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Rh slowly to shave, feeling sick at heart. He was a long time over his toilet. When he stripped himself for the bath, it seemed to him he could smell the sea. He bent his head and licked his shoulder. It tasted decidedly salt.

“A pity to wash it off,” he said.

As he got up dripping from the cold bath, he felt for the moment exhilarated. He rubbed himself smooth. Glancing down at himself, he thought: “I look young. I look as young as twenty-six,”

He turned to the mirror. There he saw himself a mature, complete man of forty, with grave years of experience on his countenance.

“I used to think that, when I was forty,” he said to himself, “I should find everything straight as the nose on my face, walking through my affairs as easily as you like. Now I am no more sure of myself, have no more confidence than a boy of twenty. What can I do? It seems to me a man needs a mother all his life. I don’t feel much like a lord of creation.”

Having arrived at this cynicism, Siegmund prepared to go downstairs. His sensitiveness had passed off; his nerves had become callous. When he was dressed he went down to the kitchen without hesitation. He was indifferent to his wife and children. No one spoke to him as he sat to the table. That was as he liked it; he wished for nothing to touch him. He ate his breakfast alone, while his wife bustled about upstairs and Vera bustled about in the dining-room. Then he retired to the solitude of the drawing-room. As a reaction against his poetic activity, he felt as if he were gradually becoming more stupid and blind. He remarked nothing, not even the extravagant bowl of


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212 grasses placed where he would not have allowed it—on his piano; nor his fiddle, laid cruelly on the cold, polished floor near the window. He merely sat down in an armchair, and felt sick.

All his unnatural excitement, all the poetic stimulation of the past few days, had vanished. He sat flaccid, while his life struggled slowly through him. After an intoxication of passion and love, and beauty, and of sunshine, he was prostrate. Like a plant that blossoms gorgeously and madly, he had wasted the tissue of his strength, so that now his life struggled in a clogged and broken channel.

Siegmund sat with his head between his hands, leaning upon the table. He would have been stupidly quiescent in his feeling of loathing and sickness had not an intense irritability in all his nerves tormented him into consciousness.

“I suppose this is the result of the sun—a sort of sunstroke,” he said, realizing an intolerable stiffness of his brain, a stunned condition in his head.

“This is hideous!” he said. His arms were quivering with intense irritation. He exerted all his will to stop them, and then the hot irritability commenced in his belly. Siegmund fidgeted in his chair without changing his position. He had not the energy to get up and move about. He fidgeted like an insect pinned down.

The door opened. He felt violently startled; yet there was no movement perceptible. Vera entered, ostensibly for an autograph album into which she was going to copy a drawing from the London Opinion, really to see what her father was doing. He did not move a muscle. He only longed intensely for his

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Rh daughter to go out of the room, so that he could let go. Vera went out of the drawing-room humming to herself. Apparently she had not even glanced at her father. In reality, she had observed him closely.

“He is sitting with his head in his hands,” she said to her mother.

Beatrice replied: “I’m glad he’s nothing else to do.”

“I should think he’s pitying himself,” said Vera.

“He’s a good one at it,” answered Beatrice.

Gwen came forward and took hold of her mother’s skirt, looking up anxiously.

“What is he doing, mam?” she asked.

“Nothing,” replied her mother—“nothing; only sitting in the drawing-room.”

“But what has he been doing?” persisted the anxious child.

“Nothing—nothing that I can tell you. He’s only spoilt all our lives.”

The little girl stood regarding her mother in the greatest distress and perplexity.

“But what will he do, mam?” she asked.

“Nothing. Don’t bother. Run and play with Marjory now. Do you want a nice plum?”

She took a yellow plum from the table. Gwen accepted it without a word. She was too much perplexed.

“What do you say?” asked her mother.

“Thank you,” replied the child, turning away.

Siegmund sighed with relief when he was again left alone. He twisted in his chair, and sighed again, trying to drive out the intolerable clawing irritability from his belly.

“Ah, this is horrible!” he said.


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214 He stiffened his muscles to quieten them.

“I’ve never been like this before. What is the matter?” he asked himself.

But the question died out immediately. It seemed useless and sickening to try and answer it. He began to cast about for an alleviation. If he could only do something, or have something he wanted, it would be better.

“What do I want?” he asked himself, and he anxiously strove to find this out.

Everything he suggested to himself made him sicken with weariness or distaste: the seaside, a foreign land, a fresh life that he had often dreamed of, farming in Canada.

“I should be just the same there,” he answered himself “Just the same sickening feeling there that I want nothing.”

“Helena!” he suggested to himself, trembling. But he only felt a deeper horror. The thought of her made him shrink convulsively.

“I can’t endure this,” he said. “If this is the case I had better be dead. To have no want, no desire—that is death, to begin with.”

He rested awhile after this. The idea of death alone seemed entertaining. Then “Is there really nothing I could turn to?” he asked himself.

To him, in that state of soul, it seemed there was not.

“Helena!” he suggested again, appealingly testing himself. “Ah, no!” he cried, drawing sharply back, as from an approaching touch upon a raw place.

He groaned slightly as he breathed, with a horrid weight of nausea. There was a fumbling upon the


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Rh door-knob. Siegmund did not start. He merely pulled himself together. Gwen pushed open the door, and stood holding on to the door-knob looking at him.

“Dad, mam says dinner’s ready,” she announced.

Siegmund did not reply. The child waited, at a loss for some moments, before she repeated, in a hesitating tone:

“Dinner’s ready.”

“All right,” said Siegmund. “Go away.”

The little girl returned to the kitchen with tears in her eyes, very crestfallen.

“What did he say?” asked Beatrice.

“He shouted at me,” replied the little one, breaking into tears.

Beatrice flushed. Tears came into her own eyes. She took the child in her arms and pressed her to her, kissing her forehead.

“Did he?” she said very tenderly. “Never mind, then, dearie—never mind.”

The tears in her mother’s voice made the child sob bitterly. Vera and Marjory sat silent at table. The steak and mashed potatoes steamed and grew cold.


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  a commissioner of the exchequer. In 1662 he went to London to justify the proceedings of the Earl of Middleton and to press for the immediate establishment of episcopacy (, p. 81); and when the synod of Fife was engaged the same year in preparing an address for an act establishing their government, he, in the king's name, dissolved the synod and commanded the ministers, under pain of treason, to retire (ib.) On the fall of Middleton in 1663 he was appointed to succeed him as lord high commissioner to the parliament which met at Edinburgh on 16 June, but Lauderdale, accompanied him, was supposed to be the person in whom the real authority was vested. In the same year he succeeded his father-in-law as lord high treasurer, was sworn a privy councillor of England, and was appointed Captain of the troop of lifeguards and general of the forces in Scotland. On the death of the Earl of Glencairn in the following year he was, on the recommendation of Archbishop Sharp, also appointed the keeper of the privy seal 'till the King should pitch on a proper person' (ib. p. 142). On 14 Oct. of this year he was nominated commissioner to a proposed national synod, which, however, never met (, Sufferings of the Church of Scotland, i. 419). In November of the following year be made a tour in the west country with great pomp, the king's guard attending him, in order to enforce the persecuting measures against the covenanters (ib. p. 428). Gradually, according to Burnet, he allowed matters to be directed by Sharp, and 'abandoned himself to pleasure' (Our Time, p. 143). He caused considerable scandal by taking his mistress. Lady Anne, sister of the Duke of Gordon, along with him in his progresses through the country. Ultimately he was through the intervention of Lauderdale, deprived on 16 April 1667 of all his offices, but in October was consoled by being made lord chancellor for life. Through the intervention of the Duke of York he was on 29 May 1680 created Duke of Rothes, Marquis of Balleobreich, Earl of Leslie, Viscount of Lugton, Lord Auchmutie and Caskiebery, limitation to the heirs male of his body. Intemperate habits—which had been confirmed by his extraordinary power of withstanding the immediate effects of liquor — had, however, completely undermined his constitution, end he died of jaundice at Holyrood House 27 July 1681. He was buried at night with great splendour in the cathedral church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, but subsequently the body was removed to Leslie, Fifeshire. The funeral pageant is the subject of an engraving. Rothes had two daughters: Margaret, married to Charles, fifth earl of Haddington, and Christian. The former became at his death countess of Rothes.

 LESLIE, JOHN, eighth (1679–1722), the eldest son of Charles (Hamilton), fifth earl of Haddington, was born in August 1679, and baptised at Tynninghame on the 31st of that month. His mother, Lady Margaret Leslie, being the elder daughter of John Leslie, duke of Rothes [q. v.], succeeded her father as Countess of Rothes, and John, her eldest son, in terms of the marriage contract of his parents made in 1674, inherited her earldom of Rothes with the surname of Leslie, the title of Haddington passing to his next brother. He was brought up at Leslie, where his parents resided after the death of the Duke of Rothes, and, assuming the surname and arms of Leslie, he succeeded on the death of his mother (20 Aug. 1700) as eighth Earl of Rothes. Thereafter, the better to effect the separation of the two earldoms of Rothes and Haddington, he made formal resignation of the latter in favour of his younger brother (, Earl of Haddington, i. 221–41, ii. 315).

Having taken the oaths and his seat in parliament, Rothes proved a steady friend the revolution interest. He was, says Macky, the court spy, 'a warm asserter of the liberties of the people and in great esteem, also of vigilant application for the service of his country' ('Memoirs, p. 229). The Jacobites thought him false to them, for they claimed that he promised them fair, but fell away at the first temptation (Lockhart Papers, i. 94). He was one of three commissioners chosen at a meeting of the Duke of Hamilton's party to proceed to the court of Queen Anne in February 1704, and to request that certain charges made against her Scottish subjects of being plotters against her government should be fully tried, and that Scottish troops should not be paid with English money (, Earls of Cromartie, i. 218). That year, on l7 Oct., he was appointed lord privy seal, with the annual pension of 1,000l. sterling, but he held the office only for a year.

Rothes zealously aided the union of 1707 (Marchmont Papers, iii. 320), and was chosen one of the sixteen representative


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Please correct Joan Penner to read Joan Fenner


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335 same, also omitting (perhaps by accident) ádāsyan. The second pāda is nearly repeated as 119. 1 b, below. The comm. renders saṁgṛṇāmi by pratijānāmi. The Daç. Kar. cites (to Kāuç. 57. 29: see the note to that rule) the three verses in full, but substitutes for 3 c, d our 53. 2 c, d, vāiçvānaro no ad-, etc.

1. As the black snake spreads himself at pleasure, making wondrous forms (vápus), by the Asura's magic (māyá), so let this arid suddenly make thy member altogether correspondent (? sáṁsamaka), limb with limb.

2. As the member of the tayādara is made big by the wind—as great as is the member of the párasvant, so great let thy member grow.

3. As much of a limb as is that of the párasvant, that of the elephant, and that of the ass—as great as of the vigorous (vājín) horse, so great let thy member grow.

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  to these ‘himnes and spiritual sonnets’ he says: ‘I intend … to divuldge very speadely in print some sweete Musicall Ayres and Tunable Accents.’ This promise was fulfilled by the appearance in 1614 of a work bearing that title, the music being described as composed ‘both for Voyces and diuers Instruments.’ This applies to the first part of the work only, which consists of ‘consort songs’ for four voices with accompaniments for a treble viol and a lute in tablature. The first eight pieces only are by Leighton. The remaining ones are by the leading English and Anglo-Italian musicians of the day. In the introduction he writes: ‘Some of the most excellent musitions this Age can afford haue in their loue to me composed … musicke’ expressly for the volume. The second and third parts of the work consist of unaccompanied part-songs for four and five voices. Leighton appears to have been still in prison at the time. The work is prefaced by some dozen short poems in praise of the author by various friends. Judging by the ‘long attendance on Majestie in the English Court,’ and the ‘many extremities and oppressions undergone in his later days,’ of which he writes in his ‘Musicall Ayres,’ Leighton must have been an elderly man in 1614, and cannot therefore be identical with the Sir William Leighton who was confined in the Tower in 1658–9 (Rawlinson MS. A. 57). Leighton had a son and two daughters by his wife Winifred, daughter of Simon Harcourt of Ellenhall in Staffordshire. She died in 1616. Copies of Leighton's three books are in the British Museum.

 LEIGHTON, WILLIAM (1841–1869), Scottish poet, born at Dundee 3 Feb. 1841, was son of David Leighton and the nephew of Robert Leighton (1822–1869) [q. v.] His mother was Elizabeth Inglis, and his mother's sister, Helen Inglis, is the subject of a memoir by Bishop Forbes of Brechin. When he was in his seventh year the family settled in Liverpool, where he received a fair education and became a clerk with a Spanish merchant. From 1864 till his death he was engaged in a Brazilian house. He died of typhoid fever, 22 April 1869, and was buried in Anfield cemetery, Liverpool. There is a window to his memory in St. Ann's Church, Brookfield, Highgate Rise, London.

Leighton wrote verses at an early age. During his last five years he was an active member of literary and debating societies, and contributed poems to the ‘Compass,’ a local literary paper, and to the ‘Liverpool Mercury.’ Thackeray somewhat tardily accepted for the ‘Cornhill Magazine’ his ‘Leaf of Woodruff,’ which Leighton meanwhile, impatient of editorial delay, had published in the ‘Compass.’ He gradually mastered a fluent and energetic style. Both his sentimental lyrics and his occasional pieces are delicately and daintily finished, and such poems as ‘Eighteen Hundred and Sixty-two,’ ‘The Seasons,’ ‘Baby died to-day,’ and ‘Rose’ display very considerable versatility and promise. ‘Poems by the late William Leighton’ appeared in 1870; ‘Hymns’ in 1872; ‘Baby died to-day, and other Poems’ in 1875. A complete edition of ‘The Poems of William Leighton,’ 1890, has a biographical preface and several illustrations.

 LEIGHTON, WILLIAM ALLPORT (1805–1889), botanist, only son of William Leighton, by Lucy Maria, daughter and coheiress of John Allport of Prescot, near Baschurch, Shropshire. His father was the keeper of the Talbot Hotel in Shrewsbury, a noted house in the old coaching days, and the son was born there on 17 May 1805. He went to school at the Manse on Claremont Hill, Shrewsbury, with Charles Darwin, who first roused in him an interest in plants. He was afterwards at the Wolverhampton grammar school, and in 1822 was articled to a solicitor in Shrewsbury, but on the death of his father he inherited a competency, and abandoned the study of the law in favour of the church. Proceeding to Cambridge he matriculated at St. John's College, and graduated B.A. in 1833. Henslow, professor of botany at Cambridge, found in Leighton one of his most zealous pupils, and Leighton on his return to his native town deferred ordination on purpose to draw up a flora of Shropshire. Seven years later, in 1841, he brought out his ‘Flora of Shropshire,’ the etchings to illustrate some of the more difficult genera being from his own hand. In 1843 he was ordained deacon and priest, and took clerical duty in his birthplace till 1848, when he resigned his cure, and thenceforward occupied himself entirely with botany.

Soon after the completion of his ‘Flora’ he began working up the cryptogams, and in 1851 the Ray Society published his ‘Angiocarpous Lichens elucidated by their Sporidia.’ From that date onward appeared numerous contributions by Leighton to lichen literature, of which the chief was ‘Lichen Flora of Great Britain’ in 1871. This reached a third edition in 1879, and Leighton,


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 directions that his manuscripts should not be published, but his sister was persuaded to give them to the world, and they have ever since had a wonderful charm for the lovers of piety and learning, and those in all communions who are most competent to judge of their excellence. The first editor was Dr. Fall, once principal of the university of Glasgow, who published Leighton's sermons and commentaries, and translations of his Latin lectures and addresses, in instalments between 1692 and 1708. There have been many subsequent editions more or less complete, a full account of which is given in an appendix to West's edition, London, 1875. Among other editions may be mentioned that of Pearson, London, 1825, and of Aikman, Edinburgh, 1831.

 LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1822–1869), Scottish poet, born in Dundee 20 Feb. 1822, was son of David L. Leighton, who died in 1828. In 1834 his mother was married to a farmer named Fleming, of East Friarton, Fifeshire, where Leighton acquired the knowledge afterwards utilised in his ‘Wee Herd Loon.’ On his mother's death in 1835 he settled with his brother William, a shipowner, in Dundee, attending the academy there till 1837, when he entered his brother's office. In 1842–3 he went round the world as a supercargo in one of William Leighton's ships, visiting Sydney and returning by Valparaiso. He then entered the service of the London and North-Western Railway at Preston, where he married in 1850 Miss Jane Campbell, daughter of a retired Scottish schoolmaster resident in Liverpool. His wife is the ‘Eliza’ of his dramatic and reflective poems. From 1854 to 1858 he managed at Ayr a branch business of a firm of Liverpool seed merchants. In 1858 he visited his brother William, who had settled in America, and subsequently travelled for the Liverpool firm in the agricultural districts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. In March 1867 he met with an accident near Youghal, and became a helpless invalid. He died at Liverpool, 10 May 1869.

Before 1843 Leighton had contributed ‘Ye Three Voyces’ to Jerrold's ‘Shilling Magazine.’ In 1849 he wrote for a Dundee pamphlet several poems and songs, one of which, ‘Jenny Marshall's Candy, O,’ was so generally sung that it vastly improved the business it celebrated. In 1855 appeared ‘Poems by Robin,’ and in 1861 and 1866 ‘Poems by Robert Leighton,’ the second issue being an enlargement of its predecessor. ‘Scotch Words’ and ‘The Bapteesement o' the Bairn’ were published in a pamphlet in 1870. Both are clever vernacular poems, and the second is not only a droll tale but also a shrewd criticism of Scottish Calvinistic narrowness. In 1872 a pamphlet appeared, containing a number of pieces, of which the chief were ‘The Laddie's Lamentation on the Loss o' his Whittle,’ an early composition which Leighton was famous for reciting, and ‘The Centenary of Robert Burns,’ which Leighton recited at the Ayr gathering in 1859. Leighton's complete works are included in the two volumes, ‘Reuben and other Poems,’ 1875, and ‘Records and other Poems,’ 1880. ‘Reuben’ is a closet drama, bright and vigorous in characterisation, and lighted with melodious lyrics. Writing to William Leighton in 1871, Emerson paid a high compliment to Leighton's ‘purity and manliness of thought, and the deep moral tone which dictated every verse.’

 LEIGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1603–1614), poet and composer, of Plash in Shropshire, eldest son of William Leighton (1533–1607), one of the council of the Welsh Marches, by Isabella, daughter of Thomas Onslowe of London, merchant, was at the accession of James I a gentleman-pensioner. He published in praise of his majesty an adulatory poem entitled ‘Vertue Triumphant, or a Lively Description of the Fovre Vertues Cardinall’ (London, 1603, 4to), with copious marginal references to the bible and classical authors, and an allusion to the author's ‘deepe-grounded root of his duteous loue’ to his late mistress, Queen Elizabeth. It was probably in return for this that he was knighted on 23 July 1603. In 1608 Leighton was sued for debts by Sir William Harmon, two years later was outlawed, and was subsequently imprisoned.

In January 1613 he published at London ‘The Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soule,’ dedicated to Prince Charles. Some prefatory verses by Arthur Hopton (1588?–1614) [see under ] are inscribed to ‘my endeared friend and kinsman, Sir William Leighton.’ In the


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 form of government.’ The king refused to accept his resignation, and promised to pursue a milder policy. In June 1669 the first ‘indulgence,’ which allowed the presbyterian ministers to resume their duties on certain conditions, was granted, and was accepted by the most eminent of them. To justify the indulgence, which was complained of by some of the episcopal party as illegal, and to authorise other pacific measures, the Scottish parliament in November 1669 passed an act declaring the external government of the church an inherent right of the crown. Under this act Alexander Burnet, archbishop of Glasgow, was deprived for opposing the indulgence, and his see was offered to Leighton, who accepted it in the hope of reconciling the presbyterians. With the sanction of the king he drew up proposals of ‘accommodation,’ which placed the ecclesiastical power in presbyteries and synods with bishops merely as permanent moderators. No oath of canonical obedience to them was to be required, and ministers who were presbyterian by conviction were to be free to declare it. Several conferences were held with the leading presbyterian clergy from August 1670 till 11 Jan. 1671, when they gave their final answer that they were not free in conscience to unite on the terms proposed. Upon this Leighton said: ‘Before God and man I wash my hands of whatever evils may result from the rupture of this treaty. I have done my utmost to repair the temple of the Lord.’ As he could make no progress with the presbyterians, and offended many of the episcopal party, and as none of his own clerical friends would accept vacant bishoprics, the disposal of which the government had entrusted to him, he despaired, and sent in his resignation in 1672. The king promised to allow him to retire at the end of a year if his mind was then unchanged, and his resignation was accepted accordingly in August 1674. He went back to the university of Edinburgh, where he had always kept rooms, but soon removed to Broadhurst in Horsted Keynes, Sussex, the property and home of his sister, the widow of Edward Lightmaker. There he spent the remainder of his life in study and devotion, in works of mercy among the poor, and in preaching and reading prayers in the neighbouring churches. Soon after the murder of Sharp and the risings at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge, the king wrote to him that he was ‘resolved to try what clemency could prevail upon such in Scotland as would not conform to the government of the church there,’ and desiring him to ‘go down to Scotland with his first conveniency and take all possible pains for persuading all he could of both opinions to as much mutual correspondence and concord as could be.’ Leighton was willing to undertake this mission of peace, but events soon led to a change of policy. In 1684 he went up to London to meet Lord Perth, the Scottish chancellor, who, through Bishop Burnet, had earnestly desired the benefit of his spiritual advice. Burnet was surprised at finding Leighton so young-looking and active, but he told him that ‘he was very near his end for all that.’ The next day he was seized with pleurisy, and on the day following—25 June—he breathed his last in Burnet's arms at the Bell Inn, Warwick Lane. He had often expressed the wish to die in an inn. He was buried in the chancel of the church of Horsted Keynes beside his brother, Sir Elisha. His will is printed in ‘Bannatyne Club Miscellany,’ vol. iii.

As saint, author, and peacemaker, Leighton presents a combination of qualities which has called forth almost unrivalled tributes of admiration. Thomas à Kempis was one of his favourite books, and the ‘imitation of Christ,’ whose darling virtues he said were humility, meekness, and charity, was the business of his life. He shrank from every approach to ostentation, and so far from courting the riches and honours of the world he looked upon them with something of holy contempt. On accepting the bishopric he said, ‘One benefit at least will rise from it. I shall break that little idol of estimation my friends have for me, and which I have been so long sick of.’ Burnet never saw his temper ruffled but once during twenty-two years of close intimacy, and could not recollect having ever heard him say an idle word. When reminded of his former zeal for the national covenant, he replied, ‘When I was a child I spoke as a child,’ and when charged with apostatising from his father's principles, he meekly answered that a man was not bound to be of his father's opinions. He was habitually abstemious, kept frequent fasts, and often shut himself up in his room for prolonged periods of private devotion. Everything that he could spare was given to pious purposes, and he employed others as the agents of his charity that he might not get the credit of it. He founded bursaries in the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, made some permanent provision for the poor, and left his valuable library of more than fifteen hundred volumes to the clergy of the diocese of Dunblane. In his ‘Rules and Instructions for a Holy Life’ we have an ideal which perhaps tends too much towards mysticism and abstraction from the world. He printed nothing during his lifetime, and gave


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 and when obliged to rebuke ‘engagers’ in his own church, he exhorted them to repent of the immoralities of which they had been guilty during the expedition ‘without meddling with the quarrel on the grounds of that war.’ In 1652 the synod of Lothian sent him to London (which he had been in the habit of visiting annually as long as his father lived) to aid in effecting the liberation of the Scottish ministers who had been captured at Alyth and Worcester, and were prisoners in England. During his absence, which lasted from May till December, he made up his mind to resign his charge, partly on account of the weakness of his voice and the state of his health, but mainly because of the schism in the church betwixt the resolutioners and the protesters, and because he could no longer with a good conscience obey the injunctions that were laid upon him. The presbytery at first refused to accept his resignation, and asked Lord Lothian to urge him to remain, but while this matter was pending the town council of Edinburgh elected him principal of the university. On 3 Feb. 1653 he was loosed from his charge and entered upon the duties of his new office, which he discharged for the next nine years with the greatest ability and success.

Besides the principalship Leighton held the post of professor of divinity. On Sunday mornings he preached before the university, and took his turn with other professors in conducting an afternoon service. Once a week he preached to the students in Latin, and many of the townspeople flocked to this service. During the long vacation Leighton frequently went to London, where he made the acquaintance of Cromwell's courtiers, and sometimes to the continent, where he renewed his intimacy with the Jansenists. Though taking little part in ecclesiastical affairs, he was appointed a member of the general assembly of 1653, which was dispersed by Cromwell's officers, and he gave the covenants to the students as required by standing laws of the church. During the twenty years of his ministry and principalship Bishop Burnet says that he lived in the highest reputation that any man had in his time in Scotland.

When episcopacy was restored in 1661, he accepted the change. He was a latitudinarian in such matters, and often repeated the saying that religion did not consist in external matters, whether of government or worship. The conjunction of an episcopal with a presbyterian system had always seemed to him best, and he saw nothing in the covenant inconsistent with the union. Set forms he preferred to extempore prayers, and he was well satisfied with the liturgy and ceremonies of the church of England, but he did not wish them strictly imposed, and advocated the fullest toleration even to Roman catholics, quakers, and baptists. The offer of a bishopric was made to him on the application of his brother, Sir Elisha Leighton [q. v.], who had turned Roman catholic and had influence at court. He says that he had the strongest aversion to accepting the office that ever he had to anything in all his life, but his opposition was overcome by the urgency of the king, and by the hope that as bishop he might be useful in promoting the peace of the church. The Scottish presbyters who were consecrated in England in 1610 were not re-ordained, but this was insisted on now in the case of Leighton and Sharp, who were in presbyterian orders. Both of them objected, holding their previous ordination to be valid, but in the end they gave way and went through the ceremony privately, though they knew that the bishop who performed it meant one thing by it and they another, and that they were compromising the interests of their own and other reformed churches. On 15 Dec. 1661 they were consecrated in Westminster Abbey with two others who, like them, had taken the covenants. Leighton at his own request was appointed to Dunblane, the smallest of the Scottish dioceses. Synods and presbyteries were after a brief interruption restored, but their authority was now derived from the bishops, which had not been the case under the episcopacy of 1610–38. The ‘Register’ of the synod of Dunblane during Leighton's episcopate contains the substance of his charges. Year after year he urged upon the clergy reverence in public worship, the reading of two chapters and a portion of the psalter at each service, and the use of the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Gloria Patri, the preaching of plain and useful sermons, the regular visitation and catechising of their flocks, the restoration of daily service in church, and above all holiness in heart and life. All the clergy, except two or three, and the great body of the people under his charge, conformed, but in other dioceses (chiefly in the south and west) nearly a third of the ministers refused to submit to episcopacy, and the work of persecution began. Leighton, who said he would rather be the means of making one person serious-minded than the whole nation conformists, was so aggrieved by the measures taken that in 1665 he went to London and tendered his resignation to the king, telling him that the proceedings ‘were so violent that he could not concur in the planting the Christian religion itself in such a manner, much less a


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  either the bishop's palace or its grounds. A more questionable transaction was the conversion of the revenues of St. Peter's Hospital to the maintenance of his table and the support of two chaplains of St. Peter in the cathedral; for this, however, he obtained the sanction of Pope Eugenius IV in 1435. He was employed on many diplomatic missions—to England (to arrange for the ransom of James I), to Rome, to France (to treat of the marriage of the infant Princess of Scotland with the dauphin), and in his old age he was appointed to mediate between the factions of Crichton, the chancellor, and the Livingstones. He died 14 Dec. 1440, and was buried in the north transept of his cathedral, where, though another's effigy has usurped his monument, his epitaph may still be read.

LEIGHTON, HENRY (d. 1669), French scholar, a native of Scotland, was chiefly educated in France. In 1642 he bore a commission for the king. On 1 Nov. 1642, when more than seventy persons were created M.A. by command of Charles, Leighton adroitly contrived to obtain the degree by presenting himself at dusk, although his name was not on the list. When the king's cause declined, he settled at Oxford as a teacher of French. He died by falling downstairs in St. John's College, where he had a room allowed him, on 28 Jan. 1668–9, and was buried the next day in St. Giles's Church, Oxford. According to Wood he was a man of debauched character.

He published for the use of his pupils ‘Linguæ Gallicæ addiscendæ Regulæ,’ 8vo, Oxford, 1659; another edition, 1662.

LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611–1684), archbishop of Glasgow, second son of Dr. [q. v.] by his first marriage, was born in 1611, probably in London. In 1627 he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, and placed under the care of Sir James Stewart of Goodtrees. Dr. Leighton entreated Sir James, in the presence of the youth, ‘to train him up in the true presbyterian form, and Robert was strictly enjoined with his father's blessing to be steady in that way.’ Though ‘accounted a saint from his youth,’ during his first session he contributed the following lines to some satirical verses written by the students on Aikenhead, the provost of Edinburgh, who had deprived them of some holidays:—

He was censured for this effusion, but in a letter to his ‘kind and loving Father’ he tells him that Principal Adamson and the regents thought his offence ‘not so heinous a thing as he himself did justly think it.’ At a later period one of the professors wrote to Dr. Leighton congratulating him ‘on having a son in whom Providence had made him abundant compensation for his sufferings.’ He graduated M.A. 28 July 1631, and was then sent by his father to travel on the continent. He spent several years in France, and was often at Douay, where he had relatives among the Roman catholic clergy. He thus learned to speak French like a native, made himself master of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and familiar with all branches of theological literature. He was also greatly attracted by the piety of the Jansenists, and his intercourse with them gave a permanent colouring to his religious character. Soon after his father's liberation he returned to Scotland and was licensed by the presbytery of Edinburgh in July 1641. On 16 Dec. following he was ordained by the presbytery of Dalkeith, and inducted to the parish of Newbattle, of which the Earl of Lothian, a zealous covenanter, was patron.

There were nine hundred communicants in the parish, and besides visiting and catechising his flock and attending the frequent meetings of presbytery, Leighton had always to preach twice on the Sunday and at least once during the week. Nearly all his sermons and expositions were written at Newbattle, and his fame as a preacher of a new school who wrote and spoke English undefiled spread far and wide. He took no part in public affairs at this time beyond what was required in the discharge of his official duties. He had warmly approved the national covenant, but was less enamoured of the solemn league, and disliked the way in which it was imposed. In 1648 he was placed in great difficulty by the opposition of the church to the resolution of parliament in favour of the ‘Engagement.’ Instead of reading the declaration against it himself, he made his precentor read it, and when taken to task he said it was contrary to his intention, but that he was suffering from a bad cold. He was mildly censured by his brethren for not attending the general assembly when it had this business on hand,


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vi. 73- 1. Let Varuṇa come here, Soma, Agni; let Brihaspati with the Vasus come here; come ye together, [his] fellows, all of you, like-minded, unto the fortune of this stern corrector (ugrá cettṛ́).

2. The vehemence (çúṣma) that is within your hearts, the design that has entered into your mind—that I frustrate with the oblation, the ghee; in me, O [my] fellows, be your satisfaction (ramáti).

3. Be ye just here; go not away from us; let Pūshan make [it] pathless for you in the distance; let the lord of the dwelling (vā́stu) call aloud after you; in me, O [my] fellows, be your satisfaction.

1. Together let your bodies be mixed (pṛc), together your minds, together your courses; together hath this Brahmaṇaspati, together hath Bhaga made you come.

2. Concurrence of the mind for you, also concurrence of the heart, also what of Bhaga is wearied (çrāntá)—therewith I make you concur.

Ppp. has, in d, saṁ jñapayāti mām. It is one of the most peculiar and unaccountable of the occasional peculiarities of the pada-text that in d it reads sám॰jñapayāmi, combining the preposition with the verb, though the former has the accent. Of all the mss. noted, only one of SPP's has the usual reading.* Çrāntám in c seems an impossible reading, but even Ppp. gives nothing else. The comm. explains it as 'toil-born

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text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 71

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 71


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 72

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 72


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 73

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 73


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antrim (county)


text: Talk:Amazing Stories/Volume 01/Number 01


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antrim (town)


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antrustion

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antrustion


text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Casement, Roger

CASEMENT, SIR ROGER (DAVID), an Irish revolutionist; born in Ireland, Sept. 1, 1864. He was of English parentage and a Protestant, though, just before his death, he was received into the Roman Catholic Church. In the early part of his career he was an able and faithful official of the British Government, serving in various capacities in many parts of the world. From 1892 to 1895 he was in a minor post in the Niger Coast Oil Rivers Protectorate, and in the latter year was appointed consul in the province of Lourenzo Marquez. During the Boer War he did such excellent service at Cape Town that he was decorated with the Queen's medal. In 1906 he was consul for the state of São Paulo, Brazil. He became consul-general at Rio de Janeiro in 1908. From 1909 to 1912 he made a searching investigation into the rubber atrocities, and his report attracted attention throughout the world. The honor of knighthood was conferred upon him in 1911, and in 1913 he was retired on a pension. It seemed the climax of a peculiarly useful career. However, after the outbreak of the World War, rumors began to filter through to England that Casement was in Germany going from place to place without guard or surveillance and apparently in the full favor of the German Government. The full story of Casement's activities in Germany came out later, supported by documentary evidence that left no doubt of the facts. In the early days of the war a large number of British soldiers, including a great many Irishmen, had been captured by the enemy and imprisoned in camps in various parts of Germany. Casement was permitted by the German Government to move freely among these camps and to address the prisoners. He invited the Irish prisoners to join the “Irish brigade” that he was forming. Those who joined would escape the rigors of imprisonment, would be regarded as guests of the German Government and would be transferred to Berlin, there to wait a favorable opportunity to be transferred to Ireland. In the event that this proved impossible, each man would be furnished with a sum of money and free passage to America after the war, and thus escape the vengeance of the British Government. Casement made slight progress in this propaganda. Pending the transfer of the “Irish brigade,” Casement, with a few confederates, made a rash attempt to land

on Irish soil. In April, 1916, Casement and two confederates embarked on a German submarine at Wilhelmshaven, which sailed around the Shetlands and the west coast of Ireland. Near Tralee, when the submarine had reached as near the coast as she dared to go, the adventurers were put into a collapsible boat, which overturned, however, before they reached the land, compelling them to wade to shore. They buried their revolvers and ammunition in the sand, and two of the voyagers made their way to Tralee, while Casement sought a hiding place near by and waited for the coming of the ship loaded with munitions that the German Government had promised to send. On April 21 the British ship “Bluebell,” patrolling the coast, sighted a ship which looked suspicious. It was a small Wilson liner, disguised as a timber ship and flying the Norwegian ensign. She declared, on being signaled, that she was the “Aude,” sailing to Genoa from Bergen. Not satisfied, however, the British commander ordered the strange ship to follow him into the harbor to be examined. Seeing that the game was lost, the ship suddenly raised two German ensigns and blew up, the crew rowing to the “Bluebell” and giving themselves up. It developed later that the ship had been carrying millions of cartridges, 20,000 rifles, 10 machine guns and a large number of bombs and other munitions. In the meantime an Irish farmer had found the collapsible boat. He reported his discovery, and a search was made by the authorities, who unearthed the box that had been buried in the sand containing pistol cartridges. Further search revealed Casement hiding in a place that was known as McKenna's Fort. He described himself as an author, Richard Morton by name, and claimed residence in Buckinghamshire, England. He was arrested, nevertheless, and while on his way to a neighboring barracks to be examined, dropped a paper which was picked up by his captors and discovered to be a code in cipher. Sentences about “explosives” and “cannon” deepened the impression of his guilt. He was taken to London and handed over to the authorities, to whom he then confessed his identity. He was tried before a jury, and on June 26, 1916, was found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death. During his trial Casement bore himself with great dignity and fortitude. Efforts were made by many prominent persons in Great Britain and the United States to have the sentence commuted or modified, some on the ground of his previous services to the Empire and others on the

that his mind was unbalanced. Their pleas, however, were ineffectual, and Casement was hung at Pentonville prison, Aug. 3, 1916.


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Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Cavell, Edith

CAVELL, EDITH, an English nurse, born at Norwich, England, in 1872. Her father was a clergyman. She was trained as a nurse in a London hospital, entering the institution in 1896. In 1900 she went to Belgium for the purpose of organizing and carrying on a training school for Belgian nurses. She showed remarkable administrative ability, and in 1906 the institution of which she had become the head was the most important of its kind in Belgium. When the World War broke out she was on a visit to England, but at once returned and threw all her energies into the work of nursing

soldiers. At first there was no obstacle put in her way by the German authorities, for German soldiers as well as French, Belgian, and English were nursed without discrimination. The Dutch frontier was not far away and a secret service was organized by the Allies and their sympathizers to enable wounded English soldiers, as soon as they had sufficiently recovered, to get across the border into Holland and ultimately be transferred to their own country. Miss Cavell was intensely patriotic and aided in this work, as she freely admitted, when later on she was brought to trial. In an organization so extensive it was almost a foregone conclusion that sooner or later some traitor would reveal its ramifications. This occurred in the case of Miss Cavell, who was denounced as participating in this plan of escape and arrested by the German authorities Aug. 5, 1915. She was confined in the prison of St. Gilles, was not allowed to communicate with her friends, and it was three weeks before the fact of her arrest was made known. The British Government at once took steps in her behalf to see that she should have a fair trial, and communicated with the American Minister at Brussels, Mr. Brand Whitlock. He took up the matter at once and communicated with Baron von Lancken, the chief of the political department of the German military government in Belgium. The inquiry was made August 31, but no reply was vouchsafed, and after a delay of ten days, Mr. Whitlock wrote again, and at last was informed on September 12 that a Belgian advocate had charge of Miss Cavell's case and that no interview with the prisoner would be permitted. Further attempts on the part of the American Legation were also fruitless. On October 4 Mr. Whitlock was informed that the trial was to take place on the 7th. On the 8th the trial was concluded and judgment reserved. After the trial was concluded Miss Cavell was taken back to prison. Her friends sought in vain to find out what sentence had been passed and when it was to be carried out. They were either denied information or put off with falsehoods. The adviser of the American Legation, Mr. Leval, and Minister Whitlock himself strove with all their power to get information in order that they might, if possible, avert the doom that they feared was impending. They prepared pleas for pardon, that were to be presented to the authorities in case Miss Cavell should receive the death sentence. All their efforts came up against the blank wall of official indifference or pretended ignorance.

On October 11 Miss Cavell was told that the death sentence had been passed upon her and that she would be shot the next morning. Two hours later the American officials were being positively assured by German officials that no judgment had been passed. At 6 o'clock news was brought to the American Legation by some of Miss Cavell's friends that she had been sentenced. Mr. Whitlock was ill and could not leave the house, but he set all his secretaries to work and himself dictated another note to Von Lancken. At the same time he instructed his aids to seek out the Spanish Minister, Villalobar, and go at once to Von Lancken's house to seek a commutation of the sentence. The Americans pleaded with him, and Villalobar added his entreaties. To all their appeals Von Lancken was adamant. She had been sentenced. She must die. The Kaiser himself could not help her. The next morning early Miss Cavell was shot. She met her fate with fortitude and without the slightest sign of fear. On May 15, 1919, her body, which had been exhumed at Brussels, was taken to Westminster Abbey, where an impressive service was held. All London turned out to do homage to her memory. Flags were flown at half-mast. The body was borne on a gun carriage, covered with flowers and the national flag and escorted by a regiment of the Guards, while hundreds of thousands of spectators with bared heads lined the streets through which the cortège passed. After the ceremony the body was taken to Norwich, her native town, where the burial took place.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antwerp (province)


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Casement, Roger

CASEMENT, Roger, Irish revolutionist: b. Ireland, 1 Sept. 1864; executed in

3 Aug. 1916. Though born in Ireland, Casement was of English parentage and a Protestant by creed. He entered the British consular service at the age of 28, and served in the Niger Coast Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1892 to 1895, when he was appointed consul in the Portuguese province of Lorenzo Marques. In 1898 he was made consul for the Portuguese possessions in West Africa, south of the Gulf of Guinea. During the war in South Africa he was engaged on special service at Cape Town in 1899 and 1900, and on the conclusion of hostilities he was decorated with the Queen's medal. In 1900 Casement was transferred to the Belgian Kongo, and in 1901 was appointed to act as consul also for part of the French Kongo. In 1905 he was made a C.M.G. and in the following year was appointed consul for the state of São Paulo. his next promotion took place in 1908, when he was made British consul-general at Rio de Janeiro. Between 1909 and 1912 he was employed in making inquiries relative to the rubber industry atrocities, and retired on a pension in 1913 after an honorable and useful career. He received his knighthood in June 1911, on which occasion he wrote the following letter to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs:

In view of his tragic end and the circumstances that brought it about, this expression of Casement's sentiments was strangely at variance with his subsequent action during the European War. Suspicion was first directed toward him a few months after the war broke out, when it became known that Casement was moving about at large in Germany at a time when all British subjects in that country were either interned or under police supervision. Questions were asked in the British Parliament, and Casement's pension was withdrawn on 30 Sept. 1914, up till which time it had been paid to him. A large number of British prisoners of war had fallen into German hands between September and December 1914. In the latter month a great many. Irish soldiers were collected in a large camp at Limburg, apparently for a special purpose. These prisoners were assembled on several occasions and addressed collectively and individually by Casement, who moved about the camp freely with the full approval of the German authorities. He introduced himself as Sir Roger Casement, the “organizer of the Irish volunteers.” Telling the men that he was forming an Irish brigade, he invited all Irish prisoners to join it. Those who agreed, he said, would be sent to Berlin as the guests of the German government, and that, if Germany won a sea battle, the “Irish brigade” would be landed in Ireland to fight against England. In the event of Germany losing the war, each man would receive from

Casement or the German government $50 or $100 and a free passage to America. Those who renounced their allegiance were given a green uniform with a harp worked on the collar and provided with German side arms. About the middle of April 1916 Casement and an Irish soldier named Bailey, together with a “Mr. Monteith,” were put on board the German submarine U-19 at Wilhelmshaven. They sailed round the Shetlands and the west coast of Ireland. Meanwhile, a small Wilson liner, disguised as a timber ship and carrying 10 machine guns, bombs, 20,000 rifles and millions of cartridges, had been sent from Germany to a place near Tralee. When the submarine had reached as near land as possible before dawn, Casement, Monteith and Bailey were put into a collapsible boat, armed with revolvers and ammunition. The boat overturned and the adventurers had to wade ashore, where they buried the weapons. Casement remained behind; the other two made their way to Tralee by land. On Good Friday, 21 April 1916, the British sloop Bluebell was patrolling near Tralee when she sighted a suspicious vessel flying the Norwegian ensign and with four of those ensigns painted forward and aft on each side. In reply to signals she said she was the Aude, bound from Bergen to Genoa. The ship was ordered to follow the Bluebell to harbor, but when about a mile and a half from the Daunt Rock lightship (near Queenstown), the Aude suddenly raised two German naval ensigns and blew up, sinking immediately. The crew, who had destroyed the ship, clambered into two boats and surrendered to the Bluebell. The collapsible boat from the submarine was found by a farmer at four in the same morning on which Casement had landed. A tin box containing pistol cartridges was exhumed. The police searched the neighborhood and discovered Casement hiding in an excavation known as McKenna's Fort. He gave his name as Richard Morton, of Denham, Buckinghamshire, and described himself as an author. He was taken to Ardfert Barracks, and on the way dropped a paper, which was found to be a cipher code. Some of the sentences read, “Cannons with plenty of ammunition are needed. Send them to ———”; “Send more explosives,” etc. Casement was taken to England the next day and handed over to the metropolitan police, when he disclosed his identity. He was tried before the lord chief justice and a jury on 26 June, found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death. The penalty was carried out at Pentonville Prison, at 9 A.M. on 3 August. Many prominent persons both in Great Britain and the United States made strenuous efforts to save Casement from the gallows, but in vain. The grounds on which the British government refused a reprieve — after Casement's appeal had failed — were thus stated by Lord Robert Cecil in Parliament: “No doubt of Casement's guilt exists. . . . The only ground for a reprieve would be political expediency, a difficult ground to put forward in this country. This country never could strain the law to punish a man for the same reason that it could not strain the law to let him off. . . . The Irish rebellion began with the murder of unarmed people, both soldiers and police. No grievance justified it and it was purely a political movement

by a small section of Irish people who still hate England and was assisted by Germany. . . .” Shortly before his execution Casement was received into the Roman Catholic Church. He was unmarried. In November 1917 the Volksrecht of Zürich, Switzerland, the official of of the Swiss Social Democrats, published a number of German official documents rdating to Casement's activities in Germany. One of them gives the agreement signed between Casement and the German Foreign Minister, Herr von Zimmermann. Nine of these documents were reproduced in the New York Times of 16 Dec 1917. See .


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Cavell, Edith

CAVELL, Edith, an English nurse: b. Norfolk 1872; executed in Brussels during the German occupation of Belgium on 12 Oct. 1915. She was the daughter of a clergyman; entered London Hospital for training as nurse, 1896; invited to Belgium in 1900 by Dr. Depage, a distinguished medical man who had established a training school for Belgian nurses in a suburb of Brussels, and desired to modernize the nursing system of the country. Belgian nurses up to that time had been recruited chiefly from the ranks of nuns and domestic servants — the former attending mainly to Catholics and the latter to non-Catholic patients. Miss Cavell accepted the invitation and threw herself whole-heartedly into the task. In 1906 she became head of the institution, from which developed a large nursing organization throughout Belgium. At the outbreak of the European War in 1914, she was in England on a visit, but returned at once to Belgium and converted her institute into a hospital for wounded soldiers. Dr. Depage was called into military service and placed in charge of another Belgian hospital, while Miss Cavell continued her work in Brussels. During the German occupation of the city — from 20 Aug. 1914 — she was permitted to remain in control of the hospital. For the first year of the war she nursed without discrimination Belgians, French, British and Germans. During this time, with the aid of friends in Brussels, she was instrumental in conveying many of the wounded Allied soldiers — upon their recovery — across the frontier into Holland, whence they were able to rejoin their armies. She also assisted Belgians of military age to escape capture by the Germans. Her activities were discovered by the German authorities through the agency of a Belgian traitor (who was found murdered in the street nearly a year later), and on 5 Aug. 1915 she was arrested and lodged in the military prison of Saint Gilles. She was kept in solitary confinement for three weeks before the fact of her arrest became

known. At the request of the British government the American Minister at Brussels, Mr. Brand Whitlock, took up the case and addressed an inquiry (31 Aug. 1915) to Baron von der Lancken, the chief of the political department of the German military government in Belgium. No reply being forthcoming for 10 days, Mr. Whitlock wrote again and was informed (12 September) that Miss Cavell's defense was in the hands of a Belgian advocate, and that no interview could be permitted. The legal adviser to the American legation, M. de Leval, then endeavored to communicate with the prisoner and her alleged advocates, but in vain. On 4 October he was informed that the trial would be held on the 7th — nine weeks after the arrest. The defence was kept in the dark as regards documentary evidence in possession of the prosecution. By frankly admitting the charge brought against her, Miss Cavell had given the prosecution evidence that would otherwise have been unobtainable. According to the German Military Code the offense was treason and punishable by death. The trial ended on the following day (8 October) and judgment was reserved. The officials of the American legation made the most strenuous efforts to obtain information regarding Miss Cavell's fate; at 6.20 P.M. on the 11th, Mr. Hugh Gibson, the secretary, was officially informed that the decision had not yet been given. At 8 P.M. M. de Leval heard by accident that sentence of death had been passed at 5 P.M., and that Miss Cavell was to be shot at 2 in the following morning. Mr. Brand Whitlock was ill in bed at the time, but he wrote a personal letter to von Bissing, the military governor, while Mr. Gibson, M. de Leval and the Spanish Ambassador formed a deputation of appeal for mercy or at least postponement of sentence. They were dismissed about midnight and two hours later Edith Cavell fearlessly faced the firing squad. During an interview with a British chaplain she remarked, “I have seen death so often that it is not strange or fearful to me.” Consult Gibson, H., ‘A Journal from our Legation in Belgium’ (New York 1917).


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 ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers), capital of the above province, an important city on the right bank of the Scheldt, Belgium’s chief centre of commerce and a strong fortified position.

Modern Antwerp is a finely laid out city with a succession of broad avenues which mark the position of the first enceinte. There are long streets and terraces of fine houses belonging to the merchants and manufacturers of the city which amply testify to its prosperity, and recall the 16th century distich that Antwerp was noted for its moneyed men (“Antwerpia nummis”). Despite the ravages of war and internal disturbances it still preserves some memorials of its early grandeur, notably its fine cathedral. This church was begun in the 14th century, but not finished till 1518. Its tower of over 400 ft. is a conspicuous object to be seen from afar over the surrounding flat country. A second tower which formed part of the original plan has never been erected. The proportions of the interior are noble, and in the church are hung three of the masterpieces of Rubens, viz. “The Descent from the Cross,” “The Elevation of the Cross,” and “The Assumption.” Another fine church in Antwerp is that of St James, far more ornate than the cathedral, and containing the tomb of Rubens, who devoted himself to its embellishment. The Bourse or exchange, which claims to be the first distinguished by the former name in Europe, is a fine new building finished in 1872, on the site of the old Bourse erected in 1531 and destroyed by fire in 1858. Fire has destroyed several other old buildings in the city, notably in 1891 the house of the Hansa League on the northern quays. A curious museum is the Maison Plantin, the house of the great printer (q.v.) and his successor Moretus, which stands exactly as it did in the time of the latter. The new picture gallery close to the southern quays is a fine building divided into ancient and modern sections. The collection of old masters is very fine, containing many splendid examples of Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian and the chief Dutch masters. Antwerp, famous in the middle ages and at the present time for its commercial enterprise, enjoyed in the 17th century a celebrity not less distinct or glorious in art for its school of painting, which included Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens, the two Teniers and many others.

Commerce.—Since 1863, when Antwerp was opened to the trade of the outer world by the purchase of the Dutch right to levy toll, its position has completely changed, and no place in Europe has made greater progress in this period than the ancient city on the Scheldt. The following figures for the years 1904 and 1905 show that its trade is still rapidly increasing:—

The growth of its commerce in recent times may be measured by a comparison of the following figures. In 1888, 4272 ships entered the port and 4302 sailed from it. In 1905, 6095 entered the port and 6065 sailed from it—an increase of nearly 50%. In 1888 the total tonnage was 7,800,000; in 1905 it had risen to 19,662,000. These figures explain how and why Antwerp has outgrown its dock accommodation. The eight principal basins or docks already existing in 1908 were (1) the Little or Bonaparte dock; (2) the Great dock, also constructed in Napoleon’s time; (3) the Kattendijk, built in 1860 and enlarged in 1881; (4) the Wood dock; (5) the Campine dock, used especially for minerals; (6) the Asia dock, which is in direct communication with the Meuse by a canal as well as with the Scheldt; (7) the Lefebvre dock; and (8) the America dock, which was only opened in 1905. Two new docks, called “intercalary” because they would fit into whatever scheme might be adopted for the rectification of the course of the Scheldt, were still to be constructed, leading out of the Lefebvre dock and covering 70 acres. With the completion of the new maritime lock, ships drawing 30 ft. of water would be able to enter these new docks and also the Lefebvre and America docks. In connexion with the projected grande coupure (that is, a cutting through the neck of the loop in the river Scheldt immediately below Antwerp), the importance of these four docks would be greatly increased because they would then flank the new main channel of the river. When the Belgian Chambers voted in February 1906 the sums necessary for the improvement of the harbour of Antwerp no definite scheme was sanctioned, the question being referred to a special mixed commission. The improvements at Antwerp are not confined to the construction of new docks. The quays flanking the Scheldt are 3 m. in length. They are constructed of granite, and no expense has been spared in equipping them with hydraulic cranes, warehouses, &c.

Fortifications.—Besides being the chief commercial port of Belgium, Antwerp is the greatest fortress of that country. Nothing, however, remains of the former enceinte or even of the famous old citadel defended by General Chassé in 1832, except the Steen, which has been restored and contains a museum of arms and antiquities. After the establishment of Belgian independence Antwerp was defended only by the citadel and an enceinte of about 2 m. round the city. No change occurred till 1859, when the system of Belgian defence was radically altered by the dismantlement of seventeen of the twenty-two fortresses constructed under Wellington’s supervision in 1815–1818. At Antwerp the old citadel and enceinte were removed. A new enceinte 8 m. in length was constructed, and the villages of Berchem and Borgerhout, now parishes of Antwerp, were absorbed within the city. This enceinte still exists, and is a fine work of art. It is protected by a broad wet ditch (plans in article ), and in the caponiers are the magazines and store chambers of the fortress. The enceinte is pierced by nineteen openings or gateways, but of these seven are not used by the public. As soon as the enceinte was finished eight detached forts from 2 to 2 m. distant from the enceinte were constructed. They begin on the north near Wyneghem and the zone of inundation, and terminate on the south at Hoboken. In 1870 Fort Merxem and the redoubts of Berendrecht and Oorderen were built for the defence of the area to be inundated north of Antwerp. In 1878, in consequence of the increased range of artillery and the more destructive power of explosives, it was recognized that the fortifications of Antwerp were becoming useless and out of date. It was therefore decided to change it from a fortress to a fortified position by constructing an outer line of forts and batteries at a distance varying from 6 to 9 m. from the enceinte. This second line was to consist of fifteen forts, large and small. Up to 1898 only five had been constructed, but in that and the two following years five more were finished, leaving another five to complete the line. A mixed commission selected the points at which they were to be placed. With the completion of this work, which in 1908 was being rapidly pushed on, Antwerp might be regarded as one of the best fortified positions in Europe, and so long as its communications by sea are preserved intact it will be practically impregnable.

Two subsidiary or minor problems remained over. (1) The much-discussed removal of the existing enceinte in order to give Antwerp further growing space. If it were removed there arose the further question, should a new enceinte be made at the first line of outer forts, or should an enceinte be dispensed with? An enceinte following the line of those forts would be 30 m. in length. Then if the city grew up to this extended enceinte the outer forts would be too near. To screen the city from bombardment they would have to be carried 3 m. further out, and the whole Belgian army would scarcely furnish an adequate garrison for this extended position. A new enceinte, or more correctly a rampart of a less permanent character, connecting the eight forts of the inner line and extending from Wyneghem to a little south of Hoboken, was decided upon in 1908. (2) The second problem was the position on the left bank of the Scheldt. All the defences enumerated are on the right bank. On the left bank the two old forts Isabelle and Marie alone defend the Scheldt. It is assumed (probably rightly) that no enemy could get round to this side in sufficient strength to deliver any attack that the existing forts could not easily

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 HREE o'clock had just struck from the tower of St. Nicholas, Leipzig, on the afternoon of December 22d, 1768, when a man, wrapped in a loose overcoat, came out of the door of the University. His countenance was exceedingly gentle, and on his features cheerfulness still lingered, for he had been gazing upon a hundred cheerful faces; after him thronged a troop of students, who, holding back, allowed him to precede them: the passengers in the streets saluted him, and some students, who pressed forwards and hurried past him homewards, saluted him quite reverentially. He returned their salutations with a surprised and almost deprecatory air, and yet he knew, and could not conceal from himself, that he was one of the best beloved, not only in the good city of Leipzig, but in all lands far and wide.

It was Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, the Poet of Fables, Hymns, and Lays, who was just leaving his college.


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14 When we read his "Lectures upon Morals," which were not printed until after his death, we obtain but a very incomplete idea of the great power with which they came immediately from Gellert's mouth. Indeed, it was his voice, and the touching manner in which he delivered his lectures, that made so deep an impression upon his hearers; and Rabener was right when once he wrote to a friend, that "the philanthropic voice" of Gellert belonged to his words.

Above all, however, it was the amiable and pure personal character of Gellert which vividly and edifyingly impressed young hearts. Gellert was himself the best example of pure moral teaching; and the best which a teacher can give his pupils is faith in the victorious might, and the stability of the eternal moral laws. His lessons were for the Life, for his life in itself was a lesson. Many a victory over the troubles of life, over temptations of every kind, ay, many an elevation to nobility of thought, and to purity of action, had its origin in that lecture-hall, at the feet of Gellert.

It was as though Gellert felt that it was the last time he would deliver these lectures; that those words so often and so impressively uttered would be heard no more from his mouth; and there was a peculiar sadness, yet a peculiar strength, in all he said that day.

He had this day earnestly recommended


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 repel. The more interesting question connected with the left bank is whether it does not provide, as Napoleon thought, the most natural outlet for the expansion of Antwerp. Proposals to connect the two banks by a tunnel under the Scheldt have been made from time to time in a fitful manner, but nothing whatever had been done by 1908 to realize what appears to be a natural and easy project.

Population.—The following statistics show the growth of population in and since the 19th century. In 1800 the population was computed not to exceed 40,000. At the census of 1846 the total was 88,487; of 1851, 95,501; of 1880, 169,100; of 1900, 272,830; and of 1904, 291,949. To these figures ought to be added the populations (1904) of Borgerhout (43,391) and Berchem (26,383), as they are part of the city, which would give Antwerp a total population of 361,723.

History.—The suggested origin of the name Antwerp from Hand-werpen (hand-throwing), because a mythical robber chief indulged in the practice of cutting off his prisoners’ hands and throwing them into the Scheldt, appeared to Motley rather far-fetched, but it is less reasonable to trace it, as he inclines to do, from an t werf (on the wharf), seeing that the form Andhunerbo existed in the 6th century on the separation of Austrasia and Neustria. Moreover, hand-cutting was not an uncommon practice in Europe. It was perpetuated from a savage past in the custom of cutting off the right hand of a man who died without heir, and sending it as proof of main-morte to the feudal lord. Moreover, the two hands and a castle, which form the arms of Antwerp, will not be dismissed as providing no proof by any one acquainted with the scrupulous care that heralds displayed in the golden age of chivalry before assigning or recognizing the armorial bearings of any claimant.

In the 4th century Antwerp is mentioned as one of the places in the second Germany, and in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years best known as marquis of Antwerp. Antwerp was the headquarters of Edward III. during his early negotiations with van Artevelde, and his son Lionel, earl of Cambridge, was born there in 1338.

It was not, however, till after the closing of the Zwyn and the decay of Bruges that Antwerp became of importance. At the end of the 15th century the foreign trading gilds or houses were transferred from Bruges to Antwerp, and the building assigned to the English nation is specifically mentioned in 1510. In 1560, a year which marked the highest point of its prosperity, six nations, viz. the Spaniards, the Danes and the Hansa together, the Italians, the English, the Portuguese and the Germans, were named at Antwerp, and over 1000 foreign merchants were resident in the city. Guicciardini, the Venetian envoy, describes the activity of the port, into which 500 ships sometimes passed in a day, and as evidence of the extent of its land trade he mentioned that 2000 carts entered the city each week. Venice had fallen from its first place in European commerce, but still it was active and prosperous. Its envoy, in explaining the importance of Antwerp, states that there was as much business done there in a fortnight as in Venice throughout the year.

The religious troubles that marked the second half of the 16th century broke out in Antwerp as in every other part of Belgium excepting Liége. In 1576 the Spanish soldiery plundered the town during what was called “the Spanish Fury,” and 6000 citizens were massacred. Eight hundred houses were burnt down, and over two millions sterling of damage was wrought in the town on that occasion.

In 1585 a severe blow was struck at the prosperity of Antwerp when Parma captured it after a long siege and sent all its Protestant citizens into exile. The recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by the treaty of Münster in 1648 carried with it the death-blow to Antwerp’s prosperity as a place of trade, for one of its clauses stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation. This impediment remained in force until 1863, although the provisions were relaxed during French rule from 1795 to 1814, and also during the time Belgium formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 to 1830). Antwerp had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in 1800, and its population had sunk under 40,000, when Napoleon, realizing its strategical importance, assigned two millions for the construction of two docks and a mole.

One other incident in the chequered history of Antwerp deserves mention. In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under General Chassé. For a time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which inflicted much damage, and at the end of 1832 the citadel itself was besieged by a French army. During this attack the town was further injured. In December 1832, after a gallant defence, Chassé made an honourable surrender.

ANU, a Babylonian deity, who, by virtue of being the first figure in a triad consisting of Anu, Bel and Ea, came to be regarded as the father and king of the gods. Anu is so prominently associated with the city of Erech in southern Babylonia that there are good reasons for believing this place to have been the original seat of the Anu cult. If this be correct, then the goddess Nanā (or Ishtar) of Erech was presumably regarded as his consort. The name of the god signifies the “high one” and he was probably a god of the atmospheric region above the earth— perhaps a storm god like (q.v.), or like Yahweh among the ancient Hebrews. However this may be, already in the old-Babylonian period, i.e. before Khammurabi, Anu was regarded as the god of the heavens and his name became in fact synonymous with the heavens, so that in some cases it is doubtful whether, under the term, the god or the heavens is meant. It would seem from this that the grouping of the divine powers recognized in the universe into a triad symbolizing the three divisions, heavens, earth and the watery-deep, was a process of thought which had taken place before the third millennium. To Anu was assigned the control of the heavens, to Bel the earth, and to Ea the waters. The doctrine once established remained an inherent part of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion and led to the more or less complete disassociation of the three gods constituting the triad from their original local limitations. An intermediate step between Anu viewed as the local deity of Erech (or some other centre), Bel as the god of Nippur, and Ea as the god of Eridu is represented by the prominence which each one of the centres associated with the three deities in question must have acquired, and which led to each one absorbing the qualities of other gods so as to give them a controlling position in an organized pantheon. For Nippur we have the direct evidence that its chief deity, En-lil or Bel, was once regarded as the head of an extensive pantheon. The sanctity and, therefore, the importance of Eridu remained a fixed tradition in the minds of the people to the latest days, and analogy therefore justifies the conclusion that Anu was likewise worshipped in a centre which had acquired great prominence. The summing-up of divine powers manifested in the universe in a threefold division represents an outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia, but the selection of Anu, Bel and Ea for the three representatives of the three spheres recognized, is due to the importance which, for one reason or the other, the centres in which Anu, Bel and Ea were worshipped had acquired in the popular mind. Each of the three must have been regarded in his centre as the most important member in a larger or smaller group, so that their union in a triad marks also the combination of the three distinctive pantheons into a harmonious whole.

In the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria, Anu, Bel and Ea became the three zones of the ecliptic, the northern, middle and southern zone respectively. The purely theoretical character of Anu is thus still further emphasized, and in the annals and votive inscriptions as well as in the incantations and hymns, he is rarely introduced as an active force to whom a personal appeal can be made. His name becomes little more than a synonym for the heavens in general and even his title as king

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antwerp (city)


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Harvard, John

HARVARD, John, American clergyman, founder of Harvard University: b. England, probably in Middlesex, 1607; d. Charlestown, Mass., 24 Sept. 1638. He was entered as a pensioner at the University of Cambridge in 1628, was graduated B.A. in 1631-32, and M.A. in 1635, and having emigrated to America was made a freeman of the colony of Massachusetts, 2 Nov. 1637. The following year, as appears from the town records, a portion of land was set off for him in Charlestown, where he exercised the ministry. In April 1638, he was appointed one of a committee “to consider of some things tending toward a body of laws.” These are the only particulars known of his life. His property at his death was worth about £1,600, one-half of which he gave for the erection of the institution which bears his name; but part of this bequest, it is said, was diverted from its original purpose. He also left to the college a library of more than 300 volumes, indicating in their selection the taste and skill of a scholar. A monument to his memory was erected in the burial ground of Charlestown by the alumni of the university, and inaugurated with an address by Edward Everett, 26 Sept. 1828. See .


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Rh modesty and humility; and it appeared almost offensive to him, that people as he went should tempt him in regard to these very virtues; for continually he heard men whisper, "That is Gellert!"

What is fame, and what is honor? A cloak of many colors, without warmth, without protection: and now, as he walked along, his heart literally froze in his bosom, as he confessed to himself that he had as yet done nothing—nothing which could give him a feeling of real satisfaction. Men honored him and loved him: but what was all that worth? His innermost heart could not be satisfied with that; in his own estimation he deserved no meed of praise; and where, where was there any evidence of that higher and purer life which he would fain bring about! Then, again, the Spirit would comfort him and say: "Much seed is lost, much falls in stony places, and much on good ground and brings forth sevenfold."

His inmost soul heard not the consolation, for his body was weak and sore burdened from his youth up, and in his latter days yet more than ever; and there are conditions of the body in which the most elevating words, and the cheeriest notes of joy, strike dull and heavy on the soul. It is one of the bitterest experiences of life to discover how little one man can really be to another. How joyous is that youthful freshness which can


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16 believe that, by a thought transferred to another's heart, we can induce him to become another being, to live according to what he must acknowledge true, to throw aside his previous delusions, and return to the right path!

The youngsters go their way! Do your words follow after? Whither are they going? What are now their thoughts? What manner of life will be theirs? "My heart yearns after them, but cannot be with them: oh, how happy were those messengers of the Spirit, who cried aloud to youth or manhood the words of the Spirit, that they must leave their former ways, and thenceforth change to other beings! Pardon me, O God! that I would fain be like them; I am weak and vile, and yet, methinks, there must be words as yet unheard, unknown—oh! where are they, those words which at once lay hold upon the soul?"

With such heavy thoughts went Gellert away from his college-gate to Rosenthal. There was but one small pathway cleared, but the passers cheerfully made way for him, and walked in the snow that they might leave him the pathway unimpeded; but he felt sad, and "as if each tree had somewhat to cast at him." Like all men really pure, and cleaving to the good with all their might, Gellert was not only far from contenting himself with work already done: he also, in his anxiety to be doing, almost forgot that he


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Rh had ever done anything, and thus he was, in the best sense of the word, modest; he began with each fresh day his course of action afresh, as if he now for the first time had anything to accomplish. And yet he might have been happy, in the reflection how brightly beamed his teaching for ever, though his own life was often clouded. For as the sun which glows on summer days still lives as concentrated warmth in wine, and somewhere on some winter night warms up a human heart, so is the sunshine in that man's life whose vocation it is to impart to others the conceptions of his own mind. Nay, there is here far more; for the refreshing draught here offered is not diminished, though thousands drink thereof.

Twilight had set in when Gellert returned home to his dwelling, which had for its sign a "Schwarz Brett" or "black board." His old servant, Sauer by name, took off his overcoat; and his amanuensis, Gödike, asked whether the Professor had any commands; being answered in the negative, Gödike retired, and Sauer lighted the lamp upon the study-table. "Some letters have arrived," said he, as he pointed to several upon the table: Gellert inclined his head, and Sauer retired also. Outside, however, he stood awhile with Gödike, and both spoke sorrowfully of the fact that the Professor was evidently again suffering severely. "There is a melancholy," said Gödike, "and it is the most usual, in which


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18 the inward depression easily changes to displeasure against every one, and the household of the melancholic suffers thereby intolerably; for the displeasure turns against them,—no one does anything properly, nothing is in its place. How very different is Gellert's melancholy! Not a soul suffers from it but himself, against himself alone his gloomy thoughts turn, and towards every other creature he is always kind, amiable, and obliging: he bites his lips; but when he speaks to any one, he is wholly good, forbearing, and self-forgetful."

Whilst they were talking together, Gellert was sitting in his room, and had lighted a pipe to dispel the agitation which he would experience in opening his letters; and while smoking, he could read them much more comfortably. He reproached himself for smoking, which was said to be injurious to his health, but he could not quite give up the "horrible practice," as he called it.

He first examined the addresses and seals of the letters which had arrived, then quietly opened and read them. A fitful smile passed over his features; there were letters from well-known friends, full of love and admiration, but from strangers also, who, in all kinds of heart-distress, took counsel of him. He read the letters full of friendly applause, first hastily, that he might have the right of reading them again, and that he might not know all at once; and when he had


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Rh read a friend's letter for the second time, he sprang from his seat and cried, "Thank God! thank God! that I am so fortunate as to have such friends!" To his inwardly diffident nature these helps were a real requirement; they served to cheer him, and only those who did not know him called his joy at the reception of praise—conceit; it was, on the contrary, the truest modesty. How often did he sit there, and all that he had taught and written, all that he had ever been to men in word and deed, faded, vanished, and died away, and he appeared to himself but a useless servant of the world. His friends he answered immediately; and as his inward melancholy vanished, and the philanthropy, nay, the sprightliness of his soul beamed forth, when he was among men and looked in a living face, so was it also with his letters. When he bethought him of the friends to whom he was writing, he not only acquired tranquillity, that virtue for which his whole life long he strove; but his loving nature received new life, and only by slight intimations did he betray the heaviness and dejection which weighed upon his soul. He was, in the full sense of the word, "philanthropic," in the sight of good men; and in thoughts for their welfare, there was for him a real happiness and a joyous animation.

When, however, he had done writing and felt lonely again, the gloomy spirits came back: he


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20 had seated himself, wishing to raise his thoughts for composing a sacred song; but he was ill at ease, and had no power to express that inward, firm, and self-rejoicing might of faith which lived in him. Again and again the scoffers and free-thinkers rose up before his thoughts: he must refute their objections, and not until that was done did he become himself.

It is a hard position, when a creative spirit cannot forget the adversaries which on all sides oppose him in the world: they come unsummoned to the room and will not be expelled; they peer over the shoulder, and tug at the hand which fain would write; they turn images upside down, and distort the thoughts; and here and there, from ceiling and wall, they grin, and scoff, and oppose: and what was just gushing as an aspiration from the soul, is converted to a confused absurdity.

At such a time, the spirit, courageous and self-dependent, must take refuge in itself and show a firm front to a world of foes.

A strong nature boldly hurls his inkstand at the Devil's head; goes to battle with his opponents with words both written and spoken; and keeps his own individuality free from the perplexities with which opponents disturb all that has been previously done, and make the soul unsteadfast and unnerved for what is to come.

Gellert's was no battling, defiant nature, which


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Rh relies upon itself; he did not hurl his opponents down and go his way; he would convince them, and so they were always ready to encounter him. And as the applause of his friends rejoiced him, so the opposition of his enemies could sink him in deep dejection. Besides, he had always been weakly; he had, as he himself complained, in addition to frequent coughs and a pain in his loins, a continual gnawing and pressure in the centre of his chest, which accompanied him from his first rising in the morning until he slept at night.

Thus he sat for a while, in deep dejection: and, as often before, his only wish was, that God would give him grace whereby when his hour was come, he might die piously and tranquilly.

It was past midnight when he sought his bed and extinguished his light.

And the buckets at the well go up and go down.

About the same hour, in Duben Forest, the rustic Christopher was rising from his bed. As with steel and flint he scattered sparks upon the tinder, in kindling himself a light, his wife, awaking, cried:

"Why that heavy sigh?"

"Ah! life is a burden: I'm the most harassed mortal in the world. The pettiest office-clerk may now be abed in peace, and need n't break off


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22 his sleep, while I must go out and brave wind and weather."

"Be content," replied his wife: "why, I dreamt you had actually been made magistrate, and wore something on your head like a king's crown."

"Oh! you women; as though what you see is n't enough, you like to chatter about what you dream."

"Light the lamp, too," said his wife, "and I'll get up and make you a nice porridge."

The peasant, putting a candle in his lantern, went to the stable; and after he had given some fodder to the horses, he seated himself upon the manger. With his hands squeezed between his knees and his head bent down, he reflected over and over again what a wretched existence he had of it. "Why," thought he, "are so many men so well-off, so comfortable, whilst you must be always toiling? What care I if envy be not a virtue?—and yet I'm not envious, I don't grudge others being well-off, only I should like to be well-off too; oh, for a quiet, easy life! Am I not worse off than a horse? He gets his fodder at the proper time, and takes no care about it. Why did my father make my brother a minister? He gets his salary without any trouble, sits in a warm room, has no care in the world; and I must slave and torment myself."

Strange to say, his very next thought, that he


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Harvard

HARVARD, Ill., a city and important railway junction in Chemung Township, McHenry County, at the intersection of three divisions of the Chicago and Northern Railroad, 63 miles northwest of Chicago. It has city waterworks, railroad repair shops, a malthouse and brewery, manufactures of agricultural implements, wagons and carriages and grist and woolen mills. Pop. 3,008.


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Rh literati, including among its members such men as Garrick and Byron. White's Cocoa House, adjoining St. James' Palace, was even better known, eventually developing into the respectable White's Club, though at one time a great gambling centre.

A little later the "Indian Nectar," recommended by a learned doctor on account of "its secret virtue," was to be obtained of "an honest though poor man" in East Smithfield at 6s. 8d. a pound, or the "commoner sort at about half the price," so that it was getting within more general reach. Subsequently the following advertisement appeared regarding a patented preparation of cocoa " now sold at 4s. 9d. per pound."

"N.B.—The curious may be supplied with this superfine chocolate, that exceeds the finest sold by other makers, plain at 6s., with vanillos at 7s. To be sold for ready money only at Mr. Churchman's Chocolate Warehouse, at Mr. John Young's, in St. Paul's Churchyard, London, A.D. 1732."


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 88 The opportunities of increasing the revenue from the growing favourite were not lost sight of, and till 1820 its spread was checked by a duty of 1s. 6d. a pound, collected by the sale of stamped wrappers for each pound, half-pound, or quarter-pound, "neither more nor less," just as in the case of patent medicines at present.

In the reign of George III. the duty on colonial cocoa was raised to 1s. 10d. a pound, that on such as the East India Company imported to 2s., and that on all other sources of supply to 3s. In the early years of the last century the cocoa imported from any country not a British possession was charged no less than 5s. 10d. a pound as excise, with an extra Custom's duty of from 2½d. to 4¾d. on entry for home consumption. This restrictive tariff was by degrees relaxed, but it is only since 1853 that the duty has been reduced to 2d. a pound on the manufactured article, or 1d. a pound on the raw material.

While the heavy duties were in force, all houses in which the manufacture or sale of cocoa was carried on were compelled to have


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90 quantities doubled between 1880 and 1890, and have since more than doubled again.


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 Rh cacao as long as sugar realized high prices, but in comparatively recent years it has been more extensively planted, and the crops from the lowlands at the mouths of the great South American rivers have been very heavy.

In French Guiana cacao was scarcely cultivated until about 1734, when a forest of it was discovered on a branch of the Yari, which flows into the Amazon. From this forest seeds were gathered, and plantations were laid out in Cayenne.

The cacao of Pará in Brazil differs from all other growths; the bean is much smaller and rounder, and is elongated, but when well cured it is mild, and has a very pleasant flavour, highly valued by manufacturers. Bahia produces large quantities of cacao, formerly of an inferior quality, owing to careless cultivation and indiscriminate mixing of all that was brought from the interior, some of it wild and uncured. But now this state of things is being improved, and the good quality of "fermented" Bahian cacao is fully recognised.

A little cacao is grown in the low-lying parts


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 94 of Rio Janeiro, but it is not to be met with farther south than this. The part of Florida which borders the Gulf of Mexico and the southern part of Louisiana mark the northerly limit of its natural growth. A traveller in Louisiana in 1796 speaks of the cacao-tree among others as "covering with delightful shade the shores of the Mississippi," and on the banks of the Alatamaha in Georgia, but it is not cultivated so far north.

At the present day the West India Islands rival the South American Continent in providing cocoa from the New World. Trinidad has for more than a century deservedly claimed to be the first of these cocoa-producing islands. As far back as the sixteenth century the Spaniards who first colonized the island were interested in the cultivation of cacao. In the year 1780 a French gentleman residing in the neighbouring island of Grenada visited Trinidad, and gave such a glowing account of its fertility