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 a large sugar refinery. The value of the factory product in 1900 was $6,203,316; in 1905, $4,906,355. The American Protective Association (A.P.A.), a secret order opposed to Roman Catholicism, was formed here in 1887. The city was founded in 1855 by the Iowa Land Company, and was incorporated first in 1857, and again in 1867, this time under a general law of the state for the incorporation of cities. The county, from which the city took its name, was named in honour of De Witt Clinton.

 CLINTON, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Nashua river, about 15 m. N.N.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 10,424; (1900) 13,667, of whom 5504 were foreign-born; (1910, U.S. census) 13,075. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine, and New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. It contains 7 sq. m. of varied and picturesque hilly country on the E. slope of the highland water-parting between the Connecticut river and the Atlantic. There is charming scenery along the Nashua river, the chief stream. The S.W. corner of the township is now part of an immense water reservoir, the Wachusett dam and reservoir (excavated 1896–1905; circumference, 35.2 m.), on the S. branch of the Nashua, which will hold 63,000 million gallons of water for the supply of the metropolitan region around Boston. On this is situated the village of Clinton, which has large manufactories, among whose products are cotton and woollen fabrics, carpets, wire-cloth, iron and steel, and combs. The textile and carpet mills are among the most famous in the United States. In 1905 the total factory product of the township was valued at $5,457,865, the value of cotton goods, carpets and wire-work constituting about nine-tenths of the total. The prominence of the township as a manufacturing centre is due to Erastus Brigham Bigelow (1814–1879), one of the incorporators of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who devised power-looms for the weaving of a variety of figured fabrics,—coach-lace, counterpanes, ginghams, silk brocatel, tapestry carpeting, ingrain and Brussels carpets,—and revolutionized their manufacture. In 1843 he and his brother Horatio N. Bigelow established in Clinton the Lancaster Mills for the manufacture of ginghams. From 1845 to 1851 he perfected his loom for the weaving of Brussels and Wilton carpets, the greatest of his inventions; and he established the Bigelow Carpet Mills here. He also invented the loom for the weaving of wire-cloth. It is claimed that the first production in the United States of finished cotton cloths under one roof and under the factory system was not at Waltham in 1816, but at Clinton in 1813; neither place was the first to spin by power, nor the first to produce finished cloths without the factory system. The comb industry dates from the eighteenth century. The first of the modern textile mills were established in 1838 for the manufacture of coach-lace. Clinton was a part of Lancaster, now a small farming township (pop. in 1910, 2464), until 1850, when it was set off as an independent township. The earliest settlement goes back to 1645.

See A. E. Ford, History of the Origin of the Town of Clinton, Massachusetts, 1653–1865 (Clinton, 1896).

 CLINTON, a city and the county-seat of Henry county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Grand river, 87 m. S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 4737; (1900) 5061 (470 being negroes); (1910) 4992. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Clinton & Springfield railways. The city is situated on the border of a rolling prairie about 770 ft. above the sea. The vicinity abounds in coal, but is principally agricultural, and Clinton’s chief interest is in trade with it. The principal manufactures are flour and pottery. Clinton was laid out in 1836 and was incorporated in 1865.

 CLINTON, a village of Oneida county, New York, U.S.A., on the Oriskany Creek, about 9 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 1269; (1900) 1340; (1905) 1315; (1910) 1236. It is served by the New York, Ontario & Western railway, and is connected with Utica by an electric line. Several fine mineral springs in the vicinity have given Clinton some reputation as a health resort. There are iron mines, blast furnaces, and iron smelters. Clinton is the seat of Hamilton College (non-sectarian), which was opened as the Hamilton Oneida Academy in 1798, and was chartered under its present name in 1812. It was founded by the Rev. Samuel Kirkland (1741–1808), a missionary among the Oneida Indians; its corner-stone was laid by Baron Steuben; its shade trees were furnished by Thomas Jefferson; and its name was received from Alexander Hamilton, one of its early trustees. It had in 1907–1908 20 instructors, 178 students, and a library of 47,000 volumes and 30,000 pamphlets. At Clinton are also excellent minor schools. Litchfield Observatory is connected with the college, and was long in charge of the well-known astronomer, Christian H. F. Peters (1813–1890), who discovered here more than 40 asteroids and made extensive investigations concerning comets. The village was settled about 1786 by pioneers from New England, was named in honour of George Clinton, and was incorporated in 1842.

 CLINTONITE, a group of micaceous minerals known as the “brittle micas.” Like the micas and chlorites, they are monoclinic in crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to the flat surface of the plates or scales, but differ markedly from these in the brittleness of the laminae; they are also considerably harder, the hardness of chloritoid being as high as 6 on Mohs’ scale. They differ chemically from the micas in containing less silica and no alkalis, and from the chlorites in containing much less water; in many respects they are intermediate between the micas and chlorites.

The following species are distinguished:—

Margarite is a basic calcium aluminium silicate, H2CaAl4Si2O12, and is classed by some authors as a lime-mica. It forms white pearly scales, and was at first known as pearl-mica and afterwards as margarite, from , a pearl. It is a characteristic associate of corundum, of which it is frequently an alteration product (facts which suggested the synonymous names corundellite and emerylite), and is found in the emery deposits of Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago, and with corundum at several localities in the United States.

Seybertite, Brandisite and Xanthophyllite are closely allied species consisting of basic magnesium, calcium and aluminium silicate, and have been regarded as isomorphous mixtures of a silicate (H2CaMg4Si3O12) and an aluminate (H2CaMgAl6O12). Seybertite (the original clintonite) occurs as reddish-brown to copper-red, brittle, foliated masses in metamorphic limestone at Amity, New York; brandisite as yellowish-green hexagonal prisms in metamorphic limestone in the Fassathal, Tirol; xanthophyllite as yellow folia and as distinct crystals (waluewite) in chloritic schists in the Urals.

Chloritoid has the formula H2(Fe,Mg)Al2SiO7. It forms tabular crystals and scales, with indistinct hexagonal outlines, which are often curved or bent and aggregated in rosettes. The colour is dark grey or green; a characteristic feature is the pleochroism, the pleochroic colours varying from yellowish-green to indigo-blue. Hardness, 6; specific gravity, 3.4-3.6. It occurs as isolated scales scattered through schistose rocks and phyllites of dynamo-metamorphic origin. The ottrelites of the phyllites and ottrelite-schists of Ottrez and other localities in the Belgian Ardennes is a manganiferous variety of chloritoid, but owing to enclosed impurities the analyses differ widely from those of typical chloritoid.

 CLISSON, OLIVIER DE (1336–1407), French soldier, was the son of the Olivier de Clisson who was put to death in 1343 on the suspicion of having wished to give up Nantes to the English. He was brought up in England, where his mother, Jeanne de Belleville, had married her second husband. On his return to Brittany he took arms on the side of de Montfort, distinguishing himself at the battle of Auray (1364), but in consequence of differences with Duke John IV. went over to the side of Blois. In 1370 he joined Bertrand du Guesclin, who had lately become constable of France, and followed him in all his campaigns against the English. On the death of du Guesclin Clisson received the constable’s sword (1380). He fought with the citizens of Ghent, defeating them at Roosebek (1382), later on commanded the army in Poitou and Flanders (1389), and made an unsuccessful attempt to invade England. On his return to Paris, in 1392,

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 large following, and in 1877 Westbourne Park chapel was opened for him. As a preacher, writer, propagandist and ardent Liberal politician, he became a power in the Nonconformist body. He was president of the London Baptist Association in 1879, of the Baptist Union in 1888 and 1899, and of the National Council of Evangelical Churches in 1898. His chief prominence in politics, however, dates from 1903 onwards in consequence of his advocacy of “passive resistance” to the Education Act of 1902. Into this movement he threw himself with militant ardour, his own goods being distrained upon, with those of numerous other Nonconformists, rather than that any contribution should be made by them in taxation for the purpose of an Education Act which in their opinion was calculated to support denominational religious teaching in the schools. The “passive resistance” movement, with Dr Clifford as its chief leader, had a large share in the defeat of the Unionist government in January 1906, and his efforts were then directed to getting a new act passed which should be undenominational in character. The rejection of Mr Birrell’s bill in 1906 by the House of Lords was accordingly accompanied by denunciations of that body from Dr Clifford and his followers; but as year by year went by, up to 1909, with nothing but failure on the part of the Liberal ministry to arrive at any solution of the education problem,—failure due now not to the House of Lords but to the inherent difficulties of the subject (see ),—it became increasingly clear to the public generally that the easy denunciations of the act of 1902, which had played so large a part in the elections of 1906, were not so simple to carry into practice, and that a compromise in which the denominationalists would have their say would have to be the result. Meanwhile “passive resistance” lost its interest, though Dr Clifford and his followers continued to protest against their treatment.

CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON (1845–1879), English mathematician and philosopher, was born on the 4th of May 1845 at Exeter, where his father was a prominent citizen. He was educated at a private school in his native town, at King’s College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1868, after being second wrangler in 1867 and second Smith’s prizeman. In 1871 he was appointed professor of mathematics at University College, London, and in 1874 became fellow of the Royal Society. In 1875 he married Lucy, daughter of John Lane of Barbados. In 1876 Clifford, a man of high-strung and athletic, but not robust, physique, began to fall into ill-health, and after two voyages to the South, died during the third of pulmonary consumption at Madeira, on the 3rd of March 1879, leaving his widow with two daughters. Mrs W. K. Clifford soon earned for herself a prominent place in English literary life as a novelist, and later as a dramatist. Her best-known story, Mrs Keith’s Crime (1885), was followed by several other volumes, the best of which is Aunt Anne (1893); and the literary talent in the family was inherited by her daughter Ethel (Mrs Fisher Dilke), a writer of some charming verse.

Owing to his early death, Professor Clifford’s abilities and achievements cannot be fairly judged without reference to the opinion formed of him by his contemporaries. He impressed every one as a man of extraordinary acuteness and originality; and these solid gifts were set off to the highest advantage by quickness of thought and speech, a lucid style, wit and poetic fancy, and a social warmth which made him delightful as a friend and companion. His powers as a mathematician were of the highest order. It harmonizes with the concrete visualizing turn of his mind that, to quote Professor Henry Smith, “Clifford was above all and before all a geometer.” In this he was an innovator against the excessively analytic tendency of Cambridge mathematicians. In his theory of graphs, or geometrical representations of algebraic functions, there are valuable suggestions which have been worked out by others. He was much interested, too, in universal algebra, non-Euclidean geometry and elliptic functions, his papers “Preliminary Sketch of Bi-quaternions” (1873) and “On the Canonical Form and Dissection of a Riemann’s Surface” (1877) ranking as classics. Another important paper is his “Classification of Loci” (1878). He also published several papers on algebraic forms and projective geometry.

As a philosopher Clifford’s name is chiefly associated with two phrases of his coining, “mind-stuff” and the “tribal self.” The former symbolizes his metaphysical conception, which was suggested to him by his reading of Spinoza. “Briefly put,” says Sir F. Pollock, “the conception is that mind is the one ultimate reality; not mind as we know it in the complex forms of conscious feeling and thought, but the simpler elements out of which thought and feeling are built up. The hypothetical ultimate element of mind, or atom of mind-stuff, precisely corresponds to the hypothetical atom of matter, being the ultimate fact of which the material atom is the phenomenon. Matter and the sensible universe are the relations between particular organisms, that is, mind organized into consciousness, and the rest of the world. This leads to results which would in a loose and popular sense be called materialist. But the theory must, as a metaphysical theory, be reckoned on the idealist side. To speak technically, it is an idealist monism.” The other phrase, “tribal self,” gives the key to Clifford’s ethical view, which explains conscience and the moral law by the development in each individual of a “self,” which prescribes the conduct conducive to the welfare of the “tribe.” Much of Clifford’s contemporary prominence was due to his attitude towards religion. Animated by an intense love of truth and devotion to public duty, he waged war on such ecclesiastical systems as seemed to him to favour obscurantism, and to put the claims of sect above those of human society. The alarm was greater, as theology was still unreconciled with the Darwinian theory; and Clifford was regarded as a dangerous champion of the anti-spiritual tendencies then imputed to modern science.

His works, published wholly or in part since his death, are Elements of Dynamic (1879–1887); Seeing and Thinking, popular science lectures (1879); Lectures and Essays, with an introduction by Sir F. Pollock (1879); Mathematical Papers, edited by R. Tucker, with an introduction by Henry J. S. Smith (1882); and The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, completed by Professor Karl Pearson (1885).

 CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEIGH, THOMAS CLIFFORD, (1630–1673), English lord treasurer, a member of the ancient family of Clifford, descended from Walter de Clifford of Clifford Castle in Herefordshire, was the son of Hugh Clifford of Ugbrook near Exeter, and of Mary, daughter of Sir George Chudleigh of Ashton, Devonshire. He was born on the 1st of August 1630, matriculated in 1647 at Exeter College, Oxford, where he showed distinguished ability, supplicated for the B.A. degree in 1650, and entered the Middle Temple in 1648. He represented Totnes in the convention parliament and in that of 1661; and he joined the faction of young men who spoke “confidently and often,” and who sought to rise to power by attacking Clarendon. The chancellor, according to Burnet, had repulsed his advances on account of his Romanism, and Clifford accordingly offered his services to Arlington, whose steady supporter he now became.

On the 16th of February 1663 Clifford obtained the reversion of a tellership in the exchequer, and in 1664, on the outbreak of the Dutch war, was appointed commissioner for the care of the sick, wounded and prisoners, with a salary of £1200. He was knighted, and was present with James at the victory off Lowestoft over the Dutch on the 3rd of June 1665, was rewarded with the prize-ship “Patriarch Isaac,” and in August, under the earl of Sandwich, took a prominent part in the unsuccessful attempt to capture the Dutch East India fleet in Bergen harbour. In August he was appointed by Arlington’s influence ambassador with Henry Coventry to the north of Europe. Subsequently he served again with the fleet, was present with Albemarle at the indecisive fight on the 1st to the 4th of June 1666, and at the victory on the 25th of July. In October 1667 he was one of those selected by the Commons to prepare papers concerning the naval operations. He showed great zeal and energy in naval affairs, and he is described by Pepys as “a very fine gentleman, and much set by at court for his activity in going to sea and stoutness everywhere and stirring up and down.” He became the same year controller of the household and a privy councillor,

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl

BEATTY, DAVID BEATTY, (1871-), British admiral, was born in Ireland in 1871, the son of Capt. D. L. Beatty, 4th Hussars, of Borodale. He was not, as so many naval officers are, predestined to his profession by family

or tradition, which in his case took its tone chiefly from the army and the hunting-field; his father was a well-known figure in the Leicestershire world of the 'eighties and 'nineties. That David alone of the family went into the navy was largely a matter of accident, and his own choice at the age of 13, when he was sent to the Royal Naval Academy at Gosport, can certainly have had little to do with it. Yet within 35 years of that date he had run through the whole gamut of naval possibilities, including those attained only rarely by naval men of any age — Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet, Admiral-of-the-Fleet, and First Sea Lord — to say nothing of an earldom, the thanks of Parliament, the O.M., and the Lord Rectorship of Edinburgh University. His sea service combined the maximum of variety with a minimum of mere routine. As midshipman he served in the Mediterranean flagship “Alexandra” and with the training squadron in the “Ruby.” He was sub-lieutenant in the “Nile” and the yacht “Victoria and Albert.” His six years of service as lieutenant were passed in the “Ruby,” “Camperdown” and “Trafalgar”; in the Portsmouth destroyer flotilla, and in the Nile gunboats. His service there and in the battles of Atbara and Omdurman won him his commandership, and in that rank he served in the “Barfleur.” The Boxer rising gave him another opportunity of active service; he was wounded while in command of a shore party, when his dash and leadership won him further promotion, and he became captain at the record age of twenty-nine. From 1900 to 1910 he was in command successively of the cruisers “Juno,” “Arrogant” and “Suffolk,” and the battleship “Queen.” In the naval manœuvres of 1912 he flew in the “Aboukir” his flag as rear-admiral, a rank which he had attained 24 years from the day the boy of 13 had entered Gosport Academy.

Even up to this point his career establishes a record in the history of the navy. It was, in a sense, so far as the navy was concerned, an obscure career, unhelped by “influence,” unknown to the public, undistinguished by the kind of fame attained by the passing of examinations. It was remarkable only by its brilliant rapidity. What he had done he had done by himself, and he had come under no personal influence, with the possible exception of that of Lord Kitchener as Sirdar, that had particularly inspired or moulded him. He was never at the top of any of the lists of his rank, but generally near the bottom, from which he would leap, by sheer merit of service, to a similar humble position at the bottom of the next list, thus passing on the ladder hosts of officers who were laboriously climbing by the routine of seniority and the death or promotion of those above them. To make legal his promotion to flag rank in 1910 a special Order in Council had to be passed, as he had not served the statutory time in command of a ship at sea. His two Admiralty appointments afforded him brief but valuable experience. While still a captain he had acted for about a year as naval adviser to the War Council; and under Mr. Churchill he became naval secretary to the First Lord. In this capacity he assisted at the conference held at Malta in 1912 when the decision was made to reconstitute the Mediterranean fleet by replacing the older battleships by a smaller but more modern force of battle cruisers. In 1913 he was appointed to the command of the First Battle Cruiser Squadron, the fastest and most powerful scouting force ever launched, and hoisted his flag in the “Lion” (March 1).

From this brief outline of his service career it will be observed that Beatty escaped two things. By seizing every opportunity for fighting service he avoided that long period of drudgery in big ships which had for some time been recognized as having a deadening effect on the fighting spirit and initiative of naval officers. Similarly he was equally successful in avoiding long periods of shore service at the Admiralty which, valuable as they may be as a training in administrative work, do not tend to develop the entirely different set of qualities demanded of an officer in high command afloat in time of war. Of administrative work in the large sense Beatty had practically no experience at all when he hoisted his flag in the “Lion” and

to train the newly formed squadron. In some ways it was an advantage. He came to this vital task with an original and untrammelled view of its essential objects, with an instinct for warfare developed in actual fighting, and with a mind undulled by subservience to that long grind of routine which is the inevitable avenue to flag rank except for the fortunate few who, like him, can gain early promotion for fighting services. Throughout his career, when Beatty was given the choice of decoration or other distinction as a reward for such service, he always chose promotion. He had an instinctive certainty that war with Germany would come in his time; and in so far as it lay in his power to shape his career, he shaped it so that he should be in a position to take a leading hand when the hour struck. As it was, with all the brilliant rapidity of his advancement, the war came just a little too soon to give him at the outset, and at the most vital moment, the position of commander-in-chief, which no doubt would have come to him almost as a matter of course if he had had a little longer in which to prove his undoubted qualifications for that post. When he did succeed to it the pioneer work of fleet organization had been done by Sir John Jellicoe, and the policy governing the use of the Grand Fleet as a strategic weapon had been, for good or ill, definitely established.

When the World War broke out, Beatty, although long marked by an intelligent few as certain to achieve distinction, was practically unknown to the navy at large. The routine Home fleet service in which officers get to know each other intimately had claimed little of his time; and when he took command of the battle cruisers even Lord Fisher had never met him. But a very few weeks of war service revealed his quality as a leader. In the action of the Heligoland Bight (Aug. 28 1914), a reconnaissance of light craft in which the battle cruisers were acting in support of Commodores Keyes and Tyrwhitt, Sir David Beatty exhibited his remarkable instinct for being at the right place at the right moment. Partly owing to faulty Admiralty dispositions the British light craft, after the first object of the action had been achieved, were in danger of being cut off when Adml. Beatty, acting not so much on information as on his intuitive sense of the position, turned back through a submarine-infested area and arrived just in time to save them and sink every German ship in the immediate neighbourhood. Then and throughout the war his battle cruisers were the spearhead of the British naval forces. In a score of operations of which, as they did not result in contact with the enemy, history takes no note, and in the two which developed into fleet actions, Beatty, in his famous flagship the “Lion,” was the leading spirit and pivot of the fighting forces. A true disciple of Nelson, he was a rebel against the official conception of British strategy that, provided the enemy were properly contained, his destruction was a kind of luxury that might be indulged in only on condition that the containing force was not unduly risked. Beatty, on the other hand, was inspired with the spirit of attack. He had unique qualities as a leader which made men willing to follow him anywhere, and to achieve the impossible; but apart from his dash and courage he showed consummate skill and caution in dealing with the new hidden elements which have placed so great a power in the hands of the defensive in modern naval warfare. At the battle of the Dogger Bank (Jan. 24 1915) he chased the enemy for three hours, inflicting such severe punishment that the “Blücher” was sunk and the “Sedlitz” and “Derfflinger” and “Moltke” were in full flight, the two former in a battered condition, when the “Lion,” which as head of the pursuing line had received heavy punishment, was put out of action, and the command devolved on Rear-Adml. Sir Archibald Moore. This officer, whose flag was flying in the “New Zealand,” gave no orders during the vital 40 minutes following the “Lion's” disablement. Adml. Beatty's signals to “keep nearer to the enemy” were either missed or misunderstood by the ships immediately following him, with the result that touch with the German battle cruisers was lost, and what was on the point of becoming a complete victory was left merely as an

indecisive castigation of the enemy. The facts of this action, which had not been officially made public up to the spring of 1921, were first given at that date in Mr. Filson Young's With the Battle Cruisers, containing a very full account of the battle, with track charts and the actual text and times of the signals made.

Beatty's brilliant handling of the battle cruisers in the battle of Jutland is discussed in the article on that action (see ). Some months later (Dec. 1916) he succeeded Sir John Jellicoe as Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet, in which capacity he received the surrender of the German fleet on Nov. 21 1918. He was raised to the peerage in 1919 as Earl Beatty, Visct. Borodale of Borodale, Baron Beatty of the North Sea, receiving the thanks of Parliament and £100,000. At the same time he was awarded the G.C.B., the O.M. and other honours and decorations. In 1919 he became First Sea Lord, and immediately set in motion measures for a reorganization of the naval staff on lines which would give the younger school of naval thought and experience a chance to make itself felt. He attended at Washington, D.C., in 1921 the Conference on the Limitation of Armament.

The following estimate of Lord Beatty was given, in the book referred to, by Mr. Filson Young, who had served on his staff in the “Lion.”

Lord Beatty married in 1901 Ethel, daughter of Marshall Field, sen., of Chicago; of his two sons the elder, Viscount Borodale, was in 1921 a cadet in the Royal Navy. (F. Y.)


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 married (1) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2) in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward (1661–1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester (1672–1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct in the Hyde line.  CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to settle the relations between Church and State. Though they purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September 1172. Some of them, however, were in part at least, as they all purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to the king’s court, and from there, after formal accusation and defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king’s court for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposition obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and presentations should be tried in the king’s court. By other provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were the king’s tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to be in the jurisdiction of the king’s courts. Two most interesting provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign) and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the recognition of twelve lawful men before the king’s justice whether it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in 1107.

 CLARES, POOR, otherwise Clarisses, Franciscan nuns, so called from their foundress, (q.v.). She was professed by St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she and her first companions were established in the convent of St Damian’s at Assisi. The nuns formed the “Second Order of St Francis,” the friars being the “First Order,” and the (q.v.) the “Third.” Before Clara’s death in 1253, the Second Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses survives in the Minories; there were only two other English houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule, but only a “Form of Life” and a “Last Will,” each only five lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and during Francis’s absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis’s special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a “Second Rule” was approved which went a long way towards satisfying her desires, and finally in 1253 a “Third,” which practically gave what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the “Rule of the Clares”; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of 1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the convents to have fixed incomes,—thus assimilating them to the Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, introducing an appalling austerity of life. The most important of these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the Capucines (c. 1540; see ). The half-dozen forms of the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in different convents, and there are also a great number of religious institutes for women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the term “Poor Clares” the Coletine nuns are now commonly understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the world, besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.

 CLARET (from the Fr. vin claret, mod. clairet, wine of a light clear colour, from Lat. clarus, clear), the English name for the red Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the vins rouges and the vins blancs; later it was applied to red wines generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the particular English meaning (see ).  CLARETIE, JULES ARSÈNE ARNAUD (1840–), French man of letters and director of the Théâtre Français, was born at Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achieving great success as dramatic critic to the Figaro and to the Opinion nationale. He was a newspaper correspondent during the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the Théâtre Français, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1888, and took his seat in Feb r u r ary 1889, being received by Ernest Renan. The long list of his works includes Histoire de la révolution de 1870–1871 (new ed., 5 vols., 1875–1876); Cinq ans après; l’Alsace et la Lorraine depuis l’annexion (1876); some annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press, entitled La Vie à Paris; La Vie moderne au théâtre (1868–1869); Molière, sa vie et son œuvre (1871); Histoire de la littérature française, 900–1900 (2nd ed. 1905); Candidat! (1887), a novel of contemporary life; Brichanteau, comédien français (1896); several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own—Les Muscadins (1874), Le Régiment de Champagne (1877), Les Mirabeau (1879), Monsieur le ministre (1883), and others; and the opera, La Navarraise, based on his novel La Cigarette, and written with Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. La Navarraise was first produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calvé in the part of Anita. His Œuvres complètes were published in 1897–1904.  CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical composer, chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year 1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at Bologna. He became maestro di cappella at Pistoia about 1712, at Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a basso continuo, published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions,

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 Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and his energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew worse, and on the 31st of May he died at Siena on his way home. His Recherches sur la structure des annélides sédentaires were published posthumously in 1873.

 CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788–1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central Africa, was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.

In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an interest in African travel. Lieut. G. F. Lyon, R.N., having returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedition to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul with the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major (q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli, early in 1822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad seen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the country till the 14th of December they again set out for the purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to stop, though the Niger was only five days’ journey to the west. Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January 1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the title of Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the years 1822–1824.

Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa, the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open up trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th of December 1825, having with him his servant (q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce and Morrison were dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto, intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however, detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.

Clapperton was the first European to make known from personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the Fula. In 1829 appeared the Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa, &c., by the late Commander Clapperton, to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his uncle, Lieut.-colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought back the journal of his master, also published Records of Captain Clapperton’s Last Expedition to Africa with the subsequent Adventures of the Author (2 vols., London, 1830).

 CLAQUE (Fr. claquer, to clap the hands), an organized body of professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systematization of the claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of claqueurs. By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of claqueurs. These people are usually under a chef de claque, whose duty it is to judge where their efforts are needed and to start the demonstration of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are commissaires, those who learn the piece by heart, and call the attention of their neighbours to its good points between the acts. The rieurs are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The pleureurs, generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs to their eyes. The chatouilleurs keep the audience in a good humour, while the bisseurs simply clap their hands and cry ''bis! bis!'' to secure encores.

 CLARA, SAINT (1194–1253), foundress of the Franciscan nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi, until the convent at St Damian’s, close to the town, was ready. Her two younger sisters, and, after her father’s death, her mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns spread widely and rapidly (see ). The relations of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of the truest heirs of Francis’s inmost spirit. After his death Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of the chief upholders of St Francis’s primitive idea of poverty (see ). She was the close friend of Brother Leo and the other “Companions of St Francis,” and they assisted at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian’s, and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns should be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced, and should become wholly conformable to St Francis’s spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the pope two days before her death on the 11th of August 1253.

The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum on the 11th of August, and sketches in such Lives of the Saints as Alban Butler’s. See also Wetzer und Welte, Kirchen-lexicon (2nd ed.), art. “Clara.”

 CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor of this historic house, “which played,” in Freeman’s words, “so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland,” was Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionne, had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and Orbec, and Baldwin, lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied the Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as “De Meulles” or “of Exeter,” received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with great estates in the West Country, and left three sons, William, Robert and Richard, of whom the first and last were in turn

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94 decently confined within the walls of his palace and to the presence of a few favourites. On the appointed day the various motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to the amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some degree of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill of the Imperial performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart of the animal, the wound was alike certain and mortal. With arrows, whose point was shaped into the form of a crescent, Commodus often intercepted the rapid career and cut asunder the long bony neck of the ostrich. A panther was let loose; and the archer waited till he had leaped upon a trembling malefactor. In the same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropt dead, and the man remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at once a hundred lions; a hundred darts from the unerring hand of Commodus laid them dead as they ran raging round the Arena. Neither the huge bulk of the elephant nor the scaly hide of the rhinoceros could defend them from his stroke. Æthiopia and India yielded their most extraordinary productions; and several animals were slain in the amphitheatre which had been seen only in the representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. In all these exhibitions, the surest precautions were used to protect the person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any savage who might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor and the sanctity of the god.

But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and indignation, when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a gladiator, and glory in a profession which the laws and manners of the Romans had branded with the justest note of infamy. He chose the habit and arms of the Secutor, whose combat with the Reliarius formed one of the most lively scenes in the bloody sports of the amphitheatre. The Secutor was armed


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 pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were banished because of their difficulty and their “paganism” (1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a knowledge of things instead of a knowledge of words, on “realism” instead of “verbalism.”

Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of the 17th and 18th centuries. A large number of aristocratic schools (Ritter-Akademien) were founded, beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tübingen

(1589) and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). In these schools the subjects of study included mathematics and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing; Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accomplishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the young nobility.

(c) The Modern Period.—In the last third of the 18th century two important movements came into play, the “naturalism” of Rousseau and the “new humanism.” While Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education and of culture that was in close accord with nature, the

German apostles of the new humanism were convinced that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young people thoroughly “Greek,” to fill them with the “Greek” spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is to be found in J. G. Herder, whose passion for all that

is Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But, while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age of Rome, the new humanism found its golden age in Athens. The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature in the German language. The movement had its effect on the schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German. The new humanism found a home in Göttingen (1783) in the days of J. M. Gesner and C. G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig by Gesner’s successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F. A. Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its leading names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder, Goethe and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had reached its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced that the old Greek world was the highest revelation of humanity; and the universities and schools of Germany were reorganized in this spirit by F. A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil, Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809–1810 Humboldt was at the

head of the educational section of the Prussian Home Office, and, in the brief interval of a year and a half, gave to the general system of education the direction which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the whole century. In 1810 the examen pro facultate docendi first made the profession of a schoolmaster independent of that of a minister of religion. The new scheme drawn up by J. W. Süvern recognized four principal co-ordinated branches of learning: Latin, Greek, German, mathematics. All four were studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English “third form.” The old Latin school had only one main subject, the study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The uniform employment of the term Gymnasium for the highest type of a Prussian school dates from 1812. The leaving examination (Abgangsprüfung), instituted in that year, required Greek translation at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak and to write Latin. In 1818–1840 the leading spirit on the board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a complete and comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a correspondingly later start in life. It was also attacked on the ground that it led to “overwork.” This attack was partially met by the scheme of 1837. Schulze’s period of prominence in Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Königsberg (1809–1833) and Göttingen (1833–1841), who insisted that for boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the Greek Odyssey, and this principle was brought into practice at Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.

The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the accession of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese’s scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more modern type, which issued in the recognition of the Realgymnasium (1859).

In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875 Wiese was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assigned in each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied; and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890. The result of the conference of December 1890 was a compromise between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid special stress on the German essay; but the modern training given by the Realgymnasium was still unrecognized as an avenue to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz, Harnack and Diels, was followed by the “Kiel Decree” of the 26th of November. In that decree the emperor urged the equal recognition of the classical and the modern Gymnasium, and emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to English in both. In the teaching of Greek, “useless details” were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects, attention was to be paid to the classic precept: multum, non multa.

By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the Realgymnasium, the Oberrealschule and the Gymnasium were admitted to the university on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or divinity.

For the Gymnasium the aim of the new scheme is, in Latin, “to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training, with a view to their understanding the more important classical

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 responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most of his pontificate, Clement died on the 29th of November 1268, leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude of posterity.

 Author:Clement V (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to Boniface VIII., who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute Garonne), and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux. Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy between France and the Pope, he was considered a supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June 1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI; the cardinals by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean d’Angély in Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain conditions laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bertrand was formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy; but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the 14th of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient to French interests. Among his first acts was the creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified or explained away those features of the bulls Clericis Laicos and Unam sanctam which were particularly offensive to the king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere, and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon, an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the seventy years “Babylonian captivity of the Church.” On the 13th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy and greed. From the very day of Clement’s coronation the king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length overcome by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation of heresy against the late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the king’s wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see ), which was unable to conclude that the Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order, however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers, but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.

In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist. He refused to use his full influence in favour of the candidacy of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom his representatives crowned emperor at the Lateran in 1312. When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples, Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with ban and interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th of April 1314 at Roquemaure-sur-Rhône. Though the sale of offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate may in part be explained by the desperate condition of the papal finances and by his saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing favouritism toward his family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the Church.

 Author:Clement VI (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342 to the 6th of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosières, entered the Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became successively prior of St Baudil, abbot of Fécamp, bishop of Arras, chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed Achilleo and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII. in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil position at Rome, and, although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate, he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city (December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating him after protracted negotiations on the 13th of April 1346, and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347, and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany. Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accomplished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344). He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus. He tried to end the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommunicated Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesiastical jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon. He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three years later founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of 1347–1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress, and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (9th of June 1348) and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing nepotism were Clement’s great faults. On the other hand, he was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was destroyed by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.

The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, ''Vitae Pap. Avenion., vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI. (Innsbruck, 1885); and F. Cerasoli, Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli—Documenti inedite dell’ Archivio Vaticano'' (1896, &c).

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. vi. trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900–1902); J. B. Christophe,

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 06.djvu/500


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clapwell, Richard


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beauchamp, William Lygon, 7th Earl

BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM LYGON, (1872-), English politician, was born in London Feb. 20 1872, the eldest son of the 6th earl. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and afterwards entered public life as a Liberal. In 1891 he succeeded his father in the title. He was mayor of Worcester from 1895 to 1896, and in 1897 became a member of the London School Board. In 1899 he was appointed governor of N.S.W., but in 1901 returned to England. In 1907 he became lord steward of the royal household, and in 1910 entered Mr. Asquith's Cabinet as first commissioner of works and lord president of the council, retaining the latter post on the reconstruction of the Government in 1914. He received the Order of the Garter in 1914, and retired in 1915. Lord Beauchamp was from 1906 to 1907 captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, and in 1913 was made lord warden of the Cinque Ports. He married in 1902 Lady Lettice Grosvenor, daughter of Earl Grosvenor and sister of the 2nd Duke of Westminster.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, de


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron

BEAVERBROOK, WILLIAM MAXWELL AITKEN, (1879–), British politician, was born at Newcastle, New Brunswick, on May 25 1879, the son of the Rev. William Aitken, Presbyterian minister of Newcastle. He was educated at Newcastle, and afterwards went into business, where he had a very successful career as a financier. Having made

a large fortune at a comparatively early age, he came to England in 1910, and stood successfully for the House of Commons as Unionist candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne. He was from the first an intimate friend and adviser of Mr. Bonar Law when the latter became the Unionist leader. In 1911 he was knighted. In 1915 he went to France with the Canadian expeditionary force as “Eye-Witness,” and in 1916 became the representative of the Canadian Government at the front, also doing valuable propaganda work. He was created a baronet in June 1916, and the same year was raised to the peerage. In 1917 he was appointed officer in charge of the Canadian war records, and in 1918 entered the Government as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in succession to Lord Cawley and director of the Ministry of Information in succession to Sir Edward Carson, but resigned in Oct. of the same year. Lord Beaverbrook became one of the chief proprietors of the London Daily Express, and in 1916–7 published Canada in Flanders.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Elizabeth de


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Rh with an helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only a large net and a trident; with the one he endeavoured to entangle, with the other to dispatch, his enemy. If he missed the first throw he was obliged to fly from the pursuit of the Secutor till he had prepared his net for a second cast. The emperor fought in this character seven hundred and thirty-five several times. These glorious achievements were carefully recorded in the public acts of the empire; and, that he might omit no circumstance of infamy, he received from the common fund of gladiators a stipend so exorbitant that it became a new and most ignominious tax upon the Roman people. It may be easily supposed that in these engagements the master of the world was always successful: in the amphitheatre his victories were not often sanguinary; but when he exercised his skill in the school of gladiators, or his own palace, his wretched antagonists were frequently honoured with a mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, and obliged to seal their flattery with their blood. He now disdained the appellation of Hercules. The name of Paulus, a celebrated Secutor, was the only one which delighted his ear. It was inscribed on his colossal statues, and repeated in the redoubled acclamations of the mournful and applauding senate. Claudius Pompeianus, the virtuous husband of Lucilla, was the only senator who asserted the honour of his rank. As a father he permitted his sons to consult their safety by attending the amphitheatre. As a Roman he declared that his own life was in the emperor's hands, but that he would never behold the son of Marcus prostituting his person and dignity. Notwithstanding his manly resolution, Pompeianus escaped the resentment of the tyrant, and, with his honour, had the good fortune to preserve his life.

Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Gilbert de (1243-1295)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Gilbert de (1291-1314)


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96 Amidst the acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise from himself that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of every man of sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit was irritated by the consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of every kind of merit, by the just apprehension of danger, and by the habit of slaughter which he contracted in his daily amusements. History has preserved a long list of consular senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, however remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without sparing even the ministers of his crimes or pleasures. His cruelty proved at last fatal to himself. He had shed with impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he perished as soon as he was dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his favourite concubine, Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his Prætorian præfect, alarmed by the fate of their companions and predecessors, resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung over their heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, or the sudden indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion of presenting a draught of wine to her lover, after he had fatigued himself with hunting some wild beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; but whilst he was labouring with the effects of poison and drunkenness, a robust youth, by profession a wrestler, entered his chamber, and strangled him without resistance. The body was secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the least suspicion was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of the emperor's death. Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and so easy was it to destroy a hated tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of government, had oppressed, during thirteen years, so many millions of subjects, every one of whom was equal to their master in personal strength and personal abilities.

The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the deliberate coolness and celerity which the greatness of the occasion required. They resolved instantly to fill the vacant throne with an emperor whose character would justify and


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackburne, Francis

BLACKBURNE, Francis, Irish jurist: b. 1782; d. 1867. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin; called to the English bar in 1805 and to the Irish bar in 1822. He was attorney-general for Ireland in 1830 and 1841; master of the rolls, 1842; chief justice of the Court of Queen's Bench, 1846, and lord chancellor, 1852, 1866. He is remembered as having prosecuted Daniel O'Connell and as presiding at the trial of Smith O'Brien.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackburne, Joseph Henry

BLACKBURNE, Joseph Henry, British chess champion: b. Manchester 1842. He was first a draughts player, and after taking up chess became a proficient in what is known as “blindfold” play. He began taking part in tournaments in the late 60's, and thereafter competed in most of the outstanding matches with almost phenomenal success.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, John (1577-1628)


text:
User:James500/Index to Government Orders

Index to Government Orders in force on 31st December 1991

Subordinate Legislation The Powers and their Exercise

VOLUME I A - K

Published by Authority

LONDON: HMSO

1995

[First page ends here]

© Crown Copyright 1995

HMSO

HMSO publications are available from:

HMSO Publications Centre (Mail, fax and telephone orders only) PO Box 276, London, SW8 5DT Telephone orders 0171-873 9090 General enquiries 0171-873 0011 (queuing system in operation for both numbers) Fax orders 0171-873 8200

HMSO Bookshops 49 High Holborn, London, WC1V 6HB (counter service only) 0171-873 0011 Fax 0171-873 1326 68-69 Bull Street, Birmingham, B4 6AD 0121-236 9696 Fax 0121-236 9699 33 Wine Street, Bristol, BS1 2BQ 0117 9264306 Fax 0117 9294515 9-21 Princess Street, Manchester, M60 8AS 0161-834 7201 Fax 0161-833 0634 16 Arthur Street, Belfast, BT1 4GD 01232 238451 Fax 01232 235401 71 Lothian Road, Edinburgh, EH3 9AZ 0131-228 4181 Fax 0131-229 2734

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And through good booksellers

Price for the two volumes £215 net

Printed by HMSO Print Centre Dd 5063038 C6 2/95 (047719)

ISBN 0 11 840343 5

[Second page ends here]

Contents

VOLUME I

Pages

Preface

Table of Statutes .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i

Table of Abbreviations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. cclx

INDEX TO GOVERNMENT ORDERS (A-K) .. .. .. .. .. .. 1

VOLUME II

INDEX TO GOVERNMENT ORDERS (L-Z) .. .. .. .. .. .. 945

[Third page ends here and fourth page is blank]

Preface

1. Thirty-fifth edition of a work that was first published in 1891 under the title Index to the Statutory Rules and Orders in Force, and was between 1951 and 1960 called Guide to Government Orders. It records the powers given by Act of Parliament to the Executive to make orders, rules, regulations and other subordinate legislation in force on 31st December 1991, and shows whether those powers have been exercised by general instrument and, if so, by what instrument or instruments. It is prepared under the direction of the Statute Law Committee.

The Tables

2. In the preliminary green pages there are two Tables. The Table of Statutes lists the Acts and Measures and their sections that confer powers to make subordinate legislation, and shows the subject headings under which those powers or other relevant statutory provisions are indexed. In the few cases where an item of subordinate legislation confers power to make further subordinate legislation, that item is entered after the year's Acts and Measures. Next comes the Table of Abbreviations.

The body of the Index

3. The body of the Index (the white pages) records the powers and their exercise. Under the main subject-headings (which appear in alphabetical order) there are brief summaries of all powers to make subordinate legislation which have been conferred by Public General Acts, or by Church Assembly or General Synod Measures, or (in a few cases) by subordinate legislation. Powers conferred by local Acts, and in force on that date, are also included in many cases. Particulars are given of the enactment conferring the power and of the effect of any subsequent enactment which has extended or modified it. Particulars of the authorities (e.g. Ministers, etc.) responsible for subordinate legislation, of the relevant parliamentary control, and of the commencement of Acts by order can be found under a preliminary sub-heading of many headings. Where any such particulars do not appear in this way they will be found, as appropriate, under the entries for each individual power. With a view to facilitating the preparation of the Index, and limiting its bulk, the policy is now to keep the summaries of powers as short as practicable.

4. Under each power there is a list of the general statutory instruments made in exercise of it and in force on 31st December 1991, or else a statement that-
 * (a) instruments under it, being classified as local, are not indexed✻
 * (b) instruments under it, not being statutory instruments, are not indexed, or
 * (c) the power has not yet been exercised, or no exercise is in operation.

There are also some instruments made under the royal prerogative.

✻A classified list of the local instruments appears at the back of each Annual Edition of Statutory Instruments

[Fifth page ends here]

General instruments are published annually in the bound edition of Statutory Instruments.

Copies of instruments, both general and local, issued recently by HMSO may be obtained from that office (see addresses on reverse of title page). Copies of local instruments unobtainable from HMSO (from 1922 onwards✻) may be obtained at prevailing prices either from the Statutory Publications Office, America House, 6 Spring Gardens, London SW1A 2BP, or (up to 1957) from the Head of Search Department, Public Record Office, Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1LR, or the British Library, Official Publications and Social Sciences Service, Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG.

5. Where a power has been repealed and re-enacted, with a saving for existing instruments, the particulars given for the power are those of the later enactment only. Instruments so saved are shown under that power as if made in exercise of it, notwithstanding that they are of an earlier date than the power.

Correspondence

6. Correspondence about the work may be addressed to the Editor, Statutory Publications Office, America House, 6 Spring Gardens, London SW1A 2BP.

✻There are, unfortunately, gaps in these collections, notably for the years 1942, 1950, 1951 and up to no. 940 of 1952

[Sixth page ends here and seventh and eighth pages are blank]


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackcock

BLACKCOCK, or HEATHCOCK, a large European grouse (Tetrao tetrix), so called because of the glossy black color of the cock; also known as blackgrouse. The female is grayish, mottled in darker colors, and is called “grayhen,” or “heathhen”; the young are called “poults.” See.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, John (1793-1864)


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Blackfeet Indians

BLACKFEET INDIANS, an important Algonquin confederacy of the northern plains, inhabiting, until within recent historical times, the territory from the headstreams of the Missouri in Montana to North Saskatchewan, now in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, and from long. 105° to the base of the Rocky Mountains. They are now settled on reserves, three in Alberta and one in northwest Montana. The origin of the name is disputed, but it is believed to have reference to the discoloration of their moccasins by the prairie fires. They consist of three subtribes, the Siksika proper or Blackfeet, the Kainah or Bloods and the Piegan — the whole being known as Bloods, and in close alliance with the Atsina and Sarsi. They were roving buffalo hunters, warlike, without permanent habitations, having no arts and no agriculture, except the growing of some tobacco. They have a great number of secret societies and many tribal dances; their dead were deposited in trees or laid on tepis erected on prominent hills. Mackenzie estimated their numbers in 1790 at 9,000; they have been repeatedly decimated by smallpox; the sudden extinction of the buffalo in 1879 threatened

disastrous results for them, but was met by prompt State action. Numbers (1911) 2,337 in Alberta, 2,195 in Montana.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Osbert de


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Rh maintain the action that had been committed. They fixed on Pertinax, præfect of the city, an ancient senator of consular rank, whose conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of his birth, and raised him to the first honours of the state. He had successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in all his great employments, military as well as civil, he had uniformly distinguished himself, by the firmness, the prudence, and the integrity of his conduct. He now remained almost alone of the friends and ministers of Marcus; and, when, at a late hour of the night, he was awakened with the news that the chamberlain and the præfect were at his door, he received them with intrepid resignation, and desired they would execute their master's orders. Instead of death, they offered him the throne of the Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their intentions and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, he accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect of his knowledge both of the duties and of the dangers of the supreme rank.

Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through the city a seasonable report that Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and that the virtuous Pertinax had already succeeded to the throne. The guards were rather surprised than pleased with the suspicious death of a prince whose indulgence and liberality they alone had experienced; but the emergency of the occasion the authority of their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, and the clamours of the people, obliged them to stifle their secret


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Peter


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Ralph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Richard de (d.1136?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Richard de (d.1176)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clare, Roger de


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Page:Africa (Volume I).djvu/588

484 APPENDIX III. XXIV. Dynasty: S. M. 721, B. 733. These two dynasties were formed by five kings reigning first at Tanis (San), and afterwards at Sa (Saïs). But they enjoyed little more than a nominal authority in the midst of a land torn by internal dissensions and the rivalries of obscure claimants to the sovereign power. The last of them was B (B), the legislator who, according to Manetho, reigned six years and had his residence at Sa. It was probably during his reign that Piankhi overran the country, as recorded on a monument discovered at Jebel-Barkal, near Meroe, in Upper Nubia.

Bokeuranef was finally overthrown and put to death in the year 725 B.C., during another Ethiopian invasion under Shabak, of the following, or

XXV. Dynasty: E. M. 715, B. 700.

S (S), who rules over the whole of Ethiopia and Egypt. B. 700. S, supposed to be the So mentioned in 2 Kings xvii. 4.

T, or T, also mentioned in 2 Kings xix. 9, as " King of Ethiopia." He was expelled from Lower Egypt by the Assyrians under Esarhaddon, grandson of Sennacherib, as appears from some Cuneiform writings discovered at Nineveh. After Esarhaddon's death the kings set up by him in the north revolted and made common cause with Tirhakah against the Assyrians. This brought on a second invasion under Esarhaddon's son, Assurbanipal, by whom both Tirhakah and his successor

U were conquered and Thebes captured and half ruined.

During these disastrous wars Egypt is wasted by invading hosts from east and south, and after the overthrow of Urdamaneh the northern provinces remain subject to Assyrian rule, the southern to the Ethiopians. The Assyrian monarch, however, did not govern the country directly through provincial satraps, but divided the whole of Lower Egypt amongst twelve native princes, his vassals, who paid him tribute and wore over-awed by Assyrian garrisons maintained in the chief strongholds. It is this period of government by twelve tributary kinglets to which the Greek historians apply the term Dodecarchy.

An oracle had foretold that the whole of Egypt would ultimately fall to the lot of whatever prince should offer libations to the god Phtah, tutelar deity of Memphis, in a brazen vessel. One day while the twelve vassals were sacrificing in the temple the high priest presented to them the golden vases which they were accustomed to employ on these occasions. But by an oversight he brought eleven only for the twelve princes. Thereupon Psammeticus, Prince of Saïs, who had probably arranged the matter beforehand, took his brazen helmet and used it to pour out his libations. But for a time the jealousy of his rivals compelled him to withdraw to the swamps of the Delta. Then courting the assistance of Greek and Carian

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38 bent forward and his brows knit in a certain contrite way peculiar to him, facing the tempest with his bald spot, and looking slyly between one wink and another at the unfortunate cards. When he heard the words "ecclesiastical court" repeated by his companion, whom he held in considerable fear, it seemed to him that matters were becoming quite amusing, so he forced a little smile and took a pinch of snuff between his fingers.

"Oh, you laugh!" returned the implacable professor. "I hardly know whether, having played at terziglio and having brought such ill luck on your partner, you can say Mass in peace to-morrow morning."

"Oh! I can, I can," muttered Don Rocco, knitting his brows still more and raising a little his good-natured countryman's face. "We all make mistakes, all of us. Even he, over there, not to mention yourself, sometimes."

His voice had the tone of a peaceful animal badgered beyond all patience. The professor was laughing with his eyes. "You are quite right," said he.

The game was over, the players got up.

"Yes," said the professor with quizzical seriousness, "the case of Sigismondo is more complicated."

Don Rocco closed his beady little eyes in a smile, bending his head with a peculiar mixture


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Rh of modesty, complacency, and confusion, and mumbled:

"Even that case can be unravelled."

"You see," added the professor, "I am well informed. It is a case, Countess, which Don Rocco must unravel at the next meeting of the ecclesiastical court."

"There is no such meeting going on here," said the countess. "Let it alone."

But it was not so easy to wrest a victim from the clutches of the professor.

"Let us then say no more about it," said he quietly. "But listen, Don Rocco; I am not of your opinion on that point. As for me, pereat mundus."

Don Rocco frowned furiously.

"I have n't spoken with any one," said he.

"Don Rocco, you have gossiped, and I know it," answered the professor. "Have patience, Countess, and give us your opinion."

Countess Carlotta did not care to enter upon the question, but the professor continued imperturbably to set forth the case of Sigismondo as it had been promulgated by the Episcopal tribunal.

"A certain Sigismondo, fallen suddenly ill, asked for a confessor. Hardly was he alone with the priest when he hastened to tell him that some other person was on the point of committing a homicide, which he had himself instigated.


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40 Hardly had he said these words when he lost voice and consciousness. The priest doubted whether Sigismondo had spoken in confession or not; and he could not prevent the crime, could not save this human life in peril, unless he made use of what he had heard in confidence. Should he do this or should he let a man be killed?"

"It is Don Rocco's opinion," concluded the professor, "that the priest should act as a policeman."

Poor Don Rocco, tortured in his conscience between the feeling that he ought not to discuss the question in a secular conversation and a feeling of reverence for his bantering friend who was an ecclesiastic of mature age and a professor in the Episcopal seminary of P, was twisting himself about and mumbling excuses.

"No . . . the fact is . . . I say . . . it seems to me . . ."

"I am surprised, Don Rocco, that you should think it worth while to make excuses," said the lady. "It amazes me that you should take seriously the jests of the professor."

But the professor protested, and with subtle questions pushed Don Rocco to the wall and began to squeeze out of him, little by little, the peculiar combination of right instincts and crooked arguments which he had in his head, showing him with the greatest charm of manner


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Rh the fallacy of all his bad reasons and of all his good sense, and leaving him in a stupor of contrite humility. But the game lasted only a short while, because the countess dismissed the company with the excuse that it was after eleven o'clock. However, she asked Don Rocco to remain.

It was the Countess Carlotta who had chosen him, a few years before, as rector of the Church of St. Luke, which was her property. She took with him a sort of Episcopal air which was peacefully accepted by the thankful priest, as simple in spirit as he was humble-hearted.

"You would do better, my dear Don Rocco," said she when they were alone, "to bother yourself less with such affairs as that of Sigismondo, and a little more with your own."

"But why?" asked Don Rocco, surprised. "I do not know what you mean."

"Of course; the whole village knows it, but you are in complete ignorance."

Her eyes added quite clearly, "Poor simpleton." Don Rocco remained silent.

"When does Lucia return?" asked she.

This Lucia was the servant of Don Rocco, to whom he had given permission to go home for five days.

"On Sunday," he answered. "To-morrow evening. Oh!" he suddenly exclaimed, smiling with satisfaction at his own keenness. "Now


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42 I understand, now I see what you mean. But it is not so, it is not so at all."

He had at last understood that it was a question of certain rumors current in the village on a love affair of his servant with a certain Moro, a bad specimen, well known at the police court, who combined craft with malevolence and strength in a most diabolical manner. Some believed that he was not entirely bad, but that necessity and the ill-treatment of an unjust master had led him to wrongdoing; but every one feared him.

"It is not true at all, is it?" answered she. "Then I don't know what the village will say when certain novelties will happen to the servant of the priest."

Don Rocco became red as fire and frowned most portentously.

"But it is not true at all," said he, brusquely and shortly. "I questioned her myself as soon as I heard the gossip. It is nothing but the maliciousness of people. Why, the man does not even see her!"

"Oh! Don Rocco," said the lady. "You are good, good, good. But as the world is not made that way, and as there is a scandal, if you don't make up your mind to send the creature away, I must decide on something myself."

"You will do what you like," answered the


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Rh priest dryly. "Have I not got to consider what is right?"

The countess looked at him, and said, with a sudden solemnity, "Very well. You will reflect on this to-night, and to-morrow you will give me your final answer."

She rang the bell to have a lantern brought for Don Rocco, as the night was very dark. But, to her great surprise, Don Rocco carefully extracted one from the back pocket of his cloak.

"What made you do that?" exclaimed she. "You have probably got a spot on my chair!"

She got up, notwithstanding the assurances of Don Rocco, and taking one of the candles which still burned on the card table, she stooped down to look at the chair.

"There!" she said, "put your nose over that! It is spotted and ruined!"

Don Rocco came also, and, knitting his brows, bent down over a large spot of oil, a black island on the gray cloth, muttering most seriously, "Oh, yes!" and remaining absorbed in his gaze.

"Now, go!" said the lady. "What is done is done."

It seemed, in fact, as if he were awaiting her permission to raise his nose from the repentant stool.

"Yes, I'll go now," he answered, lighting his lantern, "because I am alone at home at present, and I am even afraid that I left the door open."


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44 Very suddenly he said "Good-night," and disappeared without even looking at the countess.

She was astonished. "Dear me, what a boor!" she said.

was a damp, cloudy night in November. Little Don Rocco was limping along towards his hermitage of St. Luke with awkward steps, his arms in parentheses, and his back arched, knitting his brows at the road-bed as he went along. He was ruminating over the dark words of Signora Carlotta, and their importance was gradually piercing his obtuse brain. He was also ruminating over the next assembly of the ecclesiastical court, over the pereat mundus and the subtle reasonings of the professor, of which he had understood so little; not to speak of the exposition of the Gospels for the next day, which he had not yet fully prepared. All this would often get inextricably confused in his mind. Certainly poor innocent Lucia must not be condemned, pereat mundus. Signora Carlotta was almost a padrona to him; but what about that other great ''padrone? Nemo potest duobus dominis servire;'' thus, beloved brethren, says the Gospel for the day.

Poor Don Rocco, as usual, had also lost at terziglio; and this gave a somewhat gray cast to


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Rh his ideas, notwithstanding his proverbial carelessness of every mundane interest. That hole in his pocket, that continuous dropping, made him reflect. Would it not have been better for him to give the same amount in alms?

"There is this good thing about it," he thought, "that it is a terrible bore, and that they all badger me. I certainly do not play for pleasure."

He passed on the left of the road a dark clump of trees, ascending slowly in the darkness towards three large cypresses of unequal height, standing out black against the sky. There, between the old cypresses, stood the little country church of St. Luke, attached to a small convent which had had no inmates for a hundred years. The little hillock garlanded with vines had no other structures. From the convent, and from the grassy knoll, on which stood the little cypress-overhung church, the main road could not be seen, but only other knolls gay with vineyards, villas, and country houses, islands on an immense plain, extending from the hills further away as far as the Alps and blending eastward in the mists of the invisible sea. The simple chaplain of Countess Carlotta lived alone in the convent, like a priest of silence, content with his meagre prebend, content to preach with might and main in the little church, to be called during the day to bless the beans, and at night to assist


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46 the dying, to cultivate the vine with his own hands; content with everything, in fine; even with his servant, an ugly old maid of about forty, at whose discretion he ate, drank, and dressed himself most resignedly, without exchanging more than a dozen words with her throughout the year.

"If I send her away," he said to himself, as he passed between the high hedges of the lane that led up from the main road to St. Luke, "it will damage and dishonor her. I cannot conscientiously do it, because I am sure that it is n't true. And with that Moro, of all men!"

The clock in the bell-tower struck eleven. Don Rocco began to think of his sermon, of which only three-quarters was written, and he rushed down from the church square to the door which led into his courtyard under the bell-tower at the end of a steep and stony lane. As he opened the gate and passed across the yard he was brought suddenly to a standstill. A faint light was shining from the windows of his sitting-room, the former refectory of the monks, on the lower floor.

Don Rocco had left at four o'clock to pay his visit to the Countess Carlotta, and had not returned in the meanwhile. He could not have left the lamps lighted. Therefore Lucia must have returned before the time she had set; that must certainly be the reason. He did not fatigue


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Rh his brain by making any other suppositions, but entered.

"Is it you, Lucia?" he called. No answer. He passed through the vestibule, approached the kitchen, and stood motionless on the door-sill.

A man was sitting under the chimney-cap with his hands stretched out over the coals. He turned toward the priest and said, most unconcernedly:

"Don Rocco, your humble servant."

By the light of the smoky petroleum lamp which stood on the table, Don Rocco recognized the Moro. He was conscious of a feeling of weakness in his heart and in his legs. He did not move nor answer.

"Make yourself at home, Don Rocco," continued the Moro imperturbably, as if he were doing the honors of his own house. "You had better take a seat here also, for it is cold to-night and damp."

"Yes, it is cold," answered Don Rocco, infusing a forced benevolence into his tones; "it is damp."

And he put his lantern down on the table.

"Come here," said his companion. "Wait till I make you comfortable." He got a chair and placed it on the hearthstone near his own.

"There now," said he.

Meanwhile Don Rocco was getting his breath


text: User:SimmeD/Bruger administrator

title: User:SimmeD/Bruger administrator


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clarembald


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clarendon, Roger


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Clarges, Thomas


text: Index:Illustrations of ornithology.djvu

title: Index:Illustrations of ornithology.djvu


text:
Page:Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth - 1919.djvu/15

 the summer of 1918 and the measurements and tabulation finished soon after. I wish gratefully to acknowledge the courtesy of the editors of the Astrophysical Journal and the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for permission to use illustrations and extracts from articles of mine which they have published. Plate 9 and figure 31 in the text are from the former journal. Thanks are also extended to Professor Ellsworth Huntington for the use of several text-figures which first appeared in my chapter of his work (1914).

TREES SUITABLE FOR CLIMATIC STUDY. During the course of this investigation the wood and growth of numerous species of trees have been examined with reference to their adaptability to the purposes herein described. The collections visited include several in London, especially one in the South Kensington Museum, fossils in the Jermyn Street Museum, the lumber-yards of Messrs. W. W. Howard Bros. & Company, tree sections and fossils in the geological museum at Berlin, fossils in the lignite beds of Grube Ilsa near Dresden, and fossils chiefly in Munich and Vienna. In


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Claridge, Richard