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Rh having reduced a conscious experience to simpler terms, the process of reconstruction begins. The functions and processes that have been reduced to numerical terms are recombined in their several amounts and the integration when complete represents an individual in so far as that individual is typical. With the absolute and exhaustive description of the individual as such, science is not concerned. Typical minds thus derived are, so to say, minds of different length and breadth and thickness. They are analogous to the variable organs and functions of the body. Their scientific description differs from the crude characterizations which we pass upon our friends and enemies as the law of falling bodies differs from an observer's account of a balloonist's accident.

The steps, then, in the procedure of individual psychology are (1) the measurement of a group of mental processes or functions, (2) analysis for the discovery of elementary or fundamental differences, (3) integration of these differential factors, and (4) a classification of types; measurement, analysis, integration, description, a common and justified sequence in the general methodology of science. I Compare with this procedure the instances taken a few moments ago from the psychology of common sense—the method employed, let us say, by Pearson. The first and the last steps are combined ("conscientiousness" or "assertiveness" represents the type), analysis and integration are omitted, and an offhand estimate is substituted for careful measurement.

I fear that I have been tedious and that I have perplexed you overmuch with matters remote from your primary interests. My excuse is that I have given you in part a program for the future, and that methods in the making are notoriously self-conscious and awkward of expression. If it were ten years later doubtless I could display more product and vex you less with the process. I could, I have reason to believe, show you this psychological problem of ours, which already at the early stage of crude quantification has proved itself extremely fertile, in a much more mature and fruitful state.

Now that you have before you, in outline, the problem of mental inheritance, its debt to biology, and the present necessity—if the problem is to advance—for the analytical treatment of traits by a science of individual differences, let me in closing return to my earlier remarks touching the import of inheritance in human history. I urged that human knowledge and human obligation have grown out of proportion to human talent. So far as we can tell, the child of to-day possesses the same nervous system, the same sense organs, evinces the same instinctive tendencies, in short, develops with the same physical and mental equipment as the child of unnumbered generations ago. If, so far as education went, the primitive boy was ready for man's estate at


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52 or at six. She had attempted no secrecy with these prophecies; she had confined herself in appearance to words; and the publicity which she courted having prevented suspicion of secret conspiracy, Henry quietly accepted the issue, and left the truth of the prophecy to be confuted by the event. He married. The one month passed; the six months passed; eight—nine months. His child was born and was baptized, and no divine thunder had interposed; only a mere harmless verbal thunder, from a poor old man at Home. The illusion, as he imagined, had been lived down, and had expired of its own vanity.

But the Nun and her friar advisers were counting on other methods of securing the fulfilment of the prophecy than supernatural assistance. It is remarkable that, hypocrites and impostors as they knew themselves to be, they were not without a half-belief that some supernatural intervention was imminent; but the career on which they had entered was too fascinating to allow them to forsake it when their expectation failed them. They were swept into the stream which was swelling to resist the Reformation, and allowed themselves to be hurried forward either to victory or to destruction.

The first revelation being apparently confuted by facts, a second was produced as an interpretation of it; which, however, was not published like the other, but whispered in secret to persons whose dispositions were known.

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1533.] 'When the King's Grace,' says the report of the commissioners, 'had continued in good health, honour, and prosperity more than a month, Dr Bocking showed the said Nun, that as King Saul, abjected from his kingdom by God, yet continued king in the sight of the world, so her said revelations might be taken. And therefore the said Nun, upon this information, forged another revelation, that her words should be understanded to mean that the King's Grace should not be king in the reputation or acceptation of God, not one month or one hour after that he married the Queen's Grace that now is. The first revelation had moved a great number of the King's subjects, both high and low, to grudge against the said marriage before it was concluded and perfected; and also induced such as were stiffly bent against that marriage, daily to look for the destruction of the King's Grace within a month after he married the Queen's Grace that now is. And when they were deluded in that expectation, the second revelation was devised not only as an interpretation of the former, but to the intent to induce the King's subjects to believe that God took the King's Grace for no king of this realm; and that they should likewise take him for no righteous king, and themselves not bounden to be his subjects; which might have put the King and the Queen's Grace in jeopardy of their crown and of


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54 their issue, and the people of this realm in great danger of destruction.'

It was no light matter to pronounce the King to be in the position of Saul after his rejection; and read by the light of the impending excommunication, the Nun's words could mean nothing but treason. The speaker herself was in correspondence with the Pope; she had attested her divine commission by miracles, and had been recognized as a saint by an Archbishop of Canterbury; the regular orders of the clergy throughout the realm were known to regard her as inspired; and when the commission recollected that the King was threatened further with dying 'a villain's death;' and that these and similar prophecies were carefully written out, and were in private circulation through the country, the matter assumed a dangerous complexion: it became at once essential to ascertain how far, and among what classes of the State, these things had penetrated. The Friars Mendicant were discovered to be in league with her, and these itinerants were ready-made missionaries of sedition. They had privilege of vagrancy without check or limit; and owing to their universal distribution and the freemasonry among themselves, the secret disposition of every family in England was intimately known to them. No movement, therefore, could be securely overlooked in which these orders had a share; the country might be undermined in secret; and the Government might only learn their danger at the moment of explosion.


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1533.] No sooner, therefore, were the commissioners in possession of the general facts, than the principal parties—that is to say, the Nun herself and five of the monks of Christ Church at Canterbury, with whom her intercourse was most constant—were sent to the Tower to be 'examined'—the monks it is likely by 'torture,' if they could not otherwise be brought to confession. The Nun was certainly not tortured. On her first arrest, she was obstinate in maintaining her prophetic character; and she was detected in sending messages to her friends, 'to animate them to adhere to her and to her prophecies.' But her courage ebbed away under the hard reality of her position. She soon made a full confession, in which her accomplices joined her; and the half-completed web of conspiracy was ravelled out. They did not attempt to conceal that they had intended, if possible, to create an insurrection. The five monks—Father Bocking, Father Rich, Father Rysby, Father Dering, and Father Goold—had assisted the Nun in inventing her 'Revelations;' and as apostles, they had travelled about the country to communicate them in whatever quarters they were likely to be welcome. When we remember that Archbishop Warham had been a dupe of this woman, and that even Wolsey's experience and ability had not prevented him from believing in her power, we are not surprised to find high names among those who were implicated. Vast numbers of abbots and priors, and of regular and secular clergy, had listened eagerly;


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56 gentlemen also, and London merchants. The Bishop of Rochester had 'wept for joy' at the first utterances of the inspired prophetess; and Sir Thomas More, 'who at first did little regard the said revelations, afterwards did greatly rejoice to hear of them.' We learn, also, that the Nun had continued to communicate with 'the Lady Princess Dowager' and 'the Lady Mary, her daughter.'

These were names which might have furnished cause for regret, but little for surprise or alarm. The commissioners must have found occasion for other feelings, however, when among the persons implicated were found the Countess of Salisbury and the Marchioness of Exeter, with their chaplains, households, and servants; Sir Thomas Arundel, Sir George Carew, and 'many of the nobles of England.' A combination headed by the Countess of Salisbury, if she were supported even by a small section of the nobility, would under any circumstances have been dangerous; and if such a combination was formed in support of an invasion, and was backed by the blessings of the Pope and the fanaticism of the clergy, the result might be serious indeed. So careful a silence is observed in the official papers on this feature of the Nun's conspiracy, that it is uncertain how far the Countess had committed herself; but she had listened certainly to avowals of treasonable intentions


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1533.] without revealing them, which of itself was no slight evidence of disloyalty; and that the Government were really alarmed may be gathered from the simultaneous arrest of Sir William and Sir George Neville, the brothers of Lord Latimer. The connection and significance of these names I shall explain presently; in the mean time I return to the preparations which had been made by the Nun.

As the final judgment drew near—which, unless the King submitted, would be accompanied with excommunication, and a declaration that the English nation was absolved from allegiance—'the said false Nun,' says the report, 'surmised herself to have made a petition to God to know, when fearful war should come, whether any man should take my Lady Mary's part or no; and she feigned herself to have answer by revelation that no man should fear but that she should have succour and help enough; and that no man should put her from her right that she was born unto. And petitioning next to know when it was the pleasure of God that her revelations should be put forth to the world, she had answer that knowledge should be given to her ghostly father when it should be time.'

With this information Father Goold had hastened down to Bugden, encouraging Catherine to persevere in her resistance; and while the Imperialists at Rome


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58 were pressing the Pope for sentence (we cannot doubt at Catherine's instance), the Nun had placed herself in readiness to seize the opportunity when it offered, and to blow the trumpet of insurrection in the panic which might be surely looked for when that sentence should be published.

For this purpose she had organized, with considerable skill, a corps of fanatical friars, who, when the signal was given, were simultaneously to throw themselves into the midst of the people, and call upon them to rise in the name of God. 'To the intent,' says the report, 'to set forth this matter, certain spiritual and religious persons were appointed, as they had been chosen of God, to preach the false revelations of the said Nun, when the time should require, if warning were given them; and some of these preachers have confessed openly, and subscribed their names to their confessions, that if the Nun had so sent them word, they would have preached to the King's subjects that the pleasure of God was that they should take him no longer for their King; and some of these preachers were such as gave themselves to great fasting, watching, long prayers, wearing of shirts of hair and great chains of iron about their middle,, whereby the people had them in high estimation of their great holiness,—and this strait life they took on them by the counsel and exhortation of the said Nun.'


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1533.] Here, then, was the explanation of the attitude of Catherine and Mary. Smarting under injustice, and most naturally blending their private quarrel with the cause of the Church, they had listened to these disordered visions as to a message from heaven, and they had lent themselves to the first of those religious conspiracies which held England in chronic agitation for three-quarters of a century. The innocent Saint at Eugden was the forerunner of the prisoner at Fotheringay; and the Observant friars, with their chain girdles and shirts of hair, were the antitypes of Parsons and Campion. How critical the situation of Eng. November. land really was, appears from the following letter of the French ambassador. The project for the marriage of the Princess Mary with the Dauphin had been revived by the Catholic party; and a private arrangement, of which this marriage was to form the connecting link, was contemplated between the Ultramontanes in France, the Pope, and the Emperor.

',—You will be so good as to tell the Most Christian King that the Emperor's ambassador has communicated with the old Queen. The Emperor sends a message to her and to her daughter, that he will not return to Spain till he has seen them restored to their rights.

'The people are so much attached to the said ladies


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60 that they will rise in rebellion, and join any prince who will undertake their quarrel. You probably know from other quarters the intensity of this feeling. It is shared by all classes, high and low, and penetrates even into the royal household.

'The nation is in marvellous discontent. Every one but the relations of the present Queen, is indignant on the ladies' account. Some fear the overthrow of religion; others fear war and injury to trade. Up to this time, the cloth, hides, wool, lead, and other merchandise of England have found markets in Flanders, Spain, and Italy; now it is thought navigation will be so dangerous that English merchants must equip their ships for war if they trade to foreign countries; and besides the risk of losing all to the enemy, the expense of the armament will swallow the profits of the voyage. In like manner, the Emperor's subjects and the Pope's subjects will not be able to trade with England. The coasts will be blockaded by the ships of the Emperor and his allies; and at this moment men's fears are aggravated by the unseasonable weather throughout the summer, and the failure of the crops. There is not corn enough for half the ordinary consumption.

'The common people, foreseeing these inconveniences, are so violent against the Queen, that they say a thousand shameful things of her, and of all who have supported her in her intrigues. On them is cast the odium of all the calamities anticipated from the war.

'When the war comes, no one doubts that the people will rebel as much from fear of the dangers which I


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the morning, after bathing, Siegmund leaned upon the sea wall in a kind of reverie. It was late, towards nine o’clock, yet he lounged, dreamily looking out on the turquoise blue water, and the white haze of morning, and the small, fair shadows of ships slowly realizing before him. In the bay were two battleships, uncouth monsters, lying as naïve and curious as sealions strayed afar.

Siegmund was gazing oversea in a half-stupid way, when he heard a voice beside him say:

“Where have they come from; do you know, sir?”

He turned, saw a fair, slender man of some thirty-five years standing beside him and smiling faintly at the battleships.

“The men of war? There are a good many at Spithead,” said Siegmund.

The other glanced negligently into his face.

“They look rather incongruous, don’t you think? We left the sea empty and shining, and when we come again, behold, these objects keeping their eye on us!”

Siegmund laughed.

“You are not an Anarchist, I hope?” he said jestingly.

“A Nihilist, perhaps,” laughed the other. “But


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104 I am quite fond of the Czar, if pity is akin to love. No; but you can’t turn round without finding some policeman or other at your elbow—look at them, abominable ironmongery!—ready to put his hand on your shoulder.”

The speaker’s grey-blue eyes, always laughing with mockery, glanced from the battleships and lit on the dark blue eyes of Siegmund. The latter felt his heart lift in a convulsive movement. This stranger ran so quickly to a perturbing intimacy.

“I suppose we are in the hands of—God,” something moved Siegmund to say. The stranger contracted his eyes slightly as he gazed deep at the speaker.

“Ah!” he drawled curiously. Then his eyes wandered over the wet hair, the white brow, and the bare throat of Siegmund, after which they returned again to the eyes of his interlocutor. “Does the Czar sail this way?” he asked at last.

“I do not know,” replied Siegmund, who, troubled by the other’s penetrating, gaze, had not expected so trivial a question.

“I suppose the newspaper will tell us?” said the man.

“Sure to,” said Siegmund.

“You haven’t seen it this morning?”

“Not since Saturday.”

The swift blue eyes of the man dilated. He looked curiously at Siegmund.

“You are not alone on your holiday?”

“No.” Siegmund did not like this—he gazed over the sea in displeasure.

“I live here—at least for the present—name, Hampson——”


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Rh “Why, weren’t you one of the first violins at the Savoy fifteen years back?” asked Siegmund. They chatted awhile about music. They had known each other, had been fairly intimate, and had since become strangers. Hampson excused himself for having addressed Siegmund:

“I saw you with your nose flattened against the window,” he said, “and as I had mine in the same position too, I thought we were fit to be re-acquainted.”

SeigmundSiegmund [sic] looked at the man in astonishment.

“I only mean you were staring rather hard at nothing. It’s a pity to try and stare out of a beautiful blue day like this, don’t you think?”

“Stare beyond it, you mean?” asked Siegmund.

“Exactly!” replied the other, with a laugh of intelligence. “I call a day like this ‘the blue room.’ It’s the least draughty apartment in all the confoundedly draughty House of Life.”

Siegmund look at him very intently. This Hampson seemed to express something in his own soul.

“I mean,” the man explained, “that after all, the great mass of life that washes unidentified, and that we call death, creeps through the blue envelope of the day, and through our white tissue, and we can’t stop it, once we’ve begun to leak.”

“What do you mean by ‘leak?’ ” asked Siegmund.

“Goodness knows—I talk through my hat. But once you’ve got a bit tired of the house, you glue your nose to the window pane, and stare for the dark—as you were doing.”

“But, to use your metaphor, I’m not tired of the House—if you mean Life,” said Siegmund.

“Praise God! I’ve met a poet who’s not afraid of


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106 having his pocket picked—or his soul, or his brain!” said the stranger, throwing his head back in a brilliant smile, his eyes dilated.

“I don’t know what you mean, sir,” said Siegmund, very quietly, with a strong fear and a fascination opposing each other in his heart.

“You’re not tired of the House, but of your own particular room—say, suite of rooms——”

“To-morrow I am turned out of this ‘blue room,’ ” said Siegmund with a wry smile. The other looked at him seriously.

“Dear Lord!” exclaimed Hampson; then: “Do you remember Flaubert’s saint, who laid naked against a leper? I could not do it.”

“Nor I,” shuddered Siegmund.

“But you’ve got to—or something near it!”

Siegmund looked at the other with frightened, horrified eyes.

“What of yourself?” he said, resentfully.

“I’ve funked—ran away from my leper, and now am eating my heart out, and staring from the window at the dark.”

“But can’t you do something?” said Siegmund.

The other man laughed with amusement, throwing his head back and showing his teeth.

“I won’t ask you what your intentions are,” he said, with delicate irony in his tone. “You know, I am a tremendously busy man. I earn five hundred a year by hard work; but it’s no good. If you have acquired a liking for intensity in life, you can’t do without it. I mean vivid soul experience. It takes the place, with us, of the old adventure, and physical excitement.”


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Rh Siegmund looked at the other man with baffled, anxious eyes.

“Well, and what then?” he said.

“What then? A craving for intense life is nearly as deadly as any other craving. You become a ‘concentré’; you feed your normal flame with oxygen, and it devours your tissue. The soulful ladies of romance are always semi-transparent.”

Siegmund laughed.

“At least, I am quite opaque,” he said.

The other glanced over his easy, mature figure and strong throat.

“Not altogether,” said Hampson. “And you, I should think, are one whose flame goes nearly out, when the stimulant is lacking.”

Siegmund glanced again at him, startled.

“You haven’t much reserve. You’re like a tree that’ll flower till it kills itself,” the man continued. “You’ll run till you drop, and then you won’t get up again. You’ve no dispassionate intellect to control you and economize.”

“You’re telling me very plainly what I am and am not,” said Siegmund, laughing rather sarcastically. He did not like it.

“Oh, it’s only what I think,” replied Hampson. “We’re a good deal alike, you see, and have gone the same way. You married and I didn’t; but women have always done as they liked with me.”

“That’s hardly so in my case,” said Siegmund.

Hampson eyed him critically.

“Say one woman; it’s enough,” he replied.

Siegmund gazed, musing, over the sea.

“The best sort of women—the most


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108 the worst for us,” Hampson resumed. “By instinct they aim at suppressing the gross and animal in us. Then they are supersensitive—refined a bit beyond humanity. We, who are as little gross as need be, become their instruments. Life is grounded in them, like electricity in the earth; and we take from them their unrealized life, turn it into light or warmth or power for them. The ordinary woman is, alone, a great potential force, an accumulator, if you like, charged from the source of life. In us her force becomes evident.

“She can’t live without us, but she destroys us. These deep, interesting women don’t want us; they want the flowers of the spirit they can gather of us. We, as natural men, are more or less degrading to them and to their love of us; therefore they destroy the natural man in us—that is, us altogether.”

“You’re a bit downright, are you not?” asked Siegmund, deprecatingly. He did not disagree with what his friend said, nor tell him such statements were arbitrary.

“That’s according to my intensity,” laughed Hampson. “I can open the blue heaven with looking, and push back the doors of day a little, and see—God knows what! One of these days I shall slip through. Oh, I am perfectly sane; I only strive beyond myself!”

“Don’t you think it’s wrong to get like it?” asked Siegmund.

“Well, I do, and so does everybody; but the crowd profits by us in the end. When they understand my music, it will be an education to them; and the whole aim of mankind is to render life intelligible.”

Siegmund pondered a little.


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 Western Australia

Customs Vasse

22 June 1875

Sir

Herewith I have the honor to forward as requested Minutes of Enquiry related to the loss of the Brig 'Geffrard' on the coast near Quindalup Jetty on the night of the 16th instant. The question as to the second anchor being down at the time appears as a matter of dispute with nautical men at the Vasse, some considering it advisable, and others quite contrary, it is a fact that the first and second mates had ample mooring did they consider it best to drop the second anchor. On speaking to Capt. Davis the owner, he acknowledged it was a matter of opinion, although he thought the second anchor ought to have been down.

A defective link in the heavy chain in the weld is visible which would admit the

Collector of Customs

Fremantle


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 Minutes of Inquiry taken before J. S. Harris Esq Sub Collector of Customs Port Vasse, & J. G. Bussel Esq J.P. relating to the stranding of the Brig "Geffrard" off Quindalup Beach Station; on Monday this 21 day of June 1875.

J. W. Munday saith I am Master of the Brig "Geffrard" now lying aground off ston's about ¾ of a mile to the Eastward  & about ½ mile from the beach. The vessel was at anchor before the casualty about 1½ mile from the jetty which S by W.  the ship was in 4 fathoms water. The topgallant yard & mast were down.


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Rh “You make me feel—as if I were loose, and a long way off from myself,” he said slowly.

The young man smiled, then looked down at the wall, where his own hands lay white and fragile, showing the blue veins.

“I can scarcely believe they are me,” he said. “If they rose up and refused me, I should not be surprised. But aren’t they beautiful?”

He looked, with a faint smile, at Siegmund.

Siegmund glanced from the stranger’s to his own hands, which lay curved on the sea-wall as if asleep. They were small for a man of his stature, but, lying warm in the sun, they looked particularly secure in life. Instinctively, with a wave of self-love, he closed his fists over his thumbs.

“I wonder,” said Hampson softly, with strange bitterness, “that she can’t see it; I wonder she doesn’t cherish you. You are full and beautiful enough in the flesh—why will she help to destroy you, when she loved you to such extremity?”

Siegmund looked at him with awe-stricken eyes. The frail, swift man, with his intensely living eyes, laughed suddenly.

“Fools—the fools, these women!” he said. “Either they smash their own crystal, or it revolts, turns opaque, and leaps out of their hands. Look at me, I am whittled down to the quick; but your neck is thick with compressed life; it is a stem so tense with life that it will hold up by itself. I am very sorry.”

All at once he stopped. The bitter despair in his tone was the voice of a heavy feeling of which Siegmund had been vaguely aware for some weeks. Siegmund felt a sense of doom. He la.ughed, trying to shake it off.


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110 “I wish I didn’t go on like this,” said Hampson piteously. “I wish I could be normal. How hot it is already! You should wear a hat. It is really hot.” He pulled open his flannel shirt.

“I like the heat,” said Siegmund.

“So do I.”

Directly the young man dashed the long hair on his forehead into some sort of order, bowed, and smiling in his gay fashion, walked leisurely to the village.

Siegmund stood awhile as if stunned. It seemed to him only a painful dream. Sighing deeply to relieve himself of the pain, he set off to find Helena.


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User:Amire80/jv

ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ

ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ

שלום

title: User:Amire80/jv


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 WORKS BY LEWIS CARROLL.

PHANTASMAGORIA, AND OTHER POEMS. Fcap.

8vo. cloth, gilt edges, price 6.s.

ALICE'S ADVENTURES IN WONDERLAND. With

Forty-two Illustrations, by. Crown 8vo. cloth, gilt edges, price 6s. Twenty-ninth Thousand.

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THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS, AND WHAT ALICE FOUND THERE.

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 the western world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame. Its amenities awoke both the enthusiasm and the scorn of many writers of antiquity.

Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire under Antiochus I., its counterpart in the east being Seleucia-on-Tigris; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 ), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Asia Minor, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamum. Thenceforward the Seleucids resided at Antioch and treated it as their capital par excellence. We know little of it in the Greek period, apart from (q.v.), all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a great reputation for letters and the arts (Cicero pro Archia, 3); but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period, that have come down to us, are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The mass of the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic, and to have spoken Aramaic in non-official life. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the “Persian Artemis” of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce. We may infer, from its epithet, “Golden,” that the external appearance of Antioch was magnificent; but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been peculiarly liable. The first great earthquake is said by the native chronicler John Malalas, who tells us most that we know of the city, to have occurred in 148, and to have done immense damage. The inhabitants were turbulent, fickle and notoriously dissolute. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house they took violent part, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147, and Demetrius II. in 129. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned definitely against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes of Armenia to occupy the city in 83, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII. in 65, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Its wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64, but remained a civitas libera.

The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid Antiochenes; but their emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could ever be, thanks to the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Caesar visited it in 47, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the instance of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod, erected a long stoa on the east, and Agrippa encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this. Under the empire we chiefly hear of the earthquakes which shook Antioch. One, in 37, caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another followed in the next reign; and in 115, during Trajan’s sojourn in the place with his army of Parthia, the whole site was convulsed, the landscape altered, and the emperor himself forced to take shelter in the circus for several days. He and his successor restored the city; but in 526, after minor shocks, the calamity returned in a terrible form, and thousands of lives were lost, largely those of Christians gathered to a great church assembly. We hear also of especially terrific earthquakes on the 29th of November 528 and the 31st of October 588.

At Antioch Germanicus died in 19, and his body was burnt in the forum. Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over one of the gates. Commodus had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch, and in 266 the town was suddenly raided by the Persians, who slew many in the theatre. In 387 there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status. Zeno, who renamed it Theopolis, restored many of its public buildings just before the great earthquake of 526, whose destructive work was completed by the Persian Chosroes twelve years later. Justinian made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.

The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to Christianity. Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy (cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas and Saul, its converts were the first to be called “Christians.” They multiplied exceedingly, and by the time of Theodosius were reckoned by Chrysostom at about 100,000 souls. Between 252 and 300 ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the residence of the patriarch of Asia. When Julian visited the place in 362 the impudent population railed at him for his favour to Jewish and pagan rites, and to revenge itself for the closing of its great church of Constantine, burned down the temple of Apollo in Daphne. The emperor’s rough and severe habits and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons, to which he replied in the curious satiric apologia, still extant, which he called Misopogon. His successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum having a statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church, which stood till the sack of Chosroes in 538. Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who performed his penance on a hill some 40 m. east. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo. In 635, during the reign of Heraclius, Antioch passed into Saracen hands, and decayed apace for more than 300 years; but in 969 it was recovered for Byzantium by Michael Burza and Peter the Eunuch. In 1084 the Seljuk Turks captured it but held it only fourteen years, yielding place to the crusaders, who besieged it for nine months, enduring frightful sufferings. Being at last betrayed, it was given to Bohemund, prince of Tarentum, and it remained the capital of a Latin principality for nearly two centuries. It fell at last to the Egyptian, Bibars, in 1268, after a great destruction and slaughter, from which it never revived. Little remains now of the ancient city, except colossal ruins of aqueducts and part of the Roman walls, which are used as quarries for modern Antakia; but no scientific examination of the site has been made. A statue in the Vatican and a silver statuette in the British Museum perpetuate the type of its great effigy of the civic Fortune of Antioch—a majestic seated figure, with Orontes as a youth issuing from under her feet.

the modern town, is still of considerable importance. Pop. about 25,000, including Ansarieh, Jews, and a large body of Christians of several denominations about 8000 strong. Though superseded by (q.v.) as capital of N. Syria, it is still the centre of a large district, growing in wealth and productiveness with the draining of its central lake, undertaken by a French company. The principal cultures are tobacco, maize and cotton, and the mulberry for silk production. Liquorice also is collected and exported. In 1822 (as in 1872) Antakia suffered by earthquake, and when Ibrahim Pasha made it his headquarters in 1835, it had only some 5000 inhabitants. Its hopes, based on a Euphrates valley railway, which was to have started from its port of Suedia (Seleucia), were doomed to disappointment, and it has suffered repeatedly from visitations of cholera; but it has nevertheless grown rapidly and will resume much of its old importance when a railway is made down the lower Orontes valley. It is a

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Author talk:Chester Barlow

Biographical sources
An index of The Auk on the Internet Archive shows Barlow's name as "Barlow, Chester, 1874-1902". His obituary was in in 20: 92-93 (1903). NB: Died November 6, 1902. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 12:56, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Educational Associations

EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. The beginnings of educational associations in the United States antedated the public school system. Long before the organization of State school systems and before the days of the railroad when travel was of necessity by stagecoach, the great need of conference and exchange of thought was slowly being realized and in several States, particularly in New England and New York, county or other local gatherings of teachers and those interested in education were organized.

Of the educational associations in the United States having a national character, the American Institute of Instruction is probably the earliest. This association was organ tied in August 1830. The first meeting was held in the State House, Boston, Mass., and President Francis Wayland of Brown was the presiding officer: The first

seven meetings were held in Boston. They were marked by the presence of great leaders and educational statesmen rather than of those actually engaged in classroom teaching. Horace Mann, who was then a member of the Massachusetts legislature, attended the first meeting at Boston and became greatly interested in the discussions. The program attracted his attention and active support. As a result he turned from the law and from legislative halls and became one of our greatest educational leaders. Among those in frequent attendance on the early meetings were Horace Mann, Thomas H. Gallaudet, Henry Barnard, Samuel G. Howe, Asa Gray, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, Charles Sumner, David P. Page, Edward Everett and many others whose names are equally familiar. The first few years these meetings in Boston were epochmaking, but discordant elements brought about a change in plans and for the next seven years the annual meetings were held in various New England cities. Through the influence of Horace Mann Massachusetts made an annual appropriation, at first $300 and later $500 for the expenses of the meetings. This was discontinue* in 1874. With the rise of the State associations in 1845 the interest in the organization declined. It was desired to make the new State organizations more representative and popular but the dynamic influence of the great leaders who had been active in the meetings of the institute was continued through the efforts of Rhode Island leaders. It was commercialized through the excursion idea which was made a feature of the meetings, and thus was enabled to continue from year to year, but unusual expenses and a very limited income from the membership proved a serious embarrassment. More recently, however, the membership has increased and the expenses have been reduced so that the period since 1900 has been more encouraging than at any time since the great leadership of its early days. The contributions of the American Institute of Instruction through the educational statesmen who were in attendance at the early meetings were beyond measure in developing public thought toward a rational educational program. In comparison with the larger State and national meetings the annual meetings of the institute have been small. It has seldom exceeded 2,000 members in enrolment. Although its history has been largely associated with New England, yet its membership has been drawn in part from many other States.

The Western Literary Institute and College of Professional Teachers which was organized in 1831 drew its membership largely from the four States — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky. Of the 15 annual meetings, 12 were held in Cincinnati, and 3 in Louisville. This association was very active and was supported by the strongest teachers in this section of the country. The spirit and thought of the meetings were progressive. The remarkable development of the new country reacted on the educational thought. There was a freedom from conservatism and women were permitted to take active part in the deliberations. The association continued until 1845 and exerted a wide inflneace on the schools.

The American Lyceum Association held its

first national convention in New York city in 1831. It continued for nine years, when the last meeting was held in Philadelphia. The association was interested in general educational problems but more particularly in advancing improved methods, in creating an interest in the study of the natural sciences, in providing the schools with books and apparatus, and in emphasizing the importance of the education of women. Among the papers discussed on the programs were “Manual-Training Schools,” “The Education of the Blind,” “Vocal Music,” “Eye Training,” “Education of the Deaf,” “Geology,” “Female Education,” “The Embellishment and Improvement of Towns.” The programs were prophetic in character. The association created a wide interest in libraries and “lyceums.”

The American Association for the Advancement of Education was organized as the result of a meeting of the “National Association of the Friends of Education” which held its first meeting at Philadelphia in October 1849. The conference was presided over by Horace Mann, then a member ot Congress from Massachusetts. The purpose was to discuss the administration of public education in its relation to the needs in different sections of the country. The second meeting, also held in Philadelphia, convened in August 1850, under the presidency of Eliphalet Nott, president of Union College. At this meeting a new constitution was adopted, and the organization became the American Association for the Advancement of Education. The eighth, and probably the last, meeting of the association was held at Detroit in August 1856 under the presidency of Chancellor H. P. Tappen of the University of Michigan. The various meetings of the association were marked by the attendance of superintendents, supervising officers and college presidents. The representation from the actual teaching staff was probably small. A close relation is observed between the American Association for the Advancement of Education and the new State school systems which were being organized at that time.

The National Teachers' Association, organized in Philadelphia in 1857, absorbed the American Association for the Advancement of Education. The purpose of the new association was to include in one organization “all the teachers of our whole country.” The original “call” was made “to all practical teachers in the North, the South, the East, the West” and was signed by the presidents of 10 of the State associations. It was to be an organization of the rank and file of the teaching profession, to bring together into one unit the common thought of the practical teachers in the schools, and through the national association to bind all the State associations together into one structure. The spirit of the new organization was in every sense in harmony with the efforts of the earlier associations both State and national. It conceived the need of a national conference representing the popular teaching body. A pregnant phrase in an address by William Russell at the first meeting at Philadelphia — “harmonious co-operation of educational skill with scientific progress and parental interests” — indicates the breadth of view of these early leaders. Two conditions made this the psychological time for the organization of the National Teachers' Association: the growing strength of

the several State associations, and the liberal legislation by which systems of public education had been established in several States. Moreover, the rapid economic development of the country through the application of scientific discovery and invention to the everyday life of the people, such as the marvelous extension of steam railroads and telegraph lines as well as the use of industrial machinery for the farm and home, made possible a real national conference and furnished a greater opportunity for the interpretation of the common thought. The strength in the association was in its appeal to popular membership. Its weakness was due to lack of educational leadership and statesmanship. The great impending national crisis overshadowed the activities of the embryo organization. There was, therefore, lack of popular interest and no conventions were held in 1861, 1862 and 1867. In 1866 an important change was made in the constitution whereby women were admitted to full membership on the same terms as men, and in 1869 two women were elected on the executive board of 35.

At the meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, in August 1870, D. B. Hagar of Massachusetts, who drew up the call for the convention of teachers in Philadelphia in 1857, was president of the association. In his opening address he outlined certain changes in the organization as a result of which a new constitution was adopted and the following departments were created: normal schools, school superintendence, elementary education, and higher education. By this action the American Normal School Association and the National Association of School Superintendents became, under the new constitution, departments of the National Education Association. From time to time other departments have been added until there are now 21. The breadth of activity is indicated by the names of some of the departments more recently organized: vocational education and practical arts, rural and agricultural, child hygiene, physical, school administration, library, special, promotion of wider use of schoolhouses. The growth, however, was slow. The registered membership at the Cleveland meeting in 1870 was only 170, and for several years the attendance continued small. The funds were frequently insufficient to print the proceedings. In 1884 an unusually successful meeting was held in Madison, Wis., with an enrolment of 2,729. This marked the beginning of a new era for the association. From that time it has properly been regarded as a leader in national educational matters. In 1886 the association was incorporated for 20 years. The following year at the Chicago meeting the membership totaled 11,297; at Los Angeles in 1899, 13,656; and at Boston in 1903, 34,953. In 1906 an act was passed by Congress incorporating the National Education Association. A permanent fund founded in 1884 has grown to nearly $200,000.

At the Philadelphia meeting in 1891, Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, presented a noteworthy paper on the organization and functions of the association, in which he reviewed its purpose, to “concentrate the wisdom and power of numerous minds, and distribute among all the experiences of all,” outlined its progress and growth from a few hundred to as many thousand, mentioned the great “advantage of personal contact of mind with

mind,” and pointed out the salutary influence of the departments provided for the needed specialization of work with the suggestion that others should be added.

Since 1893 there has been a permanent paid secretary who gives his entire time to the service of the association, and since 1917 the secretary's office and the headquarters of the association have been located at Washington, D. C. It has always been the policy of the organization to support broad national policies. To formulate a program of education during and after the war, the association designated a Commission on the Emergency in Education. This commission contemplates no less a program than a national department of education, with a secretary who shall sit in the President's cabinet, and the transfer of all bureaus or agencies relating to educational affairs to the new department.

There have been organized in recent years several societies interested in the scientific study of education. The National Herbertian Society for the Scientific Study of Teaching was organized in 1895, and in 1902 it was reorganized and the title changed to the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, organized in 1906, has also made large contribution to educational thought and progress.

Local teachers' associations had become general before the organization of the National Teachers' Association in 1857, A teachers' association was organized in New York city as early as 1798. An association of teachers known as the School Association of Middlesex County was formed at Middletown, Conn., in 1799. The earliest record of a State gathering of teachers is that a "State Convention of Teachers and Friends of Education" was held at Utica, N. Y., in January 1831. It was not until 1845, however, that there was a formal organization. Actively interested in the work of the State associations were many educational leaders. These men gave strength to the organizations, and every effort was made to secure a large attendance on the part of practical teachers. In Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New York State associations were organized in 1845. The Ohio association was organized in 1847; Connecticut, in 1848; Vermont, in 1850; Michigan and Pennsylvania, in 1852; Wisconsin, Illinois and New Jersey, in 1853; Iowa, New Hampshire and Indiana, in 1854; Missouri, in 1856. The meetings of some of the State associations soon became large and enthusiastic. Dr. Hagar of the State Normal School at Salem, Mass., stated that the attendance at the meetings of their association in the late 60's was from 2,500 to 3,500. He attributed this interest to the reorganization of the meetings into special sections. There is now a State teachers' association in every State except Delaware. The meetings are usually held annually. In the larger organizations the program generall covers several days. At the general sessions the topics are of broad interest, while the sectional meetings are given over to the discussion of special activities. In New York the State association is very strongly organized. Every effort is made to enroll a large membership. The cities, villages and the supervisory districts are the separate units of the State organization and are represented by delegates who control the

of the State organization. Previous to the reorganization of the New York State Teachers' Association in 1913, the meetinps were largely representative of the locality where the annual meeting happened to be held. The renewed interest and enlarged activities of the new organization have fully justified the change made in 1913. The association is now representative of the entire State and every supervisory unit, city village or rural community, has a representative voice in its annual meeting.

In some States the interest in the State association is much greater than in others. This is indicated in part by attendance and membership, which varies from nearly zero to 90 per cent of the teaching body of the State. Most of the associations are growing much stronger and teachers are becoming alive to the opportunities of an active professional organization. The economic conditions are rapidly becoming better for the teacher in those States in which the association is supported by a loyal membership. The indifference so often found is due in part at least to the short professional life of the teacher.

In general there are two types of teachers' voluntary associations: (a) the general associations which aim to promote all the interests of teachers, such as the National Education Association and the State teachers' associations, and (b) specialized assodations which are limited to some special subject or to some particular activity of school work, such as kindergarten, industrial training, English, music, agriculture, domestic arts, science, health and hygiene, playgrounds, or others.

The early associations were largely cultural. They were not subdivided into sections, in fact, the attendance was so small that this was not possible, even if it had been considered. In recent years the national and State associations have differentiated their work until the sections have become highly specialized. Women play a much more prominent part than formerly. In 1911 the National Education Association had its first woman president. It was an incident worthy of mention that in the same year the National Union of Teachers of England and Wales had a woman presiding officer for the first time. Little thought was given at first to the economic and material needs of the teacher. In the State assodations there is a great interest in educational legislation and also in the raising of professional standards. The teachers' assodations in some of the larger cities are largely concerned with the economic betterment of their membership and related legislation.

Teachers' voluntary associations, both general and special, have made a large contribution to educational progress. To the teachers these associations mean renewed enthusiasm, professional growth and material improvement. To the State they are often the “greatest single educational factor.” Active teachers' associations are essential to progressive educational policies.

In England a much larger percentage of teachers is represented in the associations than in America. The National Union of Teachers, which was organized in 1870, has a membership of over 70,000 teachers. More attention is given to economic conditions and material needs. It has actively supported candidates for Parliament and for a time its secretary was a

member of Parliament. The membership was originally limited to teachers in elementary schools, but more recently the Union has been open to other teachers.

The Headmasters' Conference, organized in 1869, and the Association of Headmasters, organized in 1890, give special attention to questions relating to school management and professional matters. The Assistant Masters' Association is an organization of secondary school teachers and is interested in part in the economic betterment of its membership.

The largest general assodation in Scotland is the Educational Institute of Scotland. The Scottish Class Teachers' Association also has a large enrolment. The Association of Headmasters of Secondary Schools and the Secondary Education Assodation of Scotland are organized in the interests of teachers in the secondary schools.

There are various types of educational associations in France. Many of them illustrate the power in co-operation hetween teachers and others interested in educational problems. The League of Doctors and Families organized in 1902 for the improvement of scientific methods and hygienic conditions in the school includes in its membership teachers, parents, physicians and others. The Society for the Psychological Study of the Child, which was organized for the study of child psychology and general educational methods, indudes not only teachers but scientists and others interested in a theoretical as well as practical study of educational questions. The work of these associations has brought about the organization of international congresses for the scientific study of educational questions. Associations of teachers and instructors in France have a wide influence. The discussions as to instruction, curriculum and discipline brought out in the meetings are published in their bulletins and principals are quite free as to the adoption of new methods in their schools.

The largest organization of its kind in Germany is the German Teachers' Association formed in 1871. Over 90 per cent of the teachers in the elementary schools are members of the association. It is highly organized throughout the country, including local associations of a general character and sections for teachers in special subjects. The chief interest is the professional and economic betterment of teachers. Its strength is in the centralized organization. There is also an association of secondary school teachers, the aim of which is to improve the conditions of teachers in schools of secondary grade. Associations which enlist the interests of the public-spirited citizen as well as the teacher and which aim to promote general educational activities are not found.

Bibliography. — Foos, C. S., ‘State Educational Associations’ (United States Com. of Ed. Report 1909); Kandel, I. L., ‘Teachers' Voluntary Associations’ (in ‘Cyclopedia of Education’); Monroe, Will S., ‘Educational Associations’ (N. E. A. Fiftieth Anniversary Volume, 1905); Winship, Albert E., ‘The American Institute of Instruction’ (N. E. A. Anniversary Volume, 1905).


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Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Woolley, Mary Emma

WOOLLEY, MARY EMMA, an American educator, born in Norwalk, Conn.,

in 1863. She graduated from Brown University in 1894. From 1886 to 1891 she was instructor at the Wheaton Seminary. In 1896 she was appointed associate professor of Biblical history at Wellesley College, and after filling several posts on the faculty of that institution, was appointed president of Mt. Holyoke College in 1900. She was a member of many learned and patriotic societies.


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Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Cleveland, Frederick Albert

CLEVELAND, FREDERICK ALBERT, an American economist; born in Sterling, Ill., March 17, 1865. He graduated from De Pauw University in 1890. Intending at first to practice law, he soon abandoned that field for economics, pursuing special studies in that subject at the Universities of Chicago and Pennsylvania. He was professor of finance at

the School of Commerce, New York University 1903-1905. In 1907 he became director of the Bureau of Municipal Research. Among his publications are: “Funds and Their Uses” (1902); “The Bank and the Treasury” (1905); “Railroad Finance” (1912), in collaboration with F. W. Powell; “Organized Democracy” (1913); etc.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Cleveland, Frederick Albert

CLEVELAND, Frederick Albert, American economist; b. Sterling, Ill., 17 March 1865; d. 15 Oct. 1914. He was graduated at De Pauw University in 1890. He studied for the bar, but gave up practice in 1896 and

gave his entire attention to economics, first at the University of Chicago and then at the University of Pennsylvania. He was instructor in finance at the latter institution in 1900-03, and from 1903 to 1905 was professor of finance at the School of Commerce, New York University. He served as accounting expert on several commissions, including that on the finances of New York city (1905) and President Taft's commission on economy and efficiency (1911) which recommended a national budget. He was appointed director of the bureau of municipal research in 1907. His publications include ‘Growth of Democracy in the United States’ (1898); ‘Funds and their Uses’ (1902), school edition as ‘First Lessons in Finance’ (1903); ‘The Bank and the Treasury’ (1905); ‘Chapters on Municipal Administration and Accounting’ (1909); ‘Organized Democracy’ (1913); ‘Railroad Capitalization and Promotion,’ with F. W. Powell (1908); ‘Railroad Finance,’ with F. W. Powell (1912).


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 centre of American mission enterprise, and has a British vice-consul.

. Beginning with three synods convened between 264 and 269 in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more than thirty councils were held in Antioch in ancient times. Most of these dealt with phases of the Arian and of the Christological controversies. The most celebrated took place in the summer of 341 at the dedication of the golden Basilica, and is therefore called in encaeniis ( ), in dedicatione. Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the Orient, but the bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor Constantius attended in person. The council approved three creeds (Hahn, §§ 153-155). Whether or no the so-called “fourth formula” (Hahn, § 156) is to be ascribed to a continuation of this synod or to a subsequent but distinct assembly of the same year, its aim is like that of the first three; while repudiating certain Arian formulas it avoids the Athanasian shibboleth “homoousios.” The somewhat colourless compromise doubtless proceeded from the party of Eusebius of Nicomedia, and proved not inacceptable to the more nearly orthodox members of the synod. The twenty-five canons adopted regulate the so-called metropolitan constitution of the church. Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in the metropolitan (later called archbishop), and the semi-annual provincial synod (cf. Nicaea, canon 5), which he summons and over which he presides. Consequently the powers of country bishops (chorepiscopi) are curtailed, and direct recourse to the emperor is forbidden. The sentence of one judicatory is to be respected by other judicatories of equal rank; re-trial may take place only before that authority to whom appeal regularly lies (see canons 3, 4, 6). Without due invitation, a bishop may not ordain, or in any other way interfere with affairs lying outside his proper territory; nor may he appoint his own successor. Penalties are set on the refusal to celebrate Easter in accordance with the Nicene decree, as well as on leaving a church before the service of the Eucharist is completed. The numerous objections made by eminent scholars in past centuries to the ascription of these twenty-five canons to the synod in encaeniis have been elaborately stated and probably refuted by Hefele. The canons formed part of the Codex canonum used at Chalcedon in 451 and passed over into the later collections of East and West.

ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of which, including ruins of temples, a theatre and a fine aqueduct, were found by Arundell in 1833 close to the modern Yalovach. It was situated on the lower southern slopes of the Sultan Dagh, in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, on the right bank of a stream, the ancient Anthius, which flows into the Hoiran Geul. It was probably founded on the site of a Phrygian sanctuary, by Seleucus Nicator, before 280 and was made a free city by the Romans in 189  It was a thoroughly Hellenized, Greek-speaking city, in the midst of a Phrygian people, with a mixed population that included many Jews. Before 6 Augustus made it a colony, with the title Caesarea, and it became the centre of civil and military administration in south Galatia, the romanization of which was progressing rapidly in the time of Claudius,  41–54, when Paul visited it (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21, xvi. 6, xviii. 23). In 1097 the crusaders found rest and shelter within its walls. The ruins are interesting, and show that Antioch was a strongly fortified city of Hellenic and Roman type. ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty in Nearer Asia. The most famous are Antiochus III. the Great (223–187 ) who sheltered Hannibal and waged war with Rome, and his son Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176–164 ) who tried to suppress Judaism by persecution (see ).

The name was subsequently borne by the kings of Commagene (69 – 72), whose house was affiliated to the Seleucid.

of Commagene, who without sufficient reason has been identified with the Seleucid Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus, made peace on advantageous terms with Pompey in 64 Subsequently he fought on Pompey’s side in the Civil War, and later still repelled an attack on Samosata by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony.) He died before 31  and was succeeded by one Mithradates I. This Mithradates was succeeded by an, who was executed by Augustus in 29  After another Mithradates we know of an , on whose death in  17 Commagene became a Roman province. In 38 his son was made king by Caligula, who deposed him almost immediately. Restored by Claudius in 41, he reigned until 72 as an ally of Rome against Parthia. In that year he was deposed on suspicion of treason and retired to Rome. Several of his coins are extant.

ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON (1st century ), Greek philosopher. His philosophy consisted in an attempt to reconcile the doctrines of his teachers Philo of Larissa and Mnesarchus the Stoic. Against the scepticism of the former, he held that the intellect has in itself a sufficient test of truth; against Mnesarchus, that happiness, though its main factor is virtue, depends also on outward circumstances. This electicism is known as the Fifth Academy (see ). His writings are lost, and we are indebted for information to Cicero (Acad. Pr. ii. 43), who studied under him at Athens, and Sextus Empiricus (Pyrrh. hyp. i. 235). Antiochus lectured also in Rome and Alexandria.

ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE, Greek historian, flourished about 420 Nothing is known of his life, but his works, of which only fragments remain, enjoyed a high reputation. He wrote a History of Sicily from the earliest times to 424, which was used by Thucydides, and the Colonizing of Italy, frequently referred to by Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

ANTIOPE. (1) In Greek legend, the mother of Amphion and Zethus, and, according to Homer (Od. xi. 260), a daughter of the Boeotian river-god Asopus. In later poems she is called the daughter of Nycteus or Lycurgus. Her beauty attracted Zeus, who, assuming the form of a satyr, took her by force (Apollodorus iii. 5). After this she was carried off by Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who would not give her up till compelled by her uncle Lycus. On the way home she gave birth, in the neighbourhood of Eleutherae on Mount Cithaeron, to the twins Amphion and Zethus, of whom Amphion was the son of the god, and Zethus the son of Epopeus. Both were left to be brought up by herdsmen. At Thebes Antiope now suffered from the persecution of Dirce, the wife of Lycus, but at last escaped towards Eleutherae, and there found shelter, unknowingly, in the house where her two sons were living as herdsmen. Here she was discovered by Dirce, who ordered the two young men to tie her to the horns of a wild bull. They were about to obey, when the old herdsman, who had brought them up, revealed his secret, and they carried out the punishment on Dirce instead (Hyginus, Fab. 8). For this, it is said, Dionysus, to whose worship Dirce had been devoted, visited Antiope with madness, which caused her to wander restlessly all over Greece till she was cured, and married by Phocus of Tithorea, on Mount Parnassus, where both were buried in one grave (Pausanias ix. 17, x. 32).

(2) A second Antiope, daughter of Ares, and sister of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, was the wife of Theseus. There are various accounts of the manner in which Theseus became possessed of her, and of her subsequent fortunes. Either she gave herself up to him out of love, when with Heracles he captured Themiscyra, the seat of the Amazons, or she fell to his lot as a captive (Diodorus iv. 16). Or again, Theseus himself

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Woolley, Celia Parker

WOOLLEY, wůl'ī, Celia Parker, American Unitarian minister: b. Toledo, Ohio, 14 June 1848. Graduated from Coldwater Female Seminary, in 1868 she was married to J. H. Woolley, and in 1876 removed to Chicago. She was pastor of the Unitarian Church, Geneva, Ill., for three years, and of the Independent Liberal Church, Chicago (1896-98), since when she has been active as a lecturer and in the work of women's clubs. She is the author of the novels ‘Love and Theology’ (1887), republished as ‘Rachel Armstrong, or, Love and Theology’; ‘A Girl Graduate’ (1889); ‘Roger Hunt’ (1893); ‘The Western Slope’ (1903).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Woolley, John Granville

WOOLLEY, John Granville, American prohibitionist: b. Collinsville, Ohio, 15 Feb. 1850. Graduated from the Ohio Wesleyan University in 1871, he was admitted to the bar of the Illinois Supreme Court in 1873, became city attorney of Paris, Ill., in 1875, prosecuting attorney in Minneapolis in 1881, and practised at New York, 1886. At one period addicted to intemperance, he began lecturing against it in 1888, and has lectured to many

on this theme at home and abroad. He became editor of The New Voice, a prohibition organ in 1899, and was the Presidential candidate of the Probibition party in 1900, receiving a vote of 208,914. He has published ‘Seed’; ‘The Sower’; ‘Civilization by Faith’; ‘The Christian Citizen’ (1897-98); ‘The Lion Hunter’ (1900); ‘Temperance Progress in the 19th Century’ (1902); ‘South Sea Letters’ (1905).


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Rh fragrance of the omelettes, and the flavor of the wine that my father used to taste critically—so proud of guessing its year! Then suddenly, as if nearing a village, the train slackened speed before an old house of vaguely seigneurial aspect; I recalled, as clear as sight, a young girl in a white gown, very blond and rosy, whom I had seen one of those Sundays, on the terrace of that house, seated in the shadow of hundred-year-old chestnut trees, and of whom I had dreamed. Ah! how many such trifles embroider their little imperceptible dots on the canvas of life. How many minute recollections are engraved upon us so forcibly that time cannot efface them, and one may always find, under the strata of years, the pattern of their deep lines. While the hours thus filled were passing, they seemed irksome to me, and took their course without leaving any impression of delight. Now, from afar, they developed an unsuspected charm.

If I could only call them back, just as they were, for the moment needed to fix them again in mind!

If I could only pass along one of these roads, that interlace across the fields, skirting the farm walls, and running through clumps of trees or villages, I in my schoolboy blouse, my soul untarnished, my hand in my good father's hand!

It is a barren and cowardly prayer. I well know that nothing goes back to its beginning,


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106 that no stream returns to its source; that one must run with the years, and not be wasteful in regret for a past that no effort can regain.

Anxiety claimed me again as I caught sight of the station at the end of my sorrowful journey. With its openwork balcony running along its single story and its indented roof, it bears a specious resemblance to an Alpine chalet. A thick ivy grows luxuriantly along the walls. A very beautiful garden surrounds it: for the station-master is an ardent gardener, and with the modest plot of ground given over to him along the rails he has managed to make a charming flower-bed, whose old unfashionable flowers I used to love,—asters, dragon-flowers, balsams, china-asters, bleached dandelions; flowers that have almost disappeared, driven out by the complicated inventions of fashionable horticulturists, and that now linger only in some old gardens like this one, where they make one think of ancient ladies playing upon the harpsichord.

This station-master, formerly an officer in Africa, stranded in this lost corner of the world after an adventurous youth of which certain episodes, distorted by tradition, are current through the countryside, was an original character, a "type" as we should say. I caught sight of him, aged, whitened, and his figure broken, as he passed in his gold-laced cap before the cars as they were opened. Formerly he had held his bell in his


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Rh hand, swinging it with a fine gesture of authority after making sure that all was right. Now having only to make signals to put in motion an electric arrangement of bells, he kept his hand swinging. I fancy no other change had come into the steady life of this rather unsociable old bachelor, who was a poet in his way and a thinker. He did not recognize me, perhaps because he did not take the trouble to look at me; these good country people who are so curious concerning each other are altogether indifferent to strangers. And I was now a stranger indeed, in a region the places of which had been pictured in my childish eyes, beside the old garden I had loved, and before the station that had been intermingled with so many of my memories.

My little bag in my hand, I proceeded toward my father's house.

It rose beside the road, a few moments distant from the little town whose silhouette was blocked out upon a hill. It is an old house to which belongs a farm, with farm buildings. It is two stories high, crude white, with a pent-roof, and green blinds. A beautiful ivy decorates one of the walls, while over the front climbs a singular flower, which my grandmother used to tell of having planted the first year of her married life. It is called the "Passion flower" because its pistils represent the Cross, the nails, and the crown ot thorns in beautiful tints of limpid blue.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Woolley, Mary Emma

WOOLLEY, Mary Emma, American educator: b. South Norwalk. Conn., 13 July 1863. She qualified as a teacher and was an instructor in Wheaton Seminary, Norton, Mass. (1886-91); in 1894 she was graduated at Brown University. She was teacher of biblical history at Wellesley College, 1895-1900, the last two years being professor and head of the department of biblical history and literature. In 1900 she became president of Mount Holyoke College and the growth and development of that institution have largely been due to her efforts. She has received honorary degrees from Brown, Amherst, Smith and Yale. Miss Woolley is closely identified with many and varied movements, having served as member of the board of electors of the Hall of Fame, National board of the Y. W. C. A., executive committee of the American School Peace League, council of the National Institute for Moral Instruction, Commission on Peace and Arbitration; senator of United Chapters Phi Beta Kappa; honorary vice-president of the National Consumers' League, etc. She has written ‘Early History of the Colonial Post Office’; ‘Development of the Love of Romantic Scenery in America’; also many educational articles.


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108 I do not know if it is a rare plant, but I have never seen it elsewhere; my father used to tend it with restless care; how much concern it has given him, and how many precautions he has taken to preserve it, through the terrible winters when the frost seared its poor stems and sought out even its roots under the earth. One year, indeed, it nearly perished. We were almost a house of mourning. But it recovered, and my father rejoiced as if some mysterious sign had promised him the continuance, after a crisis, of his race in vigorous life.

The blinds were opened wide to the balmy breezes of the morning, a ray of sunlight fell on the old roof, wrapping it in an atmosphere of luminous cheerfulness. Behind the wall of the inclosure rose the crests of apple trees in blossom—of fine old apple trees with regular branches, like bouquets arranged by a skilful hand. And the flight of birds streaked the air vibrating with their reiterated calls. How could one believe that near by, at that very moment, the last act of the drama of life was passing? how was it possible that death could hover amid the sweetness and joy pervading everything?

With a trembling heart, but still a little reassured by the smiling aspect of the place, I pulled the bell at the doorway. I waited for a long time. Heavy steps creaked on the gravel, and old Josette appeared, wrinkled as a blighted


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Rh apple, with locks of gray hair coming out from under her black cap. She threw up her hands, and straightway blurted out her familiar exclamation:

"Do tell! Mr. Paul, do tell!" Her astonishment still more reassured me.

"How is my father?" I asked. Instead of answering my question she cried again:

"How surprised monsieur will be! For you were not expected. Not that I should reproach you, Mr. Paul, but it is a long time since you have seen him! He talks of you continually. And when I say, 'Why does n't Mr. Paul come to see you,' he answers, 'It is business!'"

I interrupted her, repeating my question:

"But how is he?"

This time she replied:

"So, so, Mr. Paul, so, so. One day passable, the next day worse. There are times when he cannot get his breath. He coughs and coughs until he is blue. The doctor comes every morning to see how he is getting on."

She spoke in an even tone, as if there were nothing alarming in these symptoms, with the calmness of one who cannot perceive, through the force of habit, the approach of death.

"Does he keep his bed?"

"He keep his bed! You do not know him, then. He will go to the last moment, I tell you. Gets up with the sun, like a young man. When


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110 he can't keep around, he stays in his arm-chair, that's all. In the morning he gardens."

As I took a step forward, she stopped me:

"Wait till I go and prepare him. It might give him a shock to see you suddenly like that."

Josette preceded me, heavy, slow, and limping a little. I crossed the vestibule, then the kitchen where the copper of the stew-pan and "boilers" was shining, and waited in the dining-room. That was the room in which the family was oftenest used to gather, in former days. An old stove of decorated faïence heated it in winter; pictures that I had all my life known, adorned the walls, old-fashioned pictures, contemporaneous with the romances of Louisa Paget, which they somewhat resembled: "The Penitent Brigand and his Son," "The Children of Edward," etc. I thought of the evenings under the lamp, so tranquil and so monotonous; of the silent games of "Goose" that my father sometimes permitted me; of the vanished faces I had seen about that table, now confused in the far depths of the past. The door opened. My father appeared, in a knitted jersey, shod with sabots, an old hat on his head.

"Ha! It is you—"

In old times I was accustomed to his indifferent greeting—he detested demonstration, and there was, moreover, between us, that indefinable something that separates members of the same


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Rh family when they do not resemble one another, a sort of reciprocal distrust that paralyzes the impulses of affection. But this time his eyes smiled with a smile that I did not know, a smile of ample joy. Then suddenly he broke into tears, throwing his arms about me:

"It is you—it is you!"

He had become small, withered, shrunken; he felt little in my arms and light. He whom I had known so strong and powerful, robust as an oak, was but a poor yielding thing, fragile and flickering like a little candle flame one dares not breathe upon. His features were drawn and sharpened. His eyes looked glazed and retained only an uncertain expression of astonishment and discomfort. He dropped into his arm-chair, still weeping. And that was the rounding out of the revelation that for twelve hours had been unfolding to me the neglected mysteries of affection. He said:

"Ah! I am glad to see you—so glad!"

He asked about my family, and a glow of tenderness came into his eyes when he spoke the names of the two little girls. He recalled their words, their gestures, their attitudes, their artless ways, and plied me with a thousand questions:

"Does Laurence still believe in Santa Claus? Does Juliette still make those profound observations that used to amaze us? Have they sometimes spoken of their grandfather?" Then his


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112 glance wandering, he was silent a moment, and, as if the better to awaken recollection of the delightful hours he was pondering on, he quavered:

"Une poule sur un mur."

I was obliged to go over all the little round of our life for him, and I was vexed with myself for my ignorance of slight details which he himself, so far away, had almost guessed by sheer force of thinking about us.

Then suddenly he changed the conversation's course; he spoke of himself, of his house, of his farmer who had given him some anxiety, of his vines which were suffering from mildew, of what he had done and what he counted on doing. From childhood I had known my father as a man of projects, enterprising, loving change and experiments. How many ingenious plans he had made for enlarging or embellishing his house, for augmenting the product of his farm, for battling against the enemies of trees, grain, and vine-stock! Endowed to an exceptional degree with the spirit of initiative, he lacked as much all faculty of realization, so that his projects came to nothing. This time I was frightened by the abundance of the schemes that he commenced to develop for me in his poor, broken, panting voice. He was concerned about the construction of a veranda in front of the dining-room,


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Rh with enlarging the asparagus bed, with planting new trees—the pear and apple trees being old now, and worn out—the bark was splitting and they gave but mediocre harvest. To plant and build, build and plant—it is one of Nature's beneficent tricks to urge us toward remote aims when our strength is failing us. Thus she cradles us in supreme illusions, keeping out of our sight the frightful vision of the end that lies in wait for us. At her bidding the mirage of a thousand objects plays before us, exciting our desire,—objects that our desire is never to grasp. . ..

"Come with me and let me explain! . . ."

With a revival of strength my father drew me into the garden, which we commenced to explore in every direction. He paused before some peach trees that were dying with two or three flowers on their branches.

"They should have been changed last year," he said, "but I was not very well, I was not able to busy myself with the garden. This year I will fix all that!"

He rested his hand on the trunk of a pear tree, and said tenderly:

"That tree used to give famous pears. The ' beurées grises,' you remember? But for two years it has not borne. It still blossoms a little, and then the fruit falls before it ripens. I see that it must be cut down—and that will hurt!"


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114 He was animated, cheerful, vivacious, and like himself; so that I took comfort to myself, thinking, "They were too easily alarmed, they mistook an adventitious attack for fatal symptoms."

Yes, I tried to take comfort, and breathed again after the anguish of the journey, relieved of the burden of regret which had weighed so heavily on my heart.

The morning passed rapidly and almost gayly. The lovely April sun was climbing lightly upward in the heavens; the smell of sap was in the air; life surrounded us—that renewal of things that, each springtime, revives the illusion of their eternity. Toward eleven o'clock, my father suddenly recollected that he had given me nothing to eat, and was disconsolate. "You must be dying of hunger. Why did n't you speak?"

He would not believe that I could very well wait for lunch, which Josette announced even as we were debating.

"That settles the question," said I. And I inhaled the aroma of well-known dishes, the old country dishes, savory smoked sausages, cooked in a sort of pie, a fine cheese omelette, a "stew" made pungent with skilfully distributed herbs. With a trembling hand my father filled my glass, eulogizing, as he always used to, on his light wine:


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Rh "Just taste that for me, and tell me what you think of it! A little bit new; but it will be something famous!"

I noticed that he did not fill his own glass.

"How about you?"

He heaved a deep sigh.

"It is forbidden," he said. "The doctor pretends that it is n't good for me. What does the doctor know, after all? Just once, more's the pity, to your health!"

And he clicked his glass against mine, after pouring into it a few glistening drops of wine. Then he smacked his lips, with a critical approving air, and said:

"I'll send you a barrel when you are back in Paris. But you are going to stay awhile, are n't you?"

That simple question, although I had expected it, was enough rudely to reawaken the anxiety concerning my affairs which had been merged in the other anxiety. But there was such longing in my father's eyes, such supplicating desire, that I could not help replying:

"Oh, yes! certainly, until I am recalled."

He pondered a moment, his eyes rather vague, and after a little hesitation, asked me:

"What brought you anyway?"

I had expected that question also, but it troubled me. I began to explain.

"I had for a long time been promising myself


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116 a turn in the country. I find myself a little tired. I am going to take a little vacation."

His penetrating eyes were on me; he certainly could not believe me, he must be guessing the true cause of my coming. But he would take care not to show it. Driving away the importunate thought with a gesture of his hand, moving it across his face as if he were brushing off a fly, he murmured:

"Good, good, good."

Then I observed that he was not eating; he would put a morsel on his plate, cut it up with his knife, taste it with a grimace, and scold Josette, who defended her cooking by grumbling:

"It is certainly because monsieur has no appetite!"

"I tell you that your butter was not fresh—and what a sauce!—a tasty sauce, indeed, and with a confoundedly bad taste!"

And I thought of his former scoldings that used to frighten me so, when I was little; then he had a big voice, an abundant vocabulary energetic gestures; now he scolded gently, without authority, a little like a wayward child. It did not frighten his old servant, who bent to let the storm pass over her, and answered even when he commanded her to be silent. And, finally, he ended by smiling himself at his vain anger. I do not know why this little scene filled me with melancholy. I felt suddenly different, alien, lost


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Rh in that familiar house, as one might be in a place he had never seen before, made uneasy by the hours and days stretching before me to be filled. Ah! too many things now separated me from my old father, from my distant past—too many things which had built up another soul within me! Here I was no longer anything more than an up-rooted tree, brought back to its native soil when the torn roots have long been dead. And I understood that verity, glimpses of which I had caught in those too rare hours when I had leisure for dreaming: that the only important thing in this life of ours—so difficult to live—is to maintain intact the sacred bonds that hold together the members of one family. We sacrifice too much to ambition; we should live for our own people, in the place where we were born, near the blessed earth in which our ancestors are sleeping, and which will one day receive us. And I pictured to myself our life as it might have been, all united in this dear house, among these old belongings, about this patriarch, whom we would have wrapped in filial love. But I had turned aside to follow other paths, toward another destiny. My children would do as I had done. Thus actual life will have it, destroyer that it is of legitimate affection, enemy of all that is enduring,—a vortex that draws us in, and passes on. Doubtless, the reflection of these sombre thoughts was shown in my face, for my father,


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118 observing me with secret solicitude, perceived it, and asked:

"What is it?"

I pleaded the fatigue of the journey.

"You did not sleep on the train?"

"No."

"Hum! You must lie down for a while after dinner."

This loving kindliness kept me from pursuing my calculation as to when I could get back to my business; for my uneasiness had vanished on seeing my father animated almost to the point of alertness, and interesting himself in so many things, and with it had gone a little of my tenderness, which his goodness brought back. But now, suddenly, as we were rising from the table, he turned pale, trembled and fell back in his chair, his eyes turned up, his chest heaving violently in the effort to breathe. The attack was short; he came out of it exhausted and gasping, and I realized that I had not come much too soon, that through the familiar scenes of the morning death was approaching, swift, invisible, inexorable,—I saw it leaning over us, ready to take him from me for ever.


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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antioch

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Woolman, John

WOOLMAN, John, American Quaker preacher: b. Northampton, Burlington County, N. J., August 1720; d. York, England, 7 Oct. 1772. In 1741 he became a speaker in the meetings of the Society of Friends. He was at this time a bookkeeper in a mercantile house, but subsequently learned the tailor's trade. In 1746, in company with Isaac Andrews, he made his first itinerant tour in some of the back settlements of Virginia, and from that time continued at intervals to visit the societies of Friends in the different portions of the colonies. In 1763 he visited the Indians on the Susquehanna. He both spoke and wrote much against slavery. His best-known work is the posthumous ‘Journal of John Woolman's Life and Travels in the Service of the Gospel’ (1775), which Whittier edited, with an introduction in 1871. Woolman's simple and candid style has been highly praised by Charles Lamb, Crabb Robinson, and others. Among his other writings are ‘Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes’ (1753; Part II, 1762); ‘Considerations’ on various topics (1768), and ‘Serious Considerations’ (1773). In 1774-75 a collective edition of his works appeared. Consult Whittier's sketch in the above-mentioned edition of the ‘Journal’; also Shore, W. T., ‘John Woolman: His Life and Our Times’ (New York 1914).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fox-dog

FOX-DOG, a name given by certain naturalists to the wild dogs of South America, because of their fox-like appearance. Among these are the crab-eating dog (C. cancrivorous); the zono, or Azara's dog (C. azaræ), of which the “colpeo” of the pampas and southward is probably

a local variety; the small-eared Brazilian dog (C. microtis, of Mivart), and two other aberrant Brazilian dogs (C. urostictus, and C. parvidens) for which a separate genus (Nothocyon) has been proposed by Wortman. All these animals have a striking external resemblance in color and form to the foxes, and connect them with the typical dogs. They are not well known, however. Consult Mivart in the 'Proceedings' of the Zoological Society of London (1890) ; Beddard, 'Mammalia' (1902), and writers upon the zoology of South America. See.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fox-hound

FOX-HOUND, a breed of hounds, concerning whose origin practically nothing is known, save that they were probably first bred in Great Britain. This, perhaps the handsomest and most perfect of all hounds, is essentially a field dog, presenting an eminently powerful, well-built appearance, with his clean-cut, compact body, and giving evidence of muscular strength and endurance in the hunt. The head is full, with a broad brow, a long, wide muzzle, and open nostrils. The ears are set low and lie close to the cheek. The eyes are soft and brown. The chest is broad, and the ribs are deep, so as to afford plenty of breathing space. The muscular body is set on legs as straight as a post, and very strong; and the feet are round and cat-like. The color varies from black to tan and white, and the coat is hard, smooth and glossy. The American breed is lighter and finer in lines than the English fox-hound, has longer, thinner and more pendant ears; a slightly narrower chest, and a rougher coat. He is used in fox-hunting as is the English fox-hound; but is also employed in hunting the moose, and other large game, especially in the Canadian forests. See .