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Rh that I have not and never had the necessary temperament, that, moreover, the necessary temperament is not to be had by any effort of will power, depending rather upon "the influence of the unknown powers." But I am not totally blind, nor was I in the old days when, many as were the things I did not see, my eyes were still open to the effect of social opposition on Catholics with the temperament. It made them more devout, at times more defiant. I know churches that are in themselves alone a reward for faith and fidelity—who would not be a Catholic in the dim religious light of Chartres Cathedral, or in the sombre splendours of Seville and Barcelona? But St. Joseph's and St. Mary's, St. Patrick's and St. John's gave no such reward, nor did the Cathedral in its far-away imitation of the Jesuit churches of Italy and France. In these arid, unemotional interiors, emotion could not kindle piety which, if not fed by more spiritual stuff, was bound to flicker and go out. This is why the Philadelphian who, in those unattractive churches and in spite of the social price paid, remained faithful, was the most devout Catholic I have ever met at home or in my wanderings.

V

For his spiritual welfare, it might have been better had the conditions remained as I knew them. But even at that period, the signs of weakening in the social barrier must have jumped to my eyes had I had eyes for the fine


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 surprised that many widespread forms in either continent have not crossed into the other; and that while the skunks (Mephitis), the pouched rats (Saccomyidae), and the turkeys (Meleagris) are confined to America, the pigs and the hedgehogs, the true flycatchers and the pheasants are found only in the Euro-Asiatic continent. But, just as there have been periods which facilitated intermigration between America and the Old World, there have almost certainly been periods, perhaps of long duration even geologically, when these continents have been separated by seas as wide as, or even wider than, those of the present day; and thus may be explained such curious anomalies as the origination of the camel-tribe in America, and its entrance into Asia in comparatively recent Tertiary times, while the introduction of oxen and bears into America from the Euro-Asiatic continent appears to have been equally recent.

We shall find on examination that this view of the general permanence of the oceanic and continental areas, with constant minor fluctuations of land and sea over the whole extent of the latter, enables us to understand, and offer a rational explanation of, most of the difficult problems of geographical distribution; and further, that our power of doing this is in direct proportion to our acquaintance with the distribution of fossil forms of life during the Tertiary period. We must, also, take due note of many other facts of almost equal importance for a due appreciation of the problems presented for solution, the most essential being, the various powers of dispersal possessed by the different groups of animals and plants, the geological antiquity of the species and genera, and the width and depth of the seas which separate the countries they, inhabit. A few illustrations will now be given of the way in which these branches of knowledge enable us to deal with the difficulties and anomalies that present themselves.

This singular and lowly organised type of mammals constitutes almost the sole representative of the class in Australia

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 and New Guinea, while it is entirely unknown in Asia, Africa, or Europe. It reappears in America, where several species of opossums are found; and it was long thought necessary to postulate a direct southern connection of these distant countries, in order to account for this curious fact of distribution. When, however, we look to what is known of the geological history of the marsupials the difficulty vanishes. In the Upper Eocene deposits of Western Europe the remains of several animals closely allied to the American opossums have been found; and as, at this period, a very mild climate prevailed far up into the arctic regions, there is no difficulty in supposing that the ancestors of the group entered America from Europe or Northern Asia during early Tertiary times.

But we must go much further back for the origin of the Australian marsupials. All the chief types of the higher mammalia were in existence in the Eocene, if not in the preceding Cretaceous period, and as we find none of these in Australia, that country must have been finally separated from the Asiatic continent during the Secondary or Mesozoic period. Now during that period, in the Upper and the Lower Oolite and in the still older Trias, the jaw-bones of numerous small mammalia have been found, forming eight distinct genera, which are believed to have been either marsupials or some allied lowly forms. In North America also, in beds of the Jurassic and Triassic formations, the remains of an equally great variety of these small mammalia have been discovered; and from the examination of more than sixty specimens, belonging to at least six distinct genera, Professor Marsh is of opinion that they represent a generalised type, from which the more specialised marsupials and insectivora were developed.

From the fact that very similar mammals occur both in Europe and America at corresponding periods, and in beds which represent a long succession of geological time, and that during the whole of this time no fragments of any higher forms have been discovered, it seems probable that both the northern continents (or the larger portion of their area) were then inhabited by no other mammalia than these, with perhaps other equally low types. It was, probably, not later than the Jurassic age when some of these primitive marsupials were able to enter Australia, where they have since


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 remained almost completely isolated; and, being free from the competition of higher forms, they have developed into the great variety of types we now behold there. These occupy the place, and have to some extent acquired the form and structure of distinct orders of the higher mammals—the rodents, the insectivora, and the carnivora,—while still preserving the essential characteristics and lowly organisation of the marsupials. At a much later period—probably in late Tertiary times—the ancestors of the various species of rats and mice which now abound in Australia, and which, with the aerial bats, constitute its only forms of placental mammals, entered the country from some of the adjacent islands. For this purpose a land connection was not necessary, as these small creatures might easily be conveyed among the branches or in the crevices of trees uprooted by floods and carried down to the sea, and then floated to a shore many miles distant. That no actual land connection with, or very close approximation to, an Asiatic island has occurred in recent times, is sufficiently proved by the fact that no squirrel, pig, civet, or other widespread mammal of the Eastern hemisphere has been able to reach the Australian continent.

These curious animals form one of the puzzles of geographical distribution, being now confined to two very remote regions of the globe—the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands of Sumatra and Borneo, inhabited by one species, and tropical America, where there are three or four species, ranging from Brazil to Ecuador and Guatemala. If we considered these living forms only, we should be obliged to speculate on enormous changes of land and sea in order that these tropical animals might have passed from one country to the other. But geological discoveries have rendered all such hypothetical changes unnecessary. During Miocene and Pliocene times tapirs abounded over the whole of Europe and Asia, their remains having been found in the tertiary deposits of France, India, Burmah, and China. In both North and South America fossil remains of tapirs occur only in caves and deposits of Post-Pliocene age, showing that they are comparatively recent immigrants into that continent. They perhaps


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 entered by the route of Kamchatka and Alaska, where the climate, even now so much milder and more equable than on the north-east of America, might have been warm enough in late Pliocene times to have allowed the migration of these animals. In Asia they were driven southwards by the competition of numerous higher and more powerful forms, but have found a last resting-place in the swampy forests of the Malay region.

Now these two cases, of the marsupials and the tapirs, are in the highest degree instructive, because they show us that, without any hypothetical bridging of deep oceans, and with only such changes of sea and land as are indicated by the extent of the comparatively shallow seas surrounding and connecting the existing continents, we are able to account for the anomaly of allied forms occurring only in remote and widely separated areas. These examples really constitute crucial tests, because, of all classes of animals, mammalia are least able to surmount physical barriers. They are obviously unable to pass over wide arms of the sea, while the necessity for constant supplies of food and water renders sandy deserts or snow-clad plains equally impassable. Then, again, the peculiar kinds of food on which alone many of them can subsist, and their liability to the attacks of other animals, put a further check upon their migrations. In these respects almost all other organisms have great advantages over mammals. Birds can often fly long distances, and can thus cross arms of the sea, deserts, or mountain ranges; insects not only fly, but are frequently carried great distances by gales of wind, as shown by the numerous cases of their visits to ships hundreds of miles from land. Reptiles, though slow of movement, have advantages in their greater capacity for enduring hunger or thirst, their power of resisting cold or drought in a state of torpidity, and they have also some facilities for migration across the sea by means of their eggs, which may be conveyed in crevices of timber or among masses of floating vegetable matter. And when we come to the vegetable kingdom, the means of transport are at their maximum, numbers of seeds having special adaptations


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200 shades. Catholics among themselves had begun to put up social barriers, so much further had Philadelphia travelled on the road to liberty.

Religiously, one of their churches was as good as another, but not socially. St. Mark's, from its superior Episcopal heights, might look down equally upon St. Patrick's and St. John's, but the Catholic with a pew at St. John's did not at all look upon the Catholic with a seat at St. Patrick's as on the same social level as himself. St. Patrick's name alone was sufficient to attract an Irish congregation, and the Irish who then flocked to Philadelphia were not the flower of Ireland's aristocracy. St. John's, by some unnamed right, claimed the Catholics of social pretensions—the excellence of its music may have strengthened its claim. I know that my Father, who was a religious man, did not object to having the comfort of religion strengthened by the charms of Gounod's Mass well sung, and, at the last, he drifted from the Cathedral to St. John's.

The Cathedral necessarily was above such distinctions, as a Cathedral should be, and it harboured an overflow from St. Patrick's and St. John's both. But it was the Cathedral, rather than St. John's, that did most to weaken the foundations of the social prejudice against the Catholic. The Bishop there was Bishop Wood, and Bishop Wood, like my Father a convert, was no Irish emigrant, no Italian missionary, but came from the same old family of


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 for being carried by mammalia or birds, and for floating in the water, or through the air, while many are so small and so light that there is practically no limit to the distances they may be carried by gales and hurricanes.

We may, therefore, feel quite certain that the means of distribution that have enabled the larger mammalia to reach the most remote regions from a common starting-point, will be at least as efficacious, and usually far more efficacious, with all other land animals and plants; and if in every case the existing distribution of this class can be explained on the theory of oceanic and continental permanence, with the limited changes of sea and land already referred to, no valid objections can be taken against this theory founded on anomalies of distribution in other orders. Yet nothing is more common than for students of this or that group to assort that the theory of oceanic permanence is quite inconsistent with the distribution of its various species and genera. Because a few Indian genera and closely allied species of birds are found in Madagascar, a land termed "Lemuria" has been supposed to have united the two countries during a comparatively recent geological epoch; while the similarity of fossil plants and reptiles, from the Permian and Miocene formations of India and South Africa, has been adduced as further evidence of this connection. But there are also genera of snakes, of insects, and of plants, common to Madagascar and South America only, which have been held to necessitate a direct land connection between these countries. These views evidently refute themselves, because any such land connections must have led to a far greater similarity in the productions of the several countries than actually exists, and would besides render altogether inexplicable the absence of all the chief types of African and Indian mammalia from Madagascar, and its marvellous individuality in every department of the organic world.

Having arrived at the conclusion that our existing oceans have remained practically unaltered throughout the Tertiary and Secondary periods of geology, and that the distribution of the


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 mammalia is such as might have been brought about by their known powers of dispersal, and by such changes of land and sea as have probably or certainly occurred, we are, of course, restricted to similar causes to explain the much wider and sometimes more eccentric distribution of other classes of animals and of plants. In doing so, we have to rely partly on direct evidence of dispersal, afforded by the land organisms that have been observed far out at sea, or which have taken refuge on ships, as well as by the periodical visitants to remote islands; but very largely on indirect evidence, afforded by the frequent presence of certain groups on remote oceanic islands, which some ancestral forms must, therefore, have reached by transmission across the ocean from distant lands.

These vary much in their powers of flight, and their capability of traversing wide seas and oceans. Many swimming and wading birds can continue long on the wing, fly swiftly, and have, besides, the power of resting safely on the surface of the water. These would hardly be limited by any width of ocean, except for the need of food; and many of them, as the gulls, petrels, and divers, find abundance of food on the surface of the sea itself. These groups have a wide distribution across the oceans; while waders—especially plovers, sandpipers, snipes, and herons—are equally cosmopolitan, travelling along the coasts of all the continents, and across the narrow seas which separate them. Many of these birds seem unaffected by climate, and as the organisms on which they feed are equally abundant on arctic, temperate, and tropical shores, there is hardly any limit to the range even of some of the species.

Land-birds are much more restricted in their range, owing to their usually limited powers of flight, their inability to rest on the surface of the sea or to obtain food from it, and their greater specialisation, which renders them less able to maintain themselves in the new countries they may occasionally reach. Many of them are adapted to live only in woods, or in marshes, or in deserts; they need particular kinds of food or a limited range of temperature; and they are adapted to cope only with the special enemies or the particular group of


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 competitors among which they have been developed. Such birds as these may pass again and again to a new country, but are never able to establish themselves in it; and it is this organic barrier, as it is termed, rather than any physical barrier, which, in many cases, determines the presence of a species in one area and its absence from another. We must always remember, therefore, that, although the presence of a species in a remote oceanic island clearly proves that its ancestors must at one time have found their way there, the absence of a species does not prove the contrary, since it also may have reached the island, but have been unable to maintain itself, owing to the inorganic or organic conditions not being suitable to it. This general principle applies to all classes of organisms, and there are many striking illustrations of it. In the Azores there are eighteen species of land-birds which are permanent residents, but there are also several others which reach the islands almost every year after great storms, but have never been able to establish themselves. In Bermuda the facts are still more striking, since there are only ten species of resident birds, while no less than twenty other species of land-birds and more than a hundred species of waders and aquatics are frequent visitors, often in great numbers, but are never able to establish themselves. On the same principle we account for the fact that, of the many continental insects and birds that have been let loose, or have escaped from confinement, in this country, hardly one has been able to maintain itself, and the same phenomenon is still more striking in the case of plants. Of the thousands of hardy plants which grow easily in our gardens, very few have ever run wild, and when the experiment is purposely tried it invariably fails. Thus A. de Candolle informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has any one of them become naturalised. Still more, then, in plants than in animals the absence of a species does not prove that it has never reached the locality, but merely that it has not been able to maintain itself in


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 with the native productions. In other cases, as we have seen, facts of an exactly opposite nature occur. The rat, the pig, and the rabbit, the water-cress, the clover, and many other plants, when introduced into New Zealand, flourish exceedingly, and even exterminate their native competitors; so that in these cases we may feel sure that the species in question did not exist in New Zealand simply because they had been unable to reach that country by their natural means of dispersal. I will now give a few cases, in addition to those recorded in my previous works, of birds and insects which have been observed far from any land.

Captain D. Fullarton of the ship Timaru recorded in his log the occurrence of a great number of small land-birds about the ship on 15th March 1886, when in Lat. 48° 31' N., Long. 8° 16' W. He says: "A great many small land-birds about us; put about sixty into a coop, evidently tired out." And two days later, 17th March, "Over fifty of the birds cooped on 15th died, though fed. Sparrows, finches, water-wagtails, two small birds, name unknown, one kind like a linnet, and a large bird like a starling. In all there have been on board over seventy birds, besides some that hovered about us for some time and then fell into the sea exhausted." Easterly winds and severe weather were experienced at the time. The spot where this remarkable flight of birds was met with is about 160 miles due west of Brest, and this is the least distance the birds must have been carried. It is interesting to note that the position of the ship is nearly in the line from the English and French coasts to the Azores, where, after great storms, so many bird stragglers arrive annually. These birds were probably blown out to sea during their spring migration along the south coast of England to Wales and Ireland. During the autumnal migration, however, great flocks of birds—especially starlings, thrushes, and fieldfares—have been observed every year flying out to sea from the west coast of Ireland, almost the whole of which must perish. At the Nash Lighthouse, in the Bristol Channel on the coast of Glamorganshire, an enormous number of small birds were observed on 3d September,


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 nightjars, buntings, white-throats, willow-wrens, cuckoos, house-sparrows, robins, wheatears, and blackbirds. These had probably crossed from Somersetshire, and had they been caught by a storm the larger portion of them must have been blown out to sea.

These facts enable us to account sufficiently well for the birds of oceanic islands, the number and variety of which are seen to be proportionate to their facilities for reaching the island and maintaining themselves in it. Thus, though more birds yearly reach Bermuda than the Azores, the number of residents in the latter islands is much larger, due to the greater extent of the islands, their number, and their more varied surface. In the Galapagos the land-birds are still more numerous, due in part to their larger area and greater proximity to the continent, but chiefly to the absence of storms, so that the birds which originally reached the islands have remained long isolated and have developed into many closely allied species adapted to the special conditions. All the species of the Galapagos but one are peculiar to the islands, while the Azores possess only one peculiar species, and Bermuda none—a fact which is clearly due to the continual immigration of fresh individuals keeping up the purity of the breed by intercrossing. In the Sandwich Islands, which are extremely isolated, being more than 2000 miles from any continent or large island, we have a condition of things similar to what prevails in the Galapagos, the land-birds, eighteen in number, being all peculiar, and belonging, except one, to peculiar genera. These birds have probably all descended from three or four original types which reached the islands at some remote period, probably by means of intervening islets that have since disappeared. In St. Helena we have a degree of permanent isolation which has prevented any land-birds from reaching the island; for although its distance from the continent, 1100 miles, is not so great as in the case of the Sandwich Islands, it is situated in an ocean almost entirely destitute of small islands, while its position within the tropics renders it free from violent storms. Neither is there, on the nearest part of the coast of Africa, a perpetual stream of migrating birds like that which


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 supplies the innumerable stragglers which every year reach Bermuda and the Azores.

Winged insects have been mainly dispersed in the same way as birds, by their power of flight, aided by violent or long-continued winds. Being so small, and of such low specific gravity, they are occasionally carried to still greater distances; and thus no islands, however remote, are altogether without them. The eggs of insects, being often deposited in borings or in crevices of timber, may have been conveyed long distances by floating trees, as may the larvae of those species which feed on wood. Several cases have been published of insects coming on board ships at great distances from land; and Darwin records having caught a large grasshopper when the ship was 370 miles from the coast of Africa, whence the insect had probably come.

In the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine for June 1885, Mr. MacLachlan has recorded the occurrence of a swarm of moths in the Atlantic ocean, from the log of the ship Pleione. The vessel was homeward bound from New Zealand, and in Lat. 6° 47' N., Long. 32° 50' W., hundreds of moths appeared about the ship, settling in numbers on the spars and rigging. The wind for four days previously had been very light from north, north-west, or north-east, and sometimes calm. The north-east trade wind occasionally extends to the ship's position at that time of year. The captain adds that "frequently, in that part of the ocean, he has had moths and butterflies come on board." The position is 960 miles south-west of the Cape Verde Islands, and about 440 north-east of the South American coast. The specimen preserved is Deiopeia pulchella, a very common species in dry localities in the Eastern tropics, and rarely found in Britain, but, Mr. MacLachlan thinks, not found in South America. They must have come, therefore, from the Cape Verde Islands, or from some parts of the African coast, and must have traversed about a thousand miles of ocean with the assistance, no doubt, of a strong north-east trade wind for a great part of the distance. In the British Museum collection there is a specimen of the same moth caught at sea during the voyage of the Rattlesnake,


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Rh Friends as J. Some people think that Quakerism and Catholicism are more in sympathy with each other than with other creeds because neither recognizes any half way, each going to a logical extreme. Whether Bishop Wood thought so, I am far from sure, but he had himself gone from one extreme to the other when he became a Catholic, and the religious step had its social bearing. With his splendid presence and splendid voice, he must have added dignity to every service at the Cathedral, but he did more than that: in Philadelphia eyes he gave it the sanction of Philadelphia respectability. The Catholic was no longer quite without Philadelphia's social pale.

I had no opportunity, because of my long absence, to watch the gradual breakdown, but I saw that the barrier had fallen when I got back to Philadelphia. Never again will Philadelphia children think they are doing an odd thing when they go to Mass, never again need the Philadelphia girl fresh from the Convent fancy herself alone in the yawning gulf of evil that opens at the Convent gate. I should not be surprised if an eligible man from the Dancing Class or Assembly list can today be picked up at the door of more than one Catholic church for the Sunday Walk on Walnut Street. St. John's has risen, new and resplendent, if ugly, from its ashes; St. Patrick's has blossomed forth from its architectural insignificance into an imposing Romanesque structure. The Cathedral has


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204 been new swept and garnished—not so large perhaps as I once saw it, for I have been to St. Paul's and St. Peter's and many a Jesuit church in the meanwhile, but more ornate, with altars and decorations that I knew not, and with Mr. Henry Thouron's design on one wall as a promise of further beauty to come. The difference confronted me at every step—and saddened me, though I could not deny that it meant improvement. But the change, as change, displeased me in a Philadelphia that ceases to be my Philadelphia when it ceases to preserve its old standards and prejudices as jealously as its old monuments. For the sake of the character I loved, I could wish Philadelphia as far as ever from hope of salvation by anything save its own invincible ignorance.


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 in Lat. 6° N., Long. 22½° W., being between the former position and Sierra Leone, thus rendering it probable that the moths came from that part of the African coast, in which case the swarm encountered by the Pleione must have travelled more than 1200 miles.

A similar case was recorded by Mr. F.A. Lucas in the American periodical Science of 8th April 1887. He states that in 1870 he met with numerous moths of many species while at sea in the South Atlantic (Lat. 25° S., Long. 24° W.), about 1000 miles from the coast of Brazil. As this position is just beyond the south-east trades, the insects may have been brought from the land by a westerly gale. In the Zoologist (1864, p. 8920) is the record of a small longicorn beetle which flew on board a ship 500 miles off the west coast of Africa. Numerous other cases are recorded of insects at less distances from land, and, taken in connection with those already given, they are sufficient to show that great numbers must be continually carried out to sea, and that occasionally they are able to reach enormous distances. But the reproductive powers of insects are so great that all we require, in order to stock a remote island, is that some few specimens shall reach it even once in a century, or once in a thousand years.

Equally important is the proof we possess that insects are often carried to great altitudes by upward currents of air. Humboldt noticed them up to heights of 15,000 and 18,000 feet in South America, and Mr. Albert Müller has collected many interesting cases of the same character in Europe. A moth (Plusia gamma) has been found on the summit of Mont Blanc; small hymenoptera and moths have been seen on the Pyrenees at a height of 11,000 feet, while numerous flies and beetles, some of considerable size, have been caught on the glaciers and snow-fields of various parts of the Alps. Upward currents of air, whirlwinds and tornadoes, occur in all parts of the world, and large numbers of insects are thus carried up into the higher regions of the atmosphere, where they are liable to be caught by strong winds, and thus conveyed enormous distances over seas or continents. With such


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 powerful means of dispersal the distribution of insects over the entire globe, and their presence in the most remote oceanic islands, offer no difficulties.

The dispersal of seeds is effected in a greater variety of ways than are available in the case of any animals. Some fruits or seed-vessels, and some seeds, will float for many weeks, and after immersion in salt water for that period the seeds will often germinate. Extreme cases are the double cocoa-nut of the Seychelles, which has been found on the coast of Sumatra, about 3000 miles distant; the fruits of the Sapindus saponaria (soap-berry), which has been brought to Bermuda by the Gulf Stream from the West Indies, and has grown after a journey in the sea of about 1500 miles; and the West Indian bean, Entada scandens, which reached the Azores from the West Indies, a distance of full 3000 miles, and afterwards germinated at Kew. By these means we can account for the similarity in the shore flora of the Malay Archipelago and most of the islands of the Pacific; and from an examination of the fruits and seeds, collected among drift during the voyage of the Challenger, Mr. Hemsley has compiled a list of 121 species which are probably widely dispersed by this means.

A still larger number of species owe their dispersal to birds in several distinct ways. An immense number of fruits in all parts of the world are devoured by birds, and have been attractively coloured (as we have seen), in order to be so devoured, because the seeds pass through the birds' bodies and germinate where they fall. We have seen how frequently birds are forced by gales of wind across a wide expanse of ocean, and thus seeds must be occasionally carried. It is a very suggestive fact, that all the trees and shrubs in the Azores bear berries or small fruits which are eaten by birds; while all those which bear larger fruits, or are eaten chiefly by mammals—such as oaks, beeches, hazels, crabs, etc.—are entirely wanting. Game-birds and waders often have portions of mud attached to their feet, and Mr. Darwin has proved by experiment that such mud frequently contains seeds. One partridge had such a quantity of mud attached to its foot as to contain seeds from which eighty-two plants germinated; this proves that


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 a very small portion of mud may serve to convey seeds, and such an occurrence repeated even at long intervals may greatly aid in stocking remote islands with vegetation. Many seeds also adhere to the feathers of birds, and thus, again, may be conveyed as far as birds are ever carried. Dr. Guppy found a small hard seed in the gizzard of a Cape Petrel, taken about 550 miles east of Tristan da Cunha.

In the preceding cases we have been able to obtain direct evidence of transportal; but although we know that many seeds are specially adapted to be dispersed by the wind, we cannot obtain direct proof that they are so carried for hundreds or thousands of miles across the sea, owing to the difficulty of detecting single objects which are so small and inconspicuous. It is probable, however, that the wind as an agent of dispersal is really more effective than any of those we have hitherto considered, because a very large number of plants have seeds which are very small and light, and are often of such a form as to facilitate aerial carriage for enormous distances. It is evident that such seeds are especially liable to be transported by violent winds, because they become ripe in autumn at the time when storms are most prevalent, while they either lie upon the surface of the ground, or are disposed in dry capsules on the plant ready to be blown away. If inorganic particles comparable in weight, size, or form with such seeds are carried for great distances, we may be sure that seeds will also be occasionally carried in the same way. It will, therefore, be necessary to give a few examples of wind-carriage of small objects.

On 27th July 1875 a remarkable shower of small pieces of hay occurred at Monkstown, near Dublin. They appeared floating slowly down from a great height, as if falling from a dark cloud which hung overhead. The pieces picked up were wet, and varied from single blades of grass to tufts weighing one or two ounces. A similar shower occurred a few days earlier in Denbighshire, and was observed to travel in a direction contrary to that of the wind in the lower atmosphere. There is no evidence of the distance from which the hay was


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 brought, but as it had been carried to a great height, it was in a position to be conveyed to almost any distance by a violent wind, had such occurred at the time.

The numerous cases of sand and volcanic dust being carried enormous distances through the atmosphere sufficiently prove the importance of wind as a carrier of solid matter, but unfortunately the matter collected has not been hitherto examined with a view to determine the maximum size and weight of the particles. A few facts, however, have been kindly furnished me by Professor Judd, F.R.S. Some dust which fell at Genoa on 15th October 1885, and was believed to have been brought from the African desert, consisted of quartz, hornblende, and other minerals, and contained particles having a diameter of 1 / 500 inch, each weighing 1 / 200,000 grain. This dust had probably travelled over 600 miles. In the dust from Krakatoa, which fell at Batavia, about 100 miles distant, during the great eruption, there are many solid particles even larger than those mentioned above. Some of this dust was given me by Professor Judd, and I found in it several ovoid particles of a much larger size, being 1 / 50 inch long, and 1 / 70 wide and deep. The dust from the same eruption, which fell on board the ship Arabella, 970 miles from the volcano, also contained solid particles 1 / 500 inch diameter. Mr. John Murray of the Challenger Expedition writes to me that he finds in the deep sea deposits 500 and even 700 miles west of the coast of Africa, rounded particles of quartz, having a diameter of 1 / 250 inch, and similar particles are found at equally great distances from the south-west coasts of Australia; and he considers these to be atmospheric dust carried to that distance by the wind. Taking the sp. gr. of quartz at 2.6, these particles would weigh about 1 / 25,000 grain each. These interesting facts can, however, by no means be taken as indicating the extreme limits of the power of wind in carrying solid particles. During the Krakatoa eruption no gale of special violence occurred, and the region is one of comparative calms. The grains of quartz found by Mr. Murray more nearly indicate the limit, but the very small portions of matter brought up by the dredge, as


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 with the enormous areas of sea-bottom, over which the atmospheric dust must have been scattered, render it in the highest degree improbable that the maximum limit either of size of particles, or of distance from land has been reached.

Let us, however, assume that the quartz grains, found by Mr. Murray in the deep-sea ooze 700 miles from land, give us the extreme limit of the power of the atmosphere as a carrier of solid particles, and let us compare with these the weights of some seeds. From a small collection of the seeds of thirty species of herbaceous plants sent me from Kew, those in the above table were selected, and small portions of eight of them carefully weighed in a chemical balance. By counting these portions I was able to estimate the number of seeds weighing one grain. The three very minute species, whose numbers are marked with an asterisk (*), were estimated by the comparison of their sizes with those of the smaller weighed seeds.

If now we compare the seeds with the quartz grains, we


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 find that several are from twice to three times the weight of the grains found by Mr. Murray, and others five times, eight times, and fifteen times as heavy; but they are proportionately very much larger, and, being usually irregular in shape or compressed, they expose a very much larger surface to the air. The surface is often rough, and several have dilated margins or tailed appendages, increasing friction and rendering the uniform rate of falling through still air immensely less than in the case of the smooth, rounded, solid quartz grains. With these advantages it is a moderate estimate that seeds ten times the weight of the quartz grains could be carried quite as far through the air by a violent gale and under the most favourable conditions. These limits will include five of the seeds here given, as well as hundreds of others which do not exceed them in weight; and to these we may add some larger seeds which have other favourable characteristics, as is the case with numbers 11-13, which, though very much larger than the rest, are so formed as in all probability to be still more easily carried great distances by a gale of wind. It appears, therefore, to be absolutely certain that every autumnal gale capable of conveying solid mineral particles to great distances, must also carry numbers of small seeds at least as far; and if this is so, the wind alone will form one of the most effective agents in the dispersal of plants.

Hitherto this mode of conveyance, as applying to the transmission of seeds for great distances across the ocean, has been rejected by botanists, for two reasons. In the first place, there is said to be no direct evidence of such conveyance; and, secondly, the peculiar plants of remote oceanic islands do not appear to have seeds specially adapted for aerial transmission. I will consider briefly each of these objections.

To obtain direct evidence of the transmission of such minute and perishable objects, which do not exist in great quantities, and are probably carried to the greatest distances but rarely and as single specimens, is extremely difficult. A bird or insect can be seen if it comes on board ship, but who would ever detect the seeds of Mimulus or Orchis even if a score of them fell on a ship's deck? Yet if but one such seed


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 per century were carried to an oceanic island, that island might become rapidly overrun by the plant, if the conditions were favourable to its growth and reproduction. It is further objected that search has been made for such seeds, and they have not been found. Professor Kerner of Innsbruck examined the snow on the surface of glaciers, and assiduously collected all the seeds he could find, and these were all of plants which grew in the adjacent mountains or in the same district. In like manner, the plants growing on moraines were found to be those of the adjacent mountains, plateaux, or lowlands. Hence he concluded that the prevalent opinion that seeds may be carried through the air for very great distances "is not supported by fact." The opinion is certainly not supported by Kerner's facts, but neither is it opposed by them. It is obvious that the seeds that would be carried by the wind to moraines or to the surface of glaciers would be, first and in the greatest abundance, those of the immediately surrounding district; then, very much more rarely, those from more remote mountains; and lastly, in extreme rarity, those from distant countries or altogether distinct mountain ranges. Let us suppose the first to be so abundant that a single seed could be found by industrious search on each square yard of the surface of the glacier; the second so scarce that only one could possibly be found in a hundred yards square; while to find one of the third class it would be necessary exhaustively to examine a square mile of surface. Should we expect that one ever to be found, and should the fact that it could not be found be taken as a proof that it was not there? Besides, a glacier is altogether in a bad position to receive such remote wanderers, since it is generally surrounded by lofty mountains, often range behind range, which would intercept the few air-borne seeds that might have been carried from a distant land. The conditions in an oceanic island, on the other hand, are the most favourable, since the land, especially if high, will intercept objects carried by the wind, and will thus cause more of the solid matter to fall on it than on an equal area of ocean. We know that winds at sea often blow violently for days together, and the rate of motion is indicated by the fact that 72 miles an hour was the average velocity


text: Our Philadelphia/Chapter 8

title: Our Philadelphia/Chapter 8


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 of the wind observed during twelve hours at the Ben Nevis observatory, while the velocity sometimes rises to 120 miles an hour. A twelve hours' gale might, therefore, carry light seeds a thousand miles as easily and certainly as it could carry quartz-grains of much greater specific gravity, rotundity, and smoothness, 500 or even 100 miles; and it is difficult even to imagine a sufficient reason why they should not be so carried—perhaps very rarely and under exceptionally favourable conditions,—but this is all that is required.

As regards the second objection, it has been observed that orchideae, which have often exceedingly small and light seeds, are remarkably absent from oceanic islands. This, however, may be very largely due to their extreme specialisation and dependence on insect agency for their fertilisation; while the fact that they do occur in such very remote islands as the Azores, Tahiti, and the Sandwich Islands, proves that they must have once reached these localities either by the agency of birds or by transmission through the air; and the facts I have given above render the latter mode at least as probable as the former. Sir Joseph Hooker remarks on the composite plant of Kerguelen Island (Cotula plumosa) being found also on Lord Auckland and MacQuarrie Islands, and yet having no pappus, while other species of the genus possess it. This is certainly remarkable, and proves that the plant must have, or once have had, some other means of dispersal across wide oceans. One of the most widely dispersed species in the whole world (Sonchus oleraceus) possesses pappus, as do four out of five of the species which are common to Europe and New Zealand, all of which have a very wide distribution. The same author remarks on the limited area occupied by most species of Compositae, notwithstanding their facilities for dispersal by means of their feathered seeds; but it has been


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 already shown that limitations of area are almost always due to the competition of allied forms, facilities for dispersal being only one of many factors in determining the wide range of species. It is, however, a specially important factor in the case of the inhabitants of remote oceanic islands, since, whether they are peculiar species or not, they or their remote ancestors must at some time or other have reached their present position by natural means.

I have already shown elsewhere, that the flora of the Azores strikingly supports the view of the species having been introduced by aerial transmission only, that is, by the agency of birds and the wind, because all plants that could not possibly have been carried by these means are absent. In the same way we may account for the extreme rarity of Leguminosae in all oceanic islands. Mr. Hemsley, in his Report on Insular Floras, says that they "are wanting in a large number of oceanic islands where there is no true littoral flora," as St. Helena, Juan Fernandez, and all the islands of the South Atlantic and South Indian Oceans. Even in the tropical islands, such as Mauritius and Bourbon, there are no endemic species, and very few in the Galapagos and the remoter Pacific Islands. All these facts are quite in accordance with the absence of facilities for transmission through the air, either by birds or the wind, owing to the comparatively large size and weight of the seeds; and an additional proof is thus afforded of the extreme rarity of the successful floating of seeds for great distances across the ocean.

If we now admit that many seeds which are either minute in size, of thin texture or wavy form, or so fringed or margined as to afford a good hold to the air, are capable of being carried for many hundreds of miles by exceptionally


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 violent and long-continued gales of wind, we shall not only be better able to account for the floras of some of the remotest oceanic islands, but shall also find in the fact a sufficient explanation of the wide diffusion of many genera, and even species, of arctic and north temperate plants in the southern hemisphere or on the summits of tropical mountains. Nearly fifty of the flowering plants of Tierra-del-Fuego are found also in North America or Europe, but in no intermediate country; while fifty-eight species are common to New Zealand and Northern Europe; thirty-eight to Australia, Northern Europe, and Asia; and no less than seventy-seven common to New Zealand, Australia, and South America. On lofty mountains far removed from each other, identical or closely allied plants often occur. Thus the fine Primula imperialis of a single mountain peak in Java has been found (or a closely allied species) in the Himalayas; and many other plants of the high mountains of Java, Ceylon, and North India are either identical or closely allied forms. So, in Africa, some species, found on the summits of the Cameroons and Fernando Po in West Africa, are closely allied to species in the Abyssinian highlands and in Temperate Europe; while other Abyssinian and Cameroons species have recently been found on the mountains of Madagascar. Some peculiar Australian forms have been found represented on the summit of Kini Balu in Borneo. Again, on the summit of the Organ mountains in Brazil there are species allied to those of the Andes, but not found in the intervening lowlands.

Now all these facts, and numerous others of like character, were supposed by Mr. Darwin to be due to a lowering of temperature during glacial epochs, which allowed these temperate forms to migrate across the intervening tropical lowlands. But any such change within the epoch of existing species is almost inconceivable. In the first place, it would necessitate the extinction of much of the tropical flora (and with it of the insect life), because without such extinction alpine herbaceous plants could certainly never spread over tropical forest {{hws|low|lowlands}


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 ; and, in the next place, there is not a particle of direct evidence that any such lowering of temperature in inter-tropical lowlands ever took place. The only alleged evidence of the kind is that adduced by the late Professor Agassiz and Mr. Hartt; but I am informed by my friend, Mr. J.C. Branner (now State Geologist of Arkansas, U.S.), who succeeded Mr. Hartt, and spent several years completing the geological survey of Brazil, that the supposed moraines and glaciated granite rocks near Rio Janeiro and elsewhere, as well as the so-called boulder-clay of the same region, are entirely explicable as the results of sub-aerial denudation and weathering, and that there is no proof whatever of glaciation in any part of Brazil.

But any such vast physical change as that suggested by Darwin, involving as it does such tremendous issues as regards its effects on the tropical fauna and flora of the whole world, is really quite uncalled for, because the facts to be explained are of the same essential nature as those presented by remote oceanic islands, between which and the nearest continents no temperate land connection is postulated. In proportion to their limited area and extreme isolation, the Azores, St. Helena, the Galapagos, and the Sandwich Islands, each possess a fairly rich—the last a very rich—indigenous flora; and the means which sufficed to stock them with a great variety of plants would probably suffice to transmit others from mountain-top to mountain-top in various parts of the globe. In the case of the Azores, we have large numbers of species identical with those of Europe, and others closely allied, forming an exactly parallel case to the species found on the various mountain summits which have been referred to. The distances from Madagascar to the South African mountains and to Kilimandjaro, and from the latter to Abyssinia, are no greater than from Spain to the Azores, while there are other equatorial mountains forming stepping-stones at about an equal distance to the Cameroons. Between Java and the Himalayas we have the lofty mountains of Sumatra and of North-western Burma, forming steps at about the same distance apart; while between Kini Balu and the Australian Alps we


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 have the unexplored snow mountains of New Guinea, the Bellenden Ker mountains in Queensland, and the New England and Blue Mountains of New South Wales. Between Brazil and Bolivia the distances are no greater; while the unbroken range of mountains from Arctic America to Tierra-del-Fuego offers the greatest facilities for transmission, the partial gap between the lofty peak of Chiriqui and the high Andes of New Grenada being far less than from Spain to the Azores. Thus, whatever means have sufficed for stocking oceanic islands must have been to some extent effective in transmitting northern forms from mountain to mountain, across the equator, to the southern hemisphere; while for this latter form of dispersal there are special facilities, in the abundance of fresh and unoccupied surfaces always occurring in mountain regions, owing to avalanches, torrents, mountain-slides, and rock-falls, thus affording stations on which air-borne seeds may germinate and find a temporary home till driven out by the inroads of the indigenous vegetation. These temporary stations may be at much lower altitudes than the original habitat of the species, if other conditions are favourable. Alpine plants often descend into the valleys on glacial moraines, while some arctic species grow equally well on mountain summits and on the seashore. The distances above referred to between the loftier mountains may thus be greatly reduced by the occurrence of suitable conditions at lower altitudes, and the facilities for transmission by means of aerial currents proportionally increased.

But if we altogether reject aerial transmission of seeds for great distances, except by the agency of birds, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to account for the presence of so many identical species of plants on remote mountain summits, or for that "continuous current of vegetation" described by Sir Joseph Hooker as having apparently long existed from the northern to the southern hemisphere. It may be admitted that we can, possibly, account for the greater portion of the floras of remote oceanic islands by the agency of birds alone; because, when blown out to sea land-birds must reach some island


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 or perish, and all which come within sight of an island will struggle to reach it as their only refuge. But, with mountain summits the case is altogether different, because, being surrounded by land instead of by sea, no bird would need to fly, or to be carried by the wind, for several hundred miles at a stretch to another mountain summit, but would find a refuge in the surrounding uplands, ridges, valleys, or plains. As a rule the birds that frequent lofty mountain tops are peculiar species, allied to those of the surrounding district; and there is no indication whatever of the passage of birds from one remote mountain to another in any way comparable with the flights of birds which are known to reach the Azores annually, or even with the few regular migrants from Australia to New Zealand. It is almost impossible to conceive that the seeds of the Himalayan primula should have been thus carried to Java; but, by means of gales of wind, and intermediate stations from fifty to a few hundred miles apart, where the seeds might vegetate for a year or two and produce fresh seed to be again carried on in the same manner, the transmission might, after many failures, be at last effected.

A very important consideration is the vastly larger scale on which wind-carriage of seeds must act, as compared with bird-carriage. It can only be a few birds which carry seeds attached to their feathers or feet. A very small proportion of these would carry the seeds of Alpine plants; while an almost infinitesimal fraction of these latter would convey the few seeds attached to them safely to an oceanic island or remote mountain. But winds, in the form of whirlwinds or tornadoes, gales or hurricanes, are perpetually at work over large areas of land and sea. Insects and light particles of matter are often carried up to the tops of high mountains; and, from the very nature and origin of winds, they usually consist of ascending or descending currents, the former capable of suspending such small and light objects as are many seeds long enough for them to be carried enormous distances. For each single seed carried away by external attachment to the feet or feathers of a bird, countless millions are probably carried away by violent winds; and the chance of conveyance to a great distance and in a definite direction must be many


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 times greater by the latter mode than by the former. We have seen that inorganic particles of much greater specific gravity than seeds, and nearly as heavy as the smallest kinds, are carried to great distances through the air, and we can therefore hardly doubt that some seeds are carried as far. The direct agency of the wind, as a supplement to bird-transport, will help to explain the presence in oceanic islands of plants growing in dry or rocky places whose small seeds are not likely to become attached to birds; while it seems to be the only effective agency possible in the dispersal of those species of alpine or sub-alpine plants found on the summits of distant mountains, or still more widely separated in the temperate zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.

On the general principles that have been now laid down, it will be found that all the chief facts of the geographical distribution of animals and plants can be sufficiently understood. There will, of course, be many cases of difficulty and some seeming anomalies, but these can usually be seen to depend on our ignorance of some of the essential factors of the problem. Either we do not know the distribution of the group in recent geological times, or we are still ignorant of the special methods by which the organisms are able to cross the sea. The latter difficulty applies especially to the lizard tribe, which are found


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 in almost all the tropical oceanic islands; but the particular mode in which they are able to traverse a wide expanse of ocean, which is a perfect barrier to batrachia and almost so to snakes, has not yet been discovered. Lizards are found in all the larger Pacific Islands as far as Tahiti, while snakes do not extend beyond the Fiji Islands; and the latter are also absent from Mauritius and Bourbon, where lizards of seven or eight species abound. Naturalists resident in the Pacific Islands would make a valuable contribution to our science by studying the life-history of the native lizards, and endeavouring to ascertain the special facilities they possess for crossing over wide spaces of ocean.


text: Darwinism (Wallace)/Chapter XII

title: Darwinism (Wallace)/Chapter XII


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 CHOLERA CAMP

got the cholerer in camp—it's worse than forty fights;

We're dyin' in the wilderness the same as Isrulites;

It's before us, an' be'ind us, an' we cannot get away,

An' the doctor's just reported we've ten more to-day!

Oh, strike your camp an' go, the bugle's callin',

The Rains are fallin'—

The dead are bushed an' stoned to keep 'em safe below;

The Band's a-doin all she knows to cheer us;

The chaplain's gone and prayed to Gawd to 'ear us—

To 'ear us—

O Lord, for it's a-killin' of us so!

186


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Rh Since August, when it started, it's been stickin' to our tail,

Though they've 'ad us out by marches an' they've 'ad us back by rail;

But it runs as fast as troop-trains, and we can not get away;

An' the sick-list to the Colonel makes ten more to-day.

There ain't no fun in women nor there ain't no bite to drink;

It 's much too wet for shootin', we can only march and think;

An' at evenin', down the nullahs, we can 'ear the jackals say,

'Get up, you rotten beggars, you've ten more to-day!'

'Twould make a monkey cough to see our way o' doin' things—

Lieutenants takin' companies an' captains takin' wings,

An' Lances actin' Sergeants—eight file to obey—

For we've lots o' quick promotion on ten deaths a day!


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188 Our Colonel's white an' twitterly—'e gets no sleep nor food.

But mucks about in 'orspital where nothing does no good.

'E sends us 'eaps o' comforts, all bought from 'is pay—

But there aren't much comfort 'andy on ten deaths a day.

Our Chaplain's got a banjo, an' a skinny mule 'e rides.

An' the stuff 'e says an' sings us, Lord, it makes us split our sides!

With 'is black coat-tails a-bobbin' to Ta-ra-ra Boom-der-ay!

'E's the proper kind o' padre for ten deaths a day.

An' Father Victor 'elps 'im with our Roman Catholicks—

He knows an 'eap of Irish songs an' rummy conjurin' tricks;

An' the two they works together when it comes to play or pray;

So we keep the ball a-rollin' on ten deaths a day.


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 ferred by Lord Cornwallis to a similar post at Madras, at his own request, when war was imminent in 1790 (Cornwallis Corresp. i. 481). He was appointed to a majority, 62nd foot, in 1790, and became lieutenant-colonel of that regiment in 1794, serving with it in San Domingo. On 18 April 1797 he was appointed brigadier-general in San Domingo, and early in May 1798 surrendered to Toussaint l'Ouverture, the republican commander-in-chief, the towns of Port au Prince, St. Marc and Arcahaye and their dependencies; the troops and stores being embarked, and all persons who chose being allowed to accompany the British force. On 1 Jan. 1798 Maitland was appointed a brigadier-general in the West Indies, and, in September, colonel of the 10th West India regiment. He was afterwards much employed in connection with the military attempts of the French royalists. Lord Cornwallis speaks of him in November 1798 as at the head of a small expedition destined for the French coast (ib. ii. 451). The troops appear to have gone instead to America and the West Indies.

In September 1799 Maitland received the rank of major-general while employed on particular service on the coast of France. This was a secret expedition against Belle Isle, to aid the royalist attempts in the Morbihan. The vessels employed were to meet in the channel, and at Maitland's wish the naval command was given to Sir Edward Pellew, afterwards Viscount Exmouth. The greatest difficulty was experienced in finding four thousand troops for the purpose. In May 1800 Maitland was in Dublin on his way to Cork with that object (ib. iii. 234). The expedition started early in June 1800, destroyed the forts on the south end of Quiberon on 4 June, and on 6 June took some vessels and about a hundred prisoners. Reports of the superior strength of the garrison of Belle Isle caused the projected attack to be abandoned, and in July the troops, which had been landed and encamped on Isle Houat, were sent on as reinforcements to the Mediterranean.

In 1803 Maitland was appointed colonel of a battalion of the army of reserve. For a few months in 1804–5 he was one of the commissioners of the board of control. He had represented the Haddington Burghs in parliament from November 1794 to May 1796, and from 1800 until he vacated his seat on appointment to the board of control. He was re-elected and sat until 1806. He became a major-general in 1805, and for a short time had a brigade command in Sussex. In 1806 he was appointed lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief in Ceylon. He arrived in that island at a very critical period, immediately after the British disasters in Kandy. At the time of the Madras mutinies he despatched all his available troops to India. A proposed scheme for the reorganisation of the East India Company's army, drawn up by Maitland after the mutiny of the Madras officers in 1807 [see under ], is inserted in Gurwood's ‘Wellington Despatches,’ v. 545–8. Maitland remained in Ceylon until 1811, in which year he became a major-general, and he was appointed governor of Malta in 1813. By very rigorous means he stamped out the plague, which swept off five thousand persons in the island that year. In December 1815 he was made lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, and commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean—Gibraltar excepted: posts which, together with the government of Malta, he retained till his death.

The eccentricities and arbitrary conduct of ‘King Tom,’ as he was called, made him very unpopular with the services; but he proved an able administrator. He gave the Ionian Greeks a constitutional charter, framed on principles of policy and justice, and restored the Greek islands to a high state of commercial prosperity without imposing extra taxes on the people. Much political capital was made by his adversaries at home out of his share in the restoration to the Turks of the Christian town of Parga, on the Adriatic, and particularly out of his impartial reduction of Pargiote claims on the Turkish government (see Ann. Register, 1820, pt. i. pp. 108–13; also Parl. Debates and Papers under date). Charles Napier, the future conqueror of Scinde, a very shrewd observer, and certainly not biassed in favour of Maitland, under whose command he served for six years in the Ionian Islands, described him as ‘a rough old despot,’ ‘with talent, but not of a first-rate order—narrow-minded, seeing many things under false lights,’ and ‘surrounded by sycophants, who thought him a god because he had more intelligence than they,’ but Napier bore emphatic testimony to the sagacity and beneficial results of his policy, a verdict indorsed by Greek writers of recent date.

Maitland, a P.C., G.C.B. (2 Jan. 1815), G.C.M.G., and colonel in succession of the 3rd garrison battalion, 4th West India regiment and 10th (Lincolnshire) foot, died at Malta, of apoplexy, 17 Jan. 1824. He was buried, with great pomp, in the bastion containing the tomb of Sir Ralph Abercromby, and an oration was pronounced over the grave by Count Spiridion Bulgaris, the representative of one of the first Corfiote families.


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Rh We've got the cholerer in camp—we've got it 'ot an' sweet;

It ain't no Christmas dinner, but it 's 'elped an' we must eat.

We've gone beyond the funkin', 'cause we've found it doesn't pay,

An' we're rockin' round the Districk on ten deaths a day!

Then strike your camp an' go, the Rains are fallin'.

The Bugle's callin'!

The dead are bushed an' stoned to keep 'em safe below!

An' them that do not like it they can lump it,

An them that can not stand it they can jump it;

We've got to die somewhere—some way—some'ow—

We might as well begin to do it now!

Then, Number One, let down the tent-pole slow,

Knock out the pegs an 'old the corners—so!

Fold in the flies, furl up the ropes, an' stow!

Oh, strike—oh, strike your camp an' go!

(Gawd 'elp us!)


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 Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, with Strictures on Milner's “Church History,”’ pp. 53, 1834.  ‘A second Letter to the same, containing Notes on Milner's “History of the Church in the Fourth Century,”’ pp. 87, 1835.  ‘A Letter to the Rev. John King, M.A., Incumbent of Christ Church, Hull,’ occasioned by his pamphlet, ‘Maitland not entitled to censure Milner,’ pp. 91, 1835.  ‘Remarks on that part of Rev. J. King's pamphlet … which relates to the Waldenses … pp. 80, 1836.  ‘A Review of Fox the Martyrologist's “History of the Waldenses,”’ 8vo, 1837.  ‘Six Letters on Fox's “Acts and Monuments,” reprinted from the “British Magazine,” with Notes and Additions,’ 1837.  ‘Remarks on the Constitution of the Committee of the Gloucester and Bristol Diocesan Church Building Association,’ 1837.  ‘A Letter to the Rev. W. H. Mill, D.D., containing some Strictures on Mr. Faber's recent work, entitled “The Ancient Waldenses and Albigenses,”’ 8vo, 1839.  ‘A Letter to a Friend on the “Tract for the Times No. 89;” reprinted in “Eight Essays,”’ infra, 1841.  ‘Notes on the Contributions of the Rev. George Townsend to the new edit. of Fox's “Martyrology,”’ 3 pts. 8vo, 1841–2.  ‘The Dark Ages. … A Series of Essays intended to illustrate the state of Religion and Literature in the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth Centuries,’ reprinted from the ‘British Magazine,’ with additions, 8vo, 1844; 2nd edit., with added notes, 1845; 3rd Catholic Standard Library, 1888.  ‘An Index of such English Books printed before the year MDC as are now in the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth, pp. xii, 120, 1845.  ‘Remarks on the first vol. of Strype's “Life of Archbishop Cranmer,” reprinted from the “British Magazine,”’ vols. i. and ii. 1848.  ‘Ecclesiastical History Society. A Statement, &c.,’ reprinted from ‘British Magazine,’ 1849.  ‘Essays on Subjects connected with the Reformation in England,’ reprinted, with additions from ‘British Magazine,’ 1849.
 ‘Illustrations and Enquiries relating to Mesmerism,’ pt. i. pp. 82, 1849.
‘A Plan for a Church History Society,’ pp. 16 (Gloucester, 15 Oct. 1850), 1850.
 ‘Eight Essays on various Subjects,’ post 8vo, pp. 254, 1852.
 ‘Convocation. Remarks on the Charge recently delivered by the Right Rev. Lord Bishop of Oxford’ (Wilberforce), pp. 35, 1855.
 ‘Superstition and Science: an Essay,’ 1855.
 ‘False Worship: an Essay,’ 1856.
 ‘Chatterton: an Essay,’ 1857.
 ‘Notes on Strype’ (Gloucester), 1858.
 ‘A Supplication for Toleration addressed to King James I by some of the late silenced Ministers, now reprinted with the King's notes by Rev. S. R. M.,’ 1859.
 To these must be added a curious little brochure, written for sale at a bazaar, entitled ‘The Owl: a Didactic Poem. Carefully reprinted from the original edition by Thomas Savill, dwelling in St. Martin's Lane, Westminster,’ 1842, small 4to, 16 pp. This jeu d'esprit Maitland sent to the present writer in 1854. The copy is probably unique.

MAITLAND, THOMAS (1759?–1824), lieutenant-general, commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, born about December 1759, was second son of James Maitland, seventh earl of Lauderdale, by his marriage, on 24 April 1749, with Mary Turner, daughter and coheiress of Alderman Sir  [q. v.], and was brother of the eighth earl. Immediately after his birth, in December 1759, he seems to have been appointed lieutenant in the old Scots 17th light dragoons or Edinburgh light horse, and after that corps was disbanded in 1763, drew half-pay of his rank until 1778, when he first took up his commission and raised a company for the Seaforth regiment or 78th (afterwards 72nd) highlanders. With this regiment, in which his younger brother William also held a commission, Maitland served some years in India, ashore against Hyder Ali, and afloat against the French, under De Suffrein. He particularly distinguished himself at the capture of Palicatchery in 1784 (see, Hist. Rec. 72nd Highlanders, p. 10). Afterwards, he was for some time brigade-major of the king's troops at Calcutta, and was
 trans-


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Glass Manufacturing in America

GLASS MANUFACTURING IN AMERICA. A glass-house built near Jamestown in 1608, the year after Virginia was founded, was the first factory in the English colonies in America. In that year eight Poles and Germans were brought there to make ashes, soap, pitch, tar and glass. From ashes were obtained lye for making soap and potash for fluxing glass. Some glass shipped to England in 1608 or 1609 was among the first exports of the colony. Interfered with by the craze for raising tobacco, the manufacture of glass was suspended about 1615. In 1621 another glasshouse was erected in which Italians made beads for trade with Indians. One or both glasshouses were destroyed in the massacre by Indians in 1622. The next glass works in Virginia of which there is a record were at Alexandria, where 10,000 pounds were manufactured in 1787. Works established at Wellsburg, Va. (now West Virginia), in 1815, were probably the works in Brooke County reported by census as making $20,000 worth of glass in 1820. At the tariff convention, held in New York city in 1831, two flint glass furnaces were reported in operation at Wellsburg and one at Wheeling; also two window glass works at Wheeling.

The first glass-house in Massachusetts was built in Salem about 1639. To encourage the enterprise the General Court in 1641 authorized the town to lend the proprietors £30. Glass was manufactured there for perhaps 20 years or longer. The General Court of Massachusetts in 1752 granted to Isaac C. Winslow and others the exclusive privilege of making glass in the colony and they probably built a glass-house at Boston which was in operation until shortly before the Revolution. The legislature, in 1787, granted to Messrs. Whalley, Hunnewell and others a charter, which conferred on them exclusively the right to manufacture glass in Massachusetts for 15 years, and fixed the penalty for infringement at $500. The capital stock was exempted from taxation and the workmen from military duty. Furthermore, the State paid a bounty on the product, to offset a bounty on glass exports paid by England. Under this charter, the manufacture of crown window glass was begun, in 1792, and about six years later the production amounted to $82,000 per annum. The glass, known throughout the United States as “Boston window glass,” was said to be superior to any imported. This State-aided enterprise, incorporated in 1809 as the Boston Crown Glass Company, is said to have been the first successful glass works in this country. Works established in 1802 at Middlesex, now a part of Lowell, made annually, about 1820, about 330,000 feet of window glass, which at $13 a 100-foot box amounted to $43,320. In 1812 a glass-house was built at South Boston and about the same time another at East Cambridge. The one at South Boston, the first flint glass works in Massachusetts, was built by Thomas Caines, a skilled batch mixer and glass blower, who had been employed by

the Boston Crown Glass Company. After the War of 1812 the business failed. The works at East Cambridge were built by the Porcelain and Glass Manufacturing Company, which employed glass workers from Europe. Unsuccessful in business, the company leased the plant to a firm of workmen, Emmet, Fisher and Flowers. They failed to agree, and, in 1817, the business was sold at auction to the New England Glass Company, which was very successful. In 1823 the weekly production was 22,400 pounds of glass vessels, many of which were equal to the product of the best English flint houses, and some of which were beautifully cut. A plant established at Sandwich, Mass., in 1825, introduced, in 1827, the making of pressed glass. Until then all glass had been either blown or cast. The shaping of glass by molds made possible the production at low cost of many articles of the same pattern.

Glass was made in New York State under both the Dutch and English régimes, but plants established before 1850 were not permanent. A plant started at Brooklyn, in 1754, existed only a short time. In 1785 Leonard De Neufville and associates, proprietors of a plant at Dowesborough, 10 miles from Albany, applied to the legislature for aid. They gave as a reason that $150,000 a year was sent abroad for glass. The legislature, in 1793, voted a loan of $3,000 for eight years, free of interest for three years and at 5 per cent for five years. By this time ownership of the works had passed from the De Neufville family to McCallen, McGregor & Company, who conducted the business successfully, but, in 1815, the works closed for lack of fuel. The South Ferry Flint Glass Company, established in 1823 at Brooklyn, had the reputation of making the finest flint glass made in the United States, and at the London Exhibition, in 1851, was awarded a medal.

In the first tariff law of the United States, enacted in 1789, Congress levied a duty of 10 per cent on various kinds of glass. Congress was petitioned, in 1790, to aid the glass works of John Frederick Amelung at New Bremen, Md. The committee of the House of Representatives to whom the petition was referred reported in favor of a loan of $8,000, security to be furnished, but the report was not adopted. In the debate the statement was made that Amelung had expended $200,000 on a plant begun in 1775. Some of the representatives considered that such a petition could be presented to the State more properly than to the Federal government, others objected to the loan on account of the precedent it would establish and others doubted the power of Congress to grant such a loan. About this time the Baltimore Glass Works began making window glass. Between 1760 and 1765, a German named Wister built a glass-house near Allowaystown, N. J. On his failure, at the beginning of the Revolution, the workmen went to Glassborough, N. J., and established a factory, which, still in operation, is the oldest glass factory in the United States. Glass works were started at Temple, N. H., in 1780, window glass works at Keene, N. H., in 1814. Glass was made at New Haven, Conn., in 1789, and at Hartford also about that time.

William Penn, in a letter written in 1683, alluded to a tannery, sawmill and glass works in

his colony. In 1769 Henry William Stiegel, a German baron, established at Manheim, near Lancaster, Pa., the largest flint glass factory in the country, in which were produced richly colored bowls and goblets. The first glass works in Philadelphia of which we have a record was a plant for making green bottles and perhaps flint ware, established, in 1771, at Kensington. This plant grew until, in 1831, it was the largest glass works in the United States. It then consisted of four furnaces in which 8,000 pounds of batch were daily melted. In addition to wood and coal, the furnaces consumed 15,000 barrels of resin brought annually from North Carolina. From 250 to 300 men and boys were employed. The product included bottles and apothecaries' vials, the prices for which when imported were extravagantly high. In 1797 a window glass factory was established at Pittsburgh and another at New Geneva, on the Monongahela River, 90 miles south of Pittsburgh. These were the first glass factories west of the Alleghanies. The former was built by Maj. Isaac Craig and James O'Hara, the latter by Albert Gallatin. The former was probably the first in which coal was the fuel, and as late as 1810 wood was the fuel in all glass plants except those in or near Pittsburgh. Writing in 1803, Craig reported an average weekly production of 30 boxes of 100 feet, besides bottles and other hollow ware to the value of one-third of the value of the window glass. He wrote that 8×10 sold at $13.50 and 10×12 at $15 a box. In the earlier years of the industry most factories that made window glass made also bottles and other hollow ware. For many years the imports of window glass exceeded the domestic production.

George Robinson, a carpenter, and Edward Ensell, a glassworker from England, commenced to build a flint glass-house in Pittsburgh, but, lacking sufficient capital, they sold the unfinished plant, in 1808, to Thomas Blakewell and Robert Page who completed it, and who were the first in the United States successfully to manufacture flint glass. In this plant was produced cut glass not inferior to the best cut glass from Europe. By wagons crossing the mountains, pot clay was hauled from Burlington, N. J., and pearl ash and red lead from Philadelphia, while saltpetre was brought from the caves of Kentucky. Glassmaking in Ohio began at Cincinnati in 1815. The census of 1820 reported “glass window and hollow ware, chemical and philosophical apparatus,” to the amount of $19,000 manufactured in Hamilton County, also flint and cut glass and window glass manufactured in Muskingum County. The first glass works in Missouri, which made flint glass tumblers and other ware, were started at Saint Louis, in 1842, by a company headed by James B. Eads, who later built the Mississippi River bridge at Saint Louis and the jetties at the mouth of the river. The second glass works in Missouri, started in 1851, made window glass at Saint Louis.

The ingredients of flint glass were the best of sand, pearl ash, refined saltpetre and oxide of lead. What was known later as German flint or lime glass, a much inferior product, was composed of sand, lime, soda ash and nitrate of soda. In 1864 William Leighton, Sr., of Wheeling, conducted experiments with pure sand, lime, bicarbonate of soda and refined

nitrate of soda and produced glass much clearer and more brilliant than any except flint glass. It was called bicarbonate glass at first and lime glass later. The cost for batch was not more than one-third that of a lead batch which it largely supplanted.

An exhibit of pressed glass ware, made by James B. Lyons, of the O'Hara Glass Works at Pittsburgh, received first prize at the Paris Exposition in 1867. At the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, one of the attractions was a complete glass works which showed the processes of melting, blowing, pressing, cutting, etching and annealing. The exhibit was made by Gillinder & Sons, of Philadelphia.

Pittsburgh became the centre of the industry, largely because there was in that vicinity an abundance of coal, which was used as fuel in glass-making from 1796 to late in the next century. In 1875 the Rochester Tumbler Works used natural gas for heating lears and partly for furnace heat. About 1880, when wells had been drilled that promised inexhaustible quantities, natural gas began to be very extensively used for lear heating and batch melting. It provided a cheap fuel, perfectly adapted to the industry, and thereafter glass manufacturing greatly developed in western Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and later in the gas regions of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma. When the supply of natural gas became exhausted many factories closed or moved to new gas fields, but in recent years many factories have begun to use artificial gas produced from coal in the plants, and some are now using oil for fuel. Even in the Pittsburgh district the price of natural gas is now so high that producer gas is used to some extent in glass making. Oil or producer gas is used by all plants east of the Alleghanies. The Eastern plants, at a disadvantage regarding natural gas, have the advantage of nearness to the larger markets.

The regenerative furnace, an invention of Siemens, first used for melting glass in 1861, was soon adopted in America. By this method the waste heat from the gases generated by combustion was utilized for heating, and much fuel was saved, the melting time reduced, the output increased and the quality of the product improved. Another revolutionary invention for batch melting was the tank. In pot furnaces the batch is melted in separate pots, which are placed around the inside furnace walls, while with tank furnaces the tank occupies the whole furnace area. There are day tanks and continuous tanks. The latter enable a plant to work to capacity 24 hours a day. Tanks were introduced into America in 1889, after they had been used in Belgium. During the last 30 years many pot furnaces have been replaced by tank furnaces. The only efficient establishments that now use pots are those that make plate glass, very fine qualities of table ware and other fine goods, or a great diversity of colored glass. Until recent times the making of glass was a handicraft, and many glass articles are still shaped by the breath of a blower. Machinery has been invented and improved chiefly for the manufacture of window glass, plate glass, bottles, table ware and lighting goods.

Crown window glass was made in Massachusetts from 1792 to 1826. A bulb was blown, opened, flared out into a disc, cut into half

circles and then into panes. The cylinder process for making window glass was introduced from Europe after 1830. The cylinders, blown on a blow-pipe, were cracked into lengths, split lengthwise and flattened. The great development in window glass manufacture dates from about 1880, when natural gas began to be largely used. At a window glass factory which he erected at Jeanette, Pa., James Chalmers began, in 1889, to use the first continuous tank in this country. The first successful machine for making window glass, constructed under the Lubbers patents, was installed by the American Window Glass Company at Alexandria, Ind., in 1903. In this machine and in other types later invented by Americans, the glass is drawn by a “bait member” from the “metal” in the tank, and the cylinder is formed by a pressure of air in it controlled by an operator. During the blast of 1915-16 the production of 50-foot boxes by hand was 3,708,000 and by machine 5,575,000, the hand production being about 40 per cent of the total. In 1916 there were in the United States 51 plants, with 1,737 pots, in which window glass was blown by hand, and 25 plants with 296 window machines. The introduction of machinery led to the production of more window glass than the domestic consumption, with the result that window glass factories are usually operated only seven or eight months a year. Census figures show that the average value of a 50-foot box was $2.51 in 1899, $2.39 in 1904, $1.70 in 1909 and $2.18 in 1914. About 1908 Irving W. Colburn invented a machine by which glass is drawn from a tank in continuous sheet form. The sheet passes between rollers, and an operator controls the thickness and width. The Colburn patents were purchased by the Owens Bottle Machine Company, which, in 1917, erected at Charleston, W. Va., a factory for making sheet window glass.

Under the management of Cuthbert Dixon, a plate glass worker and manufacturer from London, England, rough plate glass was produced in 1852 at Williamsburg, L. I. A window glass factory erected at Cheshire, Mass., in 1850, was changed, in 1852-53, to a rough cast plate factory. A window glass factory erected at Lenox Furnace, Mass., in 1853, was converted, in 1855, into a plate glass factory. The successful establishment of the plate glass industry was chiefly due to James B. Ford of Pittsburgh. In 1869 he visited the works at Lenox and learned what he could from foreign plate glass workers there. Then he started a factory at New Albany, Ind., for which he imported grinding, smoothing and polishing machinery. This factory, from which he withdrew in 1872, was successfully continued by William C. De Pauw. Ford later built plate glass factories at Louisville, Ky., Jeffersonville, Ind., Creighton, Pa., and Tarentum, Pa. A plate glass plant was established, in 1872, at Crystal City, Mo. In 1917 there were nine plate glass plants in Pennsylvania, two in Missouri and one each in Michigan, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. The 15 plants in the United States had 113 furnaces and 2,116 pots. From 1875 to 1915 the price of plate glass decreased about 75 per cent. The first process for manufacturing wire glass successfully was patented by Frank Shuman in 1892. Since 1890 there has been successful development in this country in the manufacture

of cathedral, opalescent and art sheet glass, and all kinds of figured, ribbed and colored glass.

Machines for blowing bottles, at first adapted to wide-mouthed bottles only, were not commercially successful until about 1896. Such machines were operated at first by three skilled men, later by two and now by one. In 1908 there appeared a three-man machine for making narrow-necked bottles; in 1912, a one-man machine for wide-mouth bottles, and, in 1914, a one-man machine for narrow-neck bottles. The one-man machine automatically cuts off the quantity of molten glass sufficient for each mold. In establishments using machines bottles are blown by hand to fill small orders. From the earliest period of glass blowing until 1903 all glass that was blown was gathered on the end of a blow-pipe. In that year two revolutionary inventions were commercially introduced, the bottle-making machine by Michael J. Owens and the flowing device invented by Homer Brooke, both Americans. With only an attendant, who is not a skilled operator, the Owens machine gathers the glass and blows the bottle or jar. When a mechanical conveyor is used, the ware is both made and delivered to the lear without handling. More nearly automatic than any other glass-making machine, its output is much greater. The operating speed of the largest type of Owens machines is indicated by the fact that it produces more than 75,000 quart fruit jars in 24 hours. The machine and the revolving tank that supplies it are costly and are used only in factories which produce large quantities of bottles or jars of uniform shape and size. The machines were introduced in Europe and more recently in Japan. By the Brooke device the molten glass flows from the furnace to the mold, the quantity sufficient for each mold being automatically severed. The chief advantages of the Brooke device are that it dispenses with skilled labor; it can be operated during the hot months when hand gatherers are not readily obtainable, and by it the output is increased while the cost of production is decreased.

The making of coal-oil from coal led, about 1855, to a demand for lamps and lamp chimneys, the use of which greatly increased, about 1859, when refined petroleum was first marketed. One of the first plants to make a specialty of lighting goods was started in Brooklyn by Christopher Dorflinger, in 1852, but, in 1865, he moved the business to White Mills, Pa., where he established a large cut-glass factory. Lamps and lamp chimneys are still manufactured in considerable quantities and exported to many countries. Chimneys were at first blown off-hand on blow-pipes. Chimneys, light tumblers and other seamless blown ware are now made in paste-mold machines, the seams being removed by turning the ware while hot in molds lined with carbon or similar material. The incandescent lamp was perfected by Edison in 1879 and its manufacture became an important branch of the industry. The bulbs are blown in paste-mold machines. All kinds of lighting goods are now extensively made in the United States.

The popularity of American made cut glass was established by a splendid display by the

Libby Company in a complete glass-melting and cutting establishment at the World's Fair, Chicago, in 1893. Both pressed ware and deep-cut ware were exported to Europe before the war there began. Laboratory ware was little made in the United States before the war began in Europe, but since 1914 it has been produced here in quantities sufficient for domestic consumption and for export. Beakers and flasks equal to Jena ware have been made by one factory in New Jersey since 1900 and by plants in several States since 1914. Photographic glass was first made commercially in the United States in 1911 and the domestic production is now large. Optical glass was made experimentally in the United States in 1912. As a result of the war, the quantity manufactured here became large, the quality being equal to the best European product.

Even with the extensive use of machinery, labor constitutes the chief single item of expense in the manufacture of glass. Of 334 industries reported by the census of manufactures for 1914, glass ranked thirteenth in percentage of labor cost based on the value of the product. A government report, issued in 1917, shows that of the total sales value of the product, the cost of labor in the manufacture of various kinds of glass was 40.6 per cent. The same report shows that of employees in glass factories, 2.5 per cent were under 16 years of age and 8.2 per cent women, the latter being more numerous in tableware and lighting goods factories than in plants of other kinds. Hand window-glass blowers receive higher wages than skilled workers in other branches of the industry, and their working hours are relatively short, union hours being 44 a week. Unskilled workers average about 60 a week. Skilled labor is paid at piece rates, unskilled on a time-rate basis. In manufacturing window glass by hand and also blown and pressed ware, which includes tableware, bar goods, lighting goods and laboratory ware, the labor unions limit the output of workers, which restricts production and increases cost. Some branches of the industry operate only a part of the year, hand window glass only about seven months and machine window-glass plants about eight months, while other branches lose one or more months a year. The reasons are fear of overproduction, inability of men to work around furnaces during the hot months and necessity for repairs.

Accompanying tables show statistically the development of the industry in the United States from 1869 to 1914. While the estimated population increased 19.6 per cent from 1904 to 1914, the value of glass manufactures increased 54.6 per cent. Of the total value, $123,085,019 in 1914, window glass amounted to $17,495,956; polished plate glass, $4,554,326; pressed and blown ware, $30,279,290; bottles and jars, $51,958,728; other products, $4,022,932. In window glass, plate glass, pressed tableware, deep cut ware, lighting goods, laboratory ware and optical goods, the quality of the domestic product is equal or superior to the best that is imported.

The imports and exports of glass and glassware during the fiscal year 1879 were respectively $3,281,543 and $768,644; during the fiscal year 1914, respectively, $8,219,112 and $3,729,623.

The imports were 15.5 per cent of the domestic production, $21,154,571, during the calendar year 1879, and 6.7 per cent of the production, $123,085,019, in 1914. The average rate of duty was 57.6 per cent in 1879 and 33.8 per cent in 1914. Before the war in Europe began the principal glass importations were window glass, plate glass, fine blown tableware, toilet ware, colored ware, optical glass and bottles used as containers. Since the war began imports have suspended and exports increased many fold. Of the imports in 1914, window glass amounted to $1,316,902, of which over 80 per cent was of the three smaller brackets (384 square inches and under), and plate glass amounted to $489,359, also mostly of the smaller sizes. Practically all of the imports of window and plate glass in recent years have been in localities on or near the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts. The exports include all kinds of glass and glassware made in America.

An extended account of the development of the industry by Joseph D. Weeks appeared in the census report on manufactures 1880. A report on the industry by the undersigned, published by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1917, contains a bibliography with 500 titles.


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128 celebrated belle, to see whether her claims would be supported by

and who has not occasionally turned away repelled by the utter blank, or worse than blank, which the simple movement of the mouth, in speaking, or smiling, has revealed?

The language of poetry describes the loud laugh as indicative of the vulgar mind; and certainly there are expressions, conveyed even through the medium of a smile, which need not Lavater to inform us that refinement of feeling, or elevation of soul, have little to do with the fair countenance on which they are impressed. On the other hand, there are plain women sometimes met with in society, every movement of whose features is instinct with intelligence; who, from the genuine heart-warm smiles which play about the mouth, the sweetly modulated voice, and the lighting up of an eye that looks as if it could "comprehend the universe," becomes perfectly beautiful to those who understand them, and still more so to those who live with them, and love them. Before such pretensions to beauty as these, how soon do the pink and white of a merely pretty face vanish into nothing!

Yet, if the beauty of expression should be less popular amongst women, from the circumstance of its being less admired by men than that of mere form and complexion, they do well in this, as in every other disputed question of ultimate good, to look to the end. Men have been found whose admiration of beauty was so great, that they have actually married for that alone, content, for its sake, to dispense with the presence of mind. And what has been the end to them, or rather to the luckless beings whose misfortune it was to be the objects of their choice?—A neglected and degraded lot, imbittered by the fretfulness of

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, John Francis


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Rh on the part of their husbands; while, on the other hand, women, whose attractions have been of a more intellectual nature, have maintained their hold upon the affections of their companions, through life, even to the unlovely season of old age.

But, in addition to the insufficiency of mere beauty, there is another cause why men are so frequently disappointed in selecting merely pretty wives. They have a habit of supposing that if a woman is pretty, and not very clever, she must be amiable. Yet, how often do we find that the most wayward temper, the most capricious will, and beyond all calculation the most provoking habits, are connected with a weak and unenlightened mind. And added to all this, there is the false position the young beauty has held in society, the flattery to which she has been exposed, the dominion she has been permitted to assert, the triumph she has been accustomed to feel over others, the strength her inclinations from constant indulgence have attained—all these have to be contended with, in addition to the incapacity of her imbecile and undisciplined mind; and surely of this catalogue of evils, any one might be sufficient to counterbalance the advantages of mere personal beauty in a companion for life—a companion who is to tread with her husband the rough road of experience, and whose influence upon his character and feelings will not end on this side the grave.

Let us, however, not think hardly of the feeble-minded beauty, simply as such. She is as little to be blamed for the natural imbecility of her mental powers, as to be commended for her personal charms. Both are to her the appointments of a wise Providence; but as both combined are the means of exposing her to evils for which she is really to be pitied, so she ought to be kindly protected from the dangers to which she is exposed; and since she

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, John McLeod


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Neil (d.1627)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Neil (1776-1827)


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 APPENDICES

A. — Table showing the different values assigned to each lettrr of the

Old Persian Alphabet 420

B. — Table showing the true values of the Old Persian letters and

the author and date of their decipherment 426

C. — Table showing the different values given to each sign of the

Susian (Median) Syllabary


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Patrick


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Robert (d.1722)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Robert Calder


text: Author:Walter B. Palmer

title: Author:Walter B. Palmer


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Thomas (1733-1795)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Thomas (1777-1844)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Thomas (1790-1858)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campbell, Willielma


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campeggio, Lorenzo


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Anti-Federalists


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Campion, Edmund