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VIII Z does not occur, and when occurring in Arabic words is replaced by s, as the holy well at Mecca, zamzam is called samsam.

The great simplicity of the construction of words and sentences forms the chief difficulty in the language. The nouns are not declined—the verbs are not conjugated, but are modified in meaning by prefixes and suffixes. The most usual prefixes are ka, mi, pa, pang, pi, ba, bĕ, sa, sĕ, ta, tĕ, and suffixes an, eŭn, kĕn.

Thus hadé is good, hadéan, is to make good, to mend; pihadéanĕun, is something which must be made good or mended. sĕuri, to laugh, langhinglaughing [sic]; pisĕurian and pisĕurianeun something to laugh about, a laughable subject. dua, two, midua, to divide, to part in two. kolot, old, pangkolotan, the most old, the oldest. gĕbug, to strike, pangĕbug, a bludgeon, a stick to strike with. bĕlĕdog, the report of a gun or fire works. Bĕbĕlĕdogan, squibs or crackers. ténjo, to look from a far, tĕtenjoan, a distant view. Kayu, wood, kakayon, timber in general, varieties of trees. Verbs are formed from substantives and adjectives by prefixing nga, as hidi, a fish spear, ngahidi, to kill fish with such a spear. hĕurap, a fishing net, ngahĕurap to take fish with a net. gantang, a rice measure, ngagantang, to receive rice by measure. When the word so used in composition is an adjective, it has generally suffixed an, as hadé. good, gahadéan, to make good. lémbong cleared away, ngalémbongan, to clear up or put in order a bit of ground or a garden.

To form a plural the Sundas like the Malays duplicate the substantives and say imah-imah, houses, jalan-jalan, roads, tuan-tuan, gentlemen, mandor-mandor, heads of villages, gunung-gunung, mountains.

Verbs and adjectives are made plural by a peculiar process of lengthening the word in its middle, for which purpose the letter r, and sometimes l, is generally associated with a cognate vowel of the word with which it comes in contract, and which R or l and its cognate vowel is generally duplicated, unless the consonant R or L already occurs in the crude and singular from of the word. Thus kuda hadé a good horse; kuda hararadé, good horses. hadéan, to make good anything, hararadéan, to make good several objects. Kayu panjang, a long bit of wood, kayu pararanjang, long logs of wood. Batu panas, a hot stone, batu pararanas, hot stones. Jélĕma paih, a dead man, jélĕma pararaih, the people are all dead. Buwah buruk, a rotten fruit, buwah bururuk, the fruit is all rotten. tong bochor, a leaking tub, tong bololochor, the tubs are all leaking. Boro, to go to wards (if one person who goes), bororo, to go to wards in a crowd, several persons going towards. Tarik kayu iyo, drag this piece of wood, tararik kayu na, drag those logs of wood.

When the word begins with a vowel, that vowel with r after it, is prefixed to the word which has to be made plural, as chai na éksél, the rivulet is very scanty, chai na di gunung itu éréksél amat, the rivulets from those hills have very little water in them. Gunung-gunung ururugan, the mountains have shot down from urug.

The initial consonants L and R in adjectives are also frequently duplicated to from a plural. This duplicated consonant is then followed by the vowel a, and not by the vowel


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Rh which followed it in the crude form of the word, as luhur high gives laluhur, when speaking of several. Gunung luhur a high mountain, gunung laluhur, high mountains. Rowas, startled gives rarowas; Rikĕs, rarikĕs; rugi, rarugi. Thus as if only the consonant letter was duplicated, which has always the vowel a inherent in it. This duplication of the first syllable is of very frequent occurenceoccurrence [sic], and does not always denote a plural, but indicates a modification of the original word so as to express a shade of idea. In duplicating the first syllable the inherent a is short, and is often heard as ĕ, and will be so found in the dictionnarydictionary [sic], thus badak is a rhinoceros, bĕbadak, a funnel shaped bambu basket loaded with stones in making dams in rivers, as if it resembled a badak or Rhinoceros. tabĕuh to beat a musical instrument, a drum. Tatabĕuhan, frequently heard as tĕtabĕuhan, musical instruments which are struck, as gongs, drums, and the like.

The short ĕ suffixed to the initial consonant appears often to be made use of, to the exclusion of the vowel suffixed to the initial consonant itself of the crude word, thus we have chēcho-élan, derived of cho-él; tĕto-élan from to-él; chĕcho-oan, from cho-o, and not cho-cho-elan, toto-élan, chocho-oan.

When the vowel attached to the initial consonant is u: that vowel also occurs in the duplicated word, as guru, a teacher, guguru, to get instruction from a teacher. Gunter, a flood, gugunter, to wash away with a stream of water. Turub, a cover, to cover, luturub, any temporary Shelter.

The original word of the Sanscrit from which such initial duplicated words are taken, does not always exist in Sunda, or even in the cognate Polynesian languages, but is nevertheless a Sanscrit word. Thus we have sĕsawi, the mustard plant, from sawi, C. 720, strength, force, with out the latter word sawi being known in Sunda. So also sĕsĕmon, longing for, but ashamed to ask, abashed, from samu, c. 710, leave, permission. Bĕbĕndu and bĕbĕndon, disgrace, loss of favour, dishonour, from bandhu, C. 459 what is bound bandhura, D. 459 injurionsinjurous [sic], mischievous. The simple words sawi, samu, and bandhu not being found in the Sunda language, though evidently the etymons from which sĕsawi, sĕsĕmon and sĕbĕdon have been derived. This is remarkable and would seem to indicate a greater know ledgeknowledge [sic] originally of the Sanscrit, than we should at first sight be justified in believing.

Another modification of meaning to an original word is indicated by the syllable um inserted in the middle of the word, in the same way as in the plurals, by inserting Ra, as above described. Thus we have from turun, tumurun, to come down by degrees. Tua, old, and agung, chief become tumagung or tumunggung, one of the titles of Javanese nobility. Tumorék, a deusedense [sic] young jungle, which a man can hardly make his way through from torék, deaf. Many more examples will be found in going through the dictionary. Vide um in voce.

A comparative and superlative degree are formed by the words anan for the comparative, and pang for the superlative see both words in voce. Manan appears to be derived from Mana, where, and may be rendered by where of as Jyo hadé manan itu, this is better than that—as (these two) where of this is good. The word lĕuwih is also used

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X for the same purpose, denoting more, in excess. Lĕuwih hadé, more good. Lĕuwih panjang, more long. Pang is always prefixed to the word to which it imparts a superlative degree, which word then must be followed by the particle and postfix, an or na, as hadé, good, panghadé na or panghadéan, the best. When extra force is wished to be applied to this superlative degree, the word sakali, altogether—is added—as panghadéna sakali, the most positive best.

The past tense is indicated by the word anggĕus, mostly abbreviated to gĕus, as gĕus anggĕus, it is done, it is completed. Gĕus datang, he has come, and corresponds with the malay suda. The future tense is denoted by Mĕngké, answering to the Malay nanti. Mĕngké datang, I will come. Mĕngké hadé, it will become good.

The initial consonants of many words often vary rather arbitiarilyarbitrarily [sic] for the sake apparently of what appears to be euphony to native ears, thus

when a word cannot be found in the dictionary with one form of initial, an attempt must be made to quess at its cognate affinily, and sought elsewhere, as to have always given the words with their varying shapes would only have unjustifiably tended to swell the size of the dictionary.

An extensive class of words exists in the Sunda, which I have distinguished by the name of idiomatic expressions. They are monosyllables generally of three letters, as if they were a remnant of a very rude and aboriginal state of the language. They are often worked up into composite words, with the usual Sunda pre-and postfixes ka and an, or some other analogons particles. The use of them in the crude form gives strenghstrength [sic] to the expression with which they are associated, and indicates a precise line of conduct or action. Such idiomatic expressions will be found scattered through the whole work, such are bĕt, bus, dĕl, dĕs, kĕk, kop, rĕm, rĕp, sĕp, sĕr, top, tut. They have a peculiar force and cannot be translated by any corresponding word in a European language, but their tendency has always been indicated. They may even be left out of the sense of the passage where they occur, without exactly injaringinjuring [sic] the meaning, but a native makes very extensive use of them, as they give force and precision to what he says. As kop bai di hakan, putting it into his month, he eat it. Kop indicates the deliberate act of


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Rh putting into the mouth preparatory to eating, and implies that the man was eating it without knowing that there was any harm in it, or suspecting the stuff of being bad or poisonons and yet simply the act of eating is sufficiently implied by di hakan, he eat it.

So also of top, which implies taking hold of seizing top bai di bawa, laying hold of it, he carried it away. We might say that he could not carry it away with out taking it in some way, and that di bawa he carried it away, was sufficient; and so it is, even with a native, but when they prefix top, though we can give no precise translation, the idea is conveyed that there was no harm done in taking it, that no one opposed the act. The full force of these idiomatic expressions can only be learnt and appreciated on learning the language and hearing them used by the natives.

I have throughout the whole dictionary endeavoured to give the etymologies of the proper names of places, of the Archipelago, of the Residencies and of chieftowns in Java, of rivers and mountains, in short of the chief features of the country, whether in the Sunda districts or elsewhere, which may perhaps throw some light on these matters, and is at least an interesting topic of speculation. For examples of these attempts I would refer to the words bali, bantam, boro budur, jawa, sunda, sumatra, prambanan, prawu, priang'ĕn, progo, japara, and many others. An extensive and interesting class of words associated with hyang, Divinity, will be found on reference to this word. Under the heads of awi, chaw, hoih, huwi, paré, orai will be found an extensive classification of the different varieties of Bambus, Plantains, Rattans, Yams, Paddy and Snakes, which are known to our Mountaineers, and which may occasionally prove interesting or instructive. The varieties of Paddy were determined many years ago by collecting samples of them, and getting together a commission of natives to assign the names and point out their differences, which are often only trifling.

Weights and measures have been attended to, and when possible a comparison given between Dutch, English and Javanese articles of this kind. For which purpose reference can be made to the words bauh, pal, koyan, pikul, pond, kati, kaki, éllo, tumbak, gantang, sangga. The comparative details of which have been taken from Doursther's weights and measures, a work in the French language.

It may be also well to give here in a concise form the numerals used in Sunda, the particulars of which can be referred to, under each word in the Dictionary, where an attempt has been made to trace many of the words to their original meaning and indicate the process by which they have been arranged.


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XII

The Sunda people, at present, have no written character of their own. Throughout Bantam and Buitenzorg they use the Arabic Character when writing, which strange to say is hardly ever in their own native vernacular, but when they do write any memoranda it is in malay; In the Preang'er Regencies the Javanese characters are in frequent use. The Batu Tulis near Buitenzorg which has lately been deciphered by Mr. R. Friederich is probably a remnant of a native Sunda character. This inscription, however, contains hardly any recognizable Sunda words, but is a rude attempt to jumble up as many Sanscrit words as possible, which remark also applies to the inscription of Kwali in Cheribon.

In compiling this Sunda Dictionary I have not hesitated to avail of all the information which was within my reach in cognate languages. Both Marsden's and Crawfurd's MalyanMalayan [sic] dictionaries have been carefully gone over, and every word appropriated which could claim a home in the Sunda. I have to regret my want of understanding the Sanscrit character given by Marsden, to many words in his dictionary, and as he has not


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Rh given a Romanized version of these words, they are to me, as to most other people, very learned but also very unmeaning signs.

The Javanese dictionary of P. P. Roorda van Eijsinga 1835, has also frequently been consulted, but more nicety of discrimination was often here incumbent, as from the closer affinity of the two languages of Java, it was necessary to be careful not to admit words which had no right to a place, or perhaps only varied slightly from what are used in Sunda.

One work alone I have carefully eschewed, viz; the Sunda Dictionary of A. de Wilde, published by Roorda 1841. A casual glance down its pages soon convinced me that it would rather lead me astray than afford information, and so I was forced to lay it aside, although anxious to avail of all the light which I could find. It may even yet contain some words which I have not given, but to sift them out would be a labour of considerable extent, and probably a loss of time in the end. The work of Mr. de Wilde did not see the light, till many years after he had left Java, and was thus of course without the natives at his elbow to put him to rights when in any doubt, and without other authorities for reference or help.

Even in Java living in the interior, surrounded by natives who speak the language as their mother tongue, it often requires, with many words, some judgment to select the right meaning, and words are current in different districts which are not known again in others, or which have a somewhat modified meaning, and are sneered at when used differently from what is usual with any particular set of people. The Sunda people possess no literature to which reference can be made, and it is consequently a purely oral language spoken by a little better than two millions of people, at the west end of Java, to and with the greater part of Chribon.

The influx of words from that great classical language of the East—the Sanscrit—has also been considerable into the Sunda, where they have been retained with great accuracy during a long period of years, probably not less than 1000 or 1200 years. The same early intercourse with the natives of India, as that which took place with Sumatra and Java proper, or the Eastern parts of our island, no doubt extended also to the Sunda districts, but of this neither written history nor tradition preserves any remembrance, and with few trifling exceptions the Sunda districts retain no traces of temples or stone images indicating the presence of artists from Continental India, but with which the East end of the island so plentifully abounds. The Budhists were driven out of Continental India in the Seventh Century of the Christian Era, when a great trade was carried on with the Indian Isles, for those valuable products which found a ready market in the West—and from the conflicting ascendency of one sect or the other on the Indian Continent, we may fairly conclude that the worsted party had to fly and seek a safe refuge in foreign parts, and no country would offer them a more inviting refuge than the Indian isles. The Budhists were eventually the worsted party and settling in great numbers in Java built boro bodur, and many other old monuments and temples of which we still find the ruins, introducing at the same time the Sanscrit literature and holy books which descending


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XIV through their children of mixed Hindu and Javanese race gradually imparted to the colloquial tongues that large accession of ideas which they still retain, in the same way as the Arabic derivatives have, at a later period, been introduced with the Mahomedan religion, and by some Arabs intermarrying with the natives, without either Hindus or Arabs having fitted out navies and armies to invade and conquer the country, as done by Europeans in our days.

The language which those Indians, whence soever they came, grafted upon the native stock, was not their own colloquial speech, but the language of their religion and of their sacred books. They probably came from the Gangetic provinces, as neither the Tellugu, Tamil nor Singhalese colloquial languages have made hardly any impression, and if the Sanscrit literature and words were communicated by these latter people, it was through the language of their literature and religion, which throughout India, especially before the Mahomedan invasions, beginning under Mahmud of Gizni in A. D. 1000, was the almost universal Sanscrit.

In the following dictionary I have endeavoured to trace out such words as have had a Sanscrit origin, which I have been enabled to do, with the aid of the Singhalese and English Dictionary of the Reverend B. Clough, Colombo 1830, who, in his preface, declares nine-tenths of the Singhalese to be derived from either Sanskrit or Pali. Not that 1 have any pretentions to a proficiency in the Singhalese language, but I trust that it will be found that such words as will be constantly occurring throughout the following pages, will tend to throw some light upon this part of the language, and will elucidate many words whose Sanscrit origin might not, at first glance, suggest itself. These words from Clough are always marked by the letter C. with a number after them, which is the number of the page where they occur in the Dictionary, the Singhalese words of which are in the Singhalese character.

In this part of my study I have been assisted by the Articles supplied by Mr. R Friederich to the Transactions of the Batavian Society, with reference to Bali, which his knowledge of the Sanscrit has enabled him to do so often with happy succes. I am also further indebted to this gentleman personally for communications on the same matters, which I trust I have, for the greater part acknowledged in their proper places.

I have endeavoured to give the Botanical names to as many of the trees and plants as possible, which occur in the work for the most part taken from Blume's Flora Javae, or selected from various books or writings of which several notices in the Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, by Dr. G. Wassink have been fruitful sources. Deficiencies have often been supplied by occasional rambles in the Government Palace gardens at Buitenzorg, where the plants are all carefully labelled by Mess". Teysmann and Binnendijk, the gentlemen who have charge of this scientific ornament to the residence of the Governor General of Netherland's India.

The scientific names for the Zoology of Java have had their origin in Horsfeld's Zoology of Java and in various writings and Museums.

With a view to gleaning something of the Ancient lore and language of the Country


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Rh I, many years ago, used to have a village bard, called a tukang pantun or storyteller to recite his tales. This man was called Ki Gémbang and a dozen or 15 years ago, had a great run of popular native favour, being in great request all over the Western parts of the Province of Buitenzorg. The subject of such sagas is the olden time, when Pajajaran flourished and over which the native of the present day sits the live-long night, listening to the deeds of those who have long slept with the past. Such legends are not worth anything as matters of history, but are rich in native wit and humour, and found to contain a vast deal of words, which are little heard in every day conversation. The mantle of Ki Gémbang has now a days descended on his son.

The last of my authorities, to whom I am perhaps the most indebted, is the present Demang of Jasinga, Raden Nata Wiréja, with whom I have gone over the whole dictionary, that is all words of which I was not sufficiently certain, and who during several months of 1854, at intervals, devoted a couple of hours per day, to assisting me with the elucidation of difficult or doubtful words.

No pains have been spared to render the work as correct and useful as possible; and with this predication the author throws himself upon the good will of his readers. The following resumé of the number of words under each letter of the Alphabet may be interesting in various ways


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XVI The printing of this dictionary has been long delayed and very nearly seven years have elapsed since the manuscript was handed to the Society. The difficulty of printing such a work in English, a language foreign to the place, is fully acknowledged by the author and must bear the blame of occasional inaccuracies. The abode of the author, nearly 50 miles from Batavia, rendered it impossible for him to revise the press.

The earlier part is often kindly illustrated by notes by Mr. R. H. Th. Friederich, whom sickness has latterly driven to Europe. The proper pronunciation of the words may sometimes appear doubtful from the necessary printing letters being absent especially where ĕu occurs. The ˘ above the first letter e of which must be considered as circumflexing both letters.

, 5 Augustus 1862


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Abah-abah, goods, chattels, effects; gear, tackle – see Parabah.

Abang, Javanese-Red-rarely heard – occurs in the word Tanabang near Batavia – Tanah-abang – red land.

Abdallah, the son of Abd-ul-muttalib, and father of the prophet Mohammad, he was the husband of Amina. Not long after their marriage Abdallah set out on a trading journey to Gaza in the south of Syria, and on his return, died at Medina before Mohammad was born.

Abd-ul-Muttalib, the grandfather of Mohammad, who took care of him when left as an orphan at the early age of seven years: but he also died soon after in A. D. 578 aged 82 years. Col: Rev: June 184 Page 374. Abd-ul-Mutalib was noted for the munificence with which he entertained all pilgrims, who came to the temple in Mecca of which he was guardian.

Abdi, ar: a slave or bondman to the government; the term was in vogue under the Sultans of Bantam. Throughout the Country of Bantan there were scattered Lumbur abdi and orang abdi, abdi villages and abdi people, who were treated as serfs or slaves, and their young women sent to the Harems in Bantan, by a sort of "Droit de seigneur."

Abdul, ar: the slave of – from the arabic word abd slave. Many Mohammedan names begin with these words, as Abdul-Rachman the slave of the compassionate (God) – Abdul Rahim, the slave of the merciful (God).  1


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2 Abdullah, ar: a common name for a man, means "the slave of God". All Chinese who become converts to Mohammedanism get the name of Abdullah.

Abĕr-abĕran, to stroll, to wander, often to avoid pursuit.

Abig-abig, the upper gable end of a house, being a triangle of which the sloping roof forms two sides, and a line drawn from eaves to eaves, the base. The triangular piece of thatch or matted bambu which fits into this place.

Abong, Forsooth, oh dear – abong sia bogah duit, forsooth now that you have got some money.

Abong-abong, said when a man presumes on his position or circumstances. Abong-abong ka nu leutik, presuming upon a mans position to oppress people of humble degree.

Abrit-abritan, to skip or skit about, to bound nimbly along.

Abu, ar: Father – often occurs in the composition of proper names, as the Javanese (of the western part of the island) mostly bear arabic names from being Mohammedans.

Abu Bakar, ar: properly Abu Békĕr – the father of the Virgin. The first Caliph so called and successor to Mohammad. He was father in law to Mohammad. His daughter Aisha was a virgin when Mohammad espoused her; he had been married before to Kadijah who was a widow.

Aburan, running wild, neglected, let at large, not taken care of. Jélema aburan, a reckless fellow – a man who has no permanent home aud is skulking from the police authorities.

Abus, to run in, to enter – abus na kadinyo, it ran in there.

Abuskĕn, to cause to enter, to put or force into any place.

Abu Talib, one of the sons of Abdul Muttalib on whom devolved the charge of his nephew Mohammad on tethe [sic] death of Abdul Muttalib. He took care of the orphan Mohammad during his youth, and reached the age of upwards of 80 years. Abdallah, the father of Mohammad, and Abu Talib were brothers by the same mother.

Achah, au interjection of derision: there you get it! that's it!

Achalok, a hop, a short jump; to hop, to perch as a bird on a branch.

Achan, even, at all. To di béré-béré achan, he did not even give me any.

Achar, Persian-Pickles Achar iwung, pickles made of the sprouts of young bambus.

Aché, the town of Achin at the north end of Sumatra: The name is familiar to the Sunda people from their Hajis or Pilgrims to Mecca often finding their way there.

Aché, a fine kind of Rambutan or Sundun, probably originally brought from Achin in Sumatra.


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Rh Achĕlok, to spring, to go by leaps, to hop as a bird or frog-see Achalok.

Achéng, a name of endearment given to children– as much as „My darling.“

Acheŭk, elder or eldest sister- a refined expression.

Achi, among Peranakan Chinese is elder sister, eldest sister- see Puachi.

Achi, the juice, the gravy, the essential liquid of meat.

Achi, the fecula of a palm tree or tuberous root, prepared for eating in any way. Achi kawung, Sago prepared from the Kawung palm tree, Achi konéng, fecula prepared from the tuber of the Ki konéng, or the wild turmeric.

Acho, to talk vauntingly, to brag, to hold ridiculonsridiculous [sic] talk, see ngacho. Acho bai sia mohal aya nu ngandel, what stuff you talk, it is not likely that any one will believe you.

Achung, a variety of Arum, of very offensive smell.

Adah, an interjection of surprise or dismay, oh! is that the way! is that what you are after! as we might say „the devil take it!“ Adah! wat lĕutik tĕuyn, oh the devil take it, it is too small. Adah! sia daik ngabobodo kang aing, is that what you are after, you want to make a fool of me.

Adam, ar: Adam, the first man, called also Nabi Adam which means the prophet Adam – but most of the remarkable Characters in the old Testament bear the distinguishing epithet of Nabi.

Adas, carawaij, carum- name of a warm tasted seed.

Adas, generally called after the Malay, Adas manis, aniseed, anethum graveolens.

Adat, ar: Custom, long established usage, mode, way of acting, for the reason that. Adat nagara, the usage of the Country. Adat goréng, bad habits. Adat kula tilok ngala, because I never take any.

Adĕg, and ngadeg, to set up, to assume a situation or authority- Rank, position.

Adĕgkĕn, to be set up in office, or authority by another.

Adénda, younger brother or sister, used only among people of rank- compounded of Adi which see, and Endah, good proper.

Adi or adhi, much used in the composition of proper names of Chiefs, where it always indicates a high rank and perfection. Adhi, C. 24 over, above, upon, implying superiority in place, quality or quantity.


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4 Adi, a younger brother or sister; a term of respect or affection in addressing a younger person.

Adi Bĕutĕung, a brother or sister of our wife, which is younger than her.

Adi Dahĕuan, a brother or sister of our wife, who is older than her.

Adi Kusuma, a frequent name among the Javanese nobility; from Adi- vide voce- and Kusuma Clough 134 a flower in general-but on Java it is used as an epithet for any thing excellent- Adi Kusuma is therefore „the flower ot perfection.” (Or „the first „flower.” Fr.).

Adil, ar: just, equitable, fair.

Adi ning Rat or Adhi ning Rat, a name subjoined to the two native Capitals on Java, and means „Chief of the Land.” Adi, vide voce, Ning is a Javanese and Sunda word expressive of of. Rat is a contraction of Rata, C. 581. Country, district, an inhabited Country; thus we have Surakarta adi ning Rat, and Jugyakarta adi ning Rat. Adhi ning Rat is a title often given to Javanese chiefs of high rank.

Adi pati, one of the highest ranks of office, derived from Adi vide voce and Pati C. 383 Lord or master, thus Chief Lord – the native governor of a subdivision of the Country, under the European Resident- the highest rank to which the native Regents are usually raised.

Adon, to visit a neighbour or friend – mostly with a view to get something out of him- this frequently happens at crop or fruit time, in order to get a share- to go and receive food or daily necessaries from a friend. Adon jagong, to go to get maize; adon nyatu, to go to get fed.

Adu, to fight, to squabble, see Agadu- This word is also no doubt of Sanscrit origin. The nearest to be found in Clough are at Page 636 Wada, discourse, discussion, controversy, disputation. Wadi, a disputant, a controversialist – Wadu, hatred, anger, malice, wrath.

Adu biru, an expression of contempt used towards any one- montong di bawuran adu biru sia, you need not put in any of your jaw to meddle with conversation or matters that do not regard you. For Adu vide voce. Biruma C 473 barking- the verbal noun of Buranawa to bark as a dog- adu biru is thus literally, controversy and barking.


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Rh Adug, to stamp and kick about, as a horse in the stable, or any animal confined in a fold or cage- to be obstreperous.

Aduh, an interjection of grief or pain- oh! mercy on us! It hurts! Aduh! ulah bangat tĕuyn- It hurts, do'ntdon't [sic] use so much force. Aduh! aing to bisa nulungan, alas! I cannot help you.

Aduk, to mix, to mingle, to entangle, to cause confusion, to jumble together. Aduk apu to mix lime- Kusut amat unit di aduk, how confused it is by being jumbled together.

Adu kebo, literally „the fighting of buffaloes”- that part of the thatch which covers the ridge pole of a house. It is formed by tying two ataps to each other, so that their respective ends hang away from each other, and having thus the Jejalon of each in contact with the other.

Adukĕn, to set to fight, to put in competition; to set up or connect the different parts of carpentry or machinery.

Agama, religion- as Agama Serani, the Christian religion, agama Slam the Mohammedan religion agama Auda, the Bhuddist religion, which the natives know as their religion before the introduction of Mohammedanism, but which is about all that they know of it. Agama C 61 from â 60 a particle answering to our until, unto, as far as, with, and gama to come, to go, an approaching, a coming; a grammatical argument; also a science, a work on any one of the sacreds sciences; the word is universally (in the Archipelago) used, in colloquial intercourse to express religion.

Agar-agar, a species of sea-weed; Zostera or Plocaria candida. It is boiled down into a jelly and so eaten, especially by invalids. Agari C. 7 from a privative, and gara poison- a kind of grass. (This is also the derivation in Wilson, but it means only a kind of grass, vulgo Deotar. Fr.)

Agéhan, to leave for another, not to consume or use up any thing entirely. Agéhan kula lauk na saheutik leave me a little of the flesh or fish.

Agĕm, noble, lordly, consistent with dignity or greatness, dignified, praise-worthy. Agĕm naker tumpak kreta kuda opat it is very dignified to ride in a carriage with four horses. Piagem, a rent roll or schedule given to the chief of a village on the government lands,

Agĕr, a word expressive of vomiting. mantas nyatu teŭleŭi ager-ageran bai, as soon as he had done eating, he began to vomit.

Agul-Proud, vain, elated with success.

Agung and agĕng, Principal, chief, superior, great, noble. Juru agung, the chief director- Kagungan, Highness.

Agus, a rank of birth when the father has been a Mas, and the mother of ignoble origin; also much used as a term of courtesy in addressing any man.

Ah, an interjection of disapprobation, or dislike. ''Ah! ulah sok kitu'' ah! do not be doing so.


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6 Ahad, ar: Sunday, the seventh day of the week. It is always named first in enumerating the days of the week.

Ahém, Hem! the sound caused by a sudden expulsion of breath.

Ahing, appertaining to greatness, splendid, magnificent, excelling others.

Ahirat. ar. a future state, the next world.

Ahli, ar: see Ali, instructed in, conversant with matters connected with the Mohammedan religion, Eminent, sublime. (From ahl, people; by name the people of the Islam, or from àlijjon high Fr.).

Ahwal or awal, ar: first, former, beginning. The word is used to distinguish some months- Rabiul awal- Rabiul akir, the former and latter Rabi, the third and fourth mohammedan months- awal na kiyo in the beginning it was thus

Aing, the pronoun I, used by a superior to an inferior. This word may be the first part of the word aya, a riffned [sic] expression for father, with a common Polynesion terminal ng attached to it- or it meymay [sic] be the Singhalese ayiya C. 45 Elder brother, with the Polynesian ng subsitutedsubstituted [sic] for the final ya in the original word. Deference to age being so much observed by the natives, that a slight modification of Father or Elder brother has become current for the personal pronoun used to designate a superior individual- see kula.

Ais, to carry on the back, mostly wrapped up in the Samping.

Aisha, ar: the second wife of Mohammad and daughter of Abu Bakar. Aisha was only seven years old when betrothed to Mohammad, and was not regularly married to him, till two years later. She was always MohammadsMohammad's [sic] favorite wife, and was the only one who came as a virgin to his arms, and hence her father was called Abu Békĕr the father of the virgin. All MohammadsMohammad's [sic] other wives had been married before.

Ajag, a species of wild dog common in the jungle. It is of a brown foxy colour, and has a bushy tail. A small variety is called usung-asung. The ajag is the Canis rutilans. It worries sheep and young buffaloe calves.

Ajaib, ar: wonders, miracles.

Ajak, to invite, to urge, to press, to persuade, to take a part or share in any action to stimulate, to excite- Kula hanto di ajak Ywas [sic] not invited. Di ajak ka nu goring, he urged me to do wrong- ajakan reujeung to invite him to go along with you.

Ajam, intending, purporting, having a wish or design to do something- Ajam ka Bogor, I propose or intend to go to Buitenzorg.

Ajang, For, to be used for, for the purpose of. Ajang indung for mijmy [sic] mother; Ajang imah, to be used for a house; ajam pi-teuas, to make it hard.

Ajangan, to pay respect or deference to. To di ajangan sakali, they paid him no respect.

Ajangan, is also used for thothe [sic] pronoun you when applied to great people, and might be translated your deference. Parentah ajangan kudu leumpang, your deferencesdeference's [sic] orders were that we should set out. This word is derived from the Kawi word jeng meaning foot, and implies the humbleness of the person using the word, as he dare not


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Rh address himself to any part of his superior higher than his feet- Jangha, C. 203 thothe [sic] calf of the leg. (It might be conferred with or be the same as aing; see above Fr.).

Ajangan, said of a great man, as much as His Honour – Ajangan tuan, your honour, (certainly the same word as the two preceding ones. Fr.)

Ajar, to instruct, to teach, to train, to learn- Ajara, a teacher in compound singhalese words, as Loajara, a name of Buddha or Brahma, from Lo the world, Ajara, teacher C.610.

Ajar, a recluse of former times, when the people were Buddhists, a hermit, an ascetic, It is probably also derived from Ajara C. 610 a teacher. It may however, be a contraction of Acharya C. 61 a teacher a preceptor, dropping the final and constructive ya, and softening down the rest of the word so as to suit Polynesian organs. Thus we find the father of Sawéla hala called Balia achar Raffles vol 2 P. 84 which is most probably an abbreviation of Balia-acharya.

Ajar domas Eight hundred hermits who are said to have formerly lived abont the Palosari hill in Bantam.

Ajaran, admonition, reproof; to attempt, to try, to venture onesone's [sic] luck- ajaran lamun daik hadé, try if it will succeed or become good. Ajaran meuli I ventured my luck and bought some

Ajĕngan, the same as ajangan.

Ajĕrutan, jumping along, skipping off- running like a hare or rabitrabbit [sic].

Aji, to study, lo learn, as at school, the formularies of religion; to read religious books, to recite prayers. The word Aji is most probably a corruption of the Sanscrit word Adhi-i or Adhi to read.

Aji, Price, Value, see Pangaji. (The same meaning has the word in Balinese Fr).

Aji, is a title preserved in old Javanese history in the name of Aji Saka, who is supposed to have come to Java from the continent of India with colonists about A. D. 75 or 78 and to have introduced both the Hindu era and religion. Raffles vol 2 P. 66/68 The word Aji, as a title, is heard in Aji Jaya Baya, Aji Nirmala, and Aji Usi was a celebrated giant of Sourabaja. Raffles 2 vol P. 75.

In endeavouring to trace the origin of this name, there is found in Clough’s Dictionary Page 14 Ajiwaka, a kind of Hindu religious mendicant who goes about naked


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8 as a proof that he has destroyed his passions. The word is derived from A privative, and Jiwa life, which means thus death, non-existence, a person not troubled with a mundane soul. Saka C. 691 a sovereign, any prince who gives name to an era. Ajiwaka Saka may thus have been contracted into Aji Saka, for both the w$a$ and k$a$ are constructive particles. Probably our Aji Saka was a religions enthusiast who came to Java with his admirers to escape persecution at home.

Ajir, a stake or prod, particularly for lining out work.

Ajok, to mimic, to ridicule.

Ajol, to come running up to, to approach at a trot.

Ajol-ajolan, frisky and playful as a spirited horse which will not be quiet.

Ajug, a native candle-stick; a stand, mostly made of tin, in which to place an oil lamp a tin lamp stand, fitted at the top to receive a glass with oil to serve as a lamp.

Ajul, to poke and knock off, as fruit from a tree, with a long stick.

Ajur, sloppy, moist and dissolving, in a state approaching to mud.

Akal, ar: device, cunning, contrivance, judgment. Goréng akal na, his tricks are bad. Akal jélema loba, the devices of man are many. Kudu ku akal, it must be done with contrivance.

Akalan, to circumvent by device, to work at with contrivance. Kudu di akalan ku wang, money must be used to bring the matter about. Beunang ngakalan ku linggis, it has been cunningly managed with a crowbar.

Akar, root, the root of a tree or plant.

Akar wangi. Malay. fragrant root, name of the root of the Andropogon muricatus of a brown colour and emitting a fragrant smell, used to make hand-screens or fans.

Akas, a variety of ant which bites very hard and draws blood.

Akasa, the sky- the atmosphere, occurs in Jampés, but not in the common colloquial language, sometimes heard as Angkasa. Akasa C. 60, Ether, the sky, the atmosphere.

Akbar-ar: Great, used only in the expression Allah hu akbar, God is great. (allahu Ft.)

Akeŭl, the process of kneading warm and fresh, boiled rice in a Dulang which the natitivesnatives [sic] consider improves the flavour.

Akeŭp, to take up and carry in the arms.

Akhérat-ar: the future life, the next world, (cf. ahirat P. 6.).

Akhir and akir ar: last, latter, final, termination. Akhir jaman the latter dag, hereafter. Rabiul akir, the latter Rabi, the fourth Mohammedan month.

Aki, Grandfather, a term of respect for any old man.


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Rh Aksara, a letter of the alphabet, a character, the alphabet. Akshara C. 5. a letter of the alphabet. Daun aksara, a pretty and curionscurious [sic] leaf which grows as a lowly plant on stones amongst the moist and elevated mountains. So called Alphabet leaf from being covered with black marks having the rude resemblance of letters.

Aku, to confess, to acknowledge, to claim as property, to own to.

Akut-akut, the ichneumon fly; the kind of fly which builds small mud nests, in which it lays its eggs, and buries along with them spiders, caterpillars &c. for the food of the future larvae.

Akutan, to bear away in loads, returning again and again till done.

Ala, to take, to appropriate, to get possession of; to gather fruit.

alla C, 50, seized, laid hold of.

Ala, as Ala manan, much more so than, much more preferably, Ala is probably the root of the Malay or Javanese kalah, to lose, not to win, worsted, and thus worse than (this or that).

Alaikum, ar: with you, as Salam alaikum, Peace be with you.

Alak-ilik, to peep and spy about, to look around pryingly.

Alam, ar: the world, mostly heard prefixed to Dunya. Alam dunya the universe. Paku Alam, the title of the Independent Prince of Jugyukarta, literally „the spike nail of the world.”

Alam, ar: in the time of. Alam Inggris in the time of the English. (The same as the preceding, عَالَمٌ Fr.)

Alamat, ar: Sign, token, signal, presage, Alamat paih a presage of death. عَلَامَة

Alang-alangan, to wander away, to skulk about, to wander at random.

Alap-alap, a small but fierce variety of hawk. Falco Bengalensis.

Alas, lands or forests belonging to any district, as alas Bantan belonging to the territory of Bantan. Also a continuons ridge of land uncut by any stream of water, and in this sense is always used in conjunction with the word tali, rope or line as tali alas, the unbroken ridge connecting two hills, or leading from the lowlands to the mountains. Alas in the sense of forest is not SundaeseSundanese [sic] but Javanese. But in Sunda it is used in composition as seen from the following examples, Alasan, aswalas, kopi alas.

Alasan, to collect in the forest such articles as grow there spontaneously, such as Ratans and wild fruit. The word alas means in Javanese forest, but the Sundas do not use it so.

Alasan, rain, and wind together, particularly in the jungle. Bisi manggih alasan, lest we meet with rain.

Alaya, occurs in the composition of some proper names and means house, abode. ālaya C. 65. House. Suralaya the abode of the Gods. see voce. 2


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10 Aléan, to pick and select seed, said particularly of paddy.

Alĕm, to praise, to encourage by commendation.

Alĕman, giving oneself airs. unneedfully proud.

Alĕpa, careless, off one's guard, heedless, negligent. Marsden Page 13 gives Alpa as Hindu-negligent. It is also Kawi.

Aleŭm, clouded and dull, threatening for rain. Covered with mist.

Aleŭt, with intermission, one by one, said of people walking, like all natives do, in a row, one by one after each other.

Alhamdulillah, ar: God be praised, God be thanked.

Ali, ar: Eminent, sublime, noble. Ta-ali, (Perhaps تَعَاٰلي taâla Fr.). exalted, most high.

Ali, as Ali talil (تَهْلِيل, tahlîl) the exordium to the prayers in the mosque.

Ali, was the son in law of Mohamad and fourth Caliph. He is generally called Bagind' ali, His Highness Ali. He was married to Fatima the daughter of Mohamad. He died AD. 660

Alia, ar: most High. (A corrupt pronounciationpronunciation [sic] of اَعْلَي, the ي, ye made mobile Fr.).

Alim, ar: wise, learned, instructed. Also much used as a genteel negative, as Alim teuyn, I really do not know.

Alip, the letter A, also of the Arabic alphabet.

Allah, ar: God, the true God. Tuhan Allah, the Lord God. The word Tuhan is most likely the usual word Tuan, Mr., Sir, and it is believed the people of the Archipelago in general insert the aspirate to draw a line of demarcation, when they apply the word to God.

Allahu-akbar, ar: God is great, a favourite expression when in consternation.

Allahu-alĕm, (âlim) ar: God knows best, God only knows. An expression implying that something has gone wrong, or that some irretrievable accident has occurred.

Allah-taāla, ar: God the most High. God Almighty.

Alo, a nephew, a niece; when the father or mother, being our brother or sister is older than ourselves. See Suan. Alu, C. 789 light, lustre, from aloka C. 65. light-seeing. Thus the light of the family.

Alok, he says, he would have us believe, he pretends; this word is always followed by manéh self. Alok manéh to bogah béja he pretends he did not get news of it.

Alon, quietly, slowly, gently.

Aluan, the course of a vessel at sea; direction in which to steer.


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the numerous applications of the Darwinian theory in the interpretation of the complex phenomena presented by the organic world, none have been more successful, or are more interesting, than those which deal with the colours of animals and plants. To the older school of naturalists colour was a trivial character, eminently unstable and untrustworthy in the determination of species; and it appeared to have, in most cases, no use or meaning to the objects which displayed it. The bright and often gorgeous coloration of insect, bird, or flower, was either looked upon as having been created for the enjoyment of mankind, or as due to unknown and perhaps undiscoverable laws of nature.

But the researches of Mr. Darwin totally changed our point of view in this matter. He showed, clearly, that some of the colours of animals are useful, some hurtful to them; and he believed that many of the most brilliant colours were developed by sexual choice; while his great general principle, that all


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188 the fixed characters of organic beings have been developed under the action of the law of utility, led to the inevitable conclusion that so remarkable and conspicuous a character as colour, which so often constitutes the most obvious distinction of species from species, or group from group, must also have arisen from survival of the fittest, and must, therefore, in most cases have some relation to the wellbeing of its possessors. Continuous observation and research, carried on by multitudes of observers during the last thirty years, have shown this to be the case; but the problem is found to be far more complex than was at first supposed. The modes in which colour is of use to different classes of organisms is very varied, and have probably not yet been all discovered; while the infinite variety and marvellous beauty of some of its developments are such as to render it hopeless to arrive at a complete and satisfactory explanation of every individual case. So much, however, has been achieved, so many curious facts have been explained, and so much light has been thrown on some of the most obscure phenomena of nature, that the subject deserves a prominent place in any account of the Darwinian theory.

Before dealing with the various modifications of colour in the animal world it is necessary to say a few words on colour in general, on its prevalence in nature, and how it is that the colours of animals and plants require any special explanation. What we term colour is a subjective phenomenon, due to the constitution of our mind and nervous system; while, objectively, it consists of light-vibrations of different wave-lengths emitted by, or reflected from, various objects. Every visible object must be coloured, because to be visible it must send rays of light to our eye. The kind of light it sends is modified by the molecular constitution or the surface texture of the object. Pigments absorb certain rays and reflect the remainder, and this reflected portion has to our eyes a definite colour, according to the portion of the rays constituting white light which are absorbed. Interference colours are produced either by thin films or by very fine striae on the surfaces of bodies, which cause rays of certain wave-lengths to neutralise each other, leaving the remainder to produce the effects of colour. Such


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Rh are the colours of soap-bubbles, or of steel or glass on which extremely fine lines have been ruled; and these colours often produce the effect of metallic lustre, and are the cause of most of the metallic hues of birds and insects.

As colour thus depends on molecular or chemical constitution or on the minute surface texture of bodies, and, as the matter of which organic beings are composed consists of chemical compounds of great complexity and extreme instability, and is also subject to innumerable changes during growth and development, we might naturally expect the phenomena of colour to be more varied here than in less complex and more stable compounds. Yet even in the inorganic world we find abundant and varied colours; in the earth and in the water; in metals, gems, and minerals; in the sky and in the ocean; in sunset clouds and in the many-tinted rainbow. Here we can have no question of use to the coloured object, and almost as little perhaps in the vivid red of blood, in the brilliant colours of red snow and other low algæ and fungi, or even in the universal mantle of green which clothes so large a portion of the earth's surface. The presence of some colour, or even of many brilliant colours, in animals and plants would require no other explanation than does that of the sky or the ocean, of the ruby or the emerald—that is, it would require a purely physical explanation only. It is the wonderful individuality of the colours of animals and plants that attracts our attention—the fact that the colours are localised in definite patterns, sometimes in accordance with structural characters, sometimes altogether independent of them; while often differing in the most striking and fantastic manner in allied species. We are thus compelled to look upon colour not merely as a physical but also as a biological characteristic, which has been differentiated and specialised by natural selection, and must, therefore, find its explanation in the principle of adaptation or utility.

That the colours and markings of animals have been acquired under the fundamental law of utility is indicated by a general fact which has received very little attention. As a rule, colour and marking are constant in each species of wild animal, while, in almost every domesticated animal, there arises


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190 great variability. We see this in our horses and cattle, our dogs and cats, our pigeons and poultry. Now, the essential difference between the conditions of life of domesticated and wild animals is, that the former are protected by man, while the latter have to protect themselves. The extreme variations in colour that immediately arise under domestication indicate a tendency to vary in this way, and the occasional occurrence of white or piebald or other exceptionally coloured individuals of many species in a state of nature, shows that this tendency exists there also; and, as these exceptionally coloured individuals rarely or never increase, there must be some constant power at work to keep it in check. This power can only be natural selection or the survival of the fittest, which again implies that some colours are useful, some injurious, in each particular case. With this principle as our guide, let us see how far we can account both for the general and special colours of the animal world.

The fact that first strikes us in our examination of the colours of animals as a whole, is the close relation that exists between these colours and the general environment. Thus, white prevails among arctic animals; yellow or brown in desert species; while green is only a common colour in tropical evergreen forests. If we consider these cases somewhat carefully we shall find, that they afford us excellent materials for forming a judgment on the various theories that have been suggested to account for the colours of the animal world.

In the arctic regions there are a number of animals which are wholly white all the year round, or which only turn white in winter. Among the former are the polar bear and the American polar hare, the snowy owl and the Greenland falcon; among the latter the arctic fox, the arctic hare, the ermine, and the ptarmigan. Those which are permanently white remain among the snow nearly all the year round, while those which change their colour inhabit regions which are free from snow in summer. The obvious explanation of this style of coloration is, that it is protective, serving to conceal the herbivorous species from their enemies, and enabling carnivorous animals to approach their prey unperceived. Two other explanations have,


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Rh , been suggested. One is, that the prevalent white of the arctic regions has a direct effect in producing the white colour in animals, either by some photographic or chemical action on the skin or by a reflex action through vision. The other is, that the white colour is chiefly beneficial as a means of checking radiation and so preserving animal heat during the severity of an arctic winter. The first is part of the general theory that colour is the effect of coloured light on the objects—a pure hypothesis which has, I believe, no facts whatever to support it. The second suggestion is also an hypothesis merely, since it has not been proved by experiment that a white colour, per se, independently of the fur or feathers which is so coloured, has any effect whatever in checking the radiation of low-grade heat like that of the animal body. But both alike are sufficiently disproved by the interesting exceptions to the rule of white coloration in the arctic regions, which exceptions are, nevertheless, quite in harmony with the theory of protection.

Whenever we find arctic animals which, from whatever cause, do not require protection by the white colour, then neither the cold nor the snow-glare has any effect upon their coloration. The sable retains its rich brown fur throughout the Siberian winter; but it frequents trees at that season and not only feeds partially on fruits or seeds, but is able to catch birds among the branches of the fir-trees, with the bark of which its colour assimilates. Then we have that thoroughly arctic animal, the musk-sheep, which is brown and conspicuous; but this animal is gregarious, and its safety depends on its association in small herds. It is, therefore, of more importance for it to be able to recognise its kind at a distance than to be concealed from its enemies, against which it can well protect itself so long as it keeps together in a compact body. But the most striking example is that of the common raven, which is a true arctic bird, and is found even in mid-winter as far north as any known bird or mammal. Yet it always retains its black coat, and the reason, from our point of view, is obvious. The raven is a powerful bird and fears no enemy, while, being a carrion-feeder, it has no need for concealment in order to approach its prey. The colour of the raven and of the musk-sheep are, therefore,


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In the following pages I have written the story of the last eleven years of my travels in the interior of South Africa. During the first six years of that period, namely, from the beginning of 1882. to the end of 1887, I was principally engaged in collecting specimens of the magnificent fauna which once abounded throughout the land, but many forms of which are day by day becoming scarcer, whilst some, alas! are already verging upon extinction. My occupation naturally led me into parts of the country where game was still plentiful, and as in South Africa wherever there is game there are lions too, I now and then encountered some of these animals, and had one or two interesting experiences with them, of all of which I have given some account. The first nine chapters of the book deal with the experiences of these six years; but in addition to lion stories and hunting adventures, there will be found much matter of more general interest, such as some notes upon my own personal experiences amongst the South African Boers; accounts of the two expeditions sent against the Batauwani by Lo Bengula; the devastations committed by the Matabili in Mashunaland; notes upon the Bushmen, etc.


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192 both inconsistent with any other theory than that the white colour of arctic animals has been acquired for concealment, and to that theory both afford a strong support. Here we have a striking example of the exception proving the rule.

In the desert regions of the earth we find an even more general accordance of colour with surroundings. The lion, the camel, and all the desert antelopes have more or less the colour of the sand or rock among which they live. The Egyptian cat and the Pampas cat are sandy or earth coloured. The Australian kangaroos are of similar tints, and the original colour of the wild horse is supposed to have been sandy or clay coloured. Birds are equally well protected by assimilative hues; the larks, quails, goatsuckers, and grouse which abound in the North African and Asiatic deserts are all tinted or mottled so as closely to resemble the average colour of the soil in the districts they inhabit. Canon Tristram, who knows these regions and their natural history so well, says, in an often quoted passage: "In the desert, where neither trees, brushwood, nor even undulations of the surface afford the slightest protection to its foes, a modification of colour which shall be assimilated to that of the surrounding country is absolutely necessary. Hence, without exception, the upper plumage of every bird, whether lark, chat, sylvain, or sand-grouse, and also the fur of all the smaller mammals, and the skin of all the snakes and lizards, is of one uniform isabelline or sand colour."

Passing on to the tropical regions, it is among their evergreen forests alone that we find whole groups of birds whose ground colour is green. Parrots are very generally green, and in the East we have an extensive group of green fruit-eating pigeons; while the barbets, bee-eaters, turacos, leaf-thrushes (Phyllornis), white-eyes (Zosterops), and many other groups, have so much green in their plumage as to tend greatly to their concealment among the dense foliage. There can be no doubt that these colours have been acquired as a protection, when we see that in all the temperate regions, where the leaves are deciduous, the ground colour of the great majority of birds, especially on the upper surface, is a rusty brown of various shades, well corresponding with the bark, withered leaves, ferns, and bare thickets among which


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Rh they live in autumn and winter, and especially in early spring when so many of them build their nests.

Nocturnal animals supply another illustration of the same rule, in the dusky colours of mice, rats, bats, and moles, and in the soft mottled plumage of owls and goatsuckers which, while almost equally inconspicuous in the twilight, are such as to favour their concealment in the daytime.

An additional illustration of general assimilation of colour to the surroundings of animals, is furnished by the inhabitants of the deep oceans. Professor Moseley of the Challenger Expedition, in his British Association lecture on this subject, says: "Most characteristic of pelagic animals is the almost crystalline transparency of their bodies. So perfect is this transparency that very many of them are rendered almost entirely invisible when floating in the water, while some, even when caught and held up in a glass globe, are hardly to be seen. The skin, nerves, muscles, and other organs are absolutely hyaline and transparent, but the liver and digestive tract often remain opaque and of a yellow or brown colour, and exactly resemble when seen in the water small pieces of floating seaweed." Such marine organisms, however, as are of larger size, and either occasionally or habitually float on the surface, are beautifully tinged with blue above, thus harmonising with the colour of the sea as seen by hovering birds; while they are white below, and are thus invisible against the wave-foam and clouds as seen by enemies beneath the surface. Such are the tints of the beautiful nudibranchiate mollusc, Glaucus atlanticus, and many others.

We are now in a position to test the general theories, or, to speak more correctly, the popular notions, as to the origin of animal coloration, before proceeding to apply the principle of utility to the explanation of some among the many extraordinary manifestations of colour in the animal world. The most generally received theory undoubtedly is, that brilliancy and variety of colour are due to the direct action of light and heat; a theory no doubt derived from the abundance of bright-coloured birds, insects, and flowers which are brought from tropical regions. There are, however,


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194 two strong arguments against this theory. We have already seen how generally bright coloration is wanting in desert animals, yet here heat and light are both at a maximum, and if these alone were the agents in the production of colour, desert animals should be the most brilliant. Again, all naturalists who have lived in tropical regions know that the proportion of bright to dull coloured species is little if any greater there than in the temperate zone, while there are many tropical groups in which bright colours are almost entirely unknown. No part of the world presents so many brilliant birds as South America, yet there are extensive families, containing many hundreds of species, which are as plainly coloured as our average temperate birds. Such are the families of the bush-shrikes and ant-thrushes (Formicariidæ), the tyrant-shrikes (Tyrannidæ), the American creepers (Dendrocolaptidæ), together with a large proportion of the wood-warblers (Mniotiltidæ), the finches, the wrens, and some other groups. In the eastern hemisphere, also, we have the babbling-thrushes (Timaliidæ), the cuckoo-shrikes (Campephagidæ), the honey-suckers (Meliphagidæ), and several other smaller groups which are certainly not coloured above the average standard of temperate birds.

Again, there are many families of birds which spread over the whole world, temperate and tropical, and among these the tropical species rarely present any exceptional brilliancy of colour. Such are the thrushes, goatsuckers, hawks, plovers, and ducks; and in the last-named group it is the temperate and arctic zones that afford the most brilliant coloration.

The same general facts are found to prevail among insects. Although tropical insects present some of the most gorgeous coloration in the whole realm of nature, yet there are thousands and tens of thousands of species which are as dull coloured as any in our cloudy land. The extensive family of the carnivorous ground-beetles (Carabidæ) attains its greatest brilliancy in the temperate zone; while by far the larger proportion of the great families of the longicorns and the weevils, are of obscure colours even in the tropics. In butterflies, there is undoubtedly a larger proportion of brilliant colour in the tropics; but if we compare families which are almost equally developed over the globe—as the Pieridæ or


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Rh whites and yellows, and the Satyridæ or ringlets—we shall find no great disproportion in colour between those of temperate and tropical regions.

The various facts which have now briefly been noticed are sufficient to indicate that the light and heat of the sun are not the direct causes of the colours of animals, although they may favour the production of colour when, as in tropical regions, the persistent high temperature favours the development of the maximum of life. We will now consider the next suggestion, that light reflected from surrounding coloured objects tends to produce corresponding colours in the animal world.

This theory is founded on a number of very curious facts which prove, that such a change does sometimes occur and is directly dependent on the colours of surrounding objects; but these facts are comparatively rare and exceptional in their nature, and the same theory will certainly not apply to the infinitely varied colours of the higher animals, many of which are exposed to a constantly varying amount of light and colour during their active existence. A brief sketch of these dependent changes of colour may, however, be advantageously given here.

There are two distinct kinds of change of colour in animals due to the colouring of the environment. In one case the change is caused by reflex action set up by the animal seeing the colour to be imitated, and the change produced can be altered or repeated as the animal changes its position. In the other case the change occurs but once, and is probably not due to any conscious or sense action, but to some direct influence on the surface tissues while the creature is undergoing a moult or change to the pupa form.

The most striking example of the first class is that of the chameleon, which changes to white, brown, yellowish, or green, according to the colour of the object on which it rests. This change is brought about by means of two layers of pigment cells, deeply seated in the skin, and of bluish and yellowish colours. By suitable muscles these cells can be forced upwards so as to modify the colour of the skin, which,


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196 when they are not brought into action, is a dirty white. These animals are excessively sluggish and defenceless, and the power of changing their colour to that of their immediate surroundings is no doubt of great service to them. Many of the flatfish are also capable of changing their colour according to the colour of the bottom they rest on; and frogs have a similar power to a limited extent. Some crustacea also change colour, and the power is much developed in the Chameleon shrimp (Mysis Chamæleon) which is gray when on sand, but brown or green when among brown or green seaweed. It has been proved by experiment that when this animal is blinded the change does not occur. In all these cases, therefore, we have some form of reflex or sense action by which the change is produced, probably by means of pigment cells beneath the skin as in the chameleon.

The second class consists of certain larvæ, and pupæ, which undergo changes of colour when exposed to differently coloured surroundings. This subject has been carefully investigated by Mr. E. B. Poulton, who has communicated the results of his experiments to the Royal Society. It had been noticed that some species of larvæ which fed on several different plants had colours more or less corresponding to the particular plant the individual fed on. Numerous cases are given in Professor Meldola's article on "Variable Protective Colouring" (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1873, p. 153), and while the general green coloration was attributed to the presence of chlorophyll beneath the skin, the particular change in correspondence to each food-plant was attributed to a special function which had been developed by natural selection. Later on, in a note to his translation of Weissmann's Theory of Descent, Professor Meldola seemed disposed to think that the variations of colour of some of the species might be phytophagic—that is, due to the direct action of the differently coloured leaves on which the insect fed. Mr. Poulton's experiments have thrown much light on this question, since he has conclusively proved that, in the case of the sphinx caterpillar of Smerinthus ocellatus, the change of colour is not due to the food but to the coloured light reflected from the leaves.


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Rh This was shown by feeding two sets of larvæ on the same plant but exposed to differently coloured surroundings, obtained by sewing the leaves together, so that in one case only the dark upper surface, in the other the whitish under surface was exposed to view. The result in each case was a corresponding change of colour in the larvæ, confirming the experiments on different individuals of the same batch of larvæ which had been supplied with different food-plants or exposed to a different coloured light.

An even more interesting series of experiments was made on the colours of pupæ, which in many cases were known to be affected by the material on which they underwent their transformations. The late Mr. T. W. Wood proved, in 1867, that the pupæ of the common cabbage butterflies (Pieris brassicæ and P. rapæ) were either light, or dark, or green, according to the coloured boxes they were kept in, or the colours of the fences, walls, etc., against which they were suspended. Mrs. Barber in South Africa found that the pupæ of Papilio Nireus underwent a similar change, being deep green when attached to orange leaves of the same tint, pale yellowish-green when on a branch of the bottle-brush tree whose half-dried leaves were of this colour, and yellowish when attached to the wooden frame of a box. A few other observers noted similar phenomena, but nothing more was done till Mr. Poulton's elaborate series of experiments with the larvæ of several of our common butterflies were the means of clearing up several important points. He showed that the action of the coloured light did not affect the pupa itself but the larva, and that only for a limited period of time. After a caterpillar has done feeding it wanders about seeking a suitable place to undergo its transformation. When this is found it rests quietly for a day or two, spinning the web from which it is to suspend itself; and it is during this period of quiescence, and perhaps also the first hour or two after its suspension, that the action of the surrounding coloured surfaces determines, to a considerable extent, the colour of the pupa. By the application of various surrounding colours during this period, Mr. Poulton was able to modify the colour of the pupa of the common tortoise-shell butterfly from nearly black to pale, or to a brilliant golden; and that of Pieris rapæ


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198 from dusky through pinkish to pale green. It is interesting to note, that the colours produced were in all cases such only as assimilated with the surroundings usually occupied by the species, and also, that colours which did not occur in such surroundings, as dark red or blue, only produced the same effects as dusky or black.

Careful experiments were made to ascertain whether the effect was produced through the sight of the caterpillar. The ocelli were covered with black varnish, but neither this, nor cutting off the spines of the tortoise-shell larva to ascertain whether they might be sense-organs, produced any effect on the resulting colour. Mr. Poulton concludes, therefore, that the colour-action probably occurs over the whole surface of the body, setting up physiological processes which result in the corresponding colour-change of the pupa. Such changes are, however, by no means universal, or even common, in protectively coloured pupæ, since in Papilio machaon and some others which have been experimented on, both in this country and abroad, no change can be produced on the pupa by any amount of exposure to differently coloured surroundings. It is a curious point that, with the small tortoise-shell larva, exposure to light from gilded surfaces produced pupæ with a brilliant golden lustre; and the explanation is supposed to be that mica abounded in the original habitat of the species, and that the pupæ thus obtained protection when suspended against micaceous rock. Looking, however, at the wide range of the species and the comparatively limited area in which micaceous rocks occur, this seems a rather improbable explanation, and the occurrence of this metallic appearance is still a difficulty. It does not, however, commonly occur in this country in a natural state.

The two classes of variable colouring here discussed are evidently exceptional, and can have little if any relation to the colours of those more active creatures which are continually changing their position with regard to surrounding objects, and whose colours and markings are nearly constant throughout the life of the individual, and (with the exception of sexual differences) in all the individuals of the species. We will now briefly pass in review the various characteristics and uses of the colours which more generally prevail in nature;


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Rh and having already discussed those protective colours which serve to harmonise animals with their general environment, we have to consider only those cases in which the colour resemblance is more local or special in its character.

This form of colour adaptation is generally manifested by markings rather than by colour alone, and is extremely prevalent both among insects and vertebrates, so that we shall be able to notice only a few illustrative cases. Among our native birds we have the snipe and woodcock, whose markings and tints strikingly accord with the dead marsh vegetation among which they live; the ptarmigan in its summer dress is mottled and tinted exactly like the lichens which cover the stones of the higher mountains; while young unfledged plovers are spotted so as exactly to resemble the beach pebbles among which they crouch for protection, as beautifully exhibited in one of the cases of British birds in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington.

In mammalia, we notice the frequency of rounded spots on forest or tree haunting animals of large size, as the forest deer and the forest cats; while those that frequent reedy or grassy places are striped vertically, as the marsh antelopes and the tiger. I had long been of opinion that the brilliant yellow and black stripes of the tiger were adaptive, but have only recently obtained proof that it is so. An experienced tiger-hunter, Major Walford, states in a letter, that the haunts of the tiger are invariably full of the long grass, dry and pale yellow for at least nine months of the year, which covers the ground wherever there is water in the rainy season, and he adds: "I once, while following up a wounded tiger, failed for at least a minute to see him under a tree in grass at a distance of about twenty yards—jungle open—but the natives saw him, and I eventually made him out well enough to shoot him, but even then I could not see at what part of him I was aiming. There can be no doubt whatever that the colour of both the tiger and the panther renders them almost invisible, especially in a strong blaze of light, when among grass, and one does not seem to notice stripes or spots till they are dead." It is the black shadows of the vegetation that


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200 assimilate with the black stripes of the tiger; and, in like manner, the spotty shadows of leaves in the forest so harmonise with the spots of ocelots, jaguars, tiger-cats, and spotted deer as to afford them a very perfect concealment.

In some cases the concealment is effected by colours and markings which are so striking and peculiar that no one who had not seen the creature in its native haunts would imagine them to be protective. An example of this is afforded by the banded fruit pigeon of Timor, whose pure white head and neck, black wings and back, yellow belly, and deeply-curved black band across the breast, render it a very handsome and conspicuous bird. Yet this is what Mr. H. O. Forbes says of it: "On the trees the white-headed fruit pigeon (Ptilopus cinctus) sate motionless during the heat of the day in numbers, on well-exposed branches; but it was with the utmost difficulty that I or my sharp-eyed native servant could ever detect them, even in trees where we knew they were sitting." The trees referred to are species of Eucalyptus which abound in Timor. They have whitish or yellowish bark and very open foliage, and it is the intense sunlight casting black curved shadows of one branch upon another, with the white and yellow bark and deep blue sky seen through openings of the foliage, that produces the peculiar combination of colours and shadows to which the colours and markings of this bird have become so closely assimilated.

Even such brilliant and gorgeously coloured birds as the sun-birds of Africa are, according to an excellent observer, often protectively coloured. Mrs. M. E. Barber remarks that "A casual observer would scarcely imagine that the highly varnished and magnificently coloured plumage of the various species of Noctarinea could be of service to them, yet this is undoubtedly the case. The most unguarded moments of the lives of these birds are those that are spent amongst the flowers, and it is then that they are less wary than at any other time. The different species of aloes, which blossom in succession, form the principal sources of their winter supplies of food; and a legion of other gay flowering plants in spring and summer, the aloe blossoms especially, are all brilliantly coloured, and they harmonise admirably with the gay plumage


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Rh of the different species of sun-birds. Even the keen eye of a hawk will fail to detect them, so closely do they resemble the flowers they frequent. The sun-birds are fully aware of this fact, for no sooner have they relinquished the flowers than they become exceedingly wary and rapid in flight, darting arrow-like through the air and seldom remaining in exposed situations. The black sun-bird (Nectarinea amethystina) is never absent from that magnificent forest-tree, the 'Kaffir Boom' (Erythrina caffra); all day long the cheerful notes of these birds may be heard amongst its spreading branches, yet the general aspect of the tree, which consists of a huge mass of scarlet and purple-black blossoms without a single green leaf, blends and harmonises with the colours of the black sun-bird to such an extent that a dozen of them may be feeding amongst its blossoms without being conspicuous, or even visible."

Some other cases will still further illustrate how the colours of even very conspicuous animals may be adapted to their peculiar haunts.

The late Mr. Swinhoe says of the Kerivoula picta, which he observed in Formosa: "The body of this bat was of an orange colour, but the wings were painted with orange-yellow and black. It was caught suspended, head downwards, on a cluster of the fruit of the longan tree (Nephelium longanum). Now this tree is an evergreen, and all the year round some portion of its foliage is undergoing decay, the particular leaves being, in such a stage, partially orange and black. This bat can, therefore, at all seasons suspend from its branches and elude its enemies by its resemblance to the leaves of the tree."

Even more curious is the case of the sloths—defenceless animals which feed upon leaves, and hang from the branches of trees with their back downwards. Most of the species have a curious buff-coloured spot on the back, rounded or oval in shape and often with a darker border, which seems placed there on purpose to make them conspicuous; and this was a great puzzle to naturalists, because the long coarse gray or greenish hair was evidently like tree-moss and therefore protective. But an old writer, Baron von Slack, in his Voyage


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202 to Surinam (1810), had already explained the matter. He says: "The colour and even the shape of the hair are much like withered moss, and serve to hide the animal in the trees, but particularly when it has that orange-coloured spot between the shoulders and lies close to the tree; it looks then exactly like a piece of branch where the rest has been broken off, by which the hunters are often deceived." Even such a huge animal as the giraffe is said to be perfectly concealed by its colour and form when standing among the dead and broken trees that so often occur on the outskirts of the thickets where it feeds. The large blotch-like spots on the skin and the strange shape of the head and horns, like broken branches, so tend to its concealment that even the keen-eyed natives have been known to mistake trees for giraffes or giraffes for trees.

Innumerable examples of this kind of protective colouring occur among insects; beetles mottled like the bark of trees or resembling the sand or rock or moss on which they live, with green caterpillars of the exact general tints of the foliage they feed on; but there are also many cases of detailed imitation of particular objects by insects that must be briefly described.

The insects which present this kind of imitation most perfectly are the Phasmidæ, or stick and leaf insects. The


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Rh leaf-insects of Ceylon and of Java, species of Phyllium, are so wonderfully coloured and veined, with leafy expansions on the legs and thorax, that not one person in ten can see them when resting on the food-plant close beneath their eyes. Others resemble pieces of stick with all the minutiæ of knots and branches, formed by the insects' legs, which are stuck out rigidly and unsymmetrically. I have often been unable to distinguish between one of these insects and a real piece of stick, till I satisfied myself by touching it and found it to be alive. One species, which was brought me in Borneo, was covered with delicate semitransparent green foliations, exactly resembling the hepaticæ which cover pieces of rotten stick in the damp forests. Others resemble dead leaves in all their varieties of colour and form; and to show how perfect is the protection obtained and how important it is to the possessors of it, the following incident, observed by Mr. Belt in Nicaragua, is most instructive. Describing the armies of foraging ants in the forest which devour every insect they can catch, he says: "I was much surprised with the behaviour of a green leaf-like locust. This insect stood immovably among a host of ants, many of which ran over its legs without ever discovering there was food within their reach. So fixed was its instinctive knowledge that its safety depended on its immovability, that it allowed me to pick it up and replace it among the ants without making a single effort to escape. This species closely resembles a green leaf."

Caterpillars also exhibit a considerable amount of detailed resemblance to the plants on which they live. Grass-feeders are striped longitudinally, while those on ordinary leaves are always striped obliquely. Some very beautiful protective resemblances are shown among the caterpillars figured in Smith and Abbott's Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia, a work published in the early part of the century, before any theories of protection were started. The plates in this work are most beautifully executed from drawings made by Mr. Abbott, representing the insects, in every case, on the plants which they frequented, and no reference is made in the descriptions to the remarkable protective details which appear upon the plates. We have, first, the larva of Sphinx fuciformis feeding


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204 on a plant with linear grass-like leaves and small blue flowers; and we find the insect of the same green as the leaves, striped longitudinally in accordance with the linear leaves, and with the head blue corresponding both in size and colour with the flowers. Another species (Sphinx tersa) is represented feeding on a plant with small red flowers situated in the axils of the leaves; and the larva has a row of seven red spots, unequal in size, and corresponding very closely with the colour and size of the flowers. Two other figures of sphinx larvæ are very curious. That of Sphinx pampinatrix feeds on a wild vine (Vitis indivisa), having green tendrils, and in this species the curved horn on the tail is green, and closely imitates in its curve the tip of the tendril. But in another species (Sphinx cranta), which feeds on the fox-grape (Vitis vulpina), the horn is very long and red, corresponding with the long red-tipped tendrils of the plant. Both these larvæ are green with oblique stripes, to harmonise with the veined leaves of the vines; but a figure is also given of the last-named species after it has done feeding, when it is of a decided brown colour and has entirely lost its horn. This is because it then descends to the ground to bury itself, and the green colour and red horn would be conspicuous and dangerous; it therefore loses both at the last moult. Such a change of colour occurs in many species of caterpillars. Sometimes the change is seasonal; and, in those which hibernate with us, the colour of some species, which is brownish in autumn in adaptation to the fading foliage, becomes green in spring to harmonise with the newly-opened leaves at that season.

Some of the most curious examples of minute imitation are afforded by the caterpillars of the geometer moths, which are always brown or reddish, and resemble in form little twigs of the plant on which they feed. They have the habit, when at rest, of standing out obliquely from the branch, to which they hold on by their hind pair of prolegs or claspers, and remain motionless for hours. Speaking of these protective resemblances Mr. Jenner Weir says: "After being thirty years an entomologist I was deceived myself, and took out my pruning scissors to cut from a plum tree a spur which I thought I had overlooked. This turned out to be the larva


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viii Chapters XI., XII., and XIII. deal with accounts of journeys beyond the Zambesi to the countries of the Mashukulumbwi and Barotsi tribes. My experiences amongst the former people were eminently unpleasant at the time, but have supplied me with the materials for two chapters that may be of interest to those of my readers who appreciate tales of adventure.

All the remaining chapters, with the exception of the last two, which are devoted to a narration of hunting reminiscences, some of which date back to many years ago, deal with the past history and present condition of Mashunaland. The gold industry of Mashunaland is still in its infancy, but that the gold is there is, I think, no longer doubted in the best-informed circles of the London financial world. Before this work is through the press the first section of the railway from the east coast to Mashunaland will be completed through the district infested by the deadly "tse-tse" fly, and will, it is to be hoped, be carried on from there into the heart of the country without delay. Mining machinery will then be poured into the gold-producing districts, and it is not too much to hope and expect that before the end of this century large mining towns will have sprung up in each of the gold-bearing districts. Each of these mining centres will support a large farming population, so that as the mining towns grow so will the land be occupied and cultivated, till at no distant date the homesteads of British and South African settlers will be scattered throughout the length and breadth of the breezy downs of Mashunaland. That England owes the acquisition of this rich country—this new land of such great promise


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Rh of a geometer two inches long. I showed it to several members of my family, and defined a space of four inches in which it was to be seen, but none of them could perceive that it was a caterpillar."

One more example of a protected caterpillar must be given. Mr. A. Everett, writing from Sarawak, Borneo, says: "I had a caterpillar brought me, which, being mixed by my boy with some other things, I took to be a bit of moss with two exquisite pinky-white seed-capsules; but I soon saw that it moved, and examining it more closely found out its real character: it is covered with hair, with two little pink spots on the upper surface, the general hue being more green. Its motions are very slow, and when eating the head is withdrawn beneath a fleshy mobile hood, so that the action of feeding does not produce any movement externally. It was found in the limestone hills at Busan, the situation of all others where mosses are most plentiful and delicate, and where they partially clothe most of the protruding masses of rock."

To many persons it will seem impossible that such beautiful and detailed resemblances as those now described—and these are only samples of thousands that occur in all parts of the world—can have been brought about by the preservation of accidental useful variations. But this will not seem so surprising if we keep in mind the facts set forth in our earlier chapters—the rapid multiplication, the severe struggle for existence, and the constant variability of these and all other organisms. And, further, we must remember that these delicate adjustments are the result of a process which has been going on for millions of years, and that we now see the small percentage of successes among the myriads of failures. From the very first appearance of insects and their various kinds of enemies the need of protection arose, and was usually most easily met by modifications of colour. Hence, we may be sure that the earliest leaf-eating insects acquired a green colour as one of the necessities of their existence; and, as the species became modified and specialised,


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206 those feeding on particular species of plants would rapidly acquire the peculiar tints and markings best adapted to conceal them upon those plants. Then, every little variation that, once in a hundred years perhaps, led to the preservation of some larva which was thereby rather better concealed than its fellows, would form the starting-point of a further development, leading ultimately to that perfection of imitation in details which now astonishes us. The researches of Dr. Weismann illustrate this progressive adaptation. The very young larvæ of several species are green or yellowish without any markings; they then, in subsequent moults, obtain certain markings, some of which are often lost again before the larva is fully grown. The early stages of those species which, like elephant hawk-moths (Chærocampa), have the anterior segments elongated and retractile, with large eye-like spots to imitate the head of a vertebrate, are at first like those of non-retractile species, the anterior segments being as large as the rest. After the first moult they become smaller, comparatively; but it is only after the second moult that the ocelli begin to appear, and these are not fully defined till after the third moult. This progressive development of the individual—the ontogeny—gives us a clue to the ancestral development of the whole race—the phylogeny; and we are enabled to picture to ourselves the very slow and gradual steps by which the existing perfect adaptation has been brought about. In many larvæ great variability still exists, and in some there are two or more distinctly-coloured forms—usually a dark and a light or a brown and a green form. The larva of the humming-bird hawk-moth (Macroglossa stellatarum) varies in this manner, and Dr. Weismann raised five varieties from a batch of eggs from one moth. It feeds on species of bedstraw (Galium verum and G. mollugo), and as the green forms are less abundant than the brown, it has probably undergone some recent change of food-plant or of habits which renders brown the more protective colour.

We will now consider a few cases of special protective colouring in the perfect butterfly or moth. Mr. Mansel Weale states that in South Africa there is a great prevalence


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Rh of white and silvery foliage or bark, sometimes of dazzling brilliancy, and that many insects and their larvæ have brilliant silvery tints which are protective, among them being three species of butterflies whose undersides are silvery, and which are thus effectually protected when at rest. A common African butterfly (Aterica meleagris) always settles on the ground with closed wings, which so closely resemble the soil of the district that it can with difficulty be seen, and the colour varies with the soil in different localities. Thus specimens from Senegambia were dull brown, the soil being reddish sand and iron-clay; those from Calabar and Cameroons were light brown with numerous small white spots, the soil of those countries being light brown clay with small quartz pebbles; while in other localities where the colours of the soil were more varied the colours of the butterfly varied also. Here we have variation in a single species which has become specialised in certain areas to harmonise with the colour of the soil.

Many butterflies, in all parts of the world, resemble dead leaves on their under side, but those in which this form of protection is carried to the greatest perfection are the species of the Eastern genus Kallima. In India K. inachis, and in the larger Malay islands K. paralekta, are very common. They are rather large and showy butterflies, orange and bluish on the upper side, with a very rapid flight, and frequenting dry forests. Their habit is to settle always where there is some dead or decaying foliage, and the shape and colour of the wings (on the under surface), together with the attitude of the insect, is such as to produce an absolutely perfect imitation of a dead leaf. This is effected by the butterfly always settling on a twig, with the short tail of the hind wings just touching it and forming the leaf-stalk. From this a dark curved line runs across to the elongated tip of the upper wings, imitating the midrib, on both sides of which are oblique lines, formed partly by the nervures and partly by markings, which give the effect of the usual veining of a leaf. The head and antennæ fit exactly between the closed upper wings so as not to interfere with the outline,


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208 which has just that amount of irregular curvature that is seen in dry and withered leaves. The colour is very remarkable for its extreme amount of variability, from deep reddish-brown to olive or pale yellow, hardly two specimens being exactly alike, but all coming within the range of colour of leaves in various stages of decay. Still more curious is the fact that the paler wings, which imitate leaves most decayed, are usually covered with small black dots, often gathered into circular groups, and so exactly resembling the minute fungi on decaying leaves that it is hard at first to believe that the insects themselves are not attacked by some such fungus. The concealment produced by this wonderful imitation is most complete, and in Sumatra I have often seen one enter a bush and then disappear like magic. Once I was so fortunate as to see the exact spot on which the insect settled; but even then I lost sight of it for some time, and only after a persistent search discovered that it was close before my eyes. Here we have a kind of imitation, which is very common in a less developed form, carried to extreme perfection, with the result that the species is very abundant over a considerable area of country.

Among marine animals this form of protection is very common. Professor Moseley tells us that all the inhabitants of the Gulf-weed are most remarkably coloured, for purposes of protection and concealment, exactly like the weed itself. "The shrimps and crabs which swarm in the weed are of exactly the same shade of yellow as the weed, and have white markings upon their bodies to represent the patches of Membranipora. The small fish, Antennarius, is in the same way weed-colour with white spots. Even a Planarian worm, which lives in the weed, is similarly yellow-coloured, and also a mollusc, Scyllæa pelagica." The same writer tells us that "a number of little crabs found clinging to the floats of the blue-shelled mollusc, Ianthina, were all coloured of a corresponding blue for concealment."


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Rh Professor E. S. Morse of Salem, Mass., found that most of the New England marine mollusca were protectively coloured; instancing among others a little red chiton on rocks clothed with red calcareous algæ, and Crepidula plana, living within the apertures of the shells of larger species of Gasteropods and of a pure white colour corresponding to its habitat, while allied species living on seaweed or on the outside of dark shells were dark brown. A still more interesting case has been recorded by Mr. George Brady. He says: "Amongst the Nullipore which matted together the laminaria roots in the Firth of Clyde were living numerous small starfishes (Ophiocoma bellis) which, except when their writhing movements betrayed them, were quite undistinguishable from the calcareous branches of the alga; their rigid angularly twisted rays had all the appearance of the coralline, and exactly assimilated to its dark purple colour, so that though I held in my hand a root in which were half a dozen of the starfishes, I was really unable to detect them until revealed by their movements."

These few examples are sufficient to show that the principle of protective coloration extends to the ocean as well as over the earth; and if we consider how completely ignorant we are of the habits and surroundings of most marine animals, it may well happen that many of the colours of tropical fishes, which seem to us so strange and so conspicuous, are really protective, owing to the number of equally strange and brilliant forms of corals, sea-anemones, sponges, and seaweeds among which they live.

A considerable number of quite defenceless insects obtain protection from some of their enemies by having acquired a resemblance to dangerous animals, or by some threatening or unusual appearance. This is obtained either by a modification of shape, of habits, of colour, or of all combined. The simplest form of this protection is the aggressive attitude of the caterpillars of the Sphingidæ, the forepart of the body