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text: Biographies of Scientific Men/Lyell

title: Biographies of Scientific Men/Lyell


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text: Author:Henry Sturgis Drinker

title: Author:Henry Sturgis Drinker


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The Moths of the British Isles/Appendix

Page 28. Herse Convolvuli.—Reported from several English counties, August and September, 1911, and again in 1915. In 1917 the species seems to have been more widely spread over our islands, specimens being recorded from Ireland and Shetland.

Page 41. Phryxus Livornica.—Further records are: In July, 1909, a dead male specimen was found under an electric light standard at Exeter, and one was noted on a bowling green at Blackpool in October. Specimens were recorded from Surrey, Sussex, Hants, Devon, and Cornwall in 1911. On January 19, 1912, a male was taken from a shrub in a garden at Tavistock. Thirty-five were captured in South Cornwall between May 9 and 23 of the same year, and single specimens were reported from North Wales, Norfolk, Dorset, also in May.

Page 47. Daphnis Nerii.—Further records: Ilfracombe, September 22, 1909; Sydenham, September 24, 1910; Eastbourne (August 15), Ashford, 1911; Folkestone, August 30, 1916, on trunk of poplar tree; Littleover, Derbyshire, in a conservatory, August 18, 1917; Dovercourt, Essex, September, 1919.

Page 141. Nola Confusalis.—A grey form of this species, ab. columbina, Image, has been recorded from Epping Forest.

Page 146. Sarrothripa Revayana.—A number of forms of this species are named and described by Mr. Sheldon in the Entomologist for 1919.

Page 268. Luperina gueneei.—Over thirty years ago the late Mr. Baxter, of St. Anne's, Lancashire, sent me a specimen of Luperina that he had captured in his district. This I considered to be a form connecting gueneei with nickerlii, and that both were forms of L. testacea. Since that time gueneei has been found in some numbers on the Lancs. coast, and has been recognized as a distinct species, and its identity with nickerlii established.

The earlier published history of this species in Britain may here be quoted: "The late Mr. J. B. Hodgkinson, in a note on Luperina gueneei, published in the Entomologist for 1885, vol. 54, wrote:—'In 1860 or 1861, T. Porter (still living) brought me two fine specimens of a moth I did not know. They were of both sexes. I purchased them from him, and sent them on to the Rev. H. Burney, who forwarded them to Henry Doubleday. From him they went to Guenée, and he returned them with the remark that he had a specimen in his collection marked as a variety of L. testacea, but he was quite satisfied they represented a good species when he saw both sexes. H. Doubleday then named them after Guenée, as the latter was evidently the original captor. I saw Porter again, and he told me another man, by name H. Stephenson, had one. They took three in all near the ferry at Rhyl, North Wales. I sent Porter again, and went myself, but we failed to find more afterwards. I bought the specimen from Stephenson, and sent it to Miss Sulivan, of Fulham, where, I suppose, it remains. I think it was a female.'"

According to Barrett (British Lepidoptera, IV., p. 335), the three North Wales specimens" were raked from overhanging edges of sandhills."

Page 294. Hydrœcia crinanensis.

 * "Hydrœcia crinanensis, Burrows. Larger than H. nictitans. F.-w. slightly pointed at the apex, bright red-brown, longitudinal and transverse lines very distinct, fringes concolorous. Orbicular stigma, lighter than the ground colour. Reniform stigma orange, full, fairly straight edged inwardly, lower lobe projecting outwardly, interior lines faint. H.-w. red-brown, darker towards the outer margin; fringes yellow, the yellow colour intruding in dots upon the darker margin.

 * "Type specimen taken by Mr. A. W. Bacot at Crinan Canal, September, 1899."

The above is extracted from an instructive paper by the Rev. C. R. N. Burrows, entitled, "On the nictitans group of the genus Hydrœcia, Gn.," published in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, 1911, pp. 738-749, plates li.-lviii. In this paper specific rank is also claimed for lucens, Frr., and paludis, Tutt, both of which have been considered as merely forms of H. nictitans, L.

H. crinanensis has been recorded from Inveran, Crinan Canal, Aberfeldy, and Liddelbank, in Scotland; from Lough Foyle and Enniskillen, in Ireland; and from Bolton and Burnley, in England.

Page 298. Nonagria neurica.—In 1907, when the first edition of this volume was published, the fact of N. neurica being a British species was not truly ascertained. In the following year, however, some specimens of Nonagria, which were not identical with N. dissoluta, Treit. = arundineata, Schmidt, were named edelsteni, Tutt.

Quite a number of N. edelsteni were obtained by Messrs. Wightman and Sharp in the Cuckmere Valley of Sussex, July, 1908.

At a meeting of the Entomological Society of London, held on November 4, 1908, a series of bred edelsteni from Sussex was exhibited by Mr. Edelsten.

By a consensus of opinion among entomologists, Sussex specimens are now considered to be true British representatives of neurica, Hubn., Fig. 381.

Page 332. Peucephila Essoni, Hamps.—On July 12, 1909, Mr. Esson, of Aberdeen, captured a specimen of a noctuid moth at sugar on a fir tree. This he sent to me for identification. As the insect was a novelty to me, it was submitted to Sir George F. Hampson, who, finding that the moth was not only a species new to science, but not even congeneric with any other noctuid, described and figured it as indicated on page 332 of this volume.

Although keenly searched for, no other example of the species had been detected up to the end of 1919.

title: The Moths of the British Isles/Appendix


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HOEVER has attended but a little to the phenomena of human nature has discovered how inadequate is the clearest insight which he can hope to attain into character and disposition. Every one is a perplexity to himself and a perplexity to his neighbours; and men who are born in the same generation, who are exposed to the same influences, trained by the same teachers, and live from childhood to age in constant and familiar intercourse, are often little more than shadows to each other, intelligible in superficial form and outline, but divided inwardly by impalpable and mysterious barriers.

And if from those whom we daily meet, whose features are before our eyes, and whose minds we can probe with questions, we are nevertheless thus separated, how are the difficulties of the understanding increased when we are looking back from another age, with no better assistance than books, upon men who played their parts upon the earth under other outward circumstances, with other beliefs, other habits, other modes of thought, other principles of judgment! We see beings like ourselves,


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344 and yet different from ourselves. Here they are acting upon motives which we comprehend; there, though we try as we will, no feeling will answer in unison. The same actions which at one time are an evidence of inhumanity may arise in another out of mercy and benevolence. Laws which, in the simpler stages of society, are rational and useful, become mischievous when the problem which they were meant to solve has been complicated by new elements. And as the old man forgets his childhood—as the grown man and the youth rarely comprehend each other—as the Englishman and the Frenchman, with the same reasoning faculties, do not reason to the same conclusions—so is the past a perplexity to the present; it lies behind us as an enigma, easy only to the vain and unthinking, and only half solved after the most earnest efforts of intellectual sympathy, alike in those who read and those who write.

Such an effort of sympathy, the strongest which can be made, I have now to demand on behalf of Scotland, that marvellous country so fertile in genius and chivalry. so fertile in madness and crime, where the highest heroism coexisted with preternatural ferocity; yet where the vices were the vices of strength, and the one virtue of indomitable courage was found alike in saint and sinner. Often the course of this history will turn aside from the broad river of English life to where the torrents are leaping, passion-swollen, down from the northern hills. It will open out many a scene of crime and terror; and again, from time to time, it will lead us up into the keen air, where the pleasant mountain breezes


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Rh are blowing, and the blue sky is smiling cheerily. But turn where it may in the story of Scotland, weakness is nowhere; power, energy, and will are everywhere. Sterile as the landscape where it will first unfold itself, we shall watch the current winding its way with expanding force and features of enlarging magnificence, till at length the rocks and rapids will have passed—the stream will have glided down into the plain to the meeting of the waters, from which, as from a new fountain, the united fortunes of Great Britain flow on to their unknown destiny.

Experience sufficiently stern had convinced the English Government that their northern neighbours would never stoop to the supremacy which they had inflicted upon Wales. The Welsh were Celts, a failing and inferior race. The lowland Scots were Teutons, like the Saxons; and a people who showed resolutely that they would die to the last man before they would acquiesce in servitude; that they might be exterminated, but could not be subdued. After the battle of Bannockburn the impossible task had been tacitly relinquished, and the separate existence of Scotland as an independent kingdom was no longer threatened. The effects of the attempts of the Edwards, nevertheless, survived their failure. The suspicions remained, though the causes had ceased; and though of the same race with the English, speaking the same language, and living for the most part under the same institutions, the Scots, as a security for their freedom, contracted a permanent alliance with 'the antient enemies' of their rivals across


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 But the powers of man, so far as experience and analogy can guide us, are unlimited; nor are we possessed of any evidence which authorizes us to assign even an imaginary boundary at which the human intellect will, of necessity, be brought to a stand. Author:Henry Thomas Buckle.

has been an effort made in certain religious publications to imply that there is a dearth of thought and thinkers beyond the pale of theism. The subsequent examination of the theological beliefs of great minds will show that there has never been a lack of brilliant thinkers who have not sought truth apart from the dominant faith of their age. It was Socrates, I believe, who first asked if it was not a base superstition that mere numbers will give wisdom. Granting this truth, it certainly cannot be claimed that the philosophers of any time constituted a majority of any population, nor that the philosopher, as such, was not greatly in advance of the mental status of the populace of his particular age. It would seem appropriate to briefly comment on the opinions of the philosophers, both ancient and modern, concerning their views on "man's giant shadow, hailed divine."

In former ages, philosophy was the handmaiden of theology. From the time of Socrates and Plato, and


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252 the medieval ages, the foremost task of the philosopher seemed to be to attempt the proof of the existence and nature of God, and the immortality of the soul. The leading thinkers of the seventeenth century, Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Malebranche, liberated philosophy from its bondage to theology. The criticism of Kant of the philosophical foundations of belief destroyed the "theological proofs," and modern thinkers now spend little time on the question of the existence and nature of God and the soul.

Modern philosophy has been completely secularized, and it is a rare occasion to find a philosopher dwelling on the problems of God and immortality. This question in philosophy, as in all other branches of thought, is utterly irrelevant and at present there is less insistence on God and more on the world, man, morals, and the conditions of social life.

It cannot be denied that we are under a heavy obligation intellectually to the Greek philosophers. And it may be that the fruitful efforts of those minds were largely due to their unhampered intellectual freedom. They had no "holy books" and few authorities to check their free speculation and hence these Greek thinkers furnish the first instance of intellectual freedom, from which arose their intelligent criticism and speculation. "They discovered skepticism in the higher and proper significance of the word, and this was their supreme contribution to human thought." (James Harvey Robinson: "The Mind In The Making.")

We know the teachings of Socrates only through his disciple Plato, as Socrates wrote nothing himself. From this source we gather that Socrates firmly upheld the right and necessity of free thought. He was mainly a moralist and reformer, and attempted to prove the existence of God by finding evidence of design in nature.


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Rh He rejected the crude religious ideas of his nation, was opposed to anthropomorphism, but considered it his duty to conform publicly to this belief. In his old age, he was charged wtih [sic] rejecting the gods of the state, and was sentenced to death.

The philosophy of Plato has given rise to diverse interpretations and there are those who, on reading the Dialogues, believe that it is not amiss to state that in certain utterances there is ground to hold that Plato argued for the pragmatic value of a belief in God and personal immortality; that he does not stress the truth of the matter, but argues mainly for the benefit which the State derives from the belief; that such theistic beliefs cannot be demonstrated, and may well be but a craving and a hope, yet it will be of no harm to believe. He inferred the existence of God from what he considered the intelligence and design manifested in natural objects. Mainly, however, Plato's theism was founded upon his doctrine of a universe of ideas, and as no one today holds that ideas are self-existing realities, the foundation of, his theism is destroyed. James Harvey Robinson, in his "Mind in The Making," discusses the influence of Plato, and remarks, "Plato made terms with the welter of things, but sought relief in the conception of supernal models, eternal in the heavens, after which all things were imperfectly fashioned. He confessed that he could not bear to accept a world which was like a leaky pot or a man running at the nose. In short, he ascribed the highest form of existence to ideals and abstractions. This was a new and sophisticated republication of savage animism. It invited lesser minds than his to indulge in all sorts of noble vagueness and impertinent jargon which continue to curse our popular discussions of human affairs. He consecrated one of the chief foibles of the human mind, and elevated it to a religion."


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254 The philosophy of Aristotle is commonly known to be the reverse of Plato's. Plato started with universals, the very existence of which was a matter of faith, and from these he descended to particulars. Aristotle, on the other hand, argued from particulars to universals, and this inductive method was the true beginning of science. The accumulated knowledge of his age did not furnish him facts enough upon which to build and he had to resort to speculation. It does not detract from the stupendous achievement of this man that the clergy of the Middle Ages, in control of the few isolated centers of learning, looked upon the philosophy of Aristotle as final and considered his works as semi-sacred, and in their immersion in un-reason and unreality, exalted as immutable and infallible the absurdities in the speculations of a mind limited to the knowledge of centuries before theirs.

In the attempt to explain plant and animal life, Aristotle formulated the theory that a special form of animating principle was involved. The "élan vital" of Bergson and the theory of Joad are modern reiterations of this conception. Aristotle is not quite consistent when he attempts to give us his theistic beliefs. At times God is, for him, a mysterious spirit that never does anything and has not any desire or will. Elsewhere, he conceives God as pure energy; a prime mover unmoved. Certain modern physicists still cling to this Aristotelian god. This conception of a deity was far from the beliefs of his age, and it is not strange that Aristotle was charged with impiety and with having taught that prayer and sacrifice were of no avail. He fled from Athens and shortly afterwards died in exile.

These three supreme Greek thinkers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, have not contributed a single argument for the existence of a supreme being which is now not discredited. Socrates relied on the now outmoded


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Rh from design; and only in a greatly modified form are the arguments of Plato and Aristotle accepted by modern theists. Holding such heretical views in an age when history wa.s a frail fabric of legends, and the scientific explanation of nature in its extreme infancy, what would their views be today?

In the consideration of the Greek thinkers of lesser importance one finds that they were continually storming against the religious conceptions of the populace. The philosophers were ever unpopular with the credulous. "Damon and Anaxagoras were banished; Aspasia was impeached for blasphemy and the tears of Pericles alone saved her; Socrates was put to death; Plato was obliged to reserve pure reason for a chosen few, and to adulterate it with revelation for the generality of his disciples; Aristotle fled from Athens for his life, and became the tutor of Alexander." (Winwood Reade: "The Martyrdom of Man.")

Anaxagoras, the friend and master of Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates, was accused by the superstitious Athenians of atheism and impiety to the gods. He was condemned to death and barely escaped this fate through the influence of Pericles; which resulted in the accusation of atheism against Pericles. Euripides was accused of heresy, and Aeschylus was condemned to be stoned to death for blasphemy and was saved from this fate by his brother Aminias. The philosophy of Parmenides was distinctly pantheistic, and Pythagoras, who attempted to purify the religion of the Greeks and free it from its absurdities and superstitions, was exiled for his scepticism.

Democritus, a materialist and atheist of 2500 years ago, formulated a mechanical view of phenomena in accordance with which everything that happens is due to physical impacts. "Such a materialism was a great


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256 liberation from superstition; and had it survived in its integrity, the path of European wisdom would have been vastly different from what it was. What the path would have been, we are beginning to see to-day, for since the nineteenth century we have been treading it more or less consistently but by no means so gallantly and courageously as Democritus." (G. Boas: "The Adventures of Human Thought.")

Democritus and the Epicureans strove to deliver men from their two chief apprehensions: the fear of the gods, and the fear of death; and in so doing rejected the religious beliefs and substituted a rational and scientific conception of the universe.

It was Xenophanes, the Voltaire of Greece, who brought to the atttention [sic] of his countrymen the discovery that man created the gods in his own image. He attacked the conceptions of the Greek deities with these words, "Mortals deem that the gods are begotten as they are, and have clothes like theirs, and voice and form … Yes, and if oxen and horses or lions had hands, and could paint with their hands, and produce works of art as men do, horses would paint the forms of the gods like horses, and oxen like oxen, and make their bodies in the image of their several kinds … The Ethiopians make then: gods black and snub-nosed; the Thracians say theirs have blue eyes and red hair."

Considering Greek philosophy in its entirety, we see that it was naturalistic rather than supernaturalistic, and rationalistic rather than mystical. These gifted men saw no clear indication for the existence of a supreme being; very few of them speak of the deity in the role of Providence and fewer still believed in personal immortality.

Professor Boas, in contrasting Asiatic mythology with Greek philosophy, remarks: "The Asiatic myths assumed the existence of beings beyond the world, not subject to


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 forces), we find the following: "Paid for some of the organ-pipes, 6d." Here, then, is the fate of John Vauck's handiwork, after a century of use: its pipes scattered about the streets, or stolen for the sake of the metal, and the trouble of those who brought some of them back valued at sixpence. A considerable quantity of materials must, however, have been left, since, in the year following, the churchwardens sold off more than one hundred and forty pounds of old tin no doubt supplied by the organ pipes.

In the list of Henry the Eighth's musical establishment, we find, under the date 1526, the name of ", organmaker." Again, in the King's Household Book, May, 1531, a reward is paid to "Sir John the organ-maker": evidently the same person. Contemporary with him was, of


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Rh mundane laws, who made and controlled the course of events. There was no reason why they should have made a world. They seemed to be living as divine a life without it as with it. The question was one which persisted in Asiatic thought, and when Christianity became dominant in Europe, much of its theologians' time was spent in answering it. The only plausible answer then was that God made the world because He felt like it. For no reason could be given sufficiently compelling to sway the will of the Omnipotent. But such an answer was unsatisfactory to the Greek. In his philosophy all this is changed. No god steps out of the machine to initiate cosmic history. The First Cause is a physical substance, some material thing, which operates by the laws of its own nature. Its every movement is theoretically open to the scrutiny of reason. And hence, a scientific rather than a religious answer can be given to every question."

At the beginning of the Christian era, the cultured Romans were stoics or epicureans. The poet Lucretius was an epicurean who regarded the belief in the gods as a product of the terrors of primitive man and recommended that the mind should be emancipated from the fear of the gods and argued against the immortality of the soul. Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius were stoics. Cicero insinuates that the gods are only poetical creations, that the popular doctrine of punishment in a world to come is only an idle fable, and is uncertain whether the soul is immortal. Seneca wrote against the religion of his country, and the philosophy of cultured Romans of the time of the physician Galen tended towards atheism.

The prime factor of Greek philosophy was the insistence on intelligence and knowledge, and by these means it reached its pinnacle of reasoning. The blight that exterminated all scientific progress, with the fall of the


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258 Roman Empire, carried with it the neglect of the Greek thinkers. Similar to the retrogression of scientific thought, traced in former chapters, is the corresponding retrogression in philosophic thought. In place of the free inquiry of the Greeks we see arising the theology of Clement of Alexandria, Origen, St. Augustine, and finally that of St. Thomas Aquinas. At the time of St. Augustine most of the cultural Greek writings had disappeared in western Europe. The greatest store of Greek thought was in the hands of the Arab scholars and led to a marked scepticism, as we see manifested in the writings of the Spanish Moors.

It is significant that during the "age of faith" in Europe no philosopher of merit arose, and the only philosophy permitted was the puerile Scholastic-Aristotelic. This scholastic philosophy, hemmed in between metaphysics and theology, sought to reconcile Plato, Plotinus, and Aristotle with the needs of orthodoxy, and split hairs over subtle essences and entities. Francis Bacon impeaches, in this manner, the medieval philosophers: "Having sharp and strong wits, and abundance of leisure, and small variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells of a few authors, as their persons were shut up in the cells of monasteries and colleges, and knowing little history, either of nature or time, did out of no great quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit spin out unto us those laborious webs of learning which are extant in their books."

The sole preoccupation of medieval philosophy seemed to be conjectures as to what would happen to man after death, and the entire system of thought was based on authority. The medieval philosopher turned in disdain from the arduous path of investigation of actual phenomena and confidently believed that he could find truth by easy reliance upon revelation and the elaboration of


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346 the Channel, and settled into an attitude of determined, and only occasionally suspended, hostility against the 'Southrons.' For twenty miles on either side of the Border there grew up a population who were trained from their cradles in licensed marauding. Nominal amity between the two countries operated as but a slight check upon habits inveterately lawless; and though the Governments affected to keep order, they could not afford to be severe upon offences committed in time of peace, by men on whom they chiefly depended for the defence of the frontiers in war. The scanty families in the fortified farms and granges in Roxburgh and Northumberland slept with their swords under their pillows, and their horses saddled in their stables. The blood of the children by the fireside was stirred by tales of wild adventure in song and story; and perhaps for two centuries no boy ever grew to man's estate, along a strip of land forty miles across and joining the two seas, who had not known the midnight terror of a blazing homestead—who had not seen his father or brother ride out at dusk harnessed and belted for some night foray, to be brought back before morning gory and stark across his saddle, and been roused from his bed by his mother to swear with his child lips a vow of revenge over the corpse. And the fierce feuds of the moss-troopers were but an expression in its extreme form of the animosities between the two nations. The English hated Scotland because Scotland had successfully defied them: the Scots hated England as an enemy on the watch to make them slaves. The hereditary


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Rh dogmas. A few brave minds rebelled against this unnatural imprisonment of the intellect, with the usual consequences. Peter Abelard was condemned for his scepticism at a council at Sens in 1140; the philosophy of John Scotus Erigena was condemned for its pantheistic ideas a council at Sens in 1225; and the pantheistic views of Bruno had much to do with his martyrdom in the year 1600.

Montaigne, the pioneer of modern scepticism, gave voice to his repugnance for dogmas in his brilliant Essays, in which he stated that all religious opinions are the result of custom; and that he doubted if, out of the immense number of religious opinions, there were any means of ascertaining which were accurate. Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, and Descartes were the inaugurators of a school of thought which is characterized by its practical spirit; and while these men professed theistic beliefs, their systems of thought had done much, when applied and amplified by their followers, to undermine that belief. These men furnished the source of a later agnosticism.

Thomas Hobbes agreed with Bacon and Galileo that all knowledge starts from experience, and, carrying out the inductive method of Bacon, he produced his "Leviathan" in 1651. It was promptly attacked by the clergy of every country in Europe. Hobbes says of the immortality of the soul, "It is a belief grounded upon other men's sayings that they knew it supernaturally; or that they knew those who knew them, that knew others that knew it supernaturally."

Locke concerned himself with a philosophic inquiry into the nature of the mind itself, and was looked upon as a destroyer of the faith. Descartes based his philosophy on the rejection of authority in favor of human reason for which his works were honored by being placed


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, who tuned the organ in the choir in York Minster, in 1531, for twenty pence. His name occurs at a later period, 1568, as tuning and repairing the organs of St. Mary-at-Hill, St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and Lambeth. Both these worthies were priests.

Sir John was succeeded as the royal organ builder by, or. He was an artisan of some pretensions, if we may judge from the fact of his having been employed to build the organ for the old Cathedral of St. Paul's, destroyed in the great fire of 1666. The name of, and that of the thoroughly English , occur in old accounts as "mendyng," and otherwise restoring organs, about the middle of the sixteenth century.


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260 on the Index in 1663. Hume, with the publication of the highly heretical "Treatise on Human Nature," threw consternation into the ranks of the theists. His theory of knowledge played havoc with the old arguments for belief in God and immortality of the soul. His works were widely read and were instrumental in leading to the philosophical agnosticism of the nineteenth century.

Spinoza's religious views seemed in his time little short of atheism and brought him the hostility of both Jews and Christians, to which was added the excommunication from the synagogue. In his philosophy God and nature are equivalent terms and it is pantheistic only in the sense that if man is to have a god at all, nature must be that god, and whatever man considers godlike must be found in nature. Spinoza recognizes no supernatural realm and denies the survival of personal memory. Professor G. Boas, in his "Adventures of Human Thought," discusses the attitude of public opinion of the time of Spinoza. "He was the arch-atheist, the materialist, the subverter of all that was held most dear by the reigning powers. It was only after the French Revolution that he came into his own when certain Germans, captivated by Neo-Platonism, emphasized the pantheistic element in him. But by then Christianity had ceased to be a dominant intellectual force and had become what it is today, a folk belief." In the "Tractus Theplogico-Politicus," Spinoza states: "When people declare, as all are ready to do, that the Bible is the Word of God teaching men true blessedness and the way of salvation, they evidently do not mean what they say, for the masses take no pains at all to live according to Scripture, and we see most people endeavoring to hawk about their own commentaries as the word of God, and giving their best efforts, under the guise of religion, to compelling others to think as they do. We generally see, I say, theologians


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1513.] strengthened with time, and each generation added fresh injuries to the accumulation of bitterness.

Fortunately for mankind the relations between nations are not eventually determined by sentiment and passion. The mutual sufferings inflicted by the existing condition of things produced its effect in minds where reason was admitted to influence; and after the accession of the Tudors to the English throne there grew up in the princes and ministers of the new dynasty a desire to prepare the way for a union of the kingdoms. As more roads were opened, and intercourse between place and place became more easy, the geographical position of the two countries was more sensitively felt. Two nations in one small island must either be friends or they would eventually destroy each other; and in an intermittent period of quiet.which followed the exposure of Perkin Warbeok's imposture, Henry VII. succeeded in arranging a marriage between the fourth James Stuart and his daughter Margaret. A commencement was thus happily formed, and a better feeling began to make its way. But the fair weather was of brief duration. On the breaking out of the war of 1513 between France and England, the usual overtures were made to the Scottish King from the Court of Paris. The old associations were appealed to with the usual success. Fatally for himself—fatally for his country—James invaded Northumberland in the absence of his brotherin-law, and Scotland paid for his fault in the defeat of Flodden, in which the King and the flower of the nobility perished miserably.


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Rh anxious to learn how to wring their inventions and sayings out of the sacred text, and to fortify them with divine authority."

In France, Pierre Bayle cleverly satirized the absurdity of dogma, and La Mettrie, an army physician, was exiled for the publication of his "Man a Machine." He insisted that if atheism were generally accepted society would be happier. His views were taken up and expanded by such atheists as Helvetius, d'Holbach, d'Alembert, and Diderot, who taught that morality should be founded on sociology and not on theology. The publication of their Encyclopaedia incurred the fierce opposition of the Church. Of Voltaire's anti-clericism little need be said, except to recall our debt to his victory over ecclesiasticism and superstition. His assertion that "a fanaticism composed of superstition and ignorance has been the sickness of all the centuries," still holds too great an extent of truth. His denial of miracles, the supernatural efficacy of prayer, and the immortality of the soul earned for him the undying enmity of the clergy. Condorcet, another deist, was the successor of Voltaire in the Encyclopaedic warfare.

The "Critique of Pure Reason" of Kant demolished the ontological and the cosmological arguments for the existence of God and showed the weakness in the teleological argument. He demonstrated that all the current arguments for God and immortality; the entire basis of rational proof of religious beliefs; were invalid. The theists protested vehemently, and showed their superiority by calling their dogs "Immanuel Kant." In his "Critique of Practical Reason," however, he went on to restore the credit of religion through the moral sense, the "Categorical Imperative," and, as certain commentators have stated, after having excluded God from the cosmos, he attempted to find Him again in ethics. Holding that


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262 the moral sense is innate and not derived from experience, he reduced the truth of religion to moral faith. Kant believed that he found a divine command in his own conscience; but the science of ethics now gives a natural account of moral laws and sentiments. The study of the evolution of our moral ideas has, today, destroyed Kant's theory of an innate and absolute moral sense.

When Franklin showed the nature of lightning, the voice of God was displaced from that of thunder. The sciences of ethics and psychology, like modern Franklins, show plainly that conscience is no more the voice of God than is thunder. Schopenhauer, commenting on Kantian theology, offers the suggestion that Kant was really a sceptic, but became frightened when he contemplated what he thought would happen to public morals if belief were to be denied to the masses. Nietzsche speaks of Kant: "With the aid of his concept of 'Practical Reason.’ he produced a special kind of reason, for use on occasions when reason cannot function: namely, when the sublime command, "Thou shalt,' resounds." In his old age Kant became more bold, and perhaps voiced his true views, for we find that in "Religion Within the Limits of Pure Reason," he is actively antagonistic to ecclesiasticism, so much so that, for publishing this work, he was censured by the Prussian king, who wrote, "Our highest person has been greatly displeased to observe how you misuse your philosophy to undermine and destroy many of the most important and fundamental doctrines of the Holy Scriptures and of Christianity." Indeed, many a man approaching Kant with a firm theistic belief finds his belief somewhat shaken by Kantian logic.

Schopenhauer's "Will" has nothing in common with the God-idea as commonly held, and he was bitterly anti-theistic. In: a dialogue entitled "Religion," he places these words in the mouth of his character Philalethes:


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348 By this overwhelming blow the Scots were prostrated; and Henry VIII., returning from victory in France with an ample exchequer and the martial spirit of the English thoroughly roused, might with no great difficulty have repeated the successes of Edward I. He could have overrun the Lowlands, have stormed or starved out the fortresses and placed Southern garrisons in them, and thus have for the time provided one solution of the Scottish difficulty. But Henry profited by Edward's ultimate failures. He was aware that he might succeed for a time, but he was aware also that such success was really none; and he took advantage of the depression of the nation which followed Flodden rather to conciliate their friendship by forbearance than to pursue his advantage by force. The dead King had left two sons—the eldest, James V., then but two years old; the second an infant. In a Parliament held after the battle, the widowed Queen Margaret was declared Regent; the Government was re-established without interference from England, yet indirectly under English influence; and, by a judicious temperance at a critical time, the nucleus of a Southern party was formed at the Court which never after was wholly dissolved.

The time, however, was still far distant when the national enmity could even begin really to yield, and the French faction would, sooner or later, have recovered from the unpopularity which had followed upon their great disaster. A reaction at last could not have been avoided, but it arrived sooner than was anticipated through the conduct of the Queen Regent. Margaret


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Rh "A certain amount of general ignorance is the condition of all religions, the element in which alone they can exist. And as soon as astronomy, natural science, geology, history, the knowledge of countries and peoples, have spread their light broadcast, and philosophy finally is permitted to say a word, every faith founded on miracles and revelation must disappear; and philosophy takes its place."

Hegel's deification of thought or reason left no room for personal immortality, and his query, "Do you expect a tip for having nursed your ailing mother, and refrained from poisoning your brother?" is well known. A vague conception of a deity whose existence can be proved, if it can be proved at all, only by the abstruse arguments of a Hegel is not a god of practical service to the theists.

Schelling was pantheistic, and Feuerbach played havoc with the philosophic evidence for God and immortality and treated all religions as a dream and an illusion.

Herbert Spencer, James Mill, J. S. Mill, and Huxley popularized the agnostic standpoint. Spencer in his "First Principles" argues in this manner: "Those who cannot conceive of a self-existent Universe, and therefore assume a creator as the source of the Universe, take for granted that they can conceive a self-existent creator. The mystery which they recognize in this great fact surrounding them on every side, they transfer to an alleged source of this great fact, and then suppose that they have solved the mystery. But they delude themselves. Self-existence. is inconceivable; and this holds true whatever be the nature of the object of which it is predicated. Whoever agrees that the atheistic hypothesis is untenable because it involves the impossible idea of self-existence, must perforce admit that the theistic hypothesis is untenable if it contains the same impossible idea. ... If religion and science are to be reconciled, the basis of


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264 must be this deepest, widest, and most certain of all facts, that the Power which the Universe manifests to us is inscrutable."

Nietzsche, the great liberator of modern thought, vigorously opposed religious morality, the influence of Christianity, and all religious beliefs. "When the natural consequences of an action," he wrote, "are no longer looked upon as natural, but are considered to be produced by the phantasms of superstition, by 'God,' 'Ghosts,' and 'Souls,' and appear as 'moral' consequences, as rewards, punishments, guidance and revelation, then the whole basis of knowledge is destroyed; and the greatest possible crime against humanity has been committed."

William James, claimed as a supporter of religion, argues that our inner experience makes us cognizant of a spiritual world. The advance of psychological research does not deal kindly with this contention, and such works as Leuba's "Psychology of Religious Mysticism" give a rational explanation of the mystic state. Moreover, James did not give his support to monotheism. "That vast literature of proofs of God's existence," he stated, "drawn from the order of nature, which a century ago seemed so overwhelmingly convincing, today does little more than gather dust in the libraries, for the simple reason that our generation has ceased "to believe in the kind of God it argued for. Whatever sort of God may be, we know today that he is nevermore that mere external inventor of 'contrivances' intended to make manifest his 'glory' in which our great-grandfathers took such satisfaction."

James claimed to be a pluralist in the sense that there are several or many spiritual beings above us, and his writings lead one to believe that he was not convinced that man, as a distinct personality, survives the grave.


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Rh Royce rejected all the current arguments for God and immortality and argues for the mysticism of internal experience. Eucken offers no support to theologians; and Bergson does not seem to express a clear belief in a personal god or personal immortality.

Coming to the more popular of contemporary philosophers one finds that, just as the Greek philosophers reasoned outside the pale of the then held beliefs which were theistic, so do these modern philosophers reach conclusions that are outside the pale of organized religion of today. George Santayana is a materialist and sceptic who, in his "Reason in Religion," reveals his scepticism and frowns upon personal immortality. "It is pathetic," he comments, "to observe how lowly are the motives that religion, even the highest, attributes to the deity, and from what a hard-pressed and bitter existence they have been drawn. To be given the best morsel, to be remembered, to be praised, to tie obeyed blindly and punctiliously, these have been thought points of honor with the gods, for which they would dispense favors and punishments on the most exhorbitant scale. The idea that religion contains a literal, not a symbolic, representation of truth and life is simply an impossible idea. Whoever entertains it has not "come within the region of profitable philosophizing on that subject."

Bertrand Russell, considered by some the keenest philosophical mind of the present age, is an agnostic who maintains "The objections to religion are of two sorts, intellectual and moral. The intellectual objection is that there is no reason to suppose any religion true; the moral objection is that religious precepts date from a time when men were more cruel than they are now, and therefore tend to perpetuate inhumanities which the moral conscience of the age would otherwise outgrow."

The Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce is an atheist


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266 who states that philosophy removes from religion all reason for existing. C. E. M. Joad is a young English philosopher who repeatedly predicts the disappearance in the near future of the present forms of theistic beliefs. M. C. Otto holds to "An affirmative faith in the non-existence of God." William P. Montague discards all organized religions for a "Promethean Religion." John Dewey is a naturalistic philosopher who will have nothing to do with supernatural causation and insists that all things be explained by their place and function in the environment. His philosophy is permeated with the secular ideal of control of the external world.

What consolation does organized religion receive from the views of such modern philosophers as Russell, Alexander, Joad, Croce, Santayana, Dewey, Otto, Montague, Sellars, and the Randalls? The views of an intellectual incompetent, such as Bryan was, are spread widecast, but few know the extent of the scepticism of Edison, Luther Burbank, Albert Einstein, Paul Ehrlich, Ernst Haeckel, Robert Koch, Fridjof Nansen, and Swante Arrhenius. What consolation can the theists derive from the religious views of Shelley, Swinburne, Meredith, Buchanan, Keats, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, Mark Twain, and Anatole France?

In the not far distant past deism and pantheism served as a polite subterfuge for atheism. There is a growing tendency in this present age to dress one's atheistic belief in an evening suit, and for the sake of social approbation call such a belief "religious humanism." A quotation from the Associated Press, appearing recently in one of our magazines, states the need for this "new religion" as being the inadequacy of the religious forms and ideas of our fathers, and the new creed to be:

"Religious humanists regard the universe as self-existing and not created.


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1515.] of England, whose life and behaviour reflect little credit either on her country or her lineage, within a year of her husband's death married the young Earl of Angus, the head of the house of Douglas. Her tenure of power had been limited to her widowhood. The Scottish lords could not tolerate in one of themselves the position of husband of the Regent, and a second Parliament immediately pronounced her deposition, and called in as her successor the late King's cousin, the Duke of Albany, who, in the event of the deaths of the two princes, stood next in blood to the Crown. Albany, who had lived from his infancy on the Continent—French in his character and French in his sympathies—brought with him a revolution inimical in every way to English interests. His conduct soon gave rise to the gravest alarm. The royal children were taken from the custody of their mother, who with her husband was obliged for a time to find refuge in England; and the Duke of Rothsay, the younger of the two, dying immediately after, suspicions of murder were naturally aroused. The prince was openly said to have been assassinated; the remaining brother who lay between Albany and the Crown it was expected would soon follow; and a tragedy would be repeated which England as well as Scotland had too lately witnessed.


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Rh "Religion must formulate its hopes and plans in the light of the scientific spirit and method.

"The distinction between the sacred and secular can no longer be maintained.

"Religious humanism considers the complete realization of human personality to be the end of a man's life, and seeks its development and fulfilment in the here and now.

"In place of the old attitudes involved in worship and prayer, the humanist finds his religious emotions exprest in a heightened sense t>f personal life and in a cooperative effort to promote social well-being.

"There will be no uniquely religious emotions and attitudes of the kind hitherto associated with belief in the supernatural. Man will learn to face the crises of life in terms of his knowledge of their naturalness and probability. Reasonable and manly attitudes will be fostered by education and supported custom.

"We assume that humanism will take the path of social and mental hygiene, and discourage sentimental and unreal hopes and wishful thinking.

"The goal of humanism is a free and universal society in which the people voluntarily and intelligently cooperate for the common good.

"The time has come for widespread recognition of the radical changes, in religious thoughts throughout the modern world. Science and economic change have disrupted the old beliefs.

"Religions the world over are under the necessity of coming to terms with new conditions created by a vastly increased knowledge and experience."

Professors John Dewey, E. A. Burtt, and Roy Wood Sellars are among the signers of this statement. It is an excellent and comprehensive statement, but one is left wondering why the name "religious humanism"? It is


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268 difficult to become enthusiastic when one realizes that these men take to themselves the thunder of the atheists of the past, and under the misnomer, "religious," place before the public what all atheists of the past ages have been preaching.

It is most gratifying to perceive that such distinguished men as signed this statement are frank enough to admit the extent of the religious revolution, and determined enough to take a hand in the clearing away of the debris that clutters the crumbling of all religious creeds. Yet it is only fair to point out that this statement contains nothing that would not be recognized by those intrepid atheists of the past, and little more than they urged in their time. I refer to those brilliant French atheists La Mettrie, Helvetius, d'Holbach, d'Alembert, and Diderot.


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350 The sustained and powerful remonstrances of Henry at the Court of France at length produced an effect. Albany remained nominally Regent, and French garrisons were maintained in Dunbar and Dumbarton; but he was obliged to leave Scotland. Margaret and her husband had previously been enabled to return, and the country was governed by a congress of deputies, consisting of Angus, the Earls of Arran, Huntley, and Argyle, and the Archbishops of St Andrew's and Glasgow. This arrangement was a compromise which could be of no long continuance. The Archbishop of St Andrew's, James Beton, was devoted to France; Angus was true to England; while in spite of a superficial reconciliation, a blood- feud, deep and ineffaceable, divided the Douglases and the Hamiltons. For centuries the law in Scotland had been too weak to reach the heads of powerful clans or families. The great nobles avenged their own injuries by their own swords; and, where justice could only be executed by crime, each act of violence provoked fresh retaliation. A plot was laid by the Earl of Arran, supported by Beton, to seize Angus in Edinburgh. The latter had with him but a small train of half-armed followers, not more than eighty or a hundred; but they were all knights and gentlemen; they were popular in the city; and, when the fray commenced, the citizens, seeing them defending themselves with their swords, reached them lances out of the windows. The Douglases gained the advantage; and after


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1519.] a severe skirmish, in which Sir Patrick Hamilton, Arran's brother, was killed, the defeated Earl and his confederates escaped for their lives, and Angus remained master of the field and of the Government.

But the oscillations of fortune were rapid, and again Queen Margaret's conduct was the cause of a change most adverse to the interests which she ought to have defended. She had married hastily, and as hastily grown weary of her choice. She had allowed the Duke of Albany, after her return from England, to steal his way into her affections. She had exposed herself to dishonourable remarks, which she shaped her behaviour laboriously to justify; and failing, through the bad terms on which she had placed herself with Angus, to recover her authority as Regent, she united with the faction of the defeated lords, and wrote to the King of France, entreating him, if he valued the regard of the people, to restore the Duke.

Francis at once acquiesced. He was himself on the edge of a rupture with England. The opportunity of securing his old allies was not to be neglected; and again the Duke of Albany appeared in Edinburgh. The old Scotch jealousies were blown into flame. The cry was raised that the country was betrayed to slavery


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352 by the Douglas; and, as the Regent resumed his power, Angus was again banished. The revolution was complete, but, as before, it was transient. Henry treated the reappearance of so dangerous a person as a breach of an engagement with himself. He despatched a herald to require the Duke's departure, and the demand being disregarded, he refused to acknowledge a peace with Scotland while Scotland acknowledged Albany, The Borders on both sides were wasted with the usual recklessness; the Regent levied an army to invade England. But he was one of those imbecile persons who can take no advantage of the turns of fortune; his musters forsook him as incapable; and a truce being arranged for a few months, he stole away once more into France for direction and assistance.

His weakness in the midst of danger, and his haste to escape from it, slackened the enthusiasm which had been raised for him; Henry took the opportunity of his absence to make another effort at conciliation. Preparing for either alternative which the Scots might prefer, he sent Lord Surrey to the Border with ten thousand men, while, with a practical and statesmanlike moderation, he followed his father's policy, and offered them an alliance which, had it been accepted, would have been a noble termination of the quarrel. The vanity of the weaker nation might be flattered with the thought that they had given a king to their haughty neighbours. Henry at that time possessed but a single daughter. He proposed that she should be betrothed to James, and the uncertainties of the succession might be determined at


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1521.] once and for ever. Should the Princess Mary die, and the Scottish sovereign claim to inherit as a right, every English sword would be drawn to resist him; could the betrothal be arranged, he might come in peaceably under a parliamentary sanction, and the enmity of centuries would terminate in the union of the Crocus. 'It was not his fault,' Henry wrote to the Scottish council, 'that there was not perpetual amity between the two kingdoms;' he was not seeking to gratify any poor ambition. He desired nothing but the real welfare of Scotland; and 'the Scots, if they accepted his proposal, would not come over to the Government of the English, but the English to that of the Scots.'

Although the Earl of Angus was in exile, there were statesmen in Edinburgh not wholly deaf to reasonable arguments. In a discussion of the English overtures, it was admitted that, after all, the Scots and English were one people, 'born in the same island, brought up under the same climate, agreeing in language, manners, laws, and customs.' They were rather one nation than two, while they differed from the French in soil and climate, and character. The hostility of France could not injure Scotland; the friendship of France could scarcely be of benefit to her; while England must be either her most valuable ally or most dangerous enemy. But although reason could make itself heard, sentiment was still too strong for it. Constant, like the English, to their traditionary habits, the


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354 majority of the Edinburgh convention adhered to their foreign associations; and their patriotism was judiciously kept alive by gratuities and pensions. Prudence was thrust aside. The Estates remained faithful to Albany and to Francis, and defied Henry to do his worst against them. The Duke meanwhile had transferred his inclination to a fresh mistress. Margaret, jealous and exasperated, was no longer under a temptation to be false to her brother, and kept the Earl of Surrey informed of the disposition of the nobility. They were careless, she said, of the hurt which he might do upon the Borders, knowing that the Borderers could retaliate in kind. She urged his advance upon Edinburgh, where a thousand men with artillery would make the Parliament vote as he pleased. The military judgment of Margaret was on a par perhaps with the rest of her understanding. Surrey, besides, was unprovided with stores or means of transport for so long an expedition. Instead of marching on Edinburgh, he confined himself to the districts which paid habitually


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 I shall quote another piece of mortuary evidence, from the will of John Baude, of Woolpett, dated 1501:

"I wyll that the tenement namyd the Cok wt all the ptynaunce thereto belonging, be solde by the hande of my executors, and the mony thereof comying, the fyrst pt I will it be gwovyn to synge for me and all my benefactors by the term of a holl yer, and the ijde pt of the mony, as fast as yt may be receyuyd, I will ther be brought one peyre of orgynys to the Church of Wulpett."

The Rev. Sir William Cope, in a brief but interesting paper, on "Early Organ Builders in England," printed in "The Parish Choir," was the first to bring forward the name of one, of Oxford, as "the earliest organ builder in this country," of whom any trace could be found.

I am, however, constrained to deprive Wotton of this honour, having produced many claimants of an earlier date.


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1523.] for the nation's offences. He carried fire and sword through Teviotdale, as soon as the harvest had been gathered in, and could be utterly destroyed; he burnt Jedburgh, and remained for some days within the Scotch frontier wasting and pillaging.

At length, in October, Albany came back in high hopes and confidence, this time bringing with him six thousand French men-at-arms. The exasperation of the people with the English increased the cordiality with which he was received, and hastily placing himself at the head of as large a force as could be collected, he marched immediately to the Borders, expecting, or being expected, to revenge Jedburgh and destroy Surrey. But Albany was a man who carried failure written in his very demeanour. 'When he doth hear anything contrarious to his pleasures,' Lord Surrey said, 'his manner is to take his bonnet suddenly off his head and throw it in the fire. My Lord Dacre doth affirm that at his being last in Scotland he did burn above a dozen bonnets in that manner.' This was not a temper to cope successfully with the ablest of living generals. 'If he be such a man,' Surrey wisely judged, 'with God's grace, we shall speed the better with him.'

The weather was foul.… Snow had already fallen heavily, and the rivers were swollen and dangerous; but Surrey's name was a talisman in the northern counties.… Lord Dorset, Lord Latimer, the Earl of


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 In 1486, William Wotton, "orkyn maker," constructed a "pair of organs" for the chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford, for the sum of twenty-eight pounds. Two years afterwards he repaired the organ, at a cost of forty shillings. In 1487 he entered into an agreement with the Warden of Merton College to make an organ "lyke unto the newe payr of organs of the chapel of St. Mary Magdalen," for the same sum. This instrument was to be finished by the vigil of Whitsuntide, 1489, and placed in the new roodloft of the chapel.

A very curious and interesting story in connection with this builder is told by Anthony Wood, in his "Annals," A.D. 1486. It is to the following effect:

"'A certain poor priest of Oxford, named William Symonds, of the age of twenty-eight years, having a youth of a crafty wit and comely presence to his pupil, contrived (in hope to raise himself to some great Bishoprick), and brought it so to pass, that the said youth should be vulgarly reported by certain noble persons, that bore good will to the House of York, to be Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of"


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 A little later we have a builder of the name of, who appears to have set up a new organ at St. Margaret's, Westminster, thus noticed in the churchwardens' accounts there:

"1590, payde to Mr. Broughe, for changeing of our organs for a payre of his, viijli."

An organ builder flourished at the close of the sixteenth century, who, though his name is now forgotten, seems to have been extensively employed in his day—. He appears to have built an organ for Westminster Abbey about 1596; at least we find him in that year selling the old organ of that Collegiate Church to the churchwardens of St. Margaret's:

"Paid to Mr. Chappington for the organs of the Colledge, xiijli. xiijs. iiijd., and the old organs do remayne in the parish church, to be sold by the churchwardens."

The latter part of this entry possibly relates to the organ built by Broughe six years previously. In the following year a further payment was made "to Chappington for the organs lxvjs. viijd."


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Author:Anthony Ashley Cooper

 * Anthony Ashley Cooper (1621-1683), 1st Earl of Shaftesbury
 * Anthony Ashley Cooper (1671-1713), 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury
 * Anthony Ashley Cooper (1801-1885), 7th Earl of Shaftesbury

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Wikisource:WikiProject U.S. Roads

Welcome to the U.S. Roads WikiProject on Wikisource. Our goal here is to provide coverage of the various documents, statutes, and court cases that define and impact the various national and state highway systems in the United States.

Active projects

 * Portal:American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials: Transcribing an archive of the minutes containing the decisions by AASHO/AASHTO regarding changes to the Interstate Highway System and the United States Numbered Highway System.
 * See also: English Wikipedia listing of minutes; Commons category of documents to transcribe
 * See also: the /Tutorial for the steps in transcribing these documents

Members
Bold denotes primary projects.

Embassy
This is a link to the U.S. Roads projects on other Wikimedia Foundation sites.
 * Meta meta:USRD
 * English Wikipedia: w:en:WP:USRD (inactive following )
 * AARoads: https://wiki.aaroads.com
 * German Wikipedia: w:de:WP:SVS
 * Simple English Wikipedia: U.S. Roads WikiProject on Simple English Wikipedia
 * Spanish Wikipedia: w:es:Wikiproyecto:Estados Unidos/Carreteras
 * Commons: commons:COM:USRD
 * Wikidata: d:WD:USRD

List

 * Portal:American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
 * Proclamation of route of The Lincoln Highway
 * Letter to Thomas H. MacDonald regarding toll roads, April 8, 1947
 * Thomas H. MacDonald on Toll Roads, April 22, 1947
 * Report of Joint Board on Interstate Highways October 30, 1925
 * Toll Roads and Free Roads, 1939
 * Highways for the National Defense, 1941
 * Interregional Highways, 1944
 * General Location of National System of Interstate Highways, 1955
 * America's Highways 1776–1976: A History of the Federal-Aid Program, 1976

California

 * California Highways and Public Works Journal
 * California Streets and Highways Code
 * Tioga Road (HAER No. CA-149) written historical and descriptive data
 * Big Oak Flat Road (HAER No. CA-147) written historical and descriptive data
 * Wawona Road (HAER No. CA-148) written historical and descriptive data

Florida

 * Portal:Pre-1945 State Roads in Florida

Michigan

 * Removing I-296 Signs in Grand Rapids
 * Request for Official AASHTO Approval to Remove I-296 Route Designation from All References While Retaining the Route as Part of the Interstate System
 * Removal of I-296 Designation
 * Dual and Triple Routing on State Trunklines 1982-10-19
 * Dual and Triple Routing on State Trunklines 1983-03-17

Minnesota

 * Minnesota Statutes/Section 161.12
 * Minnesota Statutes/Section 161.114
 * Minnesota Statutes/Section 161.115
 * Minnesota Statutes/Section 161.117

New Jersey

 * 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering

Oregon

 * Oregon Historical Quarterly/Volume 3/History of the Barlow Road

title: Wikisource:WikiProject U.S. Roads


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Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 33.djvu/450

 sMe. Bee also Li?>lev nnd Lcslv. aUe, Aleiaadec, fint Earl of Lcren (1580 P- ) I^ilie, Andrew, prnperlv fifth, but BOmstiinea called fbiiTtb. Eu-1 of Kolhei (if. 1611). I.eelie, CbBrlesflCiO-naa) . . . . Leslie, ChitrleB Robert (1794-1859) . LoJie, David, first Lord Newark id. 1683) LeslJu, Fntnk (1821-1880). See Cuter, Henrj-. Leslie, GeorgH, uiaallT called third, liut pro- perly fourth. Earl of Rothes (d. 15S8). Leslie or Lesley, George (d. 1637), known m Father ArcbWet Le^e,BenrT (laso-lfiUl) Ledie or I.«^er, John (1327-1596). Leslie, Jobn, sixth E«rl of Rothes (1600-1611 Leslie, John (1571-1B71). . ., . Le>lie,Jahn, Krenlh Earl and llr«t Duke of Rotbea (1680-1681) Leslie, John, eii^hlh Earl of Rolhes (1679- 17i8) Leslie, John, ointh Eail o[ Rothes (1698?- "Fl. I Leslie, Sir John (1766-1882) . . . Leslie, Nocman, Master of Rothes (d. I5M) Ualie, Thomns Edward Clifle (1827 ?-188!) Leslie, Walter, Count Leslie (160(1-1667] Leslie, William Id. 16M ?) . . . I^lie, William (16B7-1727) . Leslj, (}eoise (d. 1701) Lespeo, W«lt«r ' -" " '" Lesae, Nicholas ._.. Lester, Frederick Ps I.e«tock, Kichard (1679 ?-1746) L'EslranKG, Hamon (160A-166O) L'Estiange, Hamon (I6T1-IT69) Le Strange, Henry L'Eitrange Slvleoinn (1816-1882) ' . La Strange, John (if. 1269). L'Estrange, John (1866-1877) LeStranRc, Sir Nicholas (Ifil&-Ifi80). e under Le Strange, Sir TbDmss. L'Estruige, Sir Nicholas (d. 16aG) L'Eltntnge, Sir Roger (1816.1701) Le StiBOge, Sir Thomu {I491-15U) LeSuear, Hnbert (I596P-I6MI7) . Letchwoilh, Thomas (173S-17S1}. Letbbridge, Joseph Watts (1617-1885). Letbbridge, Walter Slepheos (1773-1831 ?) Letheby, Henrv (1816-1876). Letherfand, JoMph (169^1761). Lethienllier, Smart (1701-1760). Lethinjton, Lord (1496-15B6). See MoJtland, Sir Richard. LethlDbor(<I.87l) .... Lettice, John (1787-1832) Letlou, John (A. 1480). Letts, Thomas (1803-1878). LetlBom, John Coakley (1744-1816) Lottaom, William Nonaon (1796-1865). See under Lettsom, John Coakley. Leven, Karls of. See Leslie, Atesander, first Earl (1580-1661); and Melville, David, third Earl (I660-I7!e). Levens, Peter (jf. 1587' Leveridge, Richard {1670P-1758) Loverton, Thomas (1743-1824) - , LevesoD, Sir Richard (1670-1605). . . 145 { Leveson-Gower, Lord Francis. See E^rtOD, Francis Earl oTEIlesnieie (1800-1867). Leveson-Gower. George Granville, Siit Duke orSntherUnd(1768-l88S} . . . .11 Leveoon-Gower, George (jrsiiviUe William Sutherland, third Dnke of Sntheriond (1828-1892). See under Lcvesoa-Gower, George Granville, tirst Duke of SutberUnd. Lereson-Gower, GranTllle, Hrst Marqnii of Staabrd(17SI-180B) I4n LeTeoou-Gower, GraovilK first Esrl GronTille (1773-1846) 149 Levesoa-Gower, Granville Qeorge, second E^rl Granville (lSl.VlS9t) 150 Lereson-Gowcr, Harriet Kljiabelh Georgiina, Duchess of Sutherland (1806-186B). . 152 Levtson-Gover, John, Lord Gower (1676- ). 163 Leveson-Go-acr, John, first Eari Gower (d. ). See under Lereson-Gower, John, Lord Gower. Leveeon-Gower, John (1740-1792). . .153 Lovett,Henn-,M.D. (1668-1726). ., IM , l.evett or Levet, Robert (1701 ?-1782). . l&i Levi, DsTid (1740-1789) 1S5 ' Uvi, Leone 0821-1888) ■" ' Levinge, Sir Kichord (d. 1724) Levinge, Sir Richard George Augustus (ISIl- ) _„ Uvini; Baptist (1644-1698) . . . ,169 Levini, Sir Creswell (1627-1701) . . .160 Levinz, Levens, or Levinge, Robert, D.CX. (1615-1650) 161 Uvinz, William (1625-1698) . . . .161 Lerkoc, Jean Pons Vietor Lecoatz de (tt ) lei, Levv, Amy (1861-1889) 16* Levy, Joseph Moees (_1B12-188S) . *" ' Lewes, Charles Lee (t74IK180B) . Lewes, George Heni}- (1817-1878) . Lewgor, John (1602-1666) . Lewicke, Edward (jt. 1662) . LewiD, John WUUam ( fi. ISOG). See v Lowin, fhomas ( 1805-18773 Uwin, WilUam (rf. 1698) Lewie, William (li. 1795) Lewins or Lew ens, Edward John i ) Lewis. See also Lewes. Lewis, Andrew {I7207-1781). Lewis, Charles {i75a-1795) . Lewis. Charles (1786-1886) . Ijewis, Charles George (1808-1880) I.cwi<, Charles Jmoee (1830-1892) . LewU or Lewe^ David (1620?-1684) Lewis, David (1617-1679). See Bekei, Charle* Lewis, David (1G83 7-1760) . Lewis, Edward (1701-1784) . Lewis, Erasmus (1670-1754) . Lewis, Evan (1828-1869) Lewis, Frederick Christian (171. . . . ,. Lewis, Frederick Christian (1813-1875). See under Lewis, Frederick Christian (1771^ ).


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50 saving £517 a year as interest on cost of sites for schools, Garden City has secured sites for its schools incomparably better than those of London schools—sites which afford ample accommodation for all the children of the town, and not, as in the case of the London School Board, accommodation for only half of the children of the municipality. (The sites of the London School Board are 370 acres in extent, or about 1 acre to every 16,000 of the population, while the people of Garden City have obtained 24 acres or 1 acre for every 1,250.) In other words, Garden City secures sites which are larger, better placed, and in every way more suitable for educational purposes, at a mere fraction of the cost which in London is incurred for sites vastly inferior in every respect.

The economies with which we have thus dealt are, it will be seen, effected by the two simple expedients we have referred to. First, by buying the land before a new value is given to it by migration, the migrating people obtain a site at an extremely low figure, and secure the coming increment for themselves and those who come after them; and secondly, by coming to a new site, they do not have to pay large sums for old buildings, for compensation for disturbance, and for heavy legal charges. The practicability of securing for the poor workers of London the first of these great advantages appears to have been for the moment overlooked by Professor Marshall in his article in the Contemporary Review, for the Professor remarks "Ultimately all would gain by the migration, but most" (the italics are


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Statement to Employees from Acting Director Michael Morell: "Zero Dark Thirty"

Statement to Employees from Acting Director Michael Morell: "Zero Dark Thirty"

December 21, 2012

I would not normally comment on a Hollywood film, but I think it important to put Zero Dark Thirty, which deals with one of the most significant achievements in our history, into some context. The film, which premiered this week, addresses the successful hunt for Usama Bin Ladin that was the focus of incredibly dedicated men and women across our Agency, Intelligence Community, and military partners for many years. But in doing so, the film takes significant artistic license, while portraying itself as being historically accurate.

What I want you to know is that Zero Dark Thirty is a dramatization, not a realistic portrayal of the facts. CIA interacted with the filmmakers through our Office of Public Affairs but, as is true with any entertainment project with which we interact, we do not control the final product.

It would not be practical for me to walk through all the fiction in the film, but let me highlight a few aspects that particularly underscore the extent to which the film departs from reality.

 * First, the hunt for Usama Bin Ladin was a decade-long effort that depended on the selfless commitment of hundreds of officers. The filmmakers attributed the actions of our entire Agency—and the broader Intelligence Community—to just a few individuals.  This may make for more compelling entertainment, but it does not reflect the facts.  The success of the May 1st 2011 operation was a team effort—and a very large team at that.

 * Second, the film creates the strong impression that the enhanced interrogation techniques that were part of our former detention and interrogation program were the key to finding Bin Ladin. That impression is false.  As we have said before, the truth is that multiple streams of intelligence led CIA analysts to conclude that Bin Ladin was hiding in Abbottabad.  Some came from detainees subjected to enhanced techniques, but there were many other sources as well.  And, importantly, whether enhanced interrogation techniques were the only timely and effective way to obtain information from those detainees, as the film suggests, is a matter of debate that cannot and never will be definitively resolved.

 * Third, the film takes considerable liberties in its depiction of CIA personnel and their actions, including some who died while serving our country. We cannot allow a Hollywood film to cloud our memory of them.

Commentators will have much to say about this film in the weeks ahead. Through it all, I want you to remember that Zero Dark Thirty is not a documentary. What you should also remember is that the Bin Ladin operation was a landmark achievement by our country, by our military, by our Intelligence Community, and by our Agency.

Michael Morell


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Rh my own) "the landowners and the railroads connected with the colony." Let us then adopt the expedient here advocated of securing that the landowners, "who … will gain most" by a project specially designed to benefit a class now low down in the social scale, shall be those very people themselves, as members of a new municipality, and then a strong additional inducement will be held out to them to make a change, which nothing but the lack of combined effort has hitherto prevented. As to the benefit to be derived by the railways, while no doubt the building up of the town would specially benefit the main line of railway which passed through the estate, it is also true that the earnings of the people would not be diminished to the usual extent by railway freights and charges. (See Chap. ii., also Chap. v., page 60.)

We now come to deal with an element of economy which will be simply incalculable. This is to be found in the fact that the town is definitely planned, so that the whole question of municipal administration may be dealt with by one far-reaching scheme. It is not by any means necessary, and it is not, humanly speaking, possible, that the final scheme should be the work of one mind. It will no doubt be the work of many minds—the minds of engineers, of architects and surveyors, of landscape gardeners and electricians. But it is essential, as we have said, that there should be unity of design and purpose—that the town should be planned as a whole, and not left to grow up in a chaotic manner as has been the case with all English towns, and more or less so with the towns of all countries. A town, like a flower, or a tree, or an animal, should, at each stage of its growth, possess unity, symmetry, completeness, and the effect of


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Portal:House of Representatives of Thailand

Dissolution of the House

 * Statutes of Rama VII
 * Statutes of Rama VIII
 * Statutes of Rama IX
 * Statutes of Rama X
 * Statutes of Rama IX
 * Statutes of Rama X
 * Statutes of Rama IX
 * Statutes of Rama X
 * Statutes of Rama X
 * Statutes of Rama X
 * Statutes of Rama X
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text: Translation:Royal Decree Dissolving the House of People's Representatives, 2481 Buddhist Era


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Category:Thai prime ministers

th:หมวดหมู่:นายกรัฐมนตรีไทย

title: Category:Thai prime ministers


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Page:The Early English Organ Builders and their work.djvu/63

 Dunfermline for reinterment beside the high altar, in 1250, describes the procession of priests and abbots, by whom the ceremony was conducted, as accompanied by the sounds of the organ, as well as the chanting of the choir. Mr. Tytler, the author of a "Dissertation on Scottish Music," fell into a strange error, representing James I of Scotland as the first introducer of the organ into that country; when all that he actually did, as Mr. Dauney has pointed out, was to introduce organs of an improved construction. The principal churches and abbeys of Scotland had most probably been furnished with them more or less from the era to which I have referred. The Chapel Royal at Stirling, founded by James III, to all appearance upon the model of that of Edward IV, was a very complete and richly endowed ecclesiastical establishment for the cultivation of church music; and several entries of sums laid out by the Scottish sovereigns in the upholding of


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 the organs at Stirling and Edinburgh, are to be found in the Treasurer's Books, of which the following are specimens:

"1507, January 12. Item to the chanoun of Holyrudhous that mendit the organis in Strivelin and Edinburgh, vijli."

"1511. Item to Gilleam, organist, maker of the Kingis organis, for expenses maid be him at the sayd organis, in gait skynnis, and parchment for the belles, in naillis and sprentis of irne, in glew, papir, candill, coill, etc., viijli. iiijs."

The reintroduction of organs, episcopal vestments, decorations, etc, by James VI, into the chapel at Holyrood Palace, during his visit to Scotland in 1617, were regarded with great horror by his Scottish lieges.

"The Scots," says one of their own historians, "are in all acts of religious devotion, simple, rude and naked of ceremonial. The King, accustomed to the use of the organ and church ritual, commanded them to be used in his chapel of Holy Rood, and in the moment of joy occasioned by the general expectation of his arrival, did that, by exertion of


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, which he could not have done otherwise consistently with the actions and religious establishment of his native country. This was ill endured by the common people of Edinburgh, who considered it as staining and polluting the house of religion by the dregs of popery. The more prudent, indeed, judged it but reasonable that the King should enjoy his own form of worship in his own chapel; but then followed a rumour, that the religious vestments and altars were to be forcibly introduced into all the churches, and the purity of religion, so long established in Scotland, for ever defiled. And it required the utmost efforts of the magistrates to restrain the inflamed passions of the common people."

The organ introduced into the Chapel Royal of Edinburgh by James VI must have been a magnificent instrument. I have fortunately met with a very curious notice of it. John Chamberlain, writing


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 to Sir Dudley Carleton, December 7, 1616, speaking of the King's intended progress to Scotland, adds: "We hear they made great preparations there to be in their best equipage; and from hence (London) many things are sent, but specially a pair of organs that cost above £400, besides all manner of furniture for a chapel, which Inigo Jones tells me he hath the charge of."

Some years after this, we are introduced, for the first time, to a Scotch organ builder. The author of "Rouen: its History and Monuments," speaking of the church of St. Godard, says: "In 1556, its organ was a very small one. It was afterwards enlarged; but in 1562, it was destroyed by the Calvinists. The present organ, which was built in 1640, is the work of a Scotchman named ."

Of organs in Ireland, I have not been able to meet with any particulars, and they would seem to have been almost unknown in that country in early times. In


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text: Translation:Royal Decree for Prorogation of the House of People's Representatives and Establishment of a New Council of Ministers


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Category:Plaek Phibunsongkhram

th:หมวดหมู่:แปลก พิบูลสงคราม

title: Category:Plaek Phibunsongkhram


text: Translation talk:Royal Decree for Prorogation of the House of People's Representatives and Establishment of a New Council of Ministers


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ogle, James Adey


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text: Translation:Act for Repeal of the Royal Decree Proroguing the House of People's Representatives Dated 1 April 2476 Buddhist Era


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oglethorpe, Owen


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text: Translation:Royal Decree Dissolving the National Legislative Assembly, 2516 BE


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Oglethorpe, Theophilus


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text: Translation:Royal Decree Dissolving the House of People's Representatives, 2519 BE


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Page:Scientific Memoirs, Vol. 1 (1837).djvu/39

Rh the first infinitely thin layer of the liquid; but this layer, while it is becoming hot, undergoes a certain dilatation, becomes lighter than the rest of the fluid mass, and ascends immediately to the upper part of the vessel, whence it can have no longer any influence on the pile. It is replaced by a second layer, which undergoes a similar process, and this again by others; so that by these partial renovations of the liquid screen, the hinder part of the glass applied to the aperture of the tube is not in contact with heated molecules, and retains the same temperature for a long time.

It was extremely difficult to make flat glass vessels with very regular surfaces of the same thickness throughout, and with the opposite sides exactly parallel. Metallic frames and glasses joined with gum could not be employed because of the corrosive action of the several liquids. After many a fruitless effort to surmount this difficulty, I thought at last that the process by which the index of refraction of liquids is measured in optics might be available in this case also. With this view I had quadrangular pieces of two centimetres in breadth and nine centimetres in length cut out of several pieces of the same mirror unsilvered and sufficiently thick. I laid close to the two faces of each of the pieces from which the excision had been made two flakes made out of another and a much thinner glass. It is known that the mere adhesion of two plates of polished glass is sufficient to prevent the passage of liquids. However, in order to be more secure, I introduced each recipient between two metallic frames, which held the thin glasses in their places by means of four screws placed at the angles. The liquid was poured into these vessels at a small aperture made at the top, and furnished with a glass stopper. In such a system there could be no doubt of the parallelism of the faces and the equal thickness of the layers.

The results furnished by the several bodies, both solid and liquid, I have disposed in several tables, each of them exhibiting at the top the common thickness of the screens employed and, beside the substance, the indications of the thermomultiplier and the quantity of rays transmitted as compared with the whole radiation. This distribution, while it allows the use of plates of different thicknesses, has the additional advantage of presenting distinct groups of each class of bodies. The free radiation in each case was 30°. In order to link the results of these tables together, I have commenced the second and the third with the numbers given by a flake of glass placed in the same circumstances as the plates which constitute each group: thus the glass set down in the table of liquids was contained between the two thin plates of the recipients, and made of the thick looking-glass employed in their construction. It was therefore exactly of the same thickness as the liquid layers, and, like them, came into contact with the thin plates which formed the faces of the recipients. But as those faces themselves intercepted a portion of


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 Germany shortly before the restoration of Charles II; and Burney tells us: "Smith had not been many months here before Harris arrived from France, with his son René, or Renatus, an ingenious and active young man, to whom he had confided all the secrets of his art"

It now appears, for the first time, that the Harrises were an English family, and that Renatus's grandfather was an organ builder residing among us and practising his art with success.

The relationship between the two Harrises is established by an entry in the Magdalen College books, in 1672, where Renatus Harris, being at Oxford, offers his services to repair the organ, "the rather because his grandfather made it at first, and he was sufficiently known to be as skilful an artist as any in England."

The builders of this period who remain to be named are, of Cambridge; , "of Powles" [St. Paul's];, of York; , of Peterborough; , of


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 Bath; and, of Exeter. The well-known organ of the latter, in the cathedral of the city in which he resided, is deserving of notice on many points, but time will not allow me now to dwell upon it.

We now arrive at the period which explains the cause of many of the old instruments I have named having been so ruthlessly swept away—the Great Rebellion.

An ordinance being passed in the House of Lords, January 4, 1644, establishing a new form of divine worship, in which no music was allowed but plain psalm singing, it was thought necessary, for the promotion of true religion, that no organs should be suffered to remain in the churches; that choral books should be torn; painted glass windows broken; sepulchral brass inscriptions defaced; and, in short, that the Cathedral service should be totally abolished. In consequence of this ordinance, collegiate and parochial churches were stripped of their organs and ornaments; some of the instruments