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Rh able to cross belts of calm and light winds much more quickly than the low rigged, full-bodied ships, while in strong head winds there was no comparison, as the sharper ships would work out to windward in weather that held the old type of vessels like a barrier, until the wind hauled fair or moderated. In a word, the clippers could go and find strong or favorable winds while the full-bodied ships were compelled to wait for them.

It must be admitted that some remarkably fast passages were made by the old full-built American vessels. We have seen Captain Waterman's record with the Natchez, and other cases of this kind might be cited; but they prove nothing beyond the fact that with a fair wind and enough of it, other things being equal, a well-handled, full-modelled ship is about as fast as a clipper; also that single passages except as between vessels sailing together, are not the most reliable tests of speed. A number of passages by the same vessel, or a record of best days' runs, afford a more accurate means of arriving at a just estimate of speed.

The first California clippers, thirteen in number, were launched during the year 1850, the Celestial, 860 tons, built by William H. Webb and owned by Bucklin & Crane, of New York, being the first to leave the ways. She was soon followed by the Mandarin, 776 tons, built by Smith & Dimon for Goodhue & Co., of New York, and the Surprise, 1361 tons, owned by A, A. Low & Brother; Game-Cock, 1392 tons, owned by Daniel C. Bacon, Boston, and the barque Race Horse, 512 tons, owned by Goddard & Co., Boston, all built by Samuel Hall at

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 of Landlord and Tenant and The Law of Negligence, editor of Addison on Contracts and Roscoe's Criminal Evidence, 10th edn., B.A., Trin. Hall, Camb., 1860, educated at King's Coll., London, a student of the Inner Temple 14 Jan., 1859 (then aged 22), called to the bar 30 April, 1862 (youngest son of late Robert Smith, of London); born 18 Nov., 1836; married 27 April, 1870, Susan Elinor Penelope, dau. of late Rev. C. F. Watkins, vicar of Brixworth, Northants.
 * Ivy Bank, Beckenham, Kent; 4, Paper Buildings, Temple, E.C.; Oxford and Cambridge Club, S.W.

Smith, Hugh Garden Seth, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1874, district judge Auckland, New Zealand, matric. London Univ. 1866 from Amersham Hall School, a student of the Inner Temple 17 Jan., 1870 (then aged 21), called to the bar 27 Jan., 1873 (2nd son of Charles Edward Smith, Esq., of Silvermere, Surrey); born, 1849; married 24 April, 1884, Florence Macleod, youngest dau. of Frederick Larkins, Esq., of Remuera.
 * Auckland, New Zealand.

Smith, James Charles, joint editor of Reports of Cases Decided in Probate and Divorce Court, a student of the Middle Temple 30 Oct., 1856, called to the bar 10 June, 1859 (only son of William Smith, of Manchester, gent.); born,.

Smith', James Parker, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1880, B.A. (late fellow), fourth wrangler, Smith's prizeman 1877, a student of Lincoln's Inn 25 April, 1877 (then aged 22), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1880 (eldest son of Archibald Smith, late of Lincoln's Inn, bar.-at-law, and of Jordanhill, co. Renfrew, N.B., dec.); born, 1855; married 10 Aug., 1882, Mary Louisa, youngest dau. of late William Hamilton, of Minard.
 * 1, Ravenna Road, Putney, S.W.; 3, Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

Smith, James Walter, LL.D. London Univ. 1856 and a member of Convocation, M.A. Balliol Coll., Oxon, author of The Law of Bills, Cheques, Notes, and I.O.U.'s, and several other of Wilson's legal handybooks, a student of the Inner Temple 6 Nov., 1850, called to the bar 17 Nov., 1853 (only son of James Smith, Esq., of Clipston House, Northants, dec.); born, ; married , , his cousin Helen Elizabeth Smith.
 * Adelaide; care of Mrs. Dixon, 4, Speldhurst Road, South Hackney, E.

Smith, Jason, M.A., St. John's Coll., Camb., 1863, a student of Lincoln's Inn 28 June, 1859 (then aged 23), called to the bar 11 June, 1862 (eldest son of Jason Smith, Esq., of Reading); born, 1836.
 * 15, Stratford Place, W.; 7, New Square, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

Smith, John, M.A., Exeter Coll., Oxon, 1839, late fellow, J.P. Oxon and Wilts, a student of the Inner Temple 31 May, 1834 (then aged 22), called to the bar 16 Nov., 1838 (only son of William Smith, of Sutton Coldfield, co. Warwick, gent.); born, 1812; married 19 May, 1853, Emily Jane, dau. of late George Henry Cherry, Esq., of Dentford, Berks.
 * Britwell House, Tetsworth.

Smith, John, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1849, a student of the Middle Temple 25 Jan., 1844, called to the bar 29 Jan., 1847 (2nd son of John Smith, of Otley, Yorks gent., dec.); born,.
 * Plainville, near York.

Smith, John, a member of the North-eastern circuit, a student of the Middle Temple 13 Nov., 1849, called to the bar 7 June, 1852 (4th son of Richard Smith, of York, gent., dec.); born,.
 * 75, Monkgate, York.

Brook-Smith, John, M.A., St. John's Coll., Camb., 1856, LL.B. London Univ. 1866 and a member of Convocation, gold medallist Univ. Coll., London, educated also at Edinburgh Univ., a master of Cheltenham Coll., author of Arithmetic in Theory and Practice, assumed the additional surname of Brook, a student of the Inner Temple 14 Jan., 1865 (then aged 40), called to the bar 6 June, 1868 (3rd son of John Brook-Smith, of Huddersfield); born 17 July, 1825; married, , Mary, eldest dau. of Thomas Nicholson, Esq., of Marsden, near Huddersfield.
 * Boyne House, Cheltenham.

Smith, John George, M.A. Balliol Coll., Oxon, B.A. 1852, a student of Lincoln's Inn 14 Jan., 1852 (then aged 23), called to the bar 30 April, 1856 (5th son of Jeremiah Smith, D.D., of Brewood, co. Staff.); born, 1829; married 12 Aug., 1869, Amelia Sophia, 3rd dau, of late C. F. Darwall, Esq., of Walsall.
 * Care of 27, Stafford Terrace, W.

Smith, John George, B.A., Brasenose Coll., Oxon, 1881, a student of the Inner Temple 1 April, 1881 (then aged 21), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1884 (2nd son of Arthur Smith, late of the Grotto, Basildon, Berks, dec.); born 20 Nov., 1859.
 * The Grotto, Basildon, Reading; Farrar's Buildings, Temple, E.C.

Smith, John Henry Etherington, recorder of Newark 1884, M.A. Univ. Coll., Oxon, B.A. 1863, revising barrister Rutland and Leicestershire (northern division), a student of the Inner Temple 23 May, 1862 (then aged 21), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1866 (eldest son of Henry Etherington Smith, Esq., of Ashby-de-la-Zouch); born, 1841; married 13 Feb., 1873, Ellen Margaret, youngest dau. of Major-Genl. Sir Thomas T. Pears, K.C.B.
 * Amersham Road, Putney, S.W.; 2, Harcourt Buildings, Temple, E.C.

Smith, John Smalman, B.A., St. John's Coll., Camb., 1870, puisne judge Gold Coast Colony since 1883, educated at Shrewsbury, a student of the Inner Temple 25 Jan., 1868 (then aged 20), called to the bar 18 Nov., 1872 (eldest son of Samuel Pountney Smith, of Shrewsbury, architect); born 23 Aug., 1847.
 * Accra, Gold Coast Colony.

Smith, John Thomas, LL.B. Melbourne Univ., practises before the supreme court of Melbourne, a student of Lincoln's Inn 21 Oct., 1865 (then aged 24), called to the bar 6 June, 1868 (eldest son of John Thomas Smith, of Melbourne, M.L.A.); born 1841.
 * Melbourne, Victoria.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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 136 East Boston. The Witchcraft, 1310 tons, was built at Chelsea by Paul Curtis, for S. Rogers & W. D. Pickman, of Salem; the John Bertram, 1080 tons, by R. E. Jackson at East Boston, for Glidden & Williams, of Boston; the Governor Morton, 1318 tons, by James M. Hood at Somerset, for Handy & Everett, of New York; the Sea Serpent, 1337 tons, by George Raynes at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, for Grinnell, Minturn & Co., of New York; the Eclipse, 1223 tons, by J. Williams & Son at Williamsburg, for T. Wardle & Co., of New York; the Seaman, 546 tons, by Bell & Co., at Baltimore, for Funck & Meincke, of New York; the White Squall, 1118 tons, by Jacob Bell, for W. Piatt & Son, of Philadelphia, and the Stag-Hound, 1535 tons, by Donald McKay at East Boston, for Sampson & Tappan and George B. Upton, of Boston.

The Celestial was a remarkably good-looking ship and much sharper than any vessel built by Mr. Webb up to that time. She carried long, slender spars, with plenty of canvas, and proved a very fast and able ship.

The Mandarin, also a fine-looking ship, was intended by her builders to be an improved Sea Witch, and although she made some excellent passages, she never came up to the older vessel in point of speed; the Sea Witch was her builders' masterpiece, and they, like many others, found her a difficult ship to improve upon.

The Surprise was one of the most successful clipper ships ever constructed, and proved a mine of wealth for her owners. She was fully rigged on the stocks, with all her gear rove off, and was

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 Shaw, William Francis, M.A. (fellow), Trin. Hall, Camb., 1870, a student of the Inner Temple 19 Nov., 1864 (then aged 20), called to the bar 30 April, 1869 (2nd son of John Shaw, of Christ's Hospital, London); born, 1844.
 * Christ's Hospital, Newgate Street, E.C.

Shaw, William Ingham, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1881, from Harrow, a member of the Northern circuit, a student of Lincoln's Inn 10 March, 1874 (then aged 19), called to the bar 9 June, 1880 (eldest son of Richard Shaw, Esq., M.P., of London); born 12 July, 1854; married 28 June, 1882, Helen, eldest dau. of late James Dugdale, Esq., of Wroxall Abbey, co. Warwick.
 * Preston Montford, Shrewsbury.

Shearman, Montague, M.A., St. John's Coll., Oxon, 1884, a student of the Inner Temple 11 April, 1877 (then aged 20), called to the bar 26 Jan., 1881 (2nd son of late Montagu Shearman, of Wimbledon, Surrey, solicitor); born, ; married 17 Sept., 1884, Mary Louise, dau. of late Job Long, Esq., of New York.
 * Southfields, Wandsworth, S.W.; 4, Hare Court, Temple, E.C.

Shearwood, Joseph Alexander, B.A. (honours), St. John's Coll., Camb., 1866, professor of equity and conveyancing at the Birkbeck Institute, editor of The Law Student's Annual, author of Concise Abridgments of Real Property Law and of Personal Property Law, Outline of Contract, Student's Guide to the Law Examinations, Digest of Questions asked at Bar and Solicitor's Pass and Honour Examinations, 1869-84, and Tabular Analysis of Trusts, a student of Lincoln's Inn 6 June, 1866 (then aged 21), certificate of honour 1st class Mich., 1869, called to the bar 17 Nov., 1869 (youngest son of George Shearwood, formerly of Calcutta, merchnat, dec.); born 20 Nov., 1844; married 20 Dec., 1873, Lilian, youngest dau. of late Charles Hall, Esq., of Ipswich.
 * 17, Bristol Gardens, W.; Library Chambers, Middle Temple, E.C.; New University Club, S.W.

Shebbeare, Henry Francis, B.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1851, a student of the Inner Temple 13 Nov., 1849 (then aged 21), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1852 (3rd son of Charles John Shebbeare, M.A., of Gray's Inn, bar.-at-law); born 26 June, 1828; married 10 Sept., 1872, Lily Lucy Robertha, elder surviving dau. of late Rev. Robert Cope Wolfe, vicar of Braithwell, Yorks, and has issue.
 * Surbiton, Surrey; 5, New Square, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.; New University Club.

Shedden, George, B.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1881, lord of the manor of Paulerspury, etc., a student of the Inner Temple 9 Nov., 1878 (then aged 21), called to the bar 17 Nov., 1883 (eldest son of Roscow Cole Shedden, Esq., of East Cowes, Isle of Wight, J.P.); born, 1857; married , 1880, Alice Sarah, 3rd dau. of late Caleb Hammond Gater, Esq., of Town Hill, Southampton, and has issue.
 * Spring Hill, East Cowes, Isle of Wight; Paulerspury Park, Towcester; St. Stephen's Club.

Shedden, Thomas, M.A., St. Peter's Coll., Camb., 1849, a student of the Inner Temple 24 Jan., 1845 (then aged 21), called to the bar 6 June, 1868 (eldest son of William Shedden, of Glasgow, merchant); born, 1824.
 * 47, West Cromwell Road, S.W.

Shee, George Darell, LL.B., Trin. Hall, Camb., 1866, recorder of Hythe since July, 1883, district registrar of probate division for Ipswich (East Suffolk), a member of the South-eastern circuit, a student of the Middle Temple 6 Nov., 1862, called to the bar 30 April, 1867 (eldest son of late Mr. Justice Shee); born, 1843; married 14 Oct., 1873, Jane, eldest dau. of H. Innes, Esq., of Thomastown, co. Kilkenny.
 * 1, Harcourt Buildings, Temple, E.C.

Shee, Henry Gordon, undergrad. Christ Church, Oxon, from Ushaw Coll., a student of the Inner Temple 29 April, 1867 (then aged 20), called to the bar 30 April, 1870 (2nd son of late Mr. Justice Shee); born, 1847.
 * 1, Harcourt Buildings, Temple, E.C.

Shee, Martin Archer, Q.C., a student of the Middle Temple 13 April, 1836, called to the bar 19 April, 1839, Q.C. 22 Feb., 1868 (2nd son of late Sir Martin Archer Shee, Knt.); born 14 Nov., 1804; married 9 Aug., 1849, Louisa Catherine, youngest dau. of John Richard Barrett, Esq., of Milton House, Berks.
 * 4, Harewood Street, N.W.

Shee, Richard Jenery, a member of the South-eastern circuit, a student of the Inner Temple 4 Nov., 1858 (then aged 32), called to the bar 26 Jan., 1864 (7th son of Roderick Shee, Esq., of Dublin, dec.); born, 1826; married , , Baroness de Lauer.
 * 20, Prince's Square, Bayswater, W.

Sheepshanks, William, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb., 1876, from Eton, J.P. Yorkshire West Riding, a member of the North-eastern circuit, a student of the Inner Temple 23 Nov., 1870 (then aged 19), called to the bar 26 Jan., 1874 (only son of Rev. Thomas Sheepshanks, M.A., of Arthington, Yorks); born 26 Jan., 1851; married 12 Oct., 1876, Emily Florence, eldest dau. of Rev. Henry Blunt, rector of St. Andrew's, Holborn, and has issue.
 * 84, Cromwell Road, S.W.; Oxford and Cambridge Club, S.W.

Sheffield, John, M.A., Queen's Coll., Camb., 1831, a student of the Middle Temple 27 June, 1829, called to the bar 30 Jan., 1833 (4th son of Isaac Sheffield, of London, gent.); born, .

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Author:Arthur Richard Shilleto

Works

 * "The Year 1785; a Retrospect", in Temple Bar No. 2158. — October 31, 1885
 * (tr.) Bohn's ‘Classical Library’ Pausanias (2 vols. 1886)
 * (tr.) Bohn's ‘Classical Library’ Plutarch's Morals (1888)
 * (tr.) Bohn's ‘Standard Library’ Josephus (5 vols. 1889–90)

title: Author:Arthur Richard Shilleto


text:
Author:Abbie Gardner Sharp

Works

 * History of the Spirit Massacre

title: Author:Abbie Gardner Sharp


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United States v. Felix/Concurrence Stevens

Justice Stevens, with whom Justice Blackmun joins, concurring in part and concurring in the judgment.

While I join Parts I and II of the Court's opinion, I do not join Part III because I do not think there is "considerable justification," ante, at 387–388, for the Court of Appeals' conclusion that the Double Jeopardy Clause, as interpreted in Grady v. Corbin, 495 U.S. 508 (1990), bars prosecution of Felix for the conspiracy charge contained in count 1 of the indictment. In Grady, we held that "the Double Jeopardy Clause bars a subsequent prosecution if, to establish an essential element of an offense charged in that prosecution, the government will prove conduct that constitutes an offense for which the defendant has already been prosecuted." 495 U.S., at 510. But as the dissenting opinion of the Court of Appeals explained, "the overt acts at issue here did not meaningfully 'establish' an essential element of the conspiracy" because there is no overt act requirement in the federal drug conspiracy statute and the overt acts did not establish an agreement between Felix and his co-conspirators. 926 F.2d 1522, 1536 (CA10 1991) (Anderson, J., dissenting). I would thus reverse for the reasons explained in Parts I and II of the Court's opinion, ante, at 381–387, and Part III–B of the dissenting opinion of the Court of Appeals, 926 F.2d, at 1536–1539.


text:
Author:Abraham Fleming

Works

 * The Thirde Booke of Ælianus (1576)
 * Of Englishe Dogges, tr. (1676)

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Simple Usage
The reader of this book is assumed to have some acquaintance with woodworking, and not to stand in need of detail instruction as to the shape, action, care and use of each and all of a woodworker's tools. This information is given in comprehensive style in a companion volume, entitled "Woodworking," produced by the Editor of this present book, and sold by the same publishers at 9s. Should any reader of this chapter desire further particulars of the tools and appliances here briefly mentioned, he is recommended to consult that work, which undoubtedly contains the most complete description of woodworking tools yet published.

Tools may be classed according to their functions and modes of action, as follows: (1) Geometrical tools for laying off and testing work—such tools are rules, straight-edges, gauges, etc. (2) Tools for supporting and holding work; such tools are benches, vices, stools, etc. (3) Paring or shaving tools, such as chisels, spokeshaves, planes, etc. (4) Saws. (5) Percussion or impelling tools, such as hammers, mallets, screw-drivers, and (combined with cutting) hatchets, axes, adzes, etc. (6) Boring tools, such as gimlets, brace-bits, etc. (7) Abrading and scraping tools, such as rasps, scrapers, glasspaper, and implements such as whetstones, etc., for sharpening edged tools.

Rules.—For all-round purposes a 2-ft. four-fold boxwood rule, with or without a slide rule (Fig. 1), is best. Rules are made in great variety, but the average worker's requirements will be best met by a simple one.

The reader of this book is assumed to have some acquaintance with woodworking, and not to stand in need of detail instruction as to the shape, action, care and use of each and all of a woodworker's tools. This information is given in comprehensive style in a companion volume, entitled "Woodworking," produced by the Editor of this present book, and sold by the same publishers at 9s. Should any reader of this chapter desire further particulars of the tools and appliances here briefly mentioned, he is recommended to consult that work, which undoubtedly contains the most complete description of woodworking tools yet published.

Tools may be classed according to their functions and modes of action, as follows: (1) Geometrical tools for laying off and testing work—such tools are rules, straight-edges, gauges, etc. (2) Tools for supporting and holding work; such tools are benches, vices, stools, etc. (3) Paring or shaving tools, such as chisels, spokeshaves, planes, etc. (4) Saws. (5) Percussion or impelling tools, such as hammers, mallets, screw-drivers, and (combined with cutting) hatchets, axes, adzes, etc. (6) Boring tools, such as gimlets, brace-bits, etc. (7) Abrading and scraping tools, such as rasps, scrapers, glasspaper, and implements such as whetstones, etc., for sharpening edged tools.

Rules.—For all-round purposes a 2-ft. four-fold boxwood rule, with or without a slide rule (Fig. 1), is best. Rules are made in great variety, but the average worker's requirements will be best met by a simple one.

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Rh May, 1854, states that on the outward passages alone from New York to California, Australia, and Rio Janeiro, American ships, through the use of Maury's Sailing Directions, were saving in time the sum of $2,250,000 per annum, and it is probable that could an estimate have been made of the saving in time to all of the ships using the Sailing Directions, the total amount must have considerably exceeded $10,000,000 per annum.

It should be remembered that this result had been accomplished without expenditure of money, beyond the moderate salaries of Maury and his staff of assistants, and the insignificant cost of printing the blank log-books, charts, and sailing directions.

Sea-captains of all nations regarded Lieutenant Maury as a wise counsellor and faithful friend, while France, Holland, Sweden, Spain, Italy, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Portugal, and Sardinia, all either conferred upon him orders of knighthood or struck medals in his honor.

In 1861, Lieutenant Maury resigned the office of Chief Superintendent of the National Observatory and Hydrographic Office, deeming it his duty as a Virginian to take the side of his State at the outbreak of the Civil War. Upon this occasion he received letters of invitation from the Grand Duke Constantine offering him residence in Russia and every facility for continuing his scientific researches. A similar offer was made by Prince Napoleon on behalf of France, and also by the Archduke Maximilian of Austria. In 1866 a pecuniary testimonial was presented to Lieutenant Maury at Willis's Rooms, London, where he was

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Rh quantity on Westbury Wild, where the soil is a stiff clay, but I suspect a strong Calcareous element is present. The scenery of the Great Oolite district is much more diversified than that of the clay ; it is often well wooded, and the ash is a conspicuous tree. One of the members of the oolitic rocks, the Forest Marble, gives in Oxfordshire a home for some of the chief rarities of the county, but this formation is only scantily repre- sented in Buckinghamshire and chiefly near Thornton, Lillingstone Lovell and Tingewick, and so far as I am aware without influencing the vegetation. The Cornbrash is found in a more or less continuous band from Fringford near the Oxfordshire border across the county to Newton Blossomville on the eastern side ; it is nearly obscured by the Ouse gravels east of Newport Pagnell, but near Beachampton it is two miles across. This formation, which is well represented in Oxfordshire, consists of various rubbly limestones sometimes, as near Buckingham, of a hard blue character and associated with beds of blue and black clay, but the limestone weathers rather rapidly, and in some of the quarries, as at Thornborough, one can notice that the base consists of blue limestone alone, but as the surface is reached the top beds are yellow and rubbly, and this colour change is owing to the oxidation of the iron carbonate which is present in the older and lower rock, it being gradually altered by air and moisture into oxides of iron near the surface. There is a curious inlier of Cornbrash at Marsh Gibbon in which we have a blue limestone at the base, then a marly clay capped with loose rubbly stone. This slight eminence is one of a series of similar ones which cross a part of north Oxfordshire as an anticlinal line stretching from west to east, and although not much raised above the plain of Oxford Clay in which they occur, yet these dome shaped masses have been occupied by villages in each case. As a rule the arable land on the Cornbrash is of a deep reddish-brown colour and is well adapted for the growth of wheat, but it produces few characteristic plants and the outline of the surface is also somewhat featureless. On the village walls made of the local stone at Marsh Gibbon, the stone crop (Sedum dasyphylluni) grows in one of its very few homes in the county.

The Oxford Clay so frequently referred to is a light-blue clay weathering to yellow on the surface and of a great thickness, in many places being over 500 feet. It occupies a considerable area of the north of the county, forming a more or less undulating surface, uninteresting from a scenic point of view, and without an attractive flora. From the absence of springs, and from its impervious soil, there are fewer villages on it, and it therefore is a sparsely populated area, so that the plants which follow man and his operations are necessarily fewer ; but the new industry of brick-making will probably introduce some species. The contrast between its common constituents and those of the oolitic rocks has been already alluded to, but as the Ouse has excavated into it for a considerable portion of its course, the aquatic vegetation is the most marked in character. Near Stoney Stratford the sweet flag ( Acorus

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Rh Calamus) is probably native, and the narrow-leaved reed-mace (Typha angustifolia) occurs. The sedges include Carex acuta and C. paniculata, and Sparganium mglectum as well as S. erectum occurs; and the beautiful meadow crane's-bill (Geranium pratense) is not uncommon, while the willows include Salix caprea, cinerea, triandra, alba, viridis, fragilis, aurita, Smitbiana and purpurea. Near Moulsoe the graceful Carex Pseudocyperus grows, and the water-stitchwort (Stellaria aquatica) is rather common. The horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris) is not unfrequent and the wet pastures are often full of Juncus glaucus. Characteristic plants in addition to those alluded to which grow upon this formation are the ox-tongue (Picris echioides), the marsh stitchwort (Stellaria palustris), the honewort (Sison Amomum), especially where a little gravel is also present, the yellow cress (Roripa palustris), the hemlock (Conium maculatum), and the black poplar (Populus nigra), which is extensively planted, probably in some cases from the fact that in the early days of our railway system buffers for goods-wagons made of this wood were found to bear the concussion better than almost any other timber.

forms in Oxfordshire and Berkshire a conspicuous ridge stretching from west to east, on which many rare and interesting species grow, but when it reaches Buckinghamshire it thins out and changes its character so greatly as to be scarcely recognizable, and is chiefly represented by a clayey band which may be followed by Worminghall, Oakley, round Muswell Hill, and through Dorton to the base of Quainton Hill, and it may exist in a transitional state at Studley. Instead of the sandy or calcareous soil of a very changeable nature which characterizes the surface soil on the formation in Oxfordshire, there is a more uniform and a much poorer soil on the fragmentary beds of the Coralline Oolite in Buckinghamshire, so that we miss such species as the round-leaved crane's-bill (Geranium rotundifolium), the hybrid poppy (Papaver hybridum), the climbing bindweed (Polygonum dumetorum) and many other species which are found in Berkshire or Oxfordshire.

. In Oxfordshire and Berkshire this formation is quite distinct from the Oxford Clay, since the Coralline Oolite just alluded to keeps them apart, so that we have in those counties plants which are fond of warmer and a more pervious soil abundantly growing on the old coral-reef which rises above the two clay deposits; but as we have seen in Buckinghamshire, the Coralline Oolite has either entirely thinned out or has been so modified in character as itself to form a clay band. There is nothing over the greater part of north Bucks to divide the great extensive clay deposits from each other, and in some parts, as near Stewkley, the separation of one from the other is described on the Geological Survey as wholly conjectural.

So far as the formation influences plant distribution we may say that what is true of the Oxford is also true of the Kimeridge Clay. The surface is likewise uninteresting and undiversified; few rare plants occur; the absence of springs means that there are no bogs, and such marshes as occur are too sour or rather have the waters too charged with

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Rh sulphate and carbonate of lime to allow plants such as the sundew or the Lancashire asphodel to grow. There are interminable series of pastures wearisome in their monotony, but in some of the meadows near Ayles- bury the snake's-head (Fritillaria meleagris) is as common as it is in the better-known locality of Oxford, and here from its being in such a sequestered and unpopulated region, the indigenity of this interesting species in the Upper Thames province is further strengthened. The clay, which is often bituminous, with irregular bands of limestone nodules, is sometimes of a dull leaden colour, as near Hartwell and Aylesbury, where it is extensively worked for brick-making. Here and there are tracts of woodland in which the oak is the prevailing tree, although both species of elms attain large dimensions ; and the black poplar, always slightly leaning to one side, and not I think always against the wind, is a conspicuous feature in the low fields of the Vale, while the course of the small, sluggish and turbid streams is marked by the line of pollard willows, while the hop (Humulus Lupulus) and the large bindweed (Calystegia septum) and the water stitch wort (Stellaria aquatica) the willow herbs Epilobium hirsutum and E. parviflorum, and the loose- strife (Lythrum Salicaria) break by their display of colour the somewhat dead monotony of the scene.

are more largely represented in Buckingham- shire than in Oxfordshire ; the main outcrop passes north-east from Thame, forming a tract of drier soil, by Cuddington and Dinton to Bierton and Aylesbury, where the rock is soft and sandy ; and there are outlying masses at Brill, Muswell Hill, Ashendon, Whitchurch, etc. Capping the Portland Beds are the at Brill, which exist as thin beds of drab-coloured close-grained limestones of fresh- water origin, but they have not the characteristic calcareous flora to the same degree as the Great Oolite or the Chalk.

, which is formed of the lowest beds of the Cretaceous formation, are of very irregular occurrence, but they may be traced at intervals across the counties of Berks, Oxford and Bucks, rising above the flatter and less elevated clay tracts by which they are surrounded. We find that in the two first-named counties the well- known hills of Faringdon, Boar's Hill and Shotover, consisting essen- tially of the Greensand, are not only very striking and pleasing factors in the effect they produce upon the outline of the country, but from their being of a warm porous rock, overlying an impervious stratum, the juncture of which is marked by a line of springs which offer a congenial home for many interesting marsh plants, and from the water often containing ferrugineous matter in solution, a true bog is formed ; so that on this formation we obtain a more diversified flora than on any of the previous formations yet considered. Nor does the character deteriorate in Buckinghamshire ; indeed the tract of country on which the Brickhills are situated, and whose rather striking escarpment faces nearly north, clothed as it is with planted pine and larch, offers a veritable oasis to the botanist, who may have been disheartened by

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Rh Bucks. At Brickhill and Woburn the Greensand forms a dry hilly ground, attaining an altitude of 520 feet, where the surface is a light sandy material, strongly impregnated with iron, on which the pines and larch appear quite at home. The heath or ericetal vegetation is very varied, and several species are limited to this particular area in the county. Space will not allow the whole of the species to be enumerated, but among the most characteristic the following may be mentioned: the climbing fumitory (Capnoides claviculata), the swine's succory (Arnoseris pusilla), the small mouse-ear chickweed (Cerastium semidecandrum), the cudweeds Filago apiculata and F. minima, the golden-rod (Solidago Virgaurea), the sheep's scabious (Jasione montana), the sandwort (Buda rubra), the hawkweeds Hieracium umbellatum and H. boreale, the cress (Teesdalia nudicaulis), locally abundant, the vetch (Vicia latbyroides), the bird's-foot (Ornithopus perpusillus), the clovers Trifolium arvense and T. striatum, the sedges Carex pilulifera and C. leporina, the ling (Calluna Erica), the buck's-horn plantain (Plantago Coronopus), the grasses Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca sciuroides, Aira prtecox, A. caryopbyllea, Poa subccerulea, and Festuca ovina var. paludosa and vulgaris, and a rich bramble flora, which will be alluded to hereafter.

Where shelter is given by the pines or where a somewhat richer soil is found, then we see great tracts covered by the huckleberry (Vaccinium Myrtillus), which used to fruit so freely that the 'berries' were gathered in great quantities by the poor and hawked over considerable parts of the surrounding country; and I look back with pleasant recollection to the toothsome delicacy of huckleberry and apple tart. Where there is even a greater deposit of leaf-mould we may see tracts of that most charming flower the lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) flowering freely. On the hill slopes, where some spring has been thrown out by the clay beneath, we shall notice the hard fern (Lomaria Spicant) growing by the trench sides, in which there will be a plentiful growth of Juncus bulbosus (supinus). J. squarrosus also occurs, and in the marshy spots the sedge Carex echinata is abundant. In one or two such places, but very sparingly, I have seen the Lancashire asphodel (Nartbecium ossifragum) in its only locality in north Bucks, and there are sphagnum beds of such a size as leads one to hope that the fen orchid (Malaxis paludosa) may yet be found in them. In one if not more of the valleys the royal fern formerly grew, but it has, I am afraid, fallen a victim to the rapacity of unscrupulous horticulturists, but the marsh fern (Lastrea or Dryopteris Thelypteris) is still uneradicated, and there are fine examples of its congeners L. dilatata, L. spinulosa and probably L. uliginosa.

In one place may be gathered the graceful Scirpis syhaticus; in others the great horsetail (Equisetum maximum) grows. Where the stiffer clay soil occurs at the base of the hills oak plantations take the place of the pine, and there we see a fresh series of plants such as the butterfly orchid (Habenaria chloroleuca), the pale sedge (Carex pallescens); in one place the throat- wort (Campanula latifolia), the lady's mantle (Alchemilla vul-

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Rh garis as the variety filicaulis); in another, kept permanently wet by the copious springs, we have the golden saxifrage (Chrysosplenium oppositifolium), and even this list does not exhaust the number.

The Greensand stretches out by Heath and Reach to Leighton Buzzard, and is overlapped by the Gault near Fenny Stratford. There are small outlying patches on Muswell Hill and at Brill, and it also caps Quainton Hill. Beds of rich phosphatic coprolites are also found in it occasionally.

, unlike the Lower Greensand, is a continuous formation which stretches from the Oxfordshire border across Buckinghamshire to the Bedfordshire border near Eaton Bray, and in its progress widens from three miles near Towersey to seven miles on the eastern side. Near the Dunstable downs at Edlesborough a bed of black coprolites is found about fifty feet below the surface of the Gault, which exists usually as a thick mass of pale blue clay, often with greyish-brown phosphatic nodules. The stiff, heavy soil formed by it is usually flat and featureless, resembling the two previous impervious formations in being deficient in interesting species. Those characteristic of the Oxford and Kimeridge Clays are also common to this.

overlies the Gault and stretches from Princes Risborough and Henton to about a mile north-east of Buckland, from which place it thins out so as to be not easily traced, but it is to be seen in a brickyard at Eaton Bray. Its junction with the Gault is marked by a series of springs which are thrown out by the impervious nature of the Gault, and near them are situated at short intervals numerous villages, while the copious streams of clear pure water are largely used for the cultivation of water cress, which is sent in great quantity to London and other large towns. One of these springs issues out of the romantic Bledlow Gorge, which furnishes a scene quite unique in the county. The golden saxifrage (Chrysosplenium oppositifolium) grows there, and is a very rare plant in the county.

formation is one of the principal strata which come to the surface in the county, not only from the extent of surface which it occupies, but from the conspicuous feature caused by the rather bold northern escarpment of the Lower Chalk with its indented bays, which from a distance give it the appearance of an old coastline, but closer examination reveals the fact that its configuration is not the result of marine but of subaerial denudation, and that in every age it has only been the waves of wind, rain and mist which have surged against it, and carved out indentations which mark its contour in its course from Bledlow to the downs near Eaton Bray. The upper part is formed of a thin but very hard and pinkish bed of Chalk rock resting on other beds of chalk of different degrees of porosity and density, but entirely free from flints. Near the base is a very hard deposit called Totternhoe Stone, and beneath this is a softish white chalk marl, which forms the rising ground between Bledlow, Princes Risborough, etc., and is often under agrarian culture. The abrupt

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Rh slope of the escarpment is to a great extent covered with aboriginal turf, and it is in this portion that the rich growth of xerophilous calcareous plants is to be found. The comparatively short grass does not overshadow the flowering plants, so that in the early summer we have a very brilliant display of blossom, five distinct shades of yellow being the groundwork in the colour scheme, the deepest being struck by the dark orange-flowered horse-shoe vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) ; the next, but slightly more golden in tint, is caused by the lotus (L. corniculatus) ; then comes a somewhat greenish-yellow sheen where great patches of the golden stonecrop (Sedum acre) occur, and a very pale yellow is created where the lady's-fingers (Anthyllis Vulneraria) displays itself, but the paler tint is not altogether derived from the petals, but in part is caused by the conspicuous calyces, while the fifth species growing in countless thousands of pale-gold blossoms is the rock-rose (Helianthemum Chamcecistus) with its very fugacious petals ; and as if to vie with them the key-note is repeated in the cornfields, where closely contiguous masses of the white mustard (Brassica alba) glow with a vividness that is almost painful under the bright noonday sun. But there are other plants in the turf besides this chord of yellow-blossomed species ; there are the pinkish-white flowers of the squinancy-wort (Asperula cynanchica), the rosy-pink pyramidal spikes of the orchid (Orchis pyramidalis), or where a rather more impervious bed of chalk occurs we have the duller purple spikes of the fragrant orchid (Habenaria conopsea), and more sparingly the bee orchid (Opbrys apifera). Here and there the milkwort (Polygala vulgaris), with the flowers varying through different shades of blue to pink or white, may be seen, and it is a little curious and inexplicable why on the Berkshire downs the ubiquitous milkwort is P. calcarea, which here is extremely local and so much less frequent than the common one. Occasionally, especially on the downs above Ivinghoe, may be seen the yellow blossoms of the field ragwort (Senecio campestris), and not uncommonly the purple blue-flowered Canterbury bell (Campanula glomerata). In very many places bushes of the juniper (Juniperus communis) give a dark green colouring, and this too is exceedingly scarce on the Berkshire downs, although here so plentiful, and not restricting itself to the downs, but stretching inland to such commons as Naphill or Burn- ham Beeches, or the slopes near Medmenham. Bushes of the sweet brier (Rosa Eglanteria) and R. micrantha are plentiful near Princes Ris- borough and Wendover. Where the turf has been removed the porce- lain-white blossoms of the candytuft (Iberis amara) will probably be seen, and few of the arable fields on the bare chalk are without it. Bordering the beech woods may be seen the white blossoms of the helleborine (Cephalanthera pallens), and in the woodland shade the bird's- nest orchid (Neottia Nidus-avis), and the wall lettuce (Lactuca muralis). But we have not even yet exhausted the constituents of the turf, for the rather pretty grass Kæleria cristata is plentiful, as well as the more striking oat-grasses (Avena pubescens and A. pratensis), while the brome (Bromus erectus) is abundant. Later in the season the turf is studded

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Rh with the crimson blossoms of the hard-head (Centaurea nigra) as the variety decipiens, and there is abundance of the purple flowered autumnal felwort (Gentiana Amarella), and in a few places the much larger blossomed Gentiana germanica. Three or four species of the eye-bright Eupbrasia occur, including nemorosa, curta, Kerneri and gracilis, but some of these grow where there is a thin coating of loamy soil or possibly brick-earth.

In the deep combe above the Kembles and Ellesborough there are great bushes of the box (Buxus sempervirens), and it may be native in the county here and on the downs above Edlesborough. At Ellesborough it affords shelter for a great number of rabbits, and about their warrens the henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) is abundant, and growing upon the earth thrown out by them one of the earliest plants to appear is the sandwort (Arenaria leptoclados). The tower cress (Arabis hirsuta) is found plentifully in a few situations, but is most abundant in shade, which is rather unusual for this species. Nor do the arable fields lack their complement of interesting plants, and the white mustard and candy-tuft have been already mentioned, but there are also the fumitories Fumaria densiflora, F. Vaillantii and F. parviflora, the toadflax (Linaria viscida), the sainfoin (Onobrycbis "viciteformis), but the special treasure is a very local species which has its extreme western range in the county, namely the great pig-nut (Carum Bulbocastanum), which also occurs in Cambridgeshire and Herts, but does not appear to extend west of Ivinghoe. The large tuberous root is greedily eaten by pigs. About Halton and Tring there is the poisonous deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna), the spurge laurel (Daphne Laureoa), the very local bedstraws Galium sylestre and G. erectum, the meadow clary (Safoia pratensis), and the field mouse-ear (Cerastium arvense); Vicia slvatica, Polygonatum multiflorum and Pyrola minor.

The Chalk is occasionally covered with leaf-mould and with loam, or brick-earth, and when the calcareous character of the soil is more or less masked a corresponding change in the flora takes place; patches of the ling (Calluna Erica), of the louse-wort (Pedicularis sylvatica) and other ericetal plants occur, but as these are not normal constituents of a cretaceous flora they will be referred to subsequently. There are three large dips in the Chiltern escarpment: one near Princes Risborough, another near Wendover, and a third which lies between Tring and Aldbury. The neighbouring hills such as Beacon Hill near Wendover and those above Ivinghoe and Halton give very beautiful and extensive views over the vale to the distant hills of Northants and Wilts. The chalk rock of the Lower Chalk is also to be seen inland at Chesham, High Wycombe, as well as in several places overlooking the Thames between Henley and Marlow.

is about 300 feet thick, and forms the eastern slope of the Chiltern Hills. This chalk is largely burned for lime. Although there is a considerable portion of the chalk area where the Upper Chalk forms the subsoil and gives a home for calcareous loving

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Rh species, yet there is an even larger portion coloured as chalk on the geological map, which is really covered with a reddish earth to which the name of ' brick-earth ' is given, and when this is present it so modifies the vegetation that a very dissimilar flora will be found from that where the chalk itself forms the surface soil. The chief tree in the woods is of course the beech, with hornbeam; and occasionally the cherry; and the ash is not unfrequent in open situations, while in some of the more clayey and sheltered places the oak is found. The plant of special interest is the local coral-root (Cardamine bulbifera), the Dentaria bulbifera of Linnæs, so named from the curious bulbils present in the axils of the leaves. These bulbils drop off and form another plant, thus enabling it to perpetuate itself without seeding, which as it grows in rather dense shade is not of frequent occurrence. The plant prefers to grow where there are plenty of loose flints and leaf-mould in hilly woods, and although extending into Herts and Berks has not yet been found in the woods of the Oxfordshire Chilterns. The helleborines Epipactis latifolia and E. violacea are found as well as occasionally the herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia), the gromwell (Lithospermum officinale), the large woodrush (Luzula or Juncoides syhatica), the lady's mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris), the beautiful wood vetch (Vicia sylvatica), the very rare and interesting shrub Daphne Mezereum, as well as the spurge laurel (D. Laureola), the mountain speedwell (Veronica montana), the sedges Carex pallescens and C. strigosa, the grasses Milium effusum and Meicea uniflora, the toothwort (Lathrea Squamaria), the willow herb (Epilobium angustifolium), besides Pimpinella major.

The Chalk in this southern area, although so frequently obscured by the deposits alluded to, is at intervals the surface rock, especially on the sides of the dry valleys or deep road-cutting. When this is the case the vegetation at once changes in character, and in the calcareous woods we have the yew (Taxus baccata), the juniper (Juniperus communis), the hornbeam (Carpinus Betulusll), all certainly native; the wood barley (Elytmus europceus), which can also grow where there is some covering to the chalk; the wood rush (Juncoides [Luzula] Forsferi), and much more locally the Solomon's seal (Polygonatum multtflorum), so much rarer here than in the woods on the Berkshire chalk hills, and this again prefers some coating either of leaf-mould or even brick-earth; the rare military orchid (Orchis militaris), one of the chief botanical treasures of the county, but now much less frequently occurring than was formerly the case, and chiefly on the borders of woods; the mountain St. John's wort (Hypericum montanum), the tutsan (H. Androscemuni), the two hellebores Helleborus viridis and H.fætidus, but both locally; and with a still more restricted distribu- tion the oak fern (Phegopteris Dryopteris) and the limestone polypody (P. calcarea); a hawkweed (Hieracium murorum var. pellucidum), and more commonly the ploughman's spikenard (Inula Conyza). The stinking gladdon (Iris foeti dissima), the butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus), the wild licorice vetch (Astragalus glycyphyllos), the blue toadflax (Linaria repens) are chiefly found on the chalk hills overlooking the river. On the grass-covered downs the musk orchid (Herminium Monorchis) and the large

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of character may be said to develop themselves when a child begins for the first time to be actuated by motives distinct from the operation of its senses. Thus, when it has learned to prefer the approbation of its mother, to the gratification of its own appetite, it has exhibited one of those elements of character, which, in all probability, will prove most important in its future life.

That ceaseless activity of body and mind which has already been alluded to, will at this stage of experience become capable of a fixed and definite purpose; and when the ends which the child endeavors to attain are associated with a sense of good and evil, it will have commenced the existence of a moral agent, and as such will demand the assiduous and unremitting attention of its mother.

Important as it is, that maternal love should be so directed as to teach the use of a mind, yet, after all, this part of a mother's duty bears but a small proportion to that of forming the characters of her children. It is true, they would form themselves, or rather circumstances would form them, without any instrumentality of hers; but how? Can it be the part of a Christian mother to leave circumstances alone to decide whether her child shall be happy or miserable for all eternity? No; that part of educatian which consists in storing the memory, may possibly be committed with propriety to other hands; but as a mother's instruction is properly more moral than intellectual, that far more important part of educationwhich consists in forming the habits of children, and thus laying the foundation of character, must belong to the mother.

A mother's superior advantages in the art of communicating ideas has already been described; and if, in the mere act of imparting knowledge, her qualifications are so admirably adapted to her duties, how much greater must be their yalue in implanting the first ideas of right and wrong, or rather in the great work of giving impulse and direction to the

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Rh having its headquarters in the county is the calamint (Calamintha parvifolia or Nepeta), which is locally very abundant on the dry banks in the neighbourhood of West Wycombe, Chalfont St. Peter's, Seer Green, etc. The maple and holly are plentiful in the hedgerows, and the buckthorn (Rhamnus catbarticus), the wayfaring tree (Viburnum Lanfana), the true cherry (Prunus Cerasus), as well as P. avium, occur.

are the lowest members of the Tertiary strata found in Buckinghamshire: they consist very largely of stiff clay mottled with a great variety of colours, but they also include beds of sharp sand, also variously coloured, and loams. They rest unconformably on the Chalk, and once formed an unbroken sheet over its whole area, but they have been largely removed by denudation; the various outhers such as those at Penn however testify to the much wider range they formerly had. The Reading Beds now occupy a considerable surface of southern Bucks about Wooburn, Burnham, Beaconsfield, Hedgerley, Chalfont St. Peter's and Denham.

The varied soils formed by these beds necessarily give rise to a diversified flora, and it is rendered even more interesting from the extensive deposits of drift gravels by which in many places they are covered. Therefore in quick succession we find purely ericetal species such as the trailing St. John's wort (Hypericum humifusum) and bird's-foot (Ornithopus perpusillus), and clay-loving species such as Mentha rubra and M. piperita.

Where the drift gravels are common we then find a most interesting series, such as the silvery cinquefoil (Potentilla argentea), the subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum), the soft clover (T. striatum) and the hare's-foot (T. arvense), the buck's-horn plantain (Plantago Coronopus), the tower-cress (Arabis perfoliata), the climbing bindweed (Polygonum dumetorurn) the cress (Lepidium heterophyllum var. canescens), the hawkweeds H. boreale, H. sciaphilum and H. umbellatum, the saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria), the Deptford pink (Diantbus Armeria), the broomrape (Orobancbe Rapum-genlstae), the pearl-wort (Sagina ciliata) and very locally S. subulata. The less pervious clays have afforded the sedges Carex strigosa, C. elata, and chamomile (Anthemisnobilis).

is another Eocene formation, and it is found resting on the Reading Beds as a stiff brownish clay, often containing large nodules of calcareous matter called septaria, but is usually very uniform in its character throughout its whole thickness, which is not less than 300 feet in some places. It occupies a large tract of country between Slough, Langley and Drayton, where it is extensively excavated for brickmaking, and Stoke Common, Fulmer, Red Hill are also situated on it, while there are extensive outhers capping the Chalk, as at Lane End, which is 593 feet in altitude, and the neighbouring eminence of Priests is 606 feet above sea level.

Like the Reading Beds, this formation is often covered with drift gravels, and then we see in close proximity the ericetal and glareal

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Rh vegetation belonging to the latter deposit and the pelophilous or clay-loving species characteristic of the former.

On Stoke Common we therefore find such plants as the all-seed (Millegrana Radiola), the dwarf willow (Salix repens), the alder buck- thorn (Rhamnus Frangula), the meadow thistle (Cnicus pratensis), the heaths Erica Tetralix and E. cinerea, the ling (Calluna Erica), the petty whin (Genista angtica), the dwarf gorse (U/ex minor), the upright pearl wort (Cerastium quaternellum-Mcenchia), the sedges Carex binervis, C. echinata, the grasses Nardus stricta, Aira prcecox, A. caryopbyllea, Deschampsia flexuosa, and Festuca ovina var. paludosa.

On the elevated outlier at Lane End there is some marshy ground where the marsh helleborine (Epipactis palustris), the bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella), the marsh lousewort (Pedicularis palustris), the sedges Carex pulicaris, C. Jiava, C. ecbinata, C. Goodenowii, and C. panicea, grow in very near neighbourhood to the petty whin, the dwarf gorse, the ling and the heath form of Orchis maculata, i.e. var. ericetorum, and where the small winter-green (Pyrola minor) grows in short turf bordering a wood in which the golden saxifrage (Chrysosplenium oppositifolium) occurs.

. A casual glance at the geologic map, as coloured to show the limitations of the various strata which come to the surface in the county, does not reveal, as has already been stated, the true surface soil over a great part of the area. In the north we find that both the Oolite and the Oxford and other clays are sometimes covered with or obscured by masses of clay full of pebbles, or by more or less extensive patches of sands or gravels, and this is specially the case in the portion drained by the Ouse ; indeed that river gives the name of the ' Ouse gravels' to them. The influence of this covering upon the vegetation has already been referred to. The brick-earth and clay with flints, differing as it does materially from the bed rock in chemical composition as well as in physical characteristics, also has great influence in changing the character of the flora as we have previously seen.

When rivers flow with a gentle fall across flat country they are usually margined by tracts of flat meadow-land, which are composed of materials carried down by the stream and dropped whenever a slackening of the current prevents the matter being carried further. Such deposits are known as Alluvium. They may be gravelly, loamy or clayey. Their component parts are purely local, being derived from the immediate neighbourhood of the stream, so that in the meadows of Marlow or Windsor the alluvial gravels contain a large percentage of the cretaceous rocks through which the river has cut its way, and the only foreign elements are such as are derived from the Drift or High Level Gravels which may have been cut through and reassorted and mixed with those of purely local origin. Hence we notice a remarkable difference between the vegetation of the alluvial meadows of the Thames and of the Ouse ; the latter being chiefly occupied by mesophytic plants, that is, such as are almost ubiquitous or common to various situations, or by

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Rh pelophilous or clay-loving species; whereas in the meadows of the Lower Thames, where chalk fragments are such common constituents, the ordinary vegetation of the low-lying and rich grass pastures will also contain such plants as the lady's-fingers (Anthyllis Vulneraria), the purple blue Canterbury bell (Campanula glomeratd), the scabious (Scabiosa Columbaria), the hawk's-beard (Pieris bieracioides), and the grasses Bromus erectus, Avena pubescens and Kaeleria cristata, which are distinctly gypsophiles or calcareous species.

The flora of the gravels has been already sufficiently touched upon, but we may add that the lettuce (Lactuca virosa), the small buttercup (Ranunculus paruiflorus), the vetch Vicia Latbyroides, the shepherd's scabious (Jasione montana), the cinquefoil (Potentilla argentea), the calamint (Calamintba officinalis}, the rose (Rosa systyla), the clovers Trifolium arvense, T. striatum and T. subterraneum, the clary (Sahia Verbenaca), the hound's-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), the vervain (Verbena officinalis), the mullein (Verbascum nigrum), the garlic (Allium vineali), the meadow saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata), the bur parsley (Caucalis nodosa), and the hedge honewort (Carum segetum) have been found on them.

The meadow flora consists of many species, varying to some extent with the rocks of which the alluvium is composed, but there are many plants which flourish well either on clay, gravel on loam, and these we need not attempt to particularize here. We must, however, enumerate among the more local species, the small Polygonum (P. minus), which occurs with the knotted spurrey (Sagina nodosa) by the stream near Chesham, and the American balsam (Impatients biflora or flora}, now completely and abundantly naturalized for many miles along the course of the Colne, especially about Wraysbury; another American species, the monkey flower (Mimulus Langsdorffit), is so plentiful as to form a belt of colour for some distance between Latimers and Chenies; and the grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) finds a home in the meadows near. Near Hambledon the spurge (Euphorbia Esula) has been known to grow for many years, and it is possibly native, while in the Eton meadows the star of Bethlehem (Ornitbogalum umbellatum) and the medick (Medicago arabica) are locally common, and the snowflake (Leucojum cestivum} still occurs in a few parts of the Thames between Henley and Windsor.

In the Bray meadow the bedstraw Galium erectum grows freely, and the great dodder (Cuscuta europa) occurs near Windsor; the ditches also afford the sedges Carex Pseudo-cyperus, C. acuta, C. vesticaria, C. disticha; the water starwort (Callitriche obtusangula), the bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), the water violet (Hottonia palustris), the frog-bit (Hydrocbaris Morsus-ranae, the water buttercup (Ranunculus trichopbyllus), the bur marigold (Bidens cernua) and the water dropwort (Œanthe Phellandrium).

For many years past it has been the practice in the best and most complete county floras to subdivide the county they describe into

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Rh districts, and in almost every case the delimitation of the districts is made by adopting the different drainage areas of the smaller streams, or by dividing the larger into two or more parts. By this means, it is con- tended, more valuable scientific results are obtained than if an artificial system were chosen, or one based upon the geological divisions, or even one in which the divisions were made to represent the various soils. The objection to the plan based upon the geological strata is that so much of the area is obscured by surface deposits, which, as we have seen, mask the character of the strata underneath ; and although in my opinion apian in which the surface soil itself were used to determine the standard would be more valuable, it is quite true that our knowledge of the subject is not yet sufficiently perfected to make it available. The plan adopted here is therefore one based upon the river drainage, notwithstanding the difficulty that sometimes is felt in the separation of portions of the country where the water-parting is obscure, and the more serious objection which is experienced when, as in the case of the Ouzel or Thame, which run transversely to the geological strata, each subdivision will contain several different strata. Moreover, instead of a more or less uniform scenic effect and a fairly uniform vegetation, which would be the case were a stratum such as the Oxford Clay selected, it is obvious we shall in such an instance as that of the Thame have all the varying effects, which different altitudes and soils give to the districts traversed by that stream in its course from its origin in the Chalk hills of Wendover or the Green- sand of Brill through the clays to the river Thames. On the contrary in choosing this plan we keep in harmony with the arrangement adopted in works on the botany of the bordering counties, and the student of plant distribution will be enabled to investigate more easily the flora of the smaller river basins of the midlands.

Unlike Berkshire, which is wholly contained in the Thames basin, Buckinghamshire has two important river systems, those of the Ouse and the Thames. These therefore form our two great divisions, but the area drained by the Ouse is capable of being further sub-divided into two portions, namely that drained by the Ouse itself and that drained by its tributary the Ouzel. In eliminating the country drained by the latter stream we shall include in the Ouse district proper the country on the Liassic and Oolitic strata. These strata are found also in those portions of the bordering counties which are also in the Ouse drainage. The country drained by the Ouzel is much more varied in its geological character.

The district No. 1 drained by the Ouse has its counterpart in district No. 3 of my Northamptonshire Flora and in district No. 2 of my Oxfordshire Flora. Roughly speaking its configuration is as follows : The Ouse rises at Ousewell near Brackley, and leaves our county near Olney. About a mile from the pleasant town of Brackley the Ouse forms the county boundary of Oxfordshire as far as to Water Stratford, where the line of delimitation from the Cherwell or rather the Ray drainage of Oxfordshire is a line drawn along the Roman road to Newton Purcell, then across country to Goddington, crossing the London and North-Western Railway near Marsh Gibbon station, passing by Calvert station on the Great Central Railway

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Rh to Botolph Claydon, then by Hogshaw and the eastern side of Quainton Hill by Oving and Whitchurch. Here it turns in a north-easterly direction to Dunton, Stewkley Dean and Mursley. Then it again crosses the London and North-Western line about a mile east of Swanbourn station and passes between Whaddon and Bletchley to Denbighshire Hall and Simpson, where the Grand Junction Canal forms the line of demarcation, thence to Great Linford station, where it reaches the main stream of the Ouse, which is the limit of the district, to Newport Pagnell, where it receives the Ouzel stream. From Newport Pagnell the road from that place to the county boundary of Bedfordshire near Broad Green is followed; and the eastern limit of the district is the county of Bedford, the county boundary of which passes by Astwood and Olney, and then the county boundary of Northamptonshire replaces it by Salcey Forest and Hartwell. Near the latter place the river Tove, which rises from the high ground near Preston Capes, in Northamptonshire, is itself a tributary of the Ouse. From Hartwell the Tove itself becomes the county boundary and flows past Grafton Regis, Castlethorpe and Cosgrove, in its course having cut its way down to the Upper Lias Clay, and enters the Ouse which then in turn separates the two counties westwards to Thornton. Here the county boundary, which is the border of the Ouse district, is an arbitrary line which passes to the east of Leckhampstead and Lillingstone, and includes a small portion of the once extensive forest of Whittlewood or Whittlebury, where there are extensive deposits of Blue Clay drift, and traverses a secluded and well wooded part of the county by Chapel Green and Biddlesden; a small stream here forms the county boundary to a spot adjacent to Brackley, where our boundary line rejoins the starting point opposite to Evenley.

The Ouse district as comprised within the bounds just described consists of a flat or a gently undulating country, the highest point near Oving above sea level attaining only to 520 feet in altitude; the highest part of the Whittlebury neighbourhood is about 510 feet, while Whaddon Chase is about 450 feet. But by far the larger part of the district is between 200 and 300 feet, and some portion bordering the Ouse near Olney is not more than 1 70 feet above sea level. The area is almost entirely under cultivation and there are extensive tracts of pasture land, and still more monotonous agrarian fields, but there are vestiges of woodland in the north-west, although the greater part of the sylvan portions have long ago been disafforested, but we are able to read its former history by the occurrence of wood anemones and bluebells in the hedgerows. Near Westbury there is a wild bushy common where a very rare and local species of bramble (Rubus pubescens) grows, and it is especially interesting as it more closely approaches the original German type of R. pubescens than any other plant hitherto observed in Britain. Although clayey there is a plentiful growth of the woolly-headed thistle (Cnicus eriophorus). The marsh scorpion-grass (Myosotis cespitosa) and the bur-reed (Sparganium neglectum) grow in a pond in the vicinity. The umbelliferous plant Pimpinella major is plentiful in the woods and bushy hedgerows hereabouts, and in damp roadsides the grass Festuca arundinacea occurs. The hedges occasionally, as at Westbury and Lillingstone, have the barberry (Berberis vulgaris) as well as the spindle-tree (Euonymus europaeus); in a wet ditch at Westbury and also near Adstock the peppermint (Mentha piperita) occurs; the coppices often abound with the grass Calamagrostis epigeios, and sometimes, especially on stiff clay soils, have the beautiful sedge (Carex pendula) and the great horsetail (Equisetum maximum), while very locally near Lillingstone the great throat-wort (Campanula latifolia) is found. By the Black Pit Pond in Stowe Park, where the moon-wort (Botrychium Lunaria) was once found, there is a plentiful growth of the bur marigold (Bidens cernua), a very rare plant in the district in which B. tripartita is the prevailing form. At Westbury the spleenworts Asplenium Trichomanes and A. Ruta-muraria are found, but ferns are very scarce in the district; even the bracken (Pteris aquilina), is almost absent from the area. Nearer the Ouse, as at Buffer's Holt where the oolite was formerly quarried, there are some more interesting species, and the local Gentiana germanica and the thorow-wax (Bupleurum rotundifolium) have been reported. The relics of Whittlebury Forest contain the mint (Mentha longifolia) in an assuredly native situation.

At Westbury Common when the gravel drift is sufficiently porous to allow of the occurrence, the ling (Calluna Erica), a very rare plant of the district, and also the hawkweed (Hieracium umbellatum), the St. John's wort (Hypericum pulchrum), the heath stitchwort (Stellaria graminea), the heath bedstraw (Galium hercynicum) and the grasses Aira pracox, Deschampsia flexuosa and Agrostis canina are found. At Old Stratford the riverside affords the sweet flag (Acorus Calamus), the reed-mace (Typha angustifolia),the flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus),and nearer Castlethorpe the bittercress (Cardamine amara), the grass Catabrosa aquatica, the meadow rue (Thalictrum favum), and abundance of the water dropworts (ŒEnanthe fistulosa and (Œ.fluviatis, the latter of

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Rh ' Moisselai,' ' Moleslou.' See Mulshoe Moleshou. See Moulsoe ' Molesoueslu.' See Mulshoe, Moulsoe Monks Risborough. See Risborough, Monks Mont St. Catherine (Rouen), Abbey of the Holy Trinity, 212 Moreton (Maids) [Mortone], 219, 250b, 275a Moreton, Liberty of, 227 Moselai, Moslai, Hundred, 263a, 266a See also Mulshoe Moulsoe [Moleshou, Molesou- eslau], 252a, note 241a Mulshoe [Moisselai, Moleslou, Molesoueslau, Moslei, Mosleie, Mulsoe] Hundred, now part of Newport Hundred, 225, 227, 241a, 241b, 246b, 247b, 252a, 256b, 257b, 263a, 274a, 275b, 276a, notes 239a, 266a. See also Moselai Mursley [Muselai], 245b, 250a, 275a Mursley [Mursalai, Murselai] Hundred, now part of Cottesloe Hundred, 225, 227, 237a, 230b, 242b, 245b, 249b, 255b, 259b, 262b, 268b, 269a, 269b, 271b, 275a, note 241a 'Nedreham,' 210, 211, 223, 224, Nether Winchendon. See Winchendon, Nether Newport (Pagnel) [Neuport], 213, 222, 225, 255b Newport Hundred, 225. See also Bonestou, Mulshoe, Sigelai Newton (Longville) [Neutone], 251b Noke (Oxf.), 213 North Marston. See Marston, North Nuneham (Courtenay) [Neuham, Neweham], (Oxf.), 217 and note Oakley (in Bernwod) [Achelei], 223, 258a, note 248a Olney [Olnei], 222, 240b ' Oltone ' (? Otton). See Wotton ' Olvonge.' See Oving ' Opetone.' See Upton Ouilly-le-Basset, 213 Over Winchendon. See Winchendon, Over Oving [Olvonge], 239b Oxford [Oxeneford], 221, 232a, St. George's Chapel, 213

Padbury [Pateberie], 225, 258a, Penn, 227, note 235b Picquigny (Pinkeney), barony of, 224 Piglesthorn, Pychelesthorne. See Pitstone ' Pincelestorne,' ' Pincenestorne.' See Pitstone Pitstone [Pincelestorne, Pincenestorne], 244b, 245a, 249b, 262b, note 233b Pollicot [Policote], 219, 248b Preston (Bissett) [Prestone], 238a Princes Risborough. See Risborough, Princes

Quainton [Chentone], 261b, 272b, notes 253a, 265b, 275a Quarrendon [Querendone], 259b

Radclive [Radeclive], 269a Ravenstone [Ravenston], 252a Risborough [Riseberg, Risberg, Risberge] Hundred, now part of Aylesbury Hundred, 225, 233a, 235a, 243a, 276b Risborough (Monks) [Riseberge],233a Risborough (Princes) [Riseberge, Risenberga], 209, 210, 211, 221, 223, 232a, 254a Rochester Castle (Kent), 211 Romney (Kent), note 238b Rovelai Hundred, now part of Buckingham Hundred, 225, 227, 234a, 238a, 245b, 250b, 253a, 269a, 275b

St. Valery, Honour of, 214 Salden [Sceldene], 275a. See also Selden Saunderton [Santesdone, Santesdune], 236b, 260b Seer Green, 227. See also Farnham Royal Selden [Sceldene], 245b. See also Salden ' Senelai.' See Shenley ' Serintone.' See Sherington ' Sevinestone.' See Simpson Shabbington [Sobintone], 223, 261a Shalstone [Celdestane, Celdestone], 237b 258b Shenley [Senelai], 228, 230, 247a, 271b. See also Westbury Shenley (Great) [Senelai], 208,, 247a Sherington [Serintone], 241b Shipton (Lee) [Sibdone], 253a, 265b, 275a ' Sibdone.' See Shipton ' Sigelai ' Hundred, now part of Newport Hundred, 225, 227, 239b, 246a, 247a, 255b, 263a, 264b, 270b, 272a, 276a, 276b, note 251a Simpson [Sevinestone, Siwinestone], 225, 239b, 276a Singleborough [Sincleberia], 249b ' Siwinestone.' See Simpson Slapton [Slapetone], 242b, notes 260a, 262b ' Sobintone.' See Shabbington ' Soeneberno.' See Swanbourne ' Sortelai,' 261a, 274b Soulbury [Soleberie], 255a, 262a, 264a, 271a, 274b, 277a, notes 262a, 273b Southcote in Stone (?) [Sudcote], 266b Staines [Stanes] (Midd.), 211, 212 ' Stanes.' See Staines, Stone Stanton (Barry) alias Stantonbury [Stantone], 222, 263a Steeple Claydon. See Claydon, Steeple Stewkley [Stivelai], 239b, 262a, notes 249a, 255a, 262a ' Stivelai.' See Stewkley ' Stoches.' See Stoke 'Stodfald,' 'Stofald' Hundred, now part of Buckingham Hundred, 225, 227, 232b, 237b, 245b, 258b, 259b, 266b, 270b, 275a, 275b, notes 250a, 269a Stoke (Goldington) [Stoches], 240b, 254a Stoke (Hammond) [Stoches], 270b, note 215 Stoke Mandeville [Stoches], 223, 223b, Stoke (Poges) [Stoches], 254b and note Stoke [Stoches] Hundred, now part of the Chiltern Hundreds, 225, 227, 242a, 254b, 257b, 259a, 268a, 272b Stone [Stanes], 21 1, 212, 234b, 257b Stone [Stanes] Hundred, now part of Aylesbury Hundred, 225, 227, 232b, 234b, 253b, 254a, 257b, 260a, 264a, 265b, 266b, 267a Stowe [Stou], 213, 237b, notes 250a, 269'a, 275b Stratford (Water) [Stradford], 258b ' Sueneborne.' See Swanbourne Swaffham Bulbeck, 213 Swanbourne [Soenberno, Sueneberie, Sueneberne, Sueneborne], 209, 210, 232a, 245b, 249b, 255b, 259b Swanscombe (Kent), note 234b

'Tamesia.' See Thames. Taplow [Thapeslau], 222, 236a ' Tedinwiche.' See Tingewick ' Tedlingham,' ' Telingham.' See Tyringham Tetchwick [Tochingewiche], 253 a Thame (Oxf.), note 273a

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text: Author:Théodore-Agrippa d'Aubigné

title: Author:Théodore-Agrippa d'Aubigné


text:
Author:Abraham Geiger

Works

 * Judaism and Islam: A Prize Essay, translated by F. M. Young (1898)

title: Author:Abraham Geiger


text:
Author:Adrian Comollo

Works

 * Machiavelli, Guicciardini, and the Papal State (1992)

title: Author:Adrian Comollo


text:
Author:Adrien Le Corbeau

Works

 * The Forest Giant, translated by Thomas Edward Lawrence

title: Author:Adrien Le Corbeau


text:
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Rh I

——,

I am more pained than surprised to infer from your last letter that your faith has received a severe shock. A single term at the University has sufficed to make you doubt whether you retain a belief in miracles; and "If miracles fall, the Bible falls; and with the fall of the Bible I lose Christ; and if I must regard Christ as a fanatic, I do not see how I can believe in a God who suffered such a one as Christ thus to be deceived and to deceive others." Such appear to be the thoughts that are passing through your mind, as I infer them from incidental and indirect expressions rather than from any definite statement.

Unfortunately I understand all this too well not to be able to follow with ease such phases of disbelief even when conveyed in hints. Many young men begin by being taught to believe too much, a great deal too much. Then, when they find they must give up something, (the husk of the kernel) their teachers too often bid them swallow husk and all, on pain of swallowing nothing; and they prefer to swallow nothing. An instance of this at once occurs to me. Many years ago, a young man who wished


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2 to be ordained, asked me to read the Old Testament with him. We set to work at once and read some miraculous history—I forget precisely what—in which I thought my young friend must needs see a difficulty. So I began to point out how the difficulty might be at least diminished by critical considerations. I say "I began": for I stopped as soon as I had begun, finding that my friend saw no difficulty at all. He accepted every miracle on every page of the Old and New Testament on the authority of the Bible; just as a Roman Catholic accepts every ecclesiastical doctrine on the authority of the Church. This seemed to me not a state of mind that I ought to interfere with: I might do more harm than good. So I stopped. But I have since regretted it. Circumstances prevented me from meeting my friend for some weeks. During that time he had fallen in with companions of negative views, against which he had no power to maintain his position: and he had passed from believing everything to believing nothing. That is only too easy a transition; but I hope you will never experience it. Surely there is a medium between swallowing the husk, and throwing the nut away. Is it not possible to throw away the husk and keep the kernel?

Now I have no right (and therefore I try to feel no wish) to extract from you a confidence that you do not care to repose in ine. I have never tried to shake any one's faith in miracles. There may come—I think there will soon come—a time when a belief in miracles will be found so incompatible with the reverence which we ought to feel for the Supreme Order as almost to necessitate superstition, and to encourage immorality in the holder of the belief: and then it might be necessary to express one's condemnation of miracles plainly and even aggressively. But that time has not come yet: and for most people, at present, an acceptance of miracles seems, and


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Letter 1] perhaps is, a necessary basis for their acceptance of Christ. In such minds I would no more wish to disturb the beliel in miracles than I would shake a little child's faith that his father is perfectly good and wise. But when a man says, "the miracles of Christ are inextricably connected with the life of Christ; I am forced to reject the former, and therefore I must also reject the latter"—then I feel moved to shew him that there is no such inextricable connection, and that Christ will remain for us a necessary object of worship, even if we detach the miracles from the Gospels. Now I cannot do this without shewing that the miraculous accounts stand on a lower level than the rest of the Gospel narrative, and that they may have been easily introduced into the Gospels without any sufficient basis of fact, and yet without any intention to deceive; so that the discrediting of the miracles will not discredit their non-miraculous context. In doing this, I might possibly destroy any lingering vestige of belief which you may still have in the miraculous; and this I am most unwilling to do, if you find miracles a necessary foundation of Christian faith.

I do not therefore quite know as yet how I ought to try to help you, except by saying that I have myself passed through the same valley of doubt through which you are passing now, and that I have reached a faith in Christ which is quite independent of any belief in the miraculous, and which enables me not only to trust in Him, but also to worship Him. This new faith appears to me purer, nobler, and happier, as well as safer, than the old: but I do not feel sure that it is attainable (in the present condition of thought) without more unprejudiced reflection and study than most people are willing to devote to subjects of this kind. And to give up the old faith, without attaining the new, would be a terrible disaster. Hence I am in doubt, not about what is best, but about


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4 what may be best for you. Do not at all events assume—so much I can safely say—that you must give up your faith in Christ, if you are obliged to give up your belief in miracles. At the very least, wait a while; stand on the old paths; keep up the old habits, above all, the habit of prayer; pause and look round you a little before taking the next step. I do not say, though I am inclined to say, "avoid lor the present all discussions with people of negative views," because I fear my advice, though really prudent, would seem to you cowardly: but I do unhesitatingly say, "avoid all frivolous talk, and light, airy, epigrammatic conversations on religious subjects." You cannot hope to retain or regain faith if you throw away the habit of reverence. With this advice, farewell for the present.


text: The Kernel and the Husk/Introductory

title: The Kernel and the Husk/Introductory


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Rh X

——,

I see you are still violently prejudiced against illusions, that is to say against recognising the very important part which they have played in the spiritual development of mankind. You clearly believe that, though the world may be full of illusions, Revelation ought to be free from them. "The Word of God," you say, "ought to dispel illusions, not to add to them." I maintain on the contrary, that the Word of God, if it comes to earth, must needs come in earthen vessels; and that the most divine truth must needs be contained in illusion. Let illusions then be the subject of my present letter. At the same time I shall attempt to answer your prejudice against the natural worship of Christ as being a "new religion". Not of course that I admit that it is a "new religion"; on the contrary I regard it as the old religion, the predestined God-determined religion to which we are to return after extricating ourselves from the corruptions of Protestantism, as our forefathers extricated themselves from the corruptions of Romanism. I shall not deal here with the special illusions of Christianity, but with your evident a priori prejudice against any admixture of illusion with Revelation.

But first, what do I mean by "illusion," and how does my meaning differ from "error" or "mistake" generally, and from “fallacy," "delusion," and "hallucination" in particular? I say "my meaning," because the word is


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98 often used loosely (I do not say wrongly) for any of these synonyms: but I restrict it to a special sense.

"Illusion," then, is wholesome error tending to the ultimate attainment of truth; "delusion" is harmful error arising from a perverted Imagination; "hallucination" is a wandering of the Imagination, without any guidance or support of fact, involving "delusion" of the most obstinate character; "fallacy" is an error of inference or reasoning; "mistake" is the result of mal-observation or weak memory; and "error" a general name for any deviation from the truth.

Illusion, in many cases, is an exaggerative and ornative tendency of the mind. It leads the very young to think their parents perfection, and the young to think them far better and wiser than they really are; it constrains the lover to exaggerate the beauty, accomplishments, and qualities of the woman whom he loves; it tends to the distortion of history by inclining all of us to accommodate facts to the wishes and preconceptions of our idealizing nature, which is always longing for "a more ample greatness, a more exact goodness, and a more absolute variety than can be found in the nature of things"; and it lures us onward, young and old alike, over the rough places of life, even to the very brink of the grave, by the ever-fleeting ever-reappearing suggestions of a bright tomorrow that shall make amends for the dull and commonplace to-day.

These illusive hopes, beliefs, and aspirations are never fulfilled in this life; but even the cynic and the pessimist must acknowledge, with Francis Bacon, that they constitute the very basis of all poetry that "tends to magnanimity and morality." Those who believe in God will further recognize in illusion a divinely utilized integument for the preservation and development of aspirations that shall


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Letter 10] ultimately find a perfect fulfillment in a harmonious cooperation with the divine Love and in the unending contemplation of the divine Glory. Nor are illusions without a present practical purpose. Men are more hopeful, more active, more loving on account of them. On the other hand, even optimists must acknowledge that no man should shut his eyes to the truth in order to remain in what he knows to be no more than a comfortable error. The venial illusions of childhood, youth, and ignorance, become unpardonable or hypocritical in experienced age. Do you ask how we are to distinguish "illusions" from "delusions"? The answer is easy—on paper; but, in practice, often difficult to apply. However, the test is the same as that by which we distinguish knowledge from ignorance. Illusions "work"; that is to say, men are on the whole the better for them, and they prepare the way for truth. Delusions fail; men are in no way the better for them, and they often prepare the way for insanity and for physical or spiritual death.

We have spoken of moral illusions; let us touch on another kind of illusions to which some (I do not say rightly) have given the name of "illusions of sense."

I doubt whether the name is correctly given; for to me it seems that the illusion proceeds not from the senses (which, as far as I can judge, never deceive us) but from the imaginations and inferences which we base upon the report of the senses. Take an extreme case, fit rather to be called "delusion" than "illusion." If I see the phantom of a cat before the fire, which cat nobody else in the room can see, do my senses deceive me? No; but I am deceived by the imaginative inference which leads me to assume from past experience that the object which I see is visible to, and can be touched by, everybody else. My visual sense (which has to do with images only) reports—and can do no otherwise—that it discerns the image of a


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100 cat. That report is true. But then my imagination forces on me the belief that this is an ordinary tangible and visible cat. That belief is false. Or take again the not infrequent case of colour-blindness. I am a signalman, and cannot tell a green light from a red: do my senses deceive me when I call a red light green? No; my sense reports inadequately for my nccessities, and coarsely as compared with those who possess a finer sense of colour, but not deceitfully. My error arises from having loosely and servilely used the distinctive words "red" and "green" from childhood to manhood, although my senses continually protested that they could not distinguish two colours corresponding to the two words: but I imagined that there must be some such distinction for the two, and that I must be capable of recognizing it, because everybody around me recognized it. If we are to say that the signalman's senses deceive him we must be prepared to admit that every man's senses deceive him more or less. Do you suppose, when you see anything, that you see that which the thing is? "This is a yellowish-green," say you. "Of course," a Superior Being might reply; "but which of the one hundred and fifty shades of yellowish-green is it? You might as well tell me, when I shew you a sheep, 'This is a being,' as tell me simply this is 'yellowish-green.'" We do not see things as Superior Beings see them; but we are not on that account to say that our sight deceives us. Our visual sense reports the truth more or less adequately: but our Imagination, prompted by insufficient experience and inference, leads us sometimes to illusive conclusions.

Still, although "illusions of sense" ought perhaps to be rather called "illusions from sense,"—i.e. illusions arising "from" the report of the senses, but not illusions in which the senses are themselves deceived—no one will deny that such illusions exist. Sometimes they are exceptional, but sometimes so common as to be almost universal. Let us


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Letter 10] enumerate a few and ask whence they spring, and what purpose they serve?

They spring from a very strong conviction—erected upon the basis of Experience by Faith, but absolutely necessary for healthy life and spontaneous action—that the ordinary inferences which we almost instinctively derive from the report of the senses, are true, that is to say, will correspond to experience; and that we can act upon them without formally reasoning upon them.

Take the following instance. Shut your eyes, and get a friend to prick the back of your hand with the two points of a pair of compasses simultaneously, so that the two points may be about the eighth of an inch apart when they touch you; you will feel—and if you could not correct the inference by the sense of sight, you would infer—that only one point is pricking you. The reason is that the skin of the back of the hand only reports one sensation; and the mind leaps to the conclusion—owing to the multitude of past instances where one sensation has resulted from one object—that, in this instance also, one object alone is producing the sensation. A more curious instance is the following: Place the middle finger over the first finger, and between the two fingers thus interlaced place a single marble or your nose: you will appear to be touching two marbles or two noses. The reason is this: when the two fingers are in their usual position (not thus interlaced) and touching marbles or similar objects, two simultaneous sensations on the right side of the right finger and on the left side of the left finger would always imply two marbles; now you have constrained the two fingers to assume an unusual position where these two simultaneous sensations can be produced by one marble; but you, following custom, would infer the presence of two marbles, if sight, or other evidence, did not shew there was only one.

But illusions from the sense of touch are far less


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102 common than illusions from the sense of sight. We all know how a cloud or sheet or coal may be converted by the Imagination into an image of something entirely different and visible only to the imaginer, although he supposes that others "must see it" too. But these are, so to speak, private illusions: the great public and, at one time, universal illusion, was the conviction that the sun and the stars move and that the earth does not move. There is scarcely any illusion more natural than this. Our senses give no indication whatever of the earth's motion; but they do indicate that the sun and the stars are moving. So complicated a process of reasoning, and so much experience, are needed before a man can realize (as distinct from repeating on authority) the causes for believing in the earth's motion that it is by no means surprising that, even now, only a minority of the human race believe that they are dashing through space at the rate of some thousands of miles an hour; and, except during the last three hundred years, the illusion that the earth is at rest was universal. Another common illusion from sight is that which leads us to suppose that, when we see anything in the air, a straight line from our eye towards the image which we see would touch the object itself: whereas, in reality, the image is raised by refraction so that in misty weather we see an object considerably higher than it is, and I suppose (to speak with strict exactness) we never "see" an object precisely where it is.

I have mentioned a few of the "illusions from the senses"; and now you will probably ask me what purpose they serve, how they can be called "wholesome," and how they "tend to the ultimate attainment of truth."

They appear to me to be "wholesome" because they represent and spring from a wholesome belief that "Nature will not deceive us; Nature does not change her mind; Nature keeps her promises." Sent into the


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Letter 10] world with but little of the instinctive equipment of non-human animals, we are forced to supply the place of instincts by inferences from sensation. Now if we were always obliged consciously to argue and deliberately to infer, whenever the sensations hand over a report to the Imagination, we should be at a great disadvantage as compared with our instinct-possessing compeers, whom we call irrational. "This inkstand which I see before me was hard yesterday, and the day before—but will it be hard if I touch it to-day or to-morrow?"—if a child were to argue after this fashion every time he reached out his hand to touch anything, the life of Methuselah would be too short for the ratiocinations necessary as a basis for the action of a week. For healthy progress of the human being, trustful activity is needed, and for trustful activity we must trust Nature, or, in other words, we must trust these quasi-instinctive inferences about Nature which we derive from our sensations. This trust or faith in the order of material things within our immediate observation, I have already described as being the germ of a trust or faith in a higher order altogether, that universal order, at present imperfectly realized, which we call the Divine Will.

Now when we say to Nature, "We trust you; you will not deceive us," Nature replies for the most part, "You do right; I will not deceive you; you will be justified in your faith." But occasionally she replies in a different tone.

"Yes, I have deceived you; you did not use the means you had of obtaining the truth; therefore you deceived yourselves, or, if you please to say so, I deceived you, in order that, after deceiving yourselves by a prolonged experience, you might learn, while trusting my order and permanence in general, not to trust every conception of your own about that order and permanence in particular.


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104 "Yet in reality, what you call my 'deceptions' were, in part, the results of your own defects (some blameworthy, some perhaps inherent and not blameworthy), in part the results of my method of teaching mankind, by line upon line and inference upon inference. How does a child gain knowledge? By generalizing from too few instances: by inferring too soon; then by enlarging the circle of instances from which he generalizes; by correcting his inferences with the aid of experience: thus the progress of every child towards truth is through a continuous series of illusions. But when I break each one of your false and rudimentary conceptions of my Order, I always reveal to you, concealed in the husk of it, the kernel of a better conception. Thus while I teach you daily to distrust your own hastily adopted and unverified assumptions or inferences about my Order, I give you no cause to distrust my Order itself; and by the self same act I strengthen both your faculty of scientific reason and also your faith in me. You may find fault with me that I did not bestow on each one of you, even in the cradle, the perfection of all knowledge and wisdom. Deeper laws, deeper than I can now speak of, forbade that rapid consummation: but, since that could not be, since it needs must be that imperfection should be in the intellectual, as well as in the moral, world, rejoice at least that illusion is made subject to truth."

Well, after this long but needful account of "illusions," in the sense in which I use the term, let me now recur to your objection that "the Word of God ought to dispel illusions, not to add to them." I suppose those who believe in a God at all, will in these days regard Him as the Maker of the world, as a whole, in spite of the evil that is in it. Some of the Gnostics, as you know, believed that the good God who had not made the visible world was opposed to the bad God who had made it; but with


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150 entertained by English naval officers and scientific men of the highest distinction, Sir John Parkington being chairman. England, France, Russia, and Holland contributed 3000 guineas, a substantial token of their esteem and gratitude for his labors in the service of mankind.

On one occasion Secretary of the Navy, Graham, wrote to Lieutenant Maury as follows:

"Indeed, I doubt whether the triumphs of navigation and the knowledge of the sea, achieved under your superintendence of the Observatory, will not contribute as much to an effective Naval Service and to the national fame as the brilliant trophies of our arms."

Maury died in 1873, in his sixty-seventh year, an American scientist whose life was devoted to discovering the secrets of the sea, and to the welfare of seamen, irrespective of rank or nationality. In lamenting his death, the Senate of Virginia closed its resolutions with this eulogy:

"An honor to Virginia, an honor to America, and an honor to civilization, and in gratefully recognizing this we do but honor ourselves."

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