal (Tidal Openings &c.) Act 1890 to make a Railway at Salford and other works to amend the former Acts of the Company and for other purposes. (Manchester Ship Canal.)

clxxxiii. An Act to empower the Midland Railway Company to construct a Harbour at Heysham in Morecambe Bay to confer additional powers upon the Midland Railway Company and the Midland and Great Northern Railways Joint Committee for the construction of works and the acquisition of lands and for other purposes. (Midland Railway)

clxxxiv. An Act to authorise the North Metropolitan Railway and Canal Company to make alterations and improvements in their Canal and for other purposes. (North Metropolitan Railway and Canal.)

clxxxv. An Act to provide for the partition between the Glasgow and South Western Railway Company and the North British Railway Company of the undertaking of the City of Glasgow Union Railway Company and for other purposes. (City of Glasgow Union Railway Partition.)

clxxxvi. An Act to empower the Llanelly Harbour and Burry Navigation Commissioners to construct a Dock and new Cut for the River Lliedi and other works for the improvement of the Port and Harbour of Llanelly and to borrow moneys with the consent of the Urban District Council of Llanelly and for other purposes. (Llanelly Harbour.)

clxxxvii. An Act for extending the limits of supply of the Eastbourne Waterworks Company and for conferring further powers on the Company for the construction of works the raising of capital and otherwise in relation to their undertaking. (Eastbourne Waterworks.)

clxxxviii. An Act to empower the London County Council to purchase lands for various purposes to extend the time for purchase of lands at York Water Gate to confer further powers on the Council with respect to main roads to confer further powers on Vestries and District Boards of Works


text: Template:Statute table/titles/header

title: Template:Statute table/titles/header


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Holden, Sir Edward Hopkinson

HOLDEN, SIR EDWARD HOPKINSON, (1848-1919), English banker, was born May 11 1848 at Tottington, Lancs., and spent his early years at the neighbouring village of Summerseat, where he was educated. He entered a business establishment at an early age, but later obtained a junior clerkship in the Manchester and County Bank at a salary of £30 a year. Here he remained for 14 years, and at the end of that time became a bank accountant as a result of answering an advertisement in the Economist. During this period he also studied law and political economy at Owens College in company with his wife. In 1881 he went to Birmingham as accountant of the Birmingham and Midland Bank, and here his rise was extraordinarily rapid. In a comparatively short space of time he rose to be general manager, and this led later to his occupying the double position of managing director (1898) and eventually chairman (1908). He devoted himself with great energy and much success to developing the amalgamating policy of his bank, which ultimately developed into the London Joint City and Midland Bank. For the history of the amalgamations leading to that result, see . From about 1898 he interested himself largely in international banking, with the result that he became as great an expert on foreign exchange questions as on home finance. He was the first of the larger London joint-stock bankers to open a foreign exchange department. In 1906 he was elected Liberal member for the Heywood division of Lancs., and in 1909 a baronetcy was conferred upon him. In 1915 he went with Lord Reading to the United States on behalf of the Government and arranged there the Anglo-French loan. He died July 23 1919.

Holden was in many ways a typical “Lancashire lad”; he was always a shrewd business man, with a pugnacious disposition, a firm friend to his friends, a hot fighter against opponents, but with unusual vision and with a remarkable flair for banking operations. As chairman of the London City and Midland Bank, which, under him and through his exertions, became the greatest of the English joint-stock institutions, he was for many years the most powerful figure among the clearing bankers, and his interests were bound up with the progressive success of the bank with which he was identified. He was a man of great activity of mind, keen to spot the opportunities and tendencies in contemporary finance, and assiduous in mastering its problems. During the World War he did valuable work in this respect, the extent of which cannot well be over emphasized. His annual addresses to the shareholders of his bank were a succession of educational manifestoes, packed with information and instruction. Before the war he had taken the lead in advocating a larger gold reserve, and himself started the accumulation of a larger independent gold-holding by his bank. In this and various other ways he was a pioneer in a number of improvements in British banking during his time, and his death deprived the City of London of one of its most vigorous characters. (Author:Hugh Chisholm)


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/199

 the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised, and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus’ death) to King Attalus I. (241–197 ). Only four Books have survived in Greek; three more are extant in Arabic; the eighth has never been found. Although a fragment has been found of a Latin translation from the Arabic made in the 13th century, it was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of Books v.-vii. was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in 983 by Abu ’l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS. But the best Arabic translation is that made as regards Books i.-iv. by Hilāl ibn Abī Hilāl (d. about 883), and as regards Books v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra (836–901). Halley used for his translation an Oxford MS. of this translation of Books v.-vii., but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only referred to in order to correct his translation, and it is still unpublished except for a fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with German translation (Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his edition (1710) a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by the fact that Pappus gives lemmas “to the seventh and eighth books” under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the problems solved in the eighth.

The degree of originality of the Conics can best be judged from Apollonius’ own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an “elementary introduction,” i.e. contain the essential principles; the rest are specialized investigations in particular directions. For Books i.-iv. he claims only that the generation of the curves and their fundamental properties in Book i. are worked out more fully and generally than they were in earlier treatises, and that a number of theorems in Book iii. and the greater part of Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use of his predecessors’ works, such as Euclid’s four Books on Conics, is clear from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental property of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian equation referred to oblique axes (consisting of a diameter and the tangent at its extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique circular cone in any manner, and the axes appear only as a particular case after he has shown that the property of the conic can be expressed in the same form with reference to any new diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is clearly the form of the fundamental property (expressed in the terminology of the “application of areas”) which led him to call the curves for the first time by the names parabola, ellipse, hyperbola. Books v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius’ genius takes its highest flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as minimum and maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve (independently of tangent properties), discusses how many normals can be drawn from particular points, finds their feet by construction, and gives propositions determining the centre of curvature at any point and leading at once to the Cartesian equation of the evolute of any conic.

The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are—1st, , Cutting off a Ratio; 2nd,  , Cutting of an Area; 3rd,  , Determinate Section; 4th,  , Tangencies; 5th,  , Inclinations; 6th,  , Plane Loci. Each of these was divided into two books, and, with the Data, the Porisms and Surface-Loci of Euclid and the Conics of Apollonius were, according to Pappus, included in the body of the ancient analysis.

1st. De Rationis Sectione had for its subject the resolution of the following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in each, to draw through a third given point a straight line cutting the two fixed lines, so that the parts intercepted between the given points in them and the points of intersection with this third line may have a given ratio.

2nd. De Spatii Sectione discussed the similar problem which requires the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal to a given rectangle.

An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of the 17th century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard, who began a translation of it; Halley finished it and published it along with a restoration of the second treatise in 1706.

3rd. De Sectione Determinata resolved the problem: Given two, three or four points on a straight line, to find another point on it such that its distances from the given points satisfy the condition that the square on one or the rectangle contained by two has to the square on the remaining one or the rectangle contained by the remaining two, or to the rectangle contained by the remaining one and another given straight line, a given ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been attempted, one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson of Aberdeen, in the supplement to his Apollonius Redivivus (Paris, 1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, Opera quaedam reliqua (Glasgow, 1776).

4th. De Tactionibus embraced the following general problem: Given three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position, to describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching the given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and the most interesting from its historical associations, is when the three given things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes known as the Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the 16th century to Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by means of a hyperbola. Vieta thereupon proposed a simpler construction, and restored the whole treatise of Apollonius in a small work, which he entitled Apollonius Gallus (Paris, 1600). A very full and interesting historical account of the problem is given in the preface to a small work of J. W. Camerer, entitled Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in hos Libros, cum Observationibus, &c. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).

5th. De Inclinationibus had for its object to insert a straight line of a given length, tending towards a given point, between two given (straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been given by Marino Ghetaldi, by Hugo d’Omerique (Geometrical Analysis, Cadiz, 1698), and (the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).

6th. De Locis Planis is a collection of propositions relating to loci which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives somewhat full particulars of the propositions, and restorations were attempted by P. Fermat (Œuvres, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F. Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and, most successfully of all, by R. Simson (Glasgow, 1749).

Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers, viz. (1) , On the Burning-Glass, where the focal properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2)  , On the Cylindrical Helix (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed in the same sphere; (4)  , perhaps a work on the general principles of mathematics in which were included Apollonius’ criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of Euclid’s Elements; (5)  (quick bringing-to-birth), in which, according to Eutocius, he showed how to find closer limits for the value of than the 3 and 3 of Archimedes; (6) an arithmetical work (as to which see ) on a system of expressing large numbers in language closer to that of common life than that of Archimedes’ Sand-reckoner, and showing how to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of the theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from binomial to multinomial and from ordered to unordered irrationals (see extracts from Pappus’ comm. on Eucl. x., preserved in Arabic and published by Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an explanation of the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he also made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have been called Epsilon.

The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1) Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici Commandini (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri duo (Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given in 1675 by Barrow; (4) Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri duo: Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti: Praemittitur, &c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley (Oxoniae, 1706), 4to; (5) a German translation of the Conics by H. Balsam (Berlin, 1861); (6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (Apollonii Pergaei quae Graece

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/199


text:
Page:Face to Face With the Mexicans.djvu/136

 here for a number of years on account of the extreme healthfulness of the climate and the benefits the doctor has received for his protracted lung troubles. As their guest during my stay in Santa Rosalia nothing was more interesting than to watch these genuine American children transformed into veritable Mexicans. So thoroughly identified were these little people with the land of their adoption that in their daily play not one word of English was spoken; every movement, tone, gesture, and expression was entirely Mexican, even to their games and plays and reboso-wrapped dolls. The baby, christened Charles, repudiated his baptismal name and clung with infantile pertinacity to its Mexican synonym of Carlos, refusing to answer to any other. The next in age, Marianita, a little tot of three and a half years, interested me greatly with her wealth of golden curls and roguish face. She would sit on my lap by the hour entertaining me with the most amusing translations of Spanish into English and vice versa. One day her father returned from the barber's with head so closely shaven as to attract the attention of Marianita. Climbing upon his chair the closer to observe the result of this tonsorial manipulation, she exclaimed, to the amusement of us all: "Mi cabeza peloncita" ("My bald-headed squash")

Within a few years, warm springs have been discovered, that are said to possess wonderful healing properties.

My desire was intense to visit these springs, which must eventually prove a great health resort, but the difficulties attending such an undertaking were inconceivable.

The Rio Concha, which it was necessary to cross in order to reach the springs, was, at that time, out of its banks, and the only substitute for a boat, excepting the railway bridge, was an ordinary dry goods box manned by a brawny Indian. If we embarked at Santa Rosalia the prospects were fair of our disembarking ten or twenty miles below that point, so swift was the current; or, worse still, our primitive bark might be upset in mid-stream and ourselves and poor "Lo" left struggling in the muddy water. As the chances of so disastrous a termination to the voyage were very great, we concluded to forego the trip.


text:
Page:Face to Face With the Mexicans.djvu/137

Rh The remains of an old adobe fort that was captured by Donaphan when he was en route to join General Taylor are still standing.

Santa Rosalia is a fair representative of a country town. But though its resources are limited, the inhabitants are not without their national recreations, having a pretty little plaza, in which twice a week the band plays. Especially do they celebrate the 5th of May and the 16th of September.

I enjoyed the latter occasion with them, and attended the grand baile (ball) in the evening, for which extensive preparations were made. The lack of ball-room or public hall formed no impediment, merely permitting the exercise of their ingenuity.

The open patio of the city hall was utilized for this purpose, first excavating about four feet of uneven earth, and refilling with good soil, adding, when leveled, great square stone slabs—placing straw thickly on these, with mianta (brown domestic) stretched tightly over. And the floor of no salon could have been smoother for dancing. Lace curtains hung at each opening, mirrors and paintings alternating around the room, and garlands of the rich dark leaves of the cottonwood, tied with the national colors, filled the spaces between. A cover of manta, held firmly in place by maguey ropes, formed the ceiling of this unique ball-room, and numerous chandeliers illuminated the scene. When the baile opened and the gayly dressed señoritas and caballeros began the intoxicating movements of the danza, exhilarated by the excellent music, it was an enchanted bower.

The Santa Rosalians are a kind and hospitable people, but very fastidious in the observance of their social laws and obligations. On the night of the ball we went at half past eleven, but still the citizens had not arrived. The cotton-clad mozos, however, were going back and forth from the ball-room to the houses. I ascertained that the object of their stepping so cautiously to the front door, and peeping in, was to find out if any of the aristocracy had yet made their appearance. At twelve o'clock the labors of the mozo ceased, and with the rustle of silk and lace beauty and fashion entered. On the


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Agricultural College

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., a coeducational institution, chartered in 1863 and opened in 1867 by the State. The college farm is 660 acres in extent, about 175 acres of which are devoted to the campus, 75 to the experiment station, 100 to horticulture and 250 to farming. The work is experimental on the part of the students. The regular course extends over four years, but special courses are given for women desiring to study dairying, market gardening and some other subjects. Winter courses are provided for those unable to take the four years' work. The regular courses lead to the degrees B.S., M.S., M.Agr. and Ph.D. In 1918 the number of instructors was 60 and the students in attendance about 570. The library had about 45,000 volumes; the buildings and grounds were valued at $850,000 and the equipment at $450,000.


text: Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/5


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Ballot

MASSACHUSETTS BALLOT. See .


text: Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/7


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Bay

MASSACHUSETTS BAY, an arm of the Atlantic indenting the eastern shore of Massachusetts and extending from Plymouth Harbor on the south to Cape Ann on the north, a distance of 42 miles. It is triangular in shape, the north and south shores inclining toward each other until at the entrance to Boston Harbor they are about five miles apart. The depth from the base of the triangle to Boston Harbor is about 21 miles. The northern shore is rocky and irregular, the southern low and sandy. The principal inlets are: on the north coast, Gloucester and Nahant bays and Salem, Marblehead and Lynn harbors, and on the west Boston Harbor. Along the shores are a number of capes and headlands, and off the coast a number of small islands. At the entrance to Boston Harbor there are several islands, on some of which are fortifications. Cape Cod Bay on the southeast is sometimes included in Massachusetts Bay.


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/9

August 6th, 1870.

Your book on Mexico contains the observations which you made while a member of the party with which I traveled through that magnificent and interesting Country. Received and entertained there as a guest of the Republic, I have practiced in regard to Mexico, since my return to the United States, the same delicacy which I expect a friend whom I have been entertaining to practice when he has left my house. For this reason I cannot sanction either your observations or your deductions.

I am at liberty, however, to say that your details of our travels are full and accurate; your account of the resources and capacities of the country is not exaggerated; your pictures of Mexican society will be thought by the public too highly colored: I think that your error lies on the other side. The Statesmen of the country deserve all the praise you have bestowed upon them. Your style is attractive, the book is spirited, and I think it calculated to be useful.

Sincerely,

WILLIAM H. SEWARD.

San Francisco, Cal.


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/25

LORIOUSLY beautiful was that bright morning of the 30th day of September, 1869, when I reluctantly left the darkened chamber in which lay the mortal remains of a brave man, and true champion of freedom, my friend of many years, Señor Don Jose A. Godoy. the Consul of Mexico, who had fallen dead while attending the last reception of Mr. Seward on the evening previous, and bidding farewell to his stricken family, hurried on board the Pacific Mail Steamship Co's magnificent steamer Golden City, which was lying at her berth in San Francisco, with steam up, ready to bear us away to the tropics.

Blue and clear was the sky above us, calm and mirror like the surface of the broad Bay of San Francisco, soft as velvet in all their outlines, the brown, grey, and mauve-tinted mountains which surround it, when seen through the purple haze of Autumn which enveloped city and village, hill, mountain, island, fortress, and inland sea, alike in its tender and loving embrace. When I come again from beyond the snowy mountains, and the shores of another ocean, a change will have come over all the fair scene, and hill and valley,


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Bay Colony

MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. See, History.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Historical Society

MA8SACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SOCIETY. An association founded at Boston in 1791 and incorporated three years later, for the purpose of collecting and preserving early Americana and documents relative to the early history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Since 1792, 70 volumes of ‘Collections’ and 50 volumes of ‘Proceedings’ have been printed. It supports a museum of relics and a library containing 60,000 volumes and over 120 brochures, etc. Its prize collections are the Winthrop manuscripts on the early settlement of New England and the Parkman manuscripts dealing with French Canada.


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/15

...49

...69


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/16

12 94

116

155


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/17

Rh

180

211

220


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/18

14

238

251


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/19

Rh View from the Verandah of Chapultepec—Molina del Rey, Contreras and Churubusco—The Alameda of Mexico, 274

294

308

341


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/20

16

364

391

405


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/21

Rh 440

452

473


text:
Page:Our Sister Republic - Mexico.djvu/22

18 508

520


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Institute of Technology, The

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, The, was founded in 1865, at the close of the Civil War, when the need was beginning to be felt for schools which should train men to deal with the new industrial problems. It was the plan of President Rogers, and of his coworkers, to establish a school which should give a thoroughly practical training in the application of scientific

to practice in the arts, but not primarily training in mere technics, in the narrow sense. Accordingly they planned that each of its courses should embrace enough general studies to impart the elements, at least, of a liberal education; and, above all, they laid down that the most truly practical training, even in an industrial sense, must be grounded in a thorough knowledge of scientific laws.

Founded on these principles, the Institute of Technology began a career of steady development. To-day it is the largest school of its class in the United States, the widest in scope of instruction and in many respects the best equipped. The total number of its students in 1916 was 1,900, the total number of instructors 300. The number of volumes in the library was 100,000. Though 60 per cent of the students come from Massachusetts, among the remainder are found residents of 46 States of the Union, and of 28 foreign countries. In all 48 classes have graduated, aggregating over 6,000 persons. Except in seasons of financial depression, the demand for these graduates is always in excess of the supply.

The undergraduate studies of the school are divided into 15 distinct courses, each of four years' duration, and leading to the degree of bachelor of science. These courses are as follows: Civil engineering, mechanical engineering, mining engineering and metallurgy, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, sanitary engineering, naval architecture and marine engineering, engineering administration, chemistry, electrochemistry, biology and public health, physics, geology, general science and architecture. Between the departments which maintain these several courses there is the closest connection and mutual support. Consequently the instruction is specialized to a degree which would be impossible in a smaller college, with a less numerous staff of instructors. Again, the instructors, though connected in a special sense with one department, are giving instruction, it may be, to students from many others. This mutual helpfulness of the departments is seen first in the fundamental subjects, such as chemistry in the first year and physics in the second, which are given to several courses or to all. It is seen again in the large number of optional lines of work offered. Within most of the regular courses the student is allowed considerable latitude of choice, in the later years of his study, and many thus select that group of studies which is best adapted to the particular branch of his profession for which he is preparing.

For 50 years from its establishment the institute occupied buildings on or near Boylston street in Boston. From the first structure built by President Rogers the number increased to nine, eight of which were devoted to technical instruction. The most interesting aspect of the equipment were the extensive laboratories. Many of them when first instituted represented an attempt to apply the laboratory method in a way up to that time unknown in the history of scientific instruction in this country. The laboratories of physics and of chemistry were the first to offer laboratory instruction in these subjects to students in large classes; and the mining and metallurgical laboratories, the steam laboratory and the laboratory for testing the strength of materials also represent a marked

advance over previous methods, either in the subjects taught or in the scale on which the work is done.

Lack of space in which to expand in the congested business and residential section which grew up around it forced the Institute to seek a location adequate to its needs for constantly growing activities. It purchased in 1912 a plot of 50 acres in Cambridge, on the bank of the Charles River Basin facing Boston, and on 14 June 1916 the new Technology was dedicated. Ten acres are devoted to the educational buildings with an available floor space of 730,000 square feet. This easily doubles the area of the old buildings and still leaves room for growth to twice the present size.

The laboratories which were so excellent have been rearranged with greater space and some of them are the most remarkable in the country.

The boiler plant is itself a laboratory, with a capacity of 2,000 horse power, the boilers being of standard type with newest appliances. They are especially adapted to experiment. This powerhouse will care for the heating, lighting and motor force of the great buildings and is built on the lines of a big central station.

Steam is conveyed from the boilers to the steam laboratory in mechanical engineering through a subway seven feet square in section and the supply is carried in 20 and 10-inch pipes. The electrical equipment at the boilers includes three turbines directly connected to generators of 750 kilowatts, 500 kilowatts and 150 kilowatts, respectively, furnishing three phase current at 2,300 volts. In addition there are one 150-kilowatt turbine, two 150-kilowatt motor-generators furnishing direct current at 110 and 220 volts and two 35-kilowatt exciters.

The steam laboratory equipment includes a Curtis turbine of about 75 kilowatts capacity, a 38 horse-power Corliss with dynamometer, a 225 horse-power McEwan tandem compound, a compound and generator of the same make of 250 horse power, and a triple expansion Corliss, especially adapted for experimental purposes.

In the same laboratory there is a Brown engine driving a three-stage compressor which will work up to 2,500 pounds per square inch. There are other compressors and a great many small engines and models of different types.

The hydraulic laboratory is fitted with 700 feet of canals, some of them 40 feet cross section, with reservoirs, weirs, tanks and all kinds of measuring devices. Two pump wells 26 feet deep will serve for the testing of large pumps on a commercial scale. A pump of the capacity of 22,000 gallons a minute lifts water to the second floor above which is discharged through a canal of 25 feet cross section into a penstock for the testing of water wheels. Natural heads up to 35 feet and artificial heads of some hundreds of feet may here be used. The battery of pumps includes a Douglass triplex, a Gould triplex and a Davis triplex, a 150 horse-power turbine with direct connected centrifugal pump, a 100 horse-power Terry turbine, a three-phase Jeansville pump, two duplex pumps each of the capacity of an ordinary steam fire engine, and the great pump which is

driven by an angle compound engine of 325 horse power.

The chemical laboratory is fitted with a central storage for rarer substances, special elevators for quick service within the department, electrical heating devices for the various processes and three systems of ventilation, the regular house system, the hood and a mushroom ventilator applied to every table. The laboratory has its electrical supply independent of the lighting or power systems of the buildings.

The aerodynamical laboratory is equipped with a four-foot blowing tunnel and an aerodynamical balance, a replica of that at Teddington, England. The electrical laboratory is somewhat better than the old Lowell laboratory, but the improvement has been of necessity in details and convenience.

The transmission laboratory is of unusual excellence. The equipment includes a 2,500 nautical mile, artificial cable, corresponding to a regular ocean cable; a 2,500-mile long-distance artificial aerial line corresponding to a long-distance trans-continental telephone line, two artificial power transmission lines of 800 miles and an artificial telephone subterranean line of 35 miles. Besides these items there is a span of power transmission, 150,000-volt capacity. For experiments with this a special laboratory has been built at the foot of one of the towers.

These are some of the new special equipments, but the other laboratories, notably those for testing materials, for industrial chemistry, for biology, etc., find themselves newly placed in improved surroundings with increased facilities and apparatus. The sewage laboratory, being located near one of the great outlets of the principal drainage of the metropolis, will not be moved.

With this unusual laboratory equipment, it has been possible for the Institute to do much of its experimental work on a scale approaching that of industrial operations. The laboratories of mining and metallurgy, for instance, are designed to treat ores in quantities approximating those used in actual practice, and ranging from 500 pounds to 3 tons, and the contributions to the literature of ore-dressing and metallurgy from this laboratory are well known. In the laboratory for testing the strength of materials, again, were conducted the first systematic and extended tests of beams of commercial size.

Throughout all the work of the Institute the aim of instruction is so to adjust the theoretical and experimental work that the acquirement of principles in the classroom shall prepare the student for his laboratory exercises, and that these in turn shall fix methods and results in his memory, and give him capacity for new experimentation. Throughout it is intended to guide the student rather than to instruct him, and, whether in the four-year courses above described or in the graduate courses with which these may be supplemented, he is trained to work with less and less dependence upon his teachers. This training should result in a considerable increase in his powers of ascertaining facts and overcoming difficulties, and so should increase his capacity for research.


text: Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French I).djvu/5


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Massachusetts Medical Society

MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SOCIETY, an association incorporated at Boston,

Mass., 1 Nov. 1781, and holding regular sessions from that date to the present. Its charter was signed by John Hancock, first State governor of Massachusetts. Physicians and surgeons, who have made their medical studies in colleges approved by the society and who have been examined by its censors and are of known probity, are eligible to membership. Women were first admitted in 1884. Since 1790 it has regularly issued its ‘Medical Communications.’ It also issues a ‘Pharmacopœia’ and ‘Publications,’ various reports and essays, an annual directory, and, since 1789, a triennial catalogue. The society is a potent force in maintaining a high standard in the medical profession. It has about 3,500 members.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Masters, Edgar Lee

MASTERS, Edgar Lee, American lawyer and writer: b. Garnett, Kan., 23 Aug. 1868. He studied at Knox College, Illinois, and was admitted to the bar in 1891. His publications include ‘A Book of Verses’ (1898); ‘Maximilian,’ a drama in blank verse (1902); ‘The New Star Chamber and Other Essays’ (1904); ‘Blood of the Prophets’ (1905); ‘Althea,’ a play (1907); ‘The Trifler,’ a play (1908); ‘The Spoon River Anthology’ (1915); ‘The Great Valley’ (1916). Mr. Masters writes his poems both in vers libre and in rhymed verse. His ‘Spoon River Anthology’ is the best known of his works. It is a unique collection of truthful epitaphs on the inhabitants of a middle Western village. It is marked by a biting vigorous satirical style, and is pervaded by a materialism

that shocks and surprises. Despite its obvious limitations, its naive force has won many readers and much favorable comment. Consult Lowell, Amy, ‘Tendencies in Modern American Poetry’ (New York 1917).


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/201

 of it was embodied in Jourdain de Blaives (13th cent.), and it also appears in Italian and medieval Greek. See A. H. Smyth, Shakespeare’s Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar Klebs, Die Erzählung von A. aus Tyrus (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer, Apollonius von Tyrus (Halle, 1895).

APOLLOS ( ; contracted from Apollonius), an Alexandrine Jew who after Paul’s first visit to Corinth worked there in a similar way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names, though the “division” can hardly have been due to conflicting doctrines. (See .) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we learn that he spoke and taught with power and success. He may have captivated his hearers by teaching “wisdom,” as P. W. Schmiedel suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts xviii. 25 a b and Acts xviii. 25 c, 26 b c; and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and “taught exactly,” he could hardly have been acquainted only with John’s baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many scholars since have shared his view.

Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law; and that the schism having been healed by Paul’s letter to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.

See the articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie; The Jewish Encyclopaedia; Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible; and cf. Weizsäcker, Das apostolische Zeitalter; A. C. McGiffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age.

APOLLYON, the “foul fiend” who assaulted Christian on his pilgrimage through the Valley of Humiliation in John Bunyan’s great allegory. The name (Gr.  ), which means “destroyer” (, to destroy), is taken from Rev. ix. 11, where it represents the Hebrew word Abaddon (lit. “place of destruction,” but here personified). The identification with the (q.v.) of Tobit iii. 8 is erroneous. APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a supernatural revelation and a divine redemption (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3). The majority of apologists in the past have further believed in an infallible Bible; but they admit this position can only be reached at a late stage in the argument. We should note, however, that even a liberal orthodoxy, while saying nothing about infallibility, is pledged to the essential authority of the Bible; it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament with F. E. D. Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a central position to Church authority, which Roman Catholics explicitly define as infallible; but this position too is debated in a late section of their system. On the other hand, there may be a Christianity which seeks to extricate the “spiritual” from the “supernatural” (Arnold Toynbee, characterizing T. H. Green). It would only lead to confusion, however, if we called this method “apologetic.” Any single effort in apologetics may be termed “an apology.” More elaborate contrasts have been proposed between the two words, but are of little practical importance.

I. The Word itself.—In Greek,  is the defendant’s reply (personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the prosecution—. Sometimes defendants’ speeches passed into literature, e.g. Plato’s splendid version of the Apology of Socrates. Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church naturally produced literary “Apologies,” The word has never quite lost this connotation of standing on the defensive and rebutting criticism; e.g. Anselm’s Apologia contra insipientem Gaunilonem (c. 1100); or the Lutheran Apology for the Augsburg Confession (1531); or J. H. Newman’s Apologia pro vita sua (1864); or A. B. Bruce’s Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively Stated (1892). Of course, defence easily passes into counterattack, as when early apologists denounce Greek and Roman religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And there is perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics to the defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a prophet does not argue; he declares what he feels to be God’s will. For himself, he rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate vision of truth; but he differs from most mystics in having a message for others; and—again unlike most mystics—he addresses the hearer’s conscience, which we might call (in one sense) the mystic element in every man—or better, perhaps, the prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet’s message be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics is literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive and pretend to throw the onus probandi upon objectors. But, if not, then apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only “a science” in so far as it presents a conscious and systematic plea. Bruce’s title, and his programme of “succouring distressed faith,” imply the latter alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity, primary and essential; its confirmation by argument, secondary. The view has its difficulties; but it is hignly suggestive.

The word  is used by Origen (Contra Cel. ii. 65, v. 19) of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the adjective “apologetic” and of the substantive “apologetics” is recent. They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural Theology or Theism, (2) Christian Evidence—chiefly “miracles” and “prophecy”; or, on a more modern view, chiefly the character and personality of Christ. The lower usage of Apology (as expression of regret for a fault) has tipped many a sarcasm besides George III.’s on the occasion of Bishop Watson’s book, “I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!”

II. Apologetics in the Bible.—The Old Testament does not argue in support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of the Wisdom literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf. T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon; A. S. Peake, Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament, 1904). The New Testament reflects chiefly controversy with Jews. Great emphasis is laid upon alleged fulfilments—striking or fanciful, but very generally striking to that age—of Old Testament prophecy (Matt. especially; rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character, but attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &c., &c.). On the other hand, Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural theology; so the New Testament tends to take its theism for granted. However, Rom. i. 20 has had great influence on Christian theology (e.g. Thomas Aquinas) in leading it to base theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic contention, aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of Acts. Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith. So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often admitted (xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).

III. Early Christian.—When we leave the New Testament, apologetics becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of Christianity, and even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no longer Jewish but fully Greek. True there are, as always, Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr writes a Dialogue with Trypho; Origen deals with many anti-Christian arguments borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece was the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture. And so Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily philosophized. One result was to bring natural theology into the forefront. A pure morality, belief in one God, hopes extending beyond death—these appealed to the age; the Church taught them as philosophically true and divinely revealed. But, further still, philosophy offered a vehicle which could be applied to the contents of Christianity. The Platonic or eclectic theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos, made a place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead. (John i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or quite solitary in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the soul may be maintained on Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as by St Athanasius (Contra Gentes, § 33)—a writer who repeatedly quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in which Platonism and the Old Testament had already joined partnership. This

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/201


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollonius of Tyre


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollos

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apollos


text:
Page:Public General Statutes 1896.djvu/37

1896.

 * 7 Anne, c. 14.
 * An Act for the better Preservation of Parochial Libraries in that Part of Great Britain called England.
 * 7 Anne, c. 18.
 * An Act to preserve the Rights of Patrons to Advowsons.
 * 7 Anne, c. 20.
 * An Act for the Public registering of Deeds Conveyances and Wills and other Incumbrances which shall be made of or that may affect any Honors Manors Lands Tenements or Hereditaments within the County of Middlesex after the Twenty-ninth day of September One thousand seven hundred and nine.
 * 7 Anne, c. 21.
 * An Act for improving the Union of the Two Kingdoms.
 * 7 Anne, c. 30.
 * An Act for enlarging the Capital Stock of the Bank of England.
 * 7 Anne, c. 33.
 * An Act for rendring more effectual the Law concerning Commissions of Sewers.
 * 8 Anne, c. 1.
 * An Act for granting an Aid to Her Majesty to be raised by a Land Tax in Great Britain for the Service of the Year One thousand seven hundred and ten.
 * 8 Anne, c. 16.
 * An Act for discharging the Attendance of Noblemen, Barons, and Freeholders upon the Lords of Justiciary in their Circuits in that Part of Great Britain called Scotland, and for abolishing the Method of exhibiting criminal Informations by the Porteous Roll.
 * 8 Anne, c. 18.
 * An Act for the better Security of Rents, and to prevent Frauds committed by Tenants.
 * 9 Anne, c. 6.
 * An Act . . . for suppressing such unlawful Lotteries . . . as are therein mentioned.
 * 9 Anne, c. 11.
 * An Act for establishing a General Post Office for all Her Majesties Dominions, and for settling a weekly Sum out of the Revenues thereof for the Service of the War and other Her Majesties Occasions.
 * }
 * An Act for rendring more effectual the Law concerning Commissions of Sewers.
 * 8 Anne, c. 1.
 * An Act for granting an Aid to Her Majesty to be raised by a Land Tax in Great Britain for the Service of the Year One thousand seven hundred and ten.
 * 8 Anne, c. 16.
 * An Act for discharging the Attendance of Noblemen, Barons, and Freeholders upon the Lords of Justiciary in their Circuits in that Part of Great Britain called Scotland, and for abolishing the Method of exhibiting criminal Informations by the Porteous Roll.
 * 8 Anne, c. 18.
 * An Act for the better Security of Rents, and to prevent Frauds committed by Tenants.
 * 9 Anne, c. 6.
 * An Act . . . for suppressing such unlawful Lotteries . . . as are therein mentioned.
 * 9 Anne, c. 11.
 * An Act for establishing a General Post Office for all Her Majesties Dominions, and for settling a weekly Sum out of the Revenues thereof for the Service of the War and other Her Majesties Occasions.
 * }
 * An Act for the better Security of Rents, and to prevent Frauds committed by Tenants.
 * 9 Anne, c. 6.
 * An Act . . . for suppressing such unlawful Lotteries . . . as are therein mentioned.
 * 9 Anne, c. 11.
 * An Act for establishing a General Post Office for all Her Majesties Dominions, and for settling a weekly Sum out of the Revenues thereof for the Service of the War and other Her Majesties Occasions.
 * }
 * 9 Anne, c. 11.
 * An Act for establishing a General Post Office for all Her Majesties Dominions, and for settling a weekly Sum out of the Revenues thereof for the Service of the War and other Her Majesties Occasions.
 * }
 * }
 * }


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/100

Rh district. I had already heard of the widow of a baker of St. Mathieu, whose dough had been kneaded by the archangel Gabriel; and of Lotsen of Batz, to whom the Saviour Himself had taught certain words which had the power of guiding a ship safely over the most perilous seas, and had never yet seen one of these distinguished individuals. Here, however, was a maiden who was evidently fully persuaded that she stood in a peculiar relation to the Queen of Heaven. No one who saw her could doubt the genuineness of such belief on her part; nay, this story alone gave the key to her peculiar bearing—at once lively and dignified, modest, retiring, mysterious, and yet firm, self-possessed, and even daring as it was. Moreover—as Guiller confessed cordially enough, when he found that his light talk found no response in me—though Dinorah was certainly rather too proud of her exalted sponsor, she did her credit by being the most pious, most honorable, and, in short, the best girl in all the country far and near; and if all saints were like her, added he, he would himself think seriously about being converted and trying to get to heaven.

Meanwhile, we had reached one of those cottages standing close by the shore, where the so-called Gabariers were wont to live, that they might collect tang, fine sand, and other productions or refuse of the sea, which they sold to potash and glass manufacturers, in order to eke


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/101

96 out by these small earnings the fishing which was their special vocation. But this cottage of which I speak was in far better order than the generality. It was built of granite blocks, pretty regularly arranged, and roofed with large slates. Its situation was sheltered, standing as it did at the opening of a little hollow in the steep banks which rose from behind it, leaving room for a little bit of garden, where herbs and a few flowers, protected by a green hedge, seemed to flourish very well. A deep curve of the shore reached to a few steps of the cottage door. The little waves, sparkling in the evening sun, lifted in their play a neat boat on to the snow-white sand of the beach, which was diversified here and there by gay shells. Nets were hanging up to dry upon a neighboring rock.

Guiller observed to me:

"That's the home of Dinorah's father, old Salaun. And there lies the old man himself," continued he, laughing, as he pointed out a man asleep in the shadow of a rock, "and repeats the paternoster of St. Do-nothing. These people live as they used to do in Paradise. The sea brings them all they want while they sleep, and they have only got to stretch their hand out to take it in. No doubt he is dreaming at this moment of the great lobster with pearl eyes, and of the bank with silver anchovies; and he is ready to sell his soul to Satan if he will but get him a


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/102

Rh net made of sand, with which to fish out all these marvels from the depths of the Bay of Douarnenez. I will waken him just in time to prevent the bargain being struck."

He did this in rather a summary manner; and after a few jokes, both men began to unlade the sacks of flour which the miller had brought. During this process I engaged the Gabarier to take me in his boat, at the next ebb of the tide, to the cave of Morgate, which was opposite, at the very extremity of the southern point. To while away the short intervening time, I ascended the banks behind the cottage, and delighted myself with the glorious scene presented by the bay: its rocky shores, the wide sea beyond, the promontories and fissures far and near, the hundred sails of small and large vessels traversing the blue expanse in every direction; and all this brightly lighted up by the sun, which already neared the misty horizon.

I was roused out of the dreamy condition into which the scene had plunged me by the noise that the fisherman and miller made in shutting the cottage-door after they had finished their task. I had begun to descend, but involuntarily stood still as I saw Dinorah come out of the cottage. She had placed her distaff on her hip, and as she went along she whirled the spindle with great speed and accuracy. In the other hand, she held up her apron, in which she seemed


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/103

98 to be carrying something or other. She came up the cliff near to where I was standing, behind a projection of rock, and then stood still, a few steps below me. She looked round on every side, raised her hand to the four points of the compass successively, while she pronounced two or three words which I did not understand. She was instantly answered by a loud chirping from the low bushes around, and from every side different kinds of birds—bulfinches, robin-redbreasts, hedge-sparrows, titmice, and many more—flew down to pick up the food she had brought them in her apron, and which she now carefully and lovingly distributed in little handfuls, while, in an undertone, she sang to herself in a strange sort of way.

It was a lovely picture, seen thus in the red glow of evening; and the pure outline of her face, with its rich waves of golden hair around, would certainly have afforded to a painter a most admirable study for the head of a saint.

At length I approached, but she beckoned me away, without, however, evincing the least surprise or embarrassment.

"If monsieur comes nearer, all my little birdies will fly away, and they are not half satisfied," said she in a whisper, that her protégés might not be disturbed by the sound of a strange language.

However, at that moment both the men came noisily out of the cottage, and the little birds


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/104

Rh on every side, with a loud twittering, expressive of their alarm and displeasure.

So Dinorah, after having called out a few quieting and sympathizing words after them, found herself obliged to speak to me. In answer to my question, by what means she had contrived thus to tame such shy little creatures, she looked at me in astonishment, and said:

"Why, by the same that attracts all God's creatures—by love; by showing them that one is fond of them. In winter, when they cannot find food for themselves, I strew it for them before our door, and in summer they know me again."

As she spoke, we reached the cottage, and the miller could not refrain from teasing her a little more.

"The little saint has again given alms to the beggars of the air. No doubt she expects to find one or other amongst them who will bring her tidings from her high and holy godmother."

Dinorah went into the house, silent, and evidently offended; but old Salaun said gravely:

"And why not, pray? If our fathers have not deceived us, there are birds who know the way to the upper sea, and can, no doubt, carry a message to the blest in Paradise."

"Well, all I know," replied the miller, "is that it is just the contrary with my horse and me. We have to find our way to one who comes much


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/105

100 nearer to the lost in hell. Or has the devil at last hunted down his prey—Judock Shipwreck of the Ravens' Cliff?"

Salaun, it was plain, wished to avoid giving an answer, and went accordingly towards the boat, remarking that it was high time to think of our expedition. But the name of Judock happened to recall to my mind, though indistinctly, certain criminal prosecutions in which I had been engaged. And upon inquiry the miller convinced me that it was indeed this very man who had been brought before the Court at Brest several years before, charged with heavy crimes, but who had been acquitted, contrary to the general expectation, owing to some deficiency in the evidence.

"If I only knew," added the miller, "whether the old villain were at home, that he might himself receive his flour from me, and make no more ado about it, I would rather" here he interrupted himself. "But here comes his boy—Bauzec the Black—and he can give us the surest information if he but choose to do so."

The new-comer was a young lad in the very poorest dress of the district. His thick, unkempt, rough, coal-black hair fell like a mane over his shoulders. In his right hand he held a long cudgel, which, with strength and agility, he swung round in circles; while his left hand clutched with fierce grasp the sack which he carried on


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/106

Rh his shoulders. His features, as well as his expression, wore no trace of the old Armorican type, had about them nothing of its sad, severe earnestness and indomitable fidelity. There was evidently the wild, cunning, gypsy character about the dark, contracted features, and the bright, deeply cut eyes. In short, there was something in his whole appearance that awakened dislike as well as fear.

When he saw that he was observed, he stopped for an instant in his rapid walk, and seemed doubtful as to whether or not he would turn back. But just at that moment Dinorah happened to come to the door, busied with her spindle, and looking down.

As soon as he saw her, he came on again, but so slowly, that the miller more than once called upon him to make haste, adding, that in general he was light-footed enough, otherwise there would have been an end of his light feet long ago, and he would have had a couple of pounds of iron hung upon them. When the lad had come within a few steps of us, he stood still again, and cast furtive glances—differing, however, wonderfully in expression—first at us, and then at Dinorah. The miller then asked him if Judock was at home. He made no answer till Dinorah repeated the question, when he slowly said:

"He only can know that who comes from the Ravens' Cliff."


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/107

102 "And thou, lad, comest as usual," said the fisherman, advancing towards us from his boat, "only from some place or other thou shouldest not come from, and which no one asks thee about."

"Where should he come from, indeed, but from some poaching expedition?" suggested the miller. "Let us see what your booty is to-day—fruit or roots, fish or flesh!"

And so saying, he was going to snatch at the sack, but the youth looked at him in such a way, and made such an expressive motion with the cudgel, that the miller, strong as he was, drew back, with an exclamation that called forth the interposition of Dinorah.

"Bauzec comes from the downs," she calmly said; "I saw him wandering about there an hour or so ago."

"He has been hunting with the gentry. I have met him out with them before now," exclaimed Guiller spitefully.

"And why not?" replied the youth, in a tone of defiance. "Here is my gun, which never fails, and here is my sporting dog, which never loses scent of the game," added he triumphantly, as he swung round his cudgel, and opened his sack a little, out of which peeped a little white, hairy head, with small, red eyes, and a pointed and blood-stained little nose.

"A ferret!" exclaimed Salaun; "no wonder,


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/108

Rh then, that the gentry complain that they can hardly get a roasted rabbit out of all their rabbit warrens."

Bauzec grinned with delight at this acknowledgment of his heroic deeds. He fumbled in his bag, and brought out four fine rabbits, on whose white breasts the little track of blood showed where the ferret had sucked their veins. That little creature evinced a strong fellow-feeling with his master, looking complacently upon its victims, and licking its lips and whiskers with its small red tongue.

To the miller's question as to whether he was willing to sell them, Bauzec replied:

"Not here; I shall get a better price for them at the tavern in Crozon, as well as a glass of firewater into the bargain."

So saying, he replaced his booty in the bag, lingered for a moment or two as if in indecision, and then prepared, to leave without any further salutation. But he suddenly recollected himself, drew one of the rabbits out of the bag again, and threw it at Dinorah's feet, with the bold yet shy manner of a rough youth who would willingly be gallant but does not know how.

"It is the finest of them," muttered he; "the little saint may keep it if she will."

Dinorah looked at him gravely, almost severely. But her father pushed away the present with his foot, and said rudely: "Take thy game along


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/109

104 with thee, lad; we only receive presents from Christian people."

Bauzec shrank back, and for a moment appeared discomfited; but he soon regained his savage air of defiance. He uttered a sort of hissing sound, which might pass for a laugh of contempt, took up his bag again, and with a few strides vanished behind a projection of the rocks.

The miller, meanwhile, had picked up the rabbit, and said that his conscience was not so tender; and that, if they despised the dainty roast it would make, it would do nicely for him.

He then prepared to join Bauzec, as he had to go to the Ravens' Cliff. I resolved to accompany him; for I was curious to make the personal acquaintance of this Judock, whose innocence as to the charges already referred to had always appeared to me something more than doubtful, while their nature had left on my mind a picture of a remarkable and original villain. The fisherman promised, though evidently with some reluctance, to bring the boat round for me to Ravens' Cliff at the proper time. I took a short farewell of Dinorah, but found her far more silent and reserved than she had been at first, and went on my way, accompanied by the miller.

"You will find Judock an odd sort of saint," said my companion, in his obtrusive way; "or


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/110

Rh rather, I should say, no saint at all, but a regular limb of Satan, with whose sins and crimes one could fill up the whole way between Camaret and Crozon. For twenty years he lit false lights from Loquirnk to Trevignon, and has had more to do with shipwrecks upon this coast than the southwest wind itself."

I asked whether this creditable occupation enriched its pursuer.

"One cannot exactly tell," rejoined Guiller; "he lives in his den yonder as poor as a Klasker-bara—a bread-seeker, as we call beggars about here. But the question is, whether his miserliness be not greater than all his other vices. Many believe that he has tons of buried gold. And besides, he gains something every now and then as a flayer and rope-maker; and on that account, too, the people look askance at him as anything but a Christian, and aver that he is a Kakous."

After an hour's good walk, as we followed a bend of the down, we came in sight of Judock's hut. It was built into a small and narrow fissure in the rocks, and stood close to the shore. The natural walls thus afforded, the moss-grown flagstones that formed its roof, and whose broad crevices were stuffed up with sea-tang, held together by strong fir-branches, rendered it difficult to distinguish the dwelling from the rocks around, and the sea-produce strewn upon them.


text:
Page:Stories by Foreign Authors (French II).djvu/111

106 Everything was barren, rude, and inhospitable-looking. Some pointed piles of bones lay about, and the projecting roof of the gable had two or three horses' skulls nailed to it, a decoration worthy of the whole.

Judock sat at his door, busied with some old cordage, which he was pulling to pieces. He was a little, thin, shrivelled old man, with a large bald head. The prevailing hue of his face was almost brick-colored, but in the countless wrinkles the skin was lighter; and as these wrinkles widened more or less at every change of feature, or when he spoke, they gave him a strange repulsive appearance, and made a varying and confusing impression upon the beholder. His restless, piercing glance, his beak-like nose, his low forehead, his toothless mouth, his under jaw in constant motion,—all completed a picture which only answered too well to the opinion that I had already formed of him.

As soon as he saw me he started, and furtively watched all my movements with visible unrest and suspicion. But he pretended not to observe me.

"Now then, old sinner," said Guiller to him at last, "canst thou not give God's blessing and the good-day to this gentleman?"

"What is the nobleman seeking for on this coast?" was the ungracious answer, spoken in an undertone.


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/202

 phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted. The earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the soul; Athanasius himself, in De Incarnatione Dei, §§ 4, 5, tones down the teaching of Wisdom; and the somewhat eccentric writer Arnobius, a layman—from Justin Martyr downwards apologetics has always been largely in the hands of laymen—stands for what has recently been called “conditional immortality”—eternal life for the righteous, the children of God, alone.

Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion that Greek philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying the Fathers we constantly find that groundless assertion uttered in the same breath with the dominant Idealist view, according to which Greek philosophy was due to incomplete revelation from the divine Logos.

On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of cannibalism and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to meet in secret, and the gossip of a rotten age drew malignant conclusions. They make counter attacks on polytheism as a folly and on the shamefulness of obscene myths. Here they are in line with non-Christian writers or culture-mockers like Lucian of Samosata; or graver spirits like Porphyry, who champions Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and does pioneer work in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament books. Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The Old Testament was an immense religious asset to the early church. Their enemies had nothing like it; and—the N.T. canon being as yet but half formed—the Old Testament was pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect “argument,” which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles is also urged, though with more reserve. Formally, every one in that age admitted the supernatural. The question was, whose supernatural? And how far did it carry you? Miracle could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to W. Paley—a conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras (“elegant”), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in Latin by Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and phrase-coiner like T. Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, &c., &c.

As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it. The age is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire! Besides notices elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt with by St Augustine and his friends. Paulus Orosius argues that the world has always been a vale of tears. Salvian contends that not the acceptance of Christianity, but the sins of the people are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly evidence of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all was Augustine’s own contribution in The City of God. Powers created by worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well may; “the city of God remaineth!” Whether he meant it so or not, the saint’s argument became a programme and an apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church under the leadership of Rome during the middle ages.

IV. Middle Ages.—From the point of view of apologetics, we may mass together the long stretch of history which covers the period between the disappearance and the re-appearance of free discussion. When emperors became converts, the church, so lately a victim and a pleader for liberty, readily learned to persecute. Under such conditions there is little scope for apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt below the smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the christianized empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly unconvinced, and, as often, fond of slanders. Many of the principal medieval attempts in apologetics are directed chiefly against him, e.g. the Pugio Fidei of Raymond Martini (c. 1280), which became one of Pascal’s sources (see V. below), or Peter Abelard’s Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et Christianum. And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian, texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism than the Christians were, caught fire more rapidly, and in some cases served as an intermediate link or channel of communication. These two religions anticipated the discussion of the problem of faith and reason in the Christian church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides, faith and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see ). According to Ghazali, in his Destruction of Philosophers, the various schools of philosophy cancel each other; reason is bankrupt; faith is everything. (So nearly Jehuda Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason suffices, and faith, with (what he considers) its dreams of immortality and the like, is useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian theology, however, strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic faiths; Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in teaching a trinity of divine persons, and Platonism of a certain order long dominated the middle ages as part of the Augustinian tradition. In sympathy with this Platonism, the medieval church began by assuming the entire mutual harmony of faith and reason. Such is the teaching, along different lines, alike of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge of Aristotle’s texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory of a supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, Albertus Magnus, and his still more distinguished pupil Thomas Aquinas, mark certain doctrines as belonging to faith but not to reason. They adhere to the general position with exceptions (in the case of what had been considered Platonic doctrines). From the point of view of philosophy, this was a compromise. Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge. The tendency of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the doctrines with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas’s great rival, Duns Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming “two truths.” The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the Averroists, becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, William of Occam and his disciples, who withdraw all doctrines of faith from the sphere of reason. This was a second and a more audacious compromise. It is not exactly an attempt to base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is a consistent policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or vice versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church of Rome (at least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more and more returned. The councils of Trent and of the Vatican mark the Two Truths hypothesis as heretical, when they affirm that there is a natural knowledge of God and natural certainty of immortality. Along with this affirmation, the Church of Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of the Thomist theory by the condemnation of “Ontologism”; certain mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious compromise sanctioned by the Church does not represent the extremest reaction against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic epoch we have Raymond of Sabunde’s Natural Theology (according to the article in Herzog-Hauck, not the title of the oldest Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and almost all the printed editions) or Liber Creaturarum (c. 1435). The book is not what moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation developments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate all scholastic dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles of natural reason. At many points it follows Anselm closely, and, of course, very often “makes light work” of its task.

The Thomist compromise—or even the more sceptical view of “two truths”—has the merit of giving filling of a kind to the formula “supernatural revelation”—mysteries inaccessible to reason, beyond discovery and beyond comprehension. According to earlier views—repeatedly revived in Protestantism—revelation is just philosophy over again. Can the choice be

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/202