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 lic competition without the necessity of passing through the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, he succeeded in obtaining one in the royal engineers, and was gazetted lieutenant on 7 April 1856. After serving at Chatham and in Nova Scotia, he was one of the first to join the new staff college at Sandhurst. On the conclusion of the course of study there, he was attached at Aldershot to the other three arms of the service successively, so as to complete his training for the staff. In 1862 he went to Portland, and was employed in the new defences. After his promotion to captain on 9 Dec. 1864 he was sent to Canada, where he wrote a very able report on the defence of the frontier against invasion, which attracted the attention of the authorities at home. The following year he was appointed to the staff at Aldershot as deputy-assistant quartermaster-general. The ability he displayed in this post led to further special employment. In 1870 he became secretary of the royal engineers committee (a standing scientific committee), and in the following year he was appointed to the topographical department of the war office, which developed later into the intelligence branch.

In 1873 he was selected by Sir Garnet (now Lord) Wolseley to be the commanding royal engineer of the Ashantee expedition, and in this pre-eminently engineers' and doctors' campaign he proved himself as able in the field as at the desk, his energy and force of character enabling him to overcome manifold difficulties encountered in preparing the way for the march to Coomassie. For his services Home received the brevet of lieutenant-colonel, the war medal, and the companionship of the Bath. On his return from Africa he resumed his duties at the intelligence branch. The scheme for the mobilisation of the army and the ‘regulations for the organisation of the communications of an army in the field’ were his work, and he rendered good service as the secretary and moving spirit of many war-office committees. On 1 April 1876 he succeeded Major (now Sir Charles) Wilson as assistant quartermaster-general at headquarters.

During the Russo-Turkish war, when there was risk of this country being drawn into the struggle, Home's opinion was frequently sought, and great weight attached to it in military circles. Towards the end of 1876 he was sent to Turkey to report on the defence of Constantinople. His able despatches gained him a brevet-colonelcy, and the masterly knowledge he had acquired of the politico-military situation made him the trusted adviser of the highest authorities. In 1877 he was a second time sent to the East, on this occasion as British commissioner for the delimitation of the boundaries of Bulgaria. He had all but completed the work when he contracted typhoid fever, and came home to die in London on 29 Jan. 1879, at the age of forty-one. He married, in February 1864, a daughter of J. Hunt, a Dublin barrister, who survived him with six children, four sons and two daughters.

Home's real work (according to the ‘Times’ of 31 Jan. 1879) was known to ‘a comparatively limited circle, but that circle comprised most of those to whose hands the destinies of the empire have been entrusted during the last two administrations. … It will be found that most of the statesmen who have been engaged in the difficult work of the last few years attribute no small importance to the assistance derived from Colonel Home's genius and grasp of facts.’

Home achieved his first literary success in a little anonymous pamphlet on army administration. His principal work, ‘A Précis of Modern Tactics,’ was at the time of its publication (1873) one of the very few English books on the subject, and it still remains the best in our language. He translated Baron Stoffel's ‘Military Reports’ in 1872, and a French work on the ‘Law of Recruiting’ in the same year. He was at one time a frequent contributor to the ‘Quarterly Review,’ ‘Macmillan's Magazine,’ and other periodicals. He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and an associate of the Society of Telegraph Engineers. A stained-glass window was placed to his memory in Rochester Cathedral by public subscription.

HOME, WILLIAM, eighth (d. 1761), second son of Alexander, seventh earl, by his wife, Lady Anne, second daughter of William Ker, second marquis of Lothian, succeeded his father in 1720. He obtained a cornet's commission in the second regiment of dragoon guards 13 May 1735, and a troop in Churchill's dragoons in May 1740. In July 1743 he received a captain's commission in the third regiment of dragoon guards, with which he served on the continent. Being in Scotland at the time of the rebellion in 1745, he offered his services to Sir John Cope after he landed at Dunbar, only bringing with him two body servants. Along with the Earl of Loudon he was sent forward by Cope to mark out a camp near Musselburgh, but they returned soon after with the news that the highland army were in full march towards them. At


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Rh the appearance of a thing in a given perspective is causally affected by the matter between the thing and the perspective. We have found a meaning for "between a thing and a perspective." But we want matter to be something other than the whole class of appearances of a thing, in order to state the influence of matter on appearances.

We commonly assume that the information we get about a thing is more accurate when the thing is nearer. Far off, we see it is a man; then we see it is Jones; then we see he is smiling. Complete accuracy would only be attainable as a limit: if the appearances of Jones as we approach him tend towards a limit, that limit may be taken to be what Jones really is. It is obvious that from the point of view of physics the appearances of a thing close to "count" more than the appearances far off. We may therefore set up the following tentative definition:

The matter of a given thing is the limit of its appearances as their distance from the thing diminishes.

It seems probable that there is something in this definition, but it is not quite satisfactory, because empirically there is no such limit to be obtained from sense-data. The definition will have to be eked out by constructions and definitions. But probably it suggests the right direction in which to look.

We are now in a position to understand in outline the reverse journey from matter to sense-data which is performed by physics. The appearance of a thing in a given perspective is a function of the matter composing the thing and of the intervening matter. The appearance of a thing is altered by intervening smoke or mist, by blue spectacles or by alterations in the sense-organs or nerves of the percipient (which also must be reckoned as part of the intervening medium). The nearer we approach to

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166 the thing, the less its appearance is affected by the intervening matter. As we travel further and further from the thing, its appearances diverge more and more from their initial character; and the causal laws of their divergence are to be stated in terms of the matter which lies between them and the thing. Since the appearances at very small distances are less affected by causes other than the thing itself, we come to think that the limit towards which these appearances tend as the distance diminishes is what the thing "really is," as opposed to what it merely seems to be. This, together with its necessity for the statement of causal laws, seems to be the source of the entirely erroneous feeling that matter is more "real" than sense-data.

Consider for example the infinite divisibility of matter. [sic]In looking at a given thing and approaching it, one sense-datum will become several, and each of these will again divide. Thus one appearance may represent many things, and to this process there seems no end. Hence in the limit, when we approach indefinitely near to the thing there will be an indefinite number of units of matter corresponding to what, at a finite distance, is only one appearance. This is how infinite divisibility arises.

The whole causal efficacy of a thing resides in its matter. This is in some sense an empirical fact, but it would be hard to state it precisely, because "causal efficacy" is difficult to define.

What can be known empirically about the matter of a thing is only approximate, because we cannot get to know the appearances of the thing from very small distances, and cannot accurately infer the limit of these appearances. But it is inferred approximately by means of the appearances we can observe. It then turns out that these appearances can be exhibited by physics as a function of


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Rh the matter in our immediate neighbourhood; e.g. the visual appearance of a distant object is a function of the light-waves that reach the eyes. This leads to confusions of thought, but offers no real difficulty.

One appearance, of a visible object for example, is not sufficient to determine its other simultaneous appearances, although it goes a certain distance towards determining them. The determination of the hidden structure of a thing, so far as it is possible at all, can only be effected by means of elaborate dynamical inferences.

It seems that the one all-embracing time is a construction, like the one all-embracing space. Physics itself has become conscious of this fact through the discussions connected with relativity.

Between two perspectives which both belong to one person's experience, there will be a direct time-relation of before and after. This suggests a way of dividing history in the same sort of way as it is divided by different experiences, but without introducing experience or anything mental: we may define a "biography" as every thing that is (directly) earlier or later than, or simultaneous with, a given "sensibile." This will give a series of perspectives, which might all form parts of one person's experience, though it is not necessary that all or any of them should actually do so. By this means, the history of the world is divided into a number of mutually exclusive biographies.


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168 We have now to correlate the times in the different biographies. The natural thing would be to say that the appearances of a given (momentary) thing in two different perspectives belonging to different biographies are to be taken as simultaneous; but this is not convenient. Suppose A shouts to B, and B replies as soon as he hears A ' s shout. Then between A ' s hearing of his own shout and his hearing of B ' s there is an interval; thus if we made A ' s and B ' s hearing of the same shout exactly simultaneous with each other, we should have events exactly simultaneous with a given event but not with each other. To obviate this, we assume a "velocity of sound." That is, we assume that the time when B hears A ' s shout is half-way between the time when A hears his own shout and the time when he hears B ' s. In this way the correlation is effected.

What has been said about sound applies of course equally to light. The general principle is that the appearances, in different perspectives, which are to be grouped together as constituting what a certain thing is at a certain moment, are not to be all regarded as being at that moment. On the contrary they spread outward from the thing with various velocities according to the nature of the appearances. Since no direct means exist of correlating the time in one biography with the time in another, this temporal grouping of the appearances belonging to a given thing at a given moment is in part conventional. Its motive is partly to secure the verification of such maxims as that events which are exactly simultaneous with the same event are exactly simultaneous with one another, partly to secure convenience in the formulation of causal laws.


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 XI. THE PERSISTENCE OF THINGS AND MATTERtop

Apart from any of the fluctuating hypotheses of physics, three main problems arise in connecting the world of physics with the world of sense, namely:

 * 1. the construction of a single space;
 * 2. the construction of a single time;
 * 3. the construction of permanent things or matter.

We have already considered the first and second of these problems; it remains to consider the third.

We have seen how correlated appearances in different perspectives are combined to form one "thing" at one moment in the all-embracing time of physics. We have now to consider how appearances at different times are combined as belonging to one "thing," and how we arrive at the persistent "matter" of physics. The assumption of permanent substance, which technically underlies the procedure of physics, cannot of course be regarded as metaphysically legitimate: just as the one thing simultaneously seen by many people is a construction, so the one thing seen at different times by the same or different people must be a construction, being in fact nothing but a certain grouping of certain "sensibilia."

We have seen that the momentary state of a "thing" is an assemblage of "sensibilia," in different perspectives, not all simultaneous in the one constructed time, but spreading out from "the place where the thing is" with velocities depending upon the nature of the "sensibilia." The time at which the "thing" is in this state is the lower limit of the times at which these appearances occur. We have now to consider what leads us to speak of another set of appearances as belonging to the same "thing" at a different time.


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170 For this purpose, we may, at least to begin with, confine ourselves within a single biography. If we can always say when two "sensibilia" in a given biography are appearances of one thing, then, since we have seen how to connect "sensibilia" in different biographies as appearances of the same momentary state of a thing, we shall have all that is necessary for the complete construction of the history of a thing.

It is to be observed, to begin with, that the identity of a thing for common sense is not always correlated with the identity of matter for physics. A human body is one persisting thing for common sense, but for physics its matter is constantly changing. We may say, broadly, that the common-sense conception is based upon continuity in appearances at the ordinary distances of sense-data, while the physical conception is based upon the continuity of appearances at very small distances from the thing. It is probable that the common-sense conception is not capable of complete precision. Let us therefore concentrate our attention upon the conception of the persistence of matter in physics.

The first characteristic of two appearances of the same piece of matter at different times is continuity. The two appearances must be connected by a series of intermediaries, which, if time and space form compact series, must themselves form a compact series. The colour of the leaves is different in autumn from what it is in summer; but we believe that the change occurs gradually, and that, if the colours are different at two given times, there are intermediate times at which the colours are intermediate between those at the given times.

But there are two considerations that are important as regards continuity.

First, it is largely hypothetical. We do not observe


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Rh any one thing continuously, and it is merely a hypothesis to assume that, while we are not observing it, it passes through conditions intermediate between those in which it is perceived. During uninterrupted observation, it is true, continuity is nearly verified; but even here, when motions are very rapid, as in the case of explosions, the continuity is not actually capable of direct verification. Thus we can only say that the sense-data are found to permit a hypothetical complement of "sensibilia" such as will preserve continuity, and that therefore there may be such a complement. Since, however, we have already made such use of hypothetical "sensibilia," we will let this point pass, and admit such "sensibilia," as are required to preserve continuity.

Secondly, continuity is not a sufficient criterion of material identity. It is true that in many cases, such as rocks, mountains, tables, chairs, etc., where the appearances change slowly, continuity is sufficient, but in other cases, such as the parts of an approximately homogeneous fluid, it fails us utterly. We can travel by sensibly continuous gradations from any one drop of the sea at any one time to any other drop at any other time. We infer the motions of sea-water from the effects of the current, but they cannot be inferred from direct sensible observation together with the assumption of continuity.

The characteristic required in addition to continuity is conformity with the laws of dynamics. [sic]Starting from what common sense regards as persistent things, and making only such modifications as from time to time seem reasonable, we arrive at assemblages of "sensibilia" which are found to obey certain simple laws, namely those of dynamics. By regarding "sensibilia" at different times as belonging to the same piece of matter, we are able to define motion, which presupposes the assumption


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172 or construction of something persisting throughout the time of the motion. The motions which are regarded as occurring, during a period in which all the "sensibilia" and the times of their appearance are given, will be different according to the manner in which we combine "sensibilia" at different times as belonging to the same piece of matter. Thus even when the whole history of the world is given in every particular, the question what motions take place is still to a certain extent arbitrary even after the assumption of continuity. Experience shows that it is possible to determine motions in such a way as to satisfy the laws of dynamics, and that this determination, roughly and on the whole, is fairly in agreement with the common-sense opinions about persistent things. This determination, therefore, is adopted, and leads to a criterion by which we can determine, sometimes practically, sometimes only theoretically, whether two appearances at different times are to be regarded as belonging to the same piece of matter. The persistence of all matter throughout all time can, I imagine, be secured by definition.

To recommend this conclusion, we must consider what it is that is proved by the empirical success of physics. What is proved is that its hypotheses, though unverifiable where they go beyond sense-data, are at no point in contradiction with sense-data, but, on the contrary, are ideally such as to render all sense-data calculable when a sufficient collection of "sensibilia" is given. Now physics has found it empirically possible to collect sense-data into series, each series being regarded as belonging to one "thing," and behaving, with regard to the laws of physics, in a way in which series not belonging to one thing would in general not behave. If it is to be unambiguous whether two appearances belong to the same


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Rh thing or not, there must be only one way of grouping appearances so that the resulting things obey the laws of physics. It would be very difficult to prove that this is the case, but for our present purposes we may let this point pass, and assume that there is only one way. Thus we may lay down the following definition: Physical things are those series of appearances whose matter obeys the laws of physics. That such series exist is an empirical fact, which constitutes the verifiability of physics.

It remains to ask how, in our system, we are to find a place for sense-data which apparently fail to have the usual connection with the world of physics. Such sense-data are of various kinds, requiring somewhat different treatment. But all are of the sort that would be called "unreal," and therefore, before embarking upon the discussion, certain logical remarks must be made upon the conceptions of reality and unreality.

Mr. A. Wolf says:

"The conception of mind as a system of transparent activities is, I think, also untenable because of its failure to account for the very possibility of dreams and hallucinations. It seems impossible to realise how a bare, transparent activity can be directed to what is not there, to apprehend what is not given."

This statement is one which, probably, most people would endorse. But it is open to two objections. First it is difficult to see how an activity, however un-"transparent," can be directed towards a nothing: a term of a relation cannot be a mere nonentity. Secondly, no reason


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174 is given, and I am convinced that none can be given, for the assertion that dream-objects are not "there" and not "given." Let us take the second point first.

(1) The belief that dream-objects are not given comes, I think, from failure to distinguish, as regards waking life, between the sense-datum and the corresponding "thing." In dreams, there is no such corresponding "thing" as the dreamer supposes; if, therefore, the "thing" were given in waking life, as e.g. Meinong maintains, then there would be a difference in respect of givenness between dreams and waking life. But if, as we have maintained, what is given is never the thing, but merely one of the "sensibilia" which compose the thing, then what we apprehend in a dream is just as much given as what we apprehend in waking life.

Exactly the same argument applies as to the dream-objects being "there." They have their position in the private space of the perspective of the dreamer; where they fail is in their correlation with other private spaces and therefore with perspective space. But in the only sense in which "there" can be a datum, they are "there" just as truly as any of the sense-data of waking life.

(2) The conception of "illusion" or "unreality," and the correlative conception of "reality," are generally used in a way which embodies profound logical confusions. Words that go in pairs, such as "real" and "unreal," "existent" and "non-existent," "valid" and "invalid," etc., are all derived from the one fundamental pair, "true" and "false." Now "true" and "false" are applicable only—except in derivative significations—to propositions. Thus wherever the above pairs can be significantly applied, we must be dealing either with propositions or with such incomplete phrases as


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The New International Encyclopædia/Mollah

MOL'LAH (more properly maula, Turkish pronunciation mevla, from Ar. walaya, to be near). Among the Turks, the title of a superior judge. The mollahs are divided into two classes. Those in the first class exercise jurisdiction over the more important pashaliks. The mollahs of the second class hold office for a lunar month at a time, and their lowest rank is composed of the naibs over the inferior provinces, towns, and villages. The mollah is an expounder of civil, criminal, and canon law; he must, therefore, be a lawyer as well as an ecclesiastic. Under him is the qadi (or kadi), judge who administers the law, and superior to him are the kadilesker and the mufti (q.v.). They are all, however, subject to the Sheikh ul-Islam, who is the supreme mufti. In Persia, the office of mollah, who is generally called akhūn, is similar to what it is in Turkey. This superior there is the ‘sadr,’ or chief of the mollahs.


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Rh only acquire meaning when put into a context which, with them, forms a proposition. Thus such pairs of words can be applied to descriptions, but not to proper names: in other words, they have no application whatever to data, but only to entities or non-entities described in terms of data.

Let us illustrate by the terms "existence" and "nonexistence." Given any datum x, it is meaningless either to assert or to deny that x "exists." We might be tempted to say: "Of course x exists, for otherwise it could not be a datum." But such a statement is really meaningless, although it is significant and true to say "My present sense-datum exists," and it may also be true that "x is my present sense-datum." The inference from these two propositions to "x exists" is one which seems irresistible to people unaccustomed to logic; yet the apparent proposition inferred is not merely false, but strictly meaningless. To say "My present sense-datum exists" is to say (roughly): "There is an object of which my present sense-datum is a description." But we cannot say: "There is an object of which ' x ' is a description," because ' x ' is (in the case we are supposing) a name, not a description. Dr. Whitehead and I have explained this point fully elsewhere (loc. cit.) with the help of symbols, without which it is hard to understand; I shall not therefore here repeat the demonstration of the above propositions, but shall proceed with their application to our present problem.

The fact that "existence" is only applicable to descriptions is concealed by the use of what are grammatically proper names in a way which really transforms them into descriptions. It is, for example, a legitimate


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176 question whether Homer existed; but here "Homer" means "the author of the Homeric poems," and is a description. Similarly we may ask whether God exists; but then "God" means "the Supreme Being" or "the ens realissimum" or whatever other description we may prefer. If "God" were a proper name, God would have to be a datum; and then no question could arise as to His existence. The distinction between existence and other predicates, which Kant obscurely felt, is brought to light by the theory of descriptions, and is seen to remove "existence" altogether from the fundamental notions of metaphysics.

What has been said about "existence" applies equally to "reality," which may, in fact, be taken as synonymous with "existence." Concerning the immediate objects in illusions, hallucinations, and dreams, it is meaningless to ask whether they "exist" or are "real." There they are, and that ends the matter. But we may legitimately inquire as to the existence or reality of "things" or other "sensibilia" inferred from such objects. It is the unreality of these "things" and other "sensibilia," together with a failure to notice that they are not data, which has led to the view that the objects of dreams are unreal.

We may now apply these considerations in detail to the stock arguments against realism, though what is to be said will be mainly a repetition of what others have said before.

(1) We have first the variety of normal appearances, supposed to be incompatible. This is the case of the different shapes and colours which a given thing presents to different spectators. Locke's water which seems both hot and cold belongs to this class of cases. Our system of different perspectives fully accounts for these cases, and shows that they afford no argument against realism.

(2) We have cases where the correlation between


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Rh different senses is unusual. The bent stick in water belongs here. People say it looks bent but is straight: this only means that it is straight to the touch, though bent to sight. There is no "illusion," but only a false inference, if we think that the stick would feel bent to the touch. The stick would look just as bent in a photograph, and, as Mr. Gladstone used to say, "the photograph cannot lie." The case of seeing double also belongs here, though in this case the cause of the unusual correlation is physiological, and would therefore not operate in a photograph. It is a mistake to ask whether the "thing" is duplicated when we see it double. The "thing" is a whole system of "sensibilia," and it is only those visual "sensibilia" which are data to the percipient that are duplicated. The phenomenon has a purely physiological explanation; indeed, in view of our having two eyes, it is in less need of explanation than the single visual sense-datum which we normally obtain from the things on which we focus.

(3) We come now to cases like dreams, which may, at the moment of dreaming, contain nothing to arouse suspicion, but are condemned on the ground of their supposed incompatibility with earlier and later data. Of course it often happens that dream-objects fail to behave in the accustomed manner: heavy objects fly, solid objects melt, babies turn into pigs or undergo even greater changes. But none of these unusual occurrences need happen in a dream, and it is not on account of such occurrences that dream-objects are called "unreal." It is their lack of continuity with the dreamer's past and future that makes him, when he wakes, condemn them; and it is their lack


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178 of correlation with other private worlds that makes others condemn them. Omitting the latter ground, our reason for condemning them is that the "things" which we infer from them cannot be combined according to the laws of physics with the "things" inferred from waking sense-data. This might be used to condemn the "things" inferred from the data of dreams. Dream-data are no doubt appearances of "things," but not of such "things" as the dreamer supposes. I have no wish to combat psychological theories of dreams, such as those of the psycho-analysts. But there certainly are cases where (whatever psychological causes may contribute) the presence of physical causes also is very evident. For instance, a door banging may produce a dream of a naval engagement, with images of battleships and sea and smoke. The whole dream will be an appearance of the door banging, but owing to the peculiar condition of the body (especially the brain) during sleep, this appearance is not that expected to be produced by a door banging, and thus the dreamer is led to entertain false beliefs. But his sense-data are still physical, and are such as a completed physics would include and calculate.

(4) The last class of illusions are those which cannot be discovered within one person's experience, except through the discovery of discrepancies with the experiences of others. Dreams might conceivably belong to this class, if they were jointed sufficiently neatly into waking life; but the chief instances are recurrent sensory hallucinations of the kind that lead to insanity. What makes the patient, in such cases, become what others call insane is the fact that, within his own experience, there is nothing to show that the hallucinatory sense-data do not have the usual kind of connection with "sensibilia" in other perspectives. Of course he may learn this through testimony, but he


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Rh probably finds it simpler to suppose that the testimony is untrue and that he is being wilfully deceived. There is, so far as I can see, no theoretical criterion by which the patient can decide, in such a case, between the two equally satisfactory hypotheses of his madness and of his friends mendacity.

From the above instances it would appear that abnormal sense-data, of the kind which we regard as deceptive, have intrinsically just the same status as any others, but differ as regards their correlations or causal connections with other "sensibilia" and with "things." Since the usual correlations and connections become part of our unreflective expectations, and even seem, except to the psychologist, to form part of our data, it comes to be thought, mistakenly, that in such cases the data are unreal, whereas they are merely the causes of false inferences. The fact that correlations and connections of unusual kinds occur adds to the difficulty of inferring things from sense and of expressing physics in terms of sense-data. But the unusualness would seem to be always physically or physiologically explicable, and therefore raises only a complication, not a philosophical objection.

I conclude, therefore, that no valid objection exists to the view which regards sense-data as part of the actual substance of the physical world, and that, on the other hand, this view is the only one which accounts for the empirical verifiability of physics. In the present paper, I have given only a rough preliminary sketch. In particular, the part played by times in the construction of the physical world is, I think, more fundamental than would appear from the above account. I should hope that, with further elaboration, the part played by unperceived "sensibilia" could be indefinitely diminished, probably by invoking the history of a "thing" to eke out the inferences derivable from its momentary appearance.


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128 9.

For the present, we part,—I will hope not for ever;

For time and regret will restore you at last:

To forget our dissension we both should endeavour,

I ask no atonement, but days like the past.

DAMŒTASDAMÆTAS [sic].

law an infant, and in years a boy,

In mind a slave to every vicious joy;

From every sense of shame and virtue wean'd,

In lies an adept, in deceit a fiend;

Vers'd in hypocrisy, while yet a child;

Fickle as wind, of inclinations wild;

Woman his dupe, his heedless friend a tool;

Old in the world, though scarcely broke from school;

DamœtasDamætas [sic] ran through all the maze of sin,

And found the goal, when others just begin:


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The New International Encyclopædia/Mollendo

MOLLENDO, mṓl-lān'dṓ. A seaport of Peru, situated seven miles south of Islay, on the Pacific coast (Map: Peru, C 7). It is the chief harbor of Southern Peru and the trading centre for the mining districts of the interior, with which it is connected by railroad. Its exports are alpaca, wool, quinine, antimony, silver, and copper ores. It is the seat of a United States consular agent. Population, 2200.


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Rh Ev'n still conflicting passions shake his soul,

And bid him drain the dregs of Pleasure's bowl;

But, pall'd with vice, he breaks his former chain,

And what was once his bliss appears his bane.

TO MARION.

! why that pensive brow?

What disgust to life hast thou?

Change that discontented air;

Frowns become not one so fair.

'Tis not Love disturbs thy rest,

Love's a stranger to thy breast:

He, in dimpling smiles, appears,

Or mourns in sweetly timid tears;

Or bends the languid eyelid down,

But shuns the cold forbidding frown.

Then resume thy former fire,

Some will love and all admire!

While that icy aspect chills us,

Nought but cool Indiff'rence thrills us.

Would'st thou wand'ring hearts beguile,

Smile, at least, or seem to smile;


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Rh 7.

Perish the fiend! whose iron heart

To fair affection's truth unknown,

Bids her he fondly lov'd depart,

Unpitied, helpless, and alone;

Who ne'er unlocks with silver key,

The milder treasures of his soul;

May such a friend be far from me,

And Ocean's storms between us roll!

LACHIN Y GAIR.

1.

, ye gay landscapes, ye gardens of roses!

In you let the minions of luxury rove;

Restore me the rocks, where the snow-flake reposes,

Though still they are sacred to freedom and love:

Yet, Caledonia, belov'd are thy mountains,

Round their white summits though elements war;


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172 Though cataracts foam 'stead of smooth-flowing fountains,

I sigh for the valley of dark Loch na Garr.

2.

Ah! there my young footsteps in infancy, wander'd:

My cap was the bonnet, my cloak was the plaid;

On chieftains, long perish'd, my memory ponder'd,

As daily I strode through the pine-cover'd glade;

I sought not my home, till the day's dying glory

Gave place to the rays of the bright polar star;

For fancy was cheer'd, by traditional story,

Disclos'd by the natives of dark Loch na Garr.

3.

"Shades of the dead! have I not heard your voices

Rise on the night-rolling breath of the gale?"

Surely, the soul of the hero rejoices,

And rides on the wind, o'er his own Highland vale!

Round Loch na Garr, while the stormy mist gathers,

Winter presides in his cold icy car:

Clouds, there, encircle the forms of my Fathers;

They dwell in the tempests of dark Loch na Garr.

4.

"Ill starr'd, though brave, did no visions foreboding

Tell you that fate had forsaken your cause?"


text:
Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 27.djvu/246

 the battle of Prestonpans (21 Sept. 1745), Home, with Loudon, assisted Cope in his vain attempt to rally the dragoons. He was afterwards appointed to the command of the Glasgow volunteer regiment of six hundred foot, which in December was sent to the defence of Stirling. In 1749 he was promoted major of the third regiment of foot-guards, in 1750 colonel of the 48th foot, and in 1752 colonel of the 29th foot. On 16 April 1757 he was made governor of Gibraltar. His term of office was uneventful. He died at Gibraltar 28 April 1761, being then a lieutenant-general of the army. At the election of 1741, and on several subsequent occasions, he was chosen a representative peer of Scotland. He was married, 25 Dec. 1742, to Mrs. Laws of Albemarle Street, London, but had no issue, and was succeeded by his brother Alexander, ninth earl.

HOMER, HENRY, the elder (1719–1791), miscellaneous writer, son of Edward Homer, gentleman, of Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, was born in 1719, and educated at Oxford, where he matriculated on 26 June 1736 as a member of University College. He became a demy of Magdalen College in 1737, and graduated B.A. in 1740, M.A. in 1743. He was appointed rector of Birdingbury, Warwickshire, and vicar of Willoughby in 1764; and chaplain to Edward, lord Leigh, lord high steward of the university of Oxford. From 1774 to 1779 he also held the vicarage of Anstey, Warwickshire. He died on 24 July 1791, and was buried at Birdingbury. Of his seventeen children Arthur (see below), Henry, and Philip Bracebridge are separately noticed.

His works are: 1. ‘An Essay on the Nature and Method of ascertaining the specific Shares of Proprietors upon the Inclosure of Common Fields; with Observations on the Inconveniences of Open Fields, and upon the objections to this Inclosure, particularly as far as they relate to the Public and the Poor,’ Oxford, 1766, 8vo. 2. ‘An Enquiry into the means of Preserving and Improving the Publick Roads of this Kingdom. With Observations on the probable consequences of the present plan,’ Oxford, 1767, 8vo. Macadam, in his ‘Remarks on the present System of Roadmaking,’ pp. 11 and 12, quotes this work with approval. Homer's opinions on highways, the enclosure of waste lands, and the value of inland navigation were far in advance of his time.

(1758–1806), the fourth son of Henry Homer the elder, was educated at Rugby and Magdalen College, Oxford. He graduated B.A. 1778, proceeded M.A. 1781, B.D. 1790, and D.D. 1797; from 1782 to 1802 he was a probationary fellow of Magdalen. In 1802 the college presented him to the rectory of Standlake, Oxfordshire, where he died 2 July 1806. There is a monument to his memory, with an inscription supposed to have been written by Dr. Parr, on the south wall of the chancel of Standlake Church. He published one volume of his ‘Bibliographia Americana, or a Chronological Catalogue of the most Curious and Interesting Books, Pamphlets, State Papers, &c., upon the subjects of North and South America,’ London, 1789, 4to.

HOMER, HENRY, the younger (1753–1791), classical scholar, the eldest of the seventeen children of Henry Homer the elder [q. v.], was born at Warwick in 1753 (, Warwickshire Worthies, p. 433). In 1758 he entered Rugby School, of which, at the age of fourteen, he was the head boy. Afterwards he studied for three years at Birmingham. In November 1768 he was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, under Dr. Farmer, where he became acquainted with Dr. Samuel Parr, who helped to direct his studies. Among his other intimate college friends were William Bennet [q. v.], afterwards bishop of Cloyne, and George Dyer [q. v.] He graduated B.A. in 1773, M.A. in 1776, and B.D. in 1783. He was elected a fellow of his college in 1778, and returned to the university from Warwickshire, where he had been living for about three years, soon after his election. About this time he was admitted into deacon's orders. He now resided chiefly at Cambridge, and spent much time in the university library, turning his attention to philological studies. In 1787 he joined with Dr. Parr in the republication of Bellenden's ‘Tracts,’ and prepared editions of several classical authors, all remarkable for the accuracy of the text and beauty of the typography. At the suggestion of Dr. Parr, he undertook a splendid variorum edition of Horace, but died before its completion. It was finally published by Dr. Charles Combe, and this occasioned an angry literary altercation between Combe and Parr. In consequence of religious scruples Homer declined to take priest's orders in compliance


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 with the college statutes, and his fellowship was therefore declared vacant in June 1788. He died at Birdingbury of a rapid decline on 4 May 1791, and was buried in the churchyard there.

Homer edited: 1. The first, twenty-fifth, and thirty-first books of ‘Livy,’ from Drakenborch's edition, with Dissertations, 1787, 8vo. 2. Tacitus, ‘De Moribus Germanorum et de Vita Agricolæ,’ London, 1788, 12mo. 3. ‘Tractatus varii Latini, a Crevier, Brotier, Auger, aliisque clarissimis viris conscripti, et ad Rem cum criticam, tum antiquariam pertinentes,’ London, 1788, 8vo. 4. ‘P. Ovidii Nasonis Heroides ex editione P. Burmanni,’ London, 1789, 8vo. 5. ‘A. Persii Flacci Satirarum liber,’ 1789, 4to. 6. ‘Sallustii Opera Omnia excusa ad editionem Cortii cum editionibus Havercampi et Gabrielis Antonii collatam,’ London, 1789, 8vo. 7. ‘Taciti Dialogus de Oratoribus,’ 1789, 8vo. 8. ‘C. Plinii Cæcilii Secundi Epistolarum libri x.,’ London, 1790, 8vo. 9. ‘Taciti Opera Omnia,’ 4 vols., London, 1790, 8vo. An elegant and a correct edition, with an elaborate index. 10. ‘C. J. Cæsaris Opera Omnia,’ 2 vols. London, 1790, 8vo. 11. ‘M. T. Ciceronis de Officiis libri tres, ex editione Oliveti,’ London, 1791, 16mo. 12. ‘Quintilian,’ in the press at the time of the editor's death. 13. ‘T. Livii Patavini Historiarum libri qui supersunt omnes ex recensione Arn. Drakenborchii,’ 8 vols. London, 1794, 8vo; a very accurate reprint of Drakenborch's text, with an elaborate index. The works which he left unfinished were completed by his brothers Arthur Homer [see under, the elder] and Philip Bracebridge Homer [q. v.]

His portrait has been engraved by J. Jones from a painting by S. Harding.

HOMER, PHILIP BRACEBRIDGE (1765–1838), assistant-master at Rugby School, was the tenth son of the Rev. Henry Homer the elder [q. v.], rector of Birdingbury, Warwickshire, where he was born in 1765. He went to Rugby in 1772, and was distinguished for his classical attainments. He matriculated as a member of University College 31 Oct. 1781, and was elected a demy of Magdalen College in 1783 (B.A. 1785, M.A. 1788, B.D. 1804). In 1785 he returned to Rugby as an assistant-master of the school. This situation he held for thirty-seven years. He was also a probationer fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, from 1802 to 1806. In 1825 he was elected a fellow of Rugby School, being the first of the newly created fellows on the foundation. He died at Rugby on 26 April 1838.

His works are: 1. ‘The Garland, a collection of poems,’ Oxford, 1788, 4to. 2. ‘Anthologia; or a Collection of Flowers,’ London [1789], 4to, in blank verse. 3. ‘Poems, translated from the Italian of Metastasio,’ Coventry, 1790, 8vo. 4. ‘The Wishes of the Public; a Consolatory Poem translated from the Italian of Metastasio,’ Nuneaton, n.d., 8vo. 5. ‘Observations on a short Tour made in the Summer of 1803 to the Western Highlands of Scotland, interspersed with original pieces of descriptive and epistolary poetry,’ London, 1804, 8vo. 6. ‘The Introduction to the Greek Tongue,’ being the Eton Greek grammar with English notes, London, 1825, 12mo; 2nd edit. 1839. 7. ‘A Concise View of the Evidences of the Christian Religion,’ Rugby, 1827, 8vo. 8. An English-Hebrew Lexicon in manuscript, presented by his son Henry to the library of Magdalen College, Oxford.

He was also a contributor to the miscellany called ‘Olla-Podrida,’ edited by Thomas Monro, and with his brother Arthur completed and prepared for publication the editions of the Latin classics which his brother Henry Homer the younger [q. v.] had left unfinished.

HONDIUS (DE HONDT), ABRAHAM (1638?–1691), painter, was born in Rotterdam in 1638. He may possibly be the Abraham, son of Isaack Maertens, who was baptised there on 9 Jan. 1639. Early in life Hondius displayed varied artistic abilities. He painted conflagrations, such as ‘The Destruction of Troy;’ night scenes, such as ‘The Nocturnal Carnival Scene at Rome,’ 1660 (in the Schwerin gallery); sacred subjects, such as ‘Christ as the Gardener,’ 1662 (in the Oldenburg gallery); and two conversation-pieces in the style of Palamedes, 1668 (in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg). Hondius gained his chief distinction as a painter of animals, especially of dogs, and painted numerous hunting and sporting scenes with a firm pencilling and good colour. These are highly valued. Hondius


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Rh Ah! were you destined to die at Culloden,

Victory crown'd not your fall with applause:

Still were you happy, in death's earthy slumber,

You rest with your clan, in the caves of Braemar;

The Pibroch resounds, to the piper's loud number,

Your deeds, on the echoes of dark Loch na Garr.

5.

Years have roll'd on, Loch na Garr, since I left you,

Years must elapse, ere I tread you again:

Nature of verdure and flowers has bereft you,

Yet still are you dearer than Albion's plain:

England! thy beauties are tame and domestic,

To one who has rov'd on the mountains afar:

Oh! for the crags that are wild and majestic,

The steep, frowning glories of dark Loch na Garr.


text:
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 has been called a ‘Snyders in miniature,’ though there is little resemblance in their style. Good examples of his hunting-pieces are in the galleries at Dresden, Schwerin, Rotterdam, the Hermitage at St. Petersburg, and elsewhere. Some are also in private collections in England. Hondius came to England about 1665, and resided there till his death in London in 1691. According to Vertue he lived in Ludgate Hill, but died of a fit of the gout at the Blackamoor's Head over against Water Lane, Fleet Street, in 1695. He mentions a picture of a dog-market containing thirty different kinds of dogs, and states that Hondius was a man of humour and irregular life. Hondius appears to have had a wife, Geertruyt Willems, and a son, Isaack, who also became a painter. A set of etchings of animals, executed in 1672, and a few others by Hondius, are highly prized by collectors. He painted his own portrait, which was engraved in mezzotint by John Smith.

 HONDIUS, JODOCUS [ or ] (1563–1611), engraver, born at Wacken in Flanders in 1563, was son of Olivier de Hondt and Petronella van Havertuyn. Hendrik Hondius the elder, the better-known engraver and publisher, was a brother; a sister was wife of Pieter van den Berghe, better known as Petrus Montanus. When he was two years old his parents removed to Ghent, and Hondius was educated there. He is said to have engraved original compositions on copper and ivory at the age of eight, and was apprenticed to a painter, from whom he learnt drawing. His talents attracted the notice of Alessandro Farnese, duke of Parma, the governor of the Netherlands, who gave him employment, and would have sent him to Italy. Hondius, however, remained at Ghent, studied Greek and Latin, busied himself with cosmography, type-founding, &c., until the siege of Ghent compelled him to take refuge in England. In London Hondius set up as a type-founder, an engraver of maps and charts, and a maker of globes and mathematical instruments. He made celestial and terrestrial globes larger than any known before. He engraved some of the earliest maps of England and other countries, and illustrated the voyages of Sir Francis Drake and Thomas Cavendish. He also engraved the portraits of the two navigators and those of Elizabeth, Henri IV, and Gerard Mercator. About 1594 Hondius removed with his household to Amsterdam. This may have been due to the death of Gerard Mercator, for Hondius purchased the plates of Mercator's ‘Atlas,’ and added fifty more in a new edition of the ‘Atlas’ published by him in 1606 at Amsterdam. He also published a treatise on the construction and use of the globes (1597), one on calligraphy with examples from the best masters (1594), and similar works. He died at Amsterdam on 10 Feb. 1611. He married on 11 April 1587, at the Dutch Church in Austin Friars, London, Colette van der Keere of Ghent, and by her had thirteen children, of whom two sons and four daughters survived. His two sons, Jodocus and Hendrik, both set up as publishers of prints, maps, &c., at Amsterdam, and completed the works left unfinished by their father, including the maps for Speed's ‘Britain.’

 HONE, NATHANIEL (1718–1784), painter, born 24 April 1718 in Dublin, was son of Nathaniel Hone, a merchant of Wood Quay, and treasurer of the congregation of the presbyterian chapel in Eustace Street. Hone at an early age, and without any instruction, began to practise as a portrait-painter. He came over to England while still young, and went to Italy to study. He was at Rome in 1750 and 1751, and at Florence in 1752, as we learn from the notebooks of Sir Joshua Reynolds, in one of which there is a small caricature portrait of Hone. On returning home Hone practised as an itinerant portrait-painter about England, and, while engaged in his profession at York, married a lady of some property. Shortly afterwards he settled in St. James's Place, London, and soon established a reputation as a portrait-painter in oil and in miniature, more especially in enamel. In this line of painting Hone was without a rival at the time, and his works were justly appreciated. He was a member of the Society of Artists, and sent to their first exhibition in 1760 a picture of ‘The Brick Dust Man’ (engraved in mezzotint by James Watson). After the division of the artists, Hone adhered to the society exhibiting at Spring Gardens, and in 1766 was one of the artists who signed the roll-declaration for incorporation. He was also one of the first directors of the new Society of Incorporated Artists. To their


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 1.djvu/251

Rh 2.

Now no more, the Hours beguiling,

Former favourite Haunts I see;

Now no more my Mary smiling,

Makes ye seem a Heaven to Me. 1805.

REMEMBRANCE.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Alexander (d.1516)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Alexander (d.1575)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Alexander (1566?-1619)


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 1.djvu/157

Rh Of Warriors, Monks, and Dames the cloister'd tomb,

Whose pensive shades around thy ruins glide,

2. Hail to thy pile! more honour'd in thy fall,

Than modern mansions, in their pillar'd state;

Proudly majestic frowns thy vaulted hall,

Scowling defiance on the blasts of fate.

3.

No mail-clad Serfs, obedient to their Lord,

In grim array, the crimson cross demand;

Or gay assemble round the festive board,

Their chiefs retainers, an immortal band.

4.

Else might inspiring Fancy's magic eye

Retrace their progress, through the lapse of time;

Marking each ardent youth, ordain'd to die,

A votive pilgrim, in Judea's clime.

5.

But not from thee, dark pile! departs the Chief;

His feudal realm in other regions lay:

In thee the wounded conscience courts relief,

Retiring from the garish blaze of day.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Daniel Dunglas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Everard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, George (d.1547)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, James (d.1666)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, James (1760-1842)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Robert (d.1836?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, Robert (1837-1879)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Home, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Homer, Henry (1719-1791)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Homer, Henry (1753-1791)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Homer, Philip Bracebridge


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hondius, Abraham


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hondius, Jodocus


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 1.djvu/158

118 6.

Yes! in thy gloomy cells and shades profound,

The monk abjur'd a world, he ne'er could view;

Or blood-stain'd Guilt repenting, solace found,

Or Innocence, from stern Oppression, flew.

7.

A Monarch bade thee from that wild arise,

Where Sherwood's outlaws, once, were wont to prowl;

And Superstition's crimes, of various dyes,

Sought shelter in the Priest's protecting cowl.

8.

Where, now, the grass exhales a murky dew,

The humid pall of life-extinguish'd clay,

In sainted fame, the sacred Fathers grew,

Nor raised their pious voices, but to pray.

9.

Where, now, the bats their wavering wings extend,

Soon as the gloaming spreads her waning shade;

The choir did, oft, their mingling vespers blend,

Or matin orisons to Mary paid.


text:
Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico)

Part 1 (1939)

 * Title Page
 * Preface

Part 2 (1940)

 * Title Page
 * Preface
 * Family V. Polygyridae
 * Genus Trilobopsis
 * Genus Triodopsis
 * Subgenus Crpytomastix
 * Genus Allogona
 * Subgenus Dysmedoma
 * Genus Vespericola
 * Family VI. Sagididae

INDEX

Part 1 (1946)

 * Title Page
 * Preface
 * New Subgenera, Species and Subspecies
 * SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT
 * Suborder Sigmurethra
 * Family VII. Bulimulidae
 * SUBFAMILIY BULIMULINAE
 * Genus Bulimulus
 * Genus Drymaeus
 * SUBFAMILIY ORTHALICINAE
 * Genus Orthalicus
 * Genus Liguus
 * Family VIII. Urocoptidae
 * SUBFAMILIY UROCOPTINAE
 * Genus Cochlodinella
 * SUBFAMILIY MICROCERAMINAE
 * Genus Microceramus
 * SUBFAMILIY HOLOSPIRINAE
 * Genus Holospira
 * Family IX. Cerionidae
 * Genus Cerion
 * Family X. Achatinidae
 * SUBFAMILIY SUBULININAE
 * Genus Rumina
 * Genus Subulina
 * Genus Lamellaxis
 * Genus Opeas
 * SUBFAMILIY FERUSSACTINAE
 * Genus Cecilioides
 * Family XI. Oleacinidae
 * Genus Euglandia
 * Genus Varicella
 * Family XII. Haplotremaidae
 * Genus Haplotrema
 * Family Testacellidae
 * Genus Testacella
 * Superfamily Aulacopoda
 * Family XIII. Zonitidae
 * SUBFAMILIY EUCONULINAE
 * Genus Euconulus
 * Genus Guppya
 * SUBFAMILIY ZONITINAE
 * Genus Oxychilus
 * Genus Retinella
 * Genus Mesomphix
 * Genus Vitrinizonites
 * Genus Paravitrea
 * Genus Pilsbryna
 * Genus Pristiloma
 * Genus Hawaiia
 * SUBFAMILIY GASTRODONTINAE
 * Genus Gastrodonta
 * Genus Clappiella
 * Genus Ventridens
 * Genus Zonitoides
 * Genus Striatura
 * SUBFAMILIY VITRININAE
 * Genus Vitrina

 * Supplement to Family Camenidae, Subfamily Ammonitellinae
 * Genus Megomphix

Index

Part 2 (1948)

 * Preface
 * INTRODUCTION: Classification--Catalogue of Species and Subspecies--Nomenclature--Geographic Distribution
 * SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT
 * Subclass Pulmonata (continued)
 * Order Stylommatophora
 * Suborder Sigmurethra
 * Family Helminthoglyptidae
 * Genus Sonorelix
 * Family XIV. Limacidae
 * SUBFAMILY LIMACINAE
 * Genus Limax
 * Genus Deroceras
 * SUBFAMIIY MILACINAE
 * Genus Milax
 * Family XV. Endodontidae
 * SUBFAMILY ENDODONTINAE
 * Genus Anguispira
 * Genus Discus
 * SUBFAMILY HELICODISCINAE
 * Genus Helicodiscus
 * SUBFAMILY PUNCTINAE
 * Genus Punctum
 * Genus Radiodiscus
 * Family XVI. Arionidae
 * SUBFAMILY ARIONINAE
 * Genus Arion
 * SUBFAMILY ANADENINAE
 * Genus Prophysaon
 * Genus Anadenulus
 * SUBFAMILY ARIOLIMACINAE
 * Genus Ariolimax
 * Genus Hesperarion
 * Genus Zacoleus
 * SUBFAMILIY BINNEYINAE
 * Genus Binneya
 * Genus Hemphillia
 * Family XVII. Philomycidae
 * Genus Philomycus
 * Genus Pallifera
 * Suborder Heterurethra
 * Family XVIII. Succineidae
 * Genus Oxyloma
 * Genus Succinea
 * Genus Quickella
 * Suborder Orthurethra
 * Family XIX. Strobilopsidae
 * Genus Strobilops
 * Family XX. Pupillidae
 * SUBFAMILY GASTROCOPTINAE
 * Genus Gastrocopta
 * Genus Chaenaxis
 * SUBFAMILY PUPILLINAE
 * Genus Pupoides
 * Genus Pupilla
 * SUBFAMILY VERTIGININAE
 * Genus Vertigo
 * Genus Columella
 * SUBFAMILY NESOPUPINAE
 * Genus Pupisoma
 * Genus Bothriopupa
 * Genus Sterkia
 * Family XXI. Vallonidae
 * Genus Vallonia
 * Genus Planogyra
 * Genus Zoogenetes
 * Family XXII. Cionellidae
 * Genus Cionella
 * Order Basommatophora
 * Family XXIII. Carychiidae
 * Genus Carychium
 * Order Systellommatophora
 * Family XXIV. Veronicellidae
 * Genus Veronicella
 * Subclass Prosobranchia
 * Order Mesogastropoda
 * Family XXV. Truncatellidae
 * Genus Truncatella
 * Family XXVI. Pomatiasidae
 * SUBFAMILY CHONDROPOMATINAE
 * Genus Chondropoma
 * Genus Opisthosiphon
 * Order Archaeogastropoda
 * Family XXVII. Helicinidae
 * Genus Helicina
 * Genus Lucidella
 * Genus Hendersonia


text:
Talk:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico)

Indexes
For reference, here are the Wikisource index pages of the scans:

 * Vol. I.
 * Part 1:
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. I Part 1 i-276.pdf
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. I Part 1 277-end.pdf
 * Part 2:
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. I Part 2 (1st half).pdf
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. I Part 2 (2nd half).pdf
 * Vol. II.
 * Part 1:
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. II Part 1 (1st half).pdf
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. II Part 1 (2nd half).pdf
 * Part 2:
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. II Part 2 (1st half).pdf
 * Index:Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) Vol. II Part 2 (2nd half).pdf

Each part had to be split in half because of file size limits.--Frglz (talk) 06:27, 15 December 2012 (UTC)

Page spliting
If a page need to be splitted between two sections. How are we going to include that? --Tomchiukc (talk) 09:07, 7 June 2018 (UTC)


text:
Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 1.djvu/159

119 10.

Years roll on years; to ages, ages yield;

Abbots to Abbots, in a line, succeed:

Religion's charter, their protecting shield,

Till royal sacrilege their doom decreed.

11.

One holy rear'd the Gothic walls,

And bade the pious inmates rest in peace;

Another the kind gift recalls,

And bids devotion's hallow'd echoes cease.

12.

Vain is each threat, or supplicating prayer;

He drives them exiles from their blest abode,

To roam a dreary world, in deep despair—

No friend, no home, no refuge, but their God.

13.

Hark! how the hall, resounding to the strain,

Shakes with the martial music's novel din!

The heralds of a warrior's haughty reign,

High crested banners wave thy walls within.


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120 14.

Of changing sentinels the distant hum,

The mirth of feasts, the clang of burnish'd arms,

The braying trumpet, and the hoarser drum,

Unite in concert with increas'd alarms.

15.

An abbey once, a regal fortress now,

Encircled by insulting rebel powers;

War's dread machines o'erhang thy threat'ning brow,

And dart destruction, in sulphureous showers.

16.

Ah! vain defence! the hostile traitor's siege,

Though oft repuls'd, by guile o'ercomes the brave;

His thronging foes oppress the faithful Liege,

Rebellion's reeking standards o'er him wave.

17.

Not unaveng'd the raging Baron yields;

The blood of traitors smears the purple plain;

Unconquer'd still, his falchion there he wields,

And days of glory, yet, for him remain.

18.

Still, in that hour, the warrior wish'd to strew

Self-gather'd laurels on a self-sought grave;

But Charles' protecting genius hither flew,

The monarch's friend, the monarch's hope, to save.


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Rh 19.

Trembling, she snatch'd him from th' unequal strife,

In other fields the torrent to repel;

For nobler combats, here, reserv'd his life,

To lead the band, where godlike fell.

20.

From thee, poor pile! to lawless plunder given,

While dying groans their painful requiem sound,

Far different incense, now, ascends to Heaven,

Such victims wallow on the gory ground.

21.

There many a pale and ruthless Robber's corse,

Noisome and ghast, defiles thy sacred sod;

O'er mingling man, and horse commix'd with horse,

Corruption's heap, the savage spoilers trod.

22.

Graves, long with rank and sighing weeds o'erspread,

Ransack'd resign, perforce, their mortal mould:

From ruffian fangs, escape not e'en the dead,

Racked from repose, in search for buried gold.


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122 23.

Hush'd is the harp, unstrung the warlike lyre,

The minstrel's palsied hand reclines in death;

No more he strikes the quivering chords with fire,

Or sings the glories of the martial wreath.

24.

At length the sated murderers, gorged with prey,

Retire: the clamour of the fight is o'er;

Silence again resumes her awful sway,

And sable Horror guards the massy door.

25.

Here, Desolation holds her dreary court:

What satellites declare her dismal reign!

Shrieking their dirge, ill-omen'd birds resort,

To flit their vigils, in the hoary fane.

26.

Soon a new Morn's restoring beams dispel

The clouds of Anarchy from Britain's skies;

The fierce Usurper seeks his native hell,

And Nature triumphs, as the Tyrant dies.

27.

With storms she welcomes his expiring groans;

Whirlwinds, responsive, greet his labouring breath;


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Rh Earth shudders, as her caves receive his bones,

Loathing the offering of so dark a death.

28.

The legal Ruler now resumes the helm,

He guides through gentle seas, the prow of state;

Hope cheers, with wonted smiles, the peaceful realm,

And heals the bleeding wounds of wearied Hate.

29.

The gloomy tenants, Newstead! of thy cells,

Howling, resign their violated nest;

Again, the Master on his tenure dwells,

Enjoy'd, from absence, with enraptured zest.

30.

Vassals, within thy hospitable pale,

Loudly carousing, bless their Lord's return;

Culture, again, adorns the gladdening vale,

And matrons, once lamenting, cease to mourn.

31.

A thousand songs, on tuneful echo, float,

Unwonted foliage mantles o'er the trees;


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124 And, hark! the horns proclaim a mellow note,

The hunters' cry hangs lengthening on the breeze.

32.

Beneath their coursers' hoofs the valleys shake;

What fears! what anxious hopes! attend the chase!

The dying stag seeks refuge in the lake;

Exulting shouts announce the finish'd race.

33.

Ah happy days! too happy to endure!

Such simple sports our plain forefathers knew:

No splendid vices glitter'd to allure;

Their joys were many, as their cares were few.

34.

From these descending, Sons to Sires succeed;

Time steals along, and Death uprears his dart;

Another Chief impels the foaming steed,

Another Crowd pursue the panting hart.

35.

Newstead! what saddening change of scene is thine!

Thy yawning arch betokens slow decay;

The last and youngest of a noble line,

Now holds thy mouldering turrets in his sway.

36.

Deserted now, he scans thy gray worn towers;

Thy vaults, where dead of feudal ages sleep;


text: United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/5th Congress/1st Session/Chapter 1


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Elegy on Newstead Abbey


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126 TO GEORGE, EARL DELAWARR.

1.

! yes, I will own we were dear to each other;

The friendships of childhood, though fleeting, are true;

The love which you felt was the love of a brother,

Nor less the affection I cherish'd for you.

2.

But Friendship can vary her gentle dominion;

The attachment of years, in a moment expires:

Like Love, too, she moves on a swift-waving pinion,

But glows not, like Love, with unquenchable fires.

3.

Full oft have we wander'd through Ida together,

And blest were the scenes of our youth, I allow:

In the spring of our life, how serene is the weather!

But Winter's rude tempests are gathering now.

4.

No more with Affection shall Memory blending,

The wonted delights of our childhood retrace:

When Pride steels the bosom, the heart is unbending,

And what would be Justice appears a disgrace.


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Rh 5.

However, dear George, for I still must esteem you—

The few, whom I love, I can never upbraid;

The chance, which has lost, may in future redeem you,

Repentance will cancel the vow you have made.

6.

I will not complain, and though chill'd is affection,

With me no corroding resentment shall live:

My bosom is calm'd by the simple reflection,

That both may be wrong, and that both should forgive.

7.

You knew, that my soul, that my heart, my existence,

If danger demanded, were wholly your own;

You knew me unalter'd, by years or by distance,

Devoted to love and to friendship alone.

8.

You knew,—but away with the vain retrospection!

The bond of affection no longer endures;

Too late you may droop o'er the fond recollection,

And sigh for the friend, who was formerly yours.


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 when by such an initial coincidence the two members have been particularized. The chances against these two selected members exhibiting another really independent homoplastic agreement are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1. The chances against yet another coincidence are a hundred million to one, and against yet one more “coincidence” they are the square of a hundred million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the coincidence is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions upon like material in two separate lines of descent.

So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation of a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite criterion of the simplicity due to degeneration, which can in most cases be applied. Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly distributed over all the structures of the organism. It affects many or nearly all the structures of the body, but leaves some, it may be only one, at a high level of elaboration and complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and does not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ. Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination of an isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms indicating the steps of a change in structure—and what we have to decide is whether the movement has been from the simple to the more complex, or from the more complex to the simple. The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient example of primitive and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of elaboration in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great eye-painted tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers with a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft and of uniform metallic coloration—or to the simple contour feathers of small size, with the usual symmetrical series of numerous rami right and left of the shaft and no remarkable colouring. The one-sided specialization and the peculiar metallic colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as the extreme terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry, likeness of constituent parts inter se, and absence of specialized pigment, as well as the fact that they differ little from any average feather of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.

Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida, we arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler Arachnids are not the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites are, in fact, a degenerate group. This was maintained by Lankester in 1878 (19), again in 1881 (20); it was subsequently announced as a novelty by Claus in 1885 (21). Though the aquatic members of a class of animals are in some instances derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from an aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no doubt, from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the aquatic water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by the Eurypterines and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have preceded the terrestrial air-breathing forms of that group. Hence we see at once that the better-known Arachnida form a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic creatures through scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate Acari or mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be regarded as degenerate since the concentration of structure which occurs in them results in greater efficiency and power than are exhibited by the scorpion. The determination of the relative degree of perfection of organization attained by two animals compared is difficult when we introduce, as seems inevitable, the question of efficiency and power, and do not confine the question to the perfection of morphological development. We have no measure of the degree of power manifested by various animals—though it would be possible to arrive at some conclusions as to how that “power” should be estimated. It is not possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content to point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and other large Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions directly, but have independently developed from aquatic ancestors, and from one of these independent groups—probably through the harvest-men from the spiders—the Acari have finally resulted.

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text:
Guantanamo facility will assist refugees in distress

=Guantanamo facility will assist refugees in distress= Story and photo by Army Sgt. Sarah Stannard JTF-GTMO Public Affairs Office

In an attempt to front load operations centered on a possible influx of Caribbean refugees bound for the United States, representatives from Joint Task Force (JTF) - Guantanamo along with delegates from U.S Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, U.S. Southern Command and U.S. Department of Homeland Security met last week to discuss the current migrant incident plan and the ongoing construction of the migrant operations facilities here.

The $16.5 million dollar construction project, which is currently about 20 percent complete, will be Guantanamo’s “insurance policy for a regional contingency,” Navy Capt. Bill Vaughan, director of engineering, told the group.

$750,000 dollars recently spent on Guantanamo’s leeward side was to upgrade the existing electrical systems. Though the camp’s initial site will use existing water and sewage systems, new showers, toilet and laundry facilities will be built. A wastewater treatment facility with a maximum processing capacity of 300,000 gallons per day will be built, as well as approximately 25 latrines, which can double as hurricane shelters.

This project, which has recently been reported in the mainstream press as preparation for a post-Castro Cuba, will actually serve as a regional asset to temporarily house not only political and economic asylum seekers, but victims of natural disasters and other unforeseen events.

With the Naval Station’s advantageous placement inside the Caribbean – though not on U.S. soil – the migrant facility will be well-suited to house refugees who have been displaced long term by hurricanes or floods that have caused major damage to the infrastructure of their home countries. Likewise, with Cuba central among six Caribbean nations reported by Transparency International to be in the top 20 of the most corrupt governments in the world, Guantanamo’s location is strategically important to the plan for interdiction of migrants seeking political or economic amnesty.

Presently, the U.S. Coast Guard intercepts about 600 refugees at sea every month, and estimates that another 50 reach U.S. soil weekly. Should there be a mass migration in the Caribbean for any reason, the Coast Guard estimates an average flow rate of about 3,000 migrants per week.

The Joint Task Force will be responsible for two key phases of the migrant facility operation. Personnel will conduct both the “precrisis” and “initiate camp build” phases as soon as the migrant population approaches exceeds capacity at Guantanamo. (Normally, Guantanamo houses around 30 migrants at any given time.)

At that time, Joint Task Force Troopers will mobilize to Guantanamo’s leeward side and commence erecting housing tents in and around the infrastructure which is currently being prepared.

The Joint Task Force will sustain operations for about two weeks, while follow-on forces are mobilized. The JTF deputy commanding general, Army Brig. Gen. Cameron Crawford, will assume temporary command of this operation.

The Joint Task Force is fully prepared for such an eventuality with both sufficient manpower and leadership, but some Trooper liberties may be limited during the operation while under initial JTF command according to Marine Maj. Michael Lynch, JTF operational plans officer.


text: Talk:Guantanamo facility will assist refugees in distress


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/To George, Earl Delawarr


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NLY the Swans that day Saw the high maker of our thoughts embark And o the Lake Mysterious fade away In the black ship that crosses to the dark.

The poet's robe was his, Embroidered with illustrious fleurs-de-lys; And laurel leaf and thorn His sad prefigured forehead did adorn.

Afar God's City rose, Where everlasting Peace her throne has reared Above the poppy-meadows of repose; And as the coast of his desire he neared, He proved divine delight, knew grace untold, Beheld the Cross uplifted and, before That sacred Conqueror, The fallen Sphinx, a corpse already cold.

33]

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The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Damætas

Дамет (Байрон/Блок)


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text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Lachin y Gair


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Remembrance


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 {| .—The alimentary canal and gastric glands of a scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B). Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with the systematic statement of the characters of the various groups of Arachnida which follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider the following question, viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are such highly developed and specialized forms, and that they seem to constitute as it were the first and second steps in the series of recognized Arachnida—what do we know, or what are we led to suppose with regard to the more primitive Arachnida from which the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have sprung? Do we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but prompted by the analogy of at least one other great class of Arthropods. The great Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents to the zoologist at the present day an immense range of forms, comprising the primitive phyllopods, the minute copepods, the parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and lobsters, and the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has been insisted, by those who accepted Lankester’s original doctrine of the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, that Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the ancestral forms which connected those two great branches of Appendiculate (Parapodiate) animals. On the other hand, the land crabs are at an immense distance from these simple forms. The record of the Crustacean family-tree is, in fact, a fairly complete one—the lower primitive members of the group are still represented by living forms in great abundance. In the case of the Arachnida, if we have to start their genealogical history with Limulus and Scorpio, we are much in the same position as we should be in dealing with the Crustacea, were the whole of the Entomostraca and the whole of the Arthrostraca wiped out of existence and record. There is no possibility of doubt that the series of forms corresponding in the Arachnidan line of descent, to the forms distinguished in the Crustacean line of descent as the lower grade—the Entomostraca—have ceased to exist, and not only so, but have left little evidence in the form of fossils as to their former existence and nature. It must, however, be admitted as probable that we should find some evidence, in ancient rocks or in the deep sea, of the early more primitive Arachnids. And it must be remembered that such forms must be expected to exhibit, when found, differences from Limulus and Scorpio as great as those which separate Apus and Cancer. The existing Arachnida, like the higher Crustacea, are “nomomeristic,” that is to say, have a fixed typical number of somites to the body. Further, they are like the higher Crustacea, “somatotagmic,” that is to say, they have this limited set of somites grouped in three (or more) “tagmata” or regions of a fixed number of similarly modified somites—each tagma differing in the modification of its fixed number of somites from that characterizing a neighbouring “tagma.” The most primitive among the lower Crustacea, on the other hand, for example, the Phyllopoda, have not a fixed number of somites, some genera—even allied species—have more, some less, within wide limits; they are “anomomeristic.” They also, as is generally the case with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity to a fixed plan of “tagmatism” or division of the somites of the body into regions sharply marked off from one another; the head or prosomatic tagma is followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in character as we pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They are anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.
 * 1911 Britannica-Arachnida-Lankester2.png
 * }

When it is admitted—as seems to be reasonable—that the primitive Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be anomomeristic and anomotagmic, we shall not demand of claimants for the rank of primitive Arachnids agreement with Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact number of their somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and when we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of the appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of (q.v.), we shall not over-estimate a difference in the form of this or that appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with the higher Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the claim of the extinct group of the trilobites to be considered as representatives of the lower and more primitive steps in the Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems, receive a favourable judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that they have only a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair being definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is to be the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural coincidence. On the contrary, this particular point is one in which they agree with the higher Arachnida. But little is known of the structure of these extinct animals; we are therefore compelled to deal with such special points of resemblance and difference as their remains still exhibit. They had lateral eyes which resemble no known eyes so closely as the lateral eyes of Limulus. The general form and structure of their prosomatic carapace are in many striking features identical with that of Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body—due to the expansion and flattening of the sides or “pleura” of the tegumentary skeleton—is so closely repeated in the young of Limulus that the latter has been called “the trilobite stage” of Limulus (fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No Crustacean exhibits this trilobite form. But most important of the evidences presented by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and therefore with the Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some, strongly carried out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield—a fusion of the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely identical in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When to this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to a large size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and Scorpio, and that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are frequent as in Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion of somites nor post-anal spine, nor lateral pleural spines are found in any Crustacean, nor all three together in any Arthropod besides the trilobites and Limulus—the claim of the trilobites to be considered as representing one order of a lower grade of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the Crustacea, seems to be established.

The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of trilobites, known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular case a pair of uni-ramose antennae—does not render the association of trilobites and Arachnids improbable. Although the prae-oral pair of appendages in the higher Arachnida is usually chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it is not so; nor in many Acari. The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral limbs, demonstrated by Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more inconsistent with its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the foliaceous modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as Gammarus and Oniscus.

Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The simple anomomeristic trilobite, with its equi-formal somites and equi-formal appendages, is one term of the series which ends in the even more simple but degenerate Acari. Between the two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as morphological differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to it in the trilobite’s direction (that is, on the ascending side) are Limulus and the Eurypterines—with a long gap, due to obliteration of the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the

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Rh 9.

Yes, once the rural Scene was sweet,

For Nature seem'd to smile before thee;

And once my Breast abhorr'd deceit,—

For then it beat but to adore thee.

10.

But, now, I seek for other joys—

To think, would drive my soul to madness;

In thoughtless throngs, and empty noise,

I conquer half my Bosom's sadness.

11.

Yet, even in these, a thought will steal,

In spite of every vain endeavour;

And fiends might pity what I feel—

To know that thou art lost for ever.

WHEN I ROVED A YOUNG HIGHLANDER.

1.

I rov'd a young Highlander o'er the dark heath,

And climb'd thy steep summit, oh Morven of snow!


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192 To gaze on the torrent that thunder'd beneath,

Or the mist of the tempest that gather'd below;

Untutor'd by science, a stranger to fear,

And rude as the rocks, where my infancy grew,

No feeling, save one, to my bosom was dear;

Need I say, my sweet Mary, 'twas centred in you?

2.

Yet it could not be Love, for I knew not the name,—

What passion can dwell in the heart of a child?

But, still, I perceive an emotion the same

As I felt, when a boy, on the crag-cover'd wild:


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Rh One image, alone, on my bosom impress'd,

I lov'd my bleak regions, nor panted for new;

And few were my wants, for my wishes were bless'd,

And pure were my thoughts, for my soul was with you.

3.

I arose with the dawn, with my dog as my guide,

From mountain to mountain I bounded along;

I breasted the billows of Dee's rushing tide,

And heard at a distance the Highlander's song:

At eve, on my heath-cover'd couch of repose,

No dreams, save of Mary, were spread to my view;

And warm to the skies my devotions arose,

For the first of my prayers was a blessing on you.

4.

I left my bleak home, and my visions are gone;

The mountains are vanish'd, my youth is no more;

As the last of my race, I must wither alone,

And delight but in days, I have witness'd before:

Ah! splendour has rais'd, but embitter'd my lot;

More dear were the scenes which my infancy knew:

Though my hopes may have fail'd, yet they are not forgot,

Though cold is my heart, still it lingers with you.


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194 5.

When I see some dark hill point its crest to the sky,

I think of the rocks that o'ershadow Colbleen;

When I see the soft blue of a love-speaking eye,

I think of those eyes that endear'd the rude scene;

When, haply, some light-waving locks I behold,

That faintly resemble my Mary's in hue,

I think on the long flowing ringlets of gold,

The locks that were sacred to beauty, and you.

6.

Yet the day may arrive, when the mountains once more

Shall rise to my sight, in their mantles of snow;

But while these soar above me, unchang'd as before,

Will Mary be there to receive me?—ah, no!

Adieu, then, ye hills, where my childhood was bred!

Thou sweet flowing Dee, to thy waters adieu!

No home in the forest shall shelter my head,—

Ah! Mary, what home could be mine, but with you?

TO THE DUKE OF DORSET.

! whose early steps with mine have stray'd,

Exploring every path of Ida's glade;


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200 TO THE EARL OF CLARE.

Tu semper amoris

Sis memor, et cari comitis ne abscedat imago.

. Argonaut, iv. 36.

1.

of my youth! when young we rov'd,

Like striplings, mutually belov'd,

With Friendship's purest glow;

The bliss, which wing'd those rosy hours,

Was such as Pleasure seldom showers

On mortals here below.

2.

The recollection seems, alone,

Dearer than all the joys I've known,

When distant far from you:

Though pain, 'tis still a pleasing pain,

To trace those days and hours again,

And sigh again, adieu!

3.

My pensive mem'ry lingers o'er,

Those scenes to be enjoy'd no more,

Those scenes regretted ever;

The measure of our youth is full,

Life's evening dream is dark and dull,

And we may meet—ah! never!


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N the following paper I wish, first, to maintain that the word "cause" is so inextricably bound up with misleading associations as to make its complete extrusion from the philosophical vocabulary desirable; secondly, to inquire what principle, if any, is employed in science in place of the supposed "law of causality" which philosophers imagine to be employed; thirdly, to exhibit certain confusions, especially in regard to teleology and determinism, which appear to me to be connected with erroneous notions as to causality.

All philosophers, of every school, imagine that causation is one of the fundamental axioms or postulates of science, yet, oddly enough, in advanced sciences such as gravitational astronomy, the word "cause" never occurs. Dr. James Ward, in his Naturalism and Agnosticism, makes this a ground of complaint against physics: the business of those who wish to ascertain the ultimate truth about the world, he apparently thinks, should be the discovery of causes, yet physics never even seeks them. To me it seems that philosophy ought not to assume such legislative functions, and that the reason why physics has ceased to look for causes is that, in fact, there are no such things. The law of causality, I believe, like much that passes muster among philosophers, is a relic of a bygone age, surviving, like the monarchy, only because it is erroneously supposed to do no harm.


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Rh In order to find out what philosophers commonly understand by "cause," I consulted Baldwin's Dictionary, and was rewarded beyond my expectations, for I found the following three mutually incompatible definitions:—

". (I) The necessary connection of events in the time-series. . ..

" (notion of). Whatever may be included in the thought or perception of a process as taking place in consequence of another process. . ..

". (I) Cause and effect . . . are correlative terms denoting any two distinguishable things, phases, or aspects of reality, which are so related to each other that whenever the first ceases to exist the second comes into existence immediately after, and whenever the second comes into existence the first has ceased to exist immediately before."

Let us consider these three definitions in turn. The first, obviously, is unintelligible without a definition of "necessary." Under this head, Baldwin's Dictionary gives the following:—

". That is necessary which not only is true, but would be true under all circumstances. Something more than brute compulsion is, therefore, involved in the conception; there is a general law under which the thing takes place."

The notion of cause is so intimately connected with that of necessity that it will be no digression to linger over the above definition, with a view to discovering, if possible, some meaning of which it is capable; for, as it stands, it is very far from having any definite signification.

The first point to notice is that, if any meaning is to be given to the phrase "would be true under all circumstances," the subject of it must be a propositional


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182, not a proposition. A proposition is simply true or false, and that ends the matter: there can be no question of "circumstances." "Charles I's head was cut off" is just as true in summer as in winter, on Sundays as on Mondays. Thus when it is worth saying that something "would be true under all circumstances," the something in question must be a propositional function, i.e. an expression containing a variable, and becoming a proposition when a value is assigned to the variable; the varying "circumstances" alluded to are then the different values of which the variable is capable. Thus if "necessary" means "what is true under all circumstances," then "if x is a man, x is mortal" is necessary, because it is true for any possible value of x. Thus we should be led to the following definition:—

" is a predicate of a propositional function, meaning that it is true for all possible values of its argument or arguments."

Unfortunately, however, the definition in Baldwin's Dictionary says that what is necessary is not only "true under all circumstances" but is also "true." Now these two are incompatible. Only propositions can be "true," and only propositional functions can be "true under all circumstances" Hence the definition as it stands is nonsense. What is meant seems to be this: "A proposition is necessary when it is a value of a propositional function which is true under all circumstances, i.e. for all values of its argument or arguments." But if we adopt this definition, the same proposition will be necessary or contingent according as we choose one or other of its