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 entered the following remarks in my note-book. In the Palace of the Tanari there is a famous picture by Guido,—the Virgin suckling the infant Saviour, of a size rather larger than life, the head as if a god had painted it. Indescribable is the expression with which she gazes upon the suckling infant. To me it seems a calm, profound resignation, as if she were nourishing, not the child of her joy and love, but a supposititious, heavenly changeling, and goes on suckling it because now she cannot do otherwise, although in deep humility she wonders how she ever came to do it. The rest of the canvas is filled up with a mass of drapery which connoisseurs highly prize. For my part, I know not what to make of it. The colours, too, are somewhat dim. The room and the day were none of the brightest.

Notwithstanding the confusion in which I find myself, I yet feel that experience, knowledge, and taste already come to my aid in these mazes. Thus I was greatly won by a Circumcision by Guercino, for I have begun to know and to understand the man. I can now pardon the intolerable subject, and delight in the masterly execution. Let him paint whatever can be thought of: everything will be praiseworthy, and as highly finished as if it were enamel.

And thus it happened with me, as with Balaam, the overruled prophet, who blessed where he thought to curse. And I fear this would be the case still oftener, were I to stay here much longer.

And then, again, if one happens to meet with a picture after Raphael, or what may with at least some probability be ascribed to him, one is soon perfectly cured, and in good temper again. I fell in yesterday with a St. Agatha, a rare picture, though not throughout in good keeping. The artist has given to her the mien of a young maiden full of health and self-possession, but yet without rusticity or coldness.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive Diem's recent successes as indicating redeeming qualities. But, Dulles pointed out "Vietnam is not worth a quarrel with France," and offered U.S. withdrawal in preference to allied disunity. No decision was taken immediately, and during a recess Secretary Dulles received advice from the JCS that Diem seemed the most promising avenue to achievement of U.S. objectives, and that while withdrawal of the French Expeditionary Corps is "ultimately to be desired," a precipitate withdrawal was to be prevented since it would "result in a increasingly unstable and precarious situation" and the eventual loss of South Vietnam to communism. Secretary Dulles then proposed to the French that they continue to support Diem until a national assembly were elected. British support for Diem seems to have swayed Faure, and he accepted Dulles' proposal. The tri-partite meeting ended on a note of harmony, but the undertones were distinct: the days of joint U.S.–French policy were over; thereafter, the U.S. would act independently of France in Vietnam.

Backed by the United States, Diem refused to open consultation with the North Vietnamese concerning general elections when the date for these full due in July 1955. Pressing his military advantage against the sects, he moved to consolidate his position politically within South Vietnam. In October, he won a resounding victory in a popular referendum in which voters were given a choice between Diem and Bao Dai. As Diem's political strength grew, his relations with Paris deteriorated. In December 1955, Diem suddenly terminated the existing economic and financial agreements with France, and called upon France to denounce the Geneva agreements and break relations with Hanoi. Soon thereafter, he withdrew South Vietnamese representatives from the French Union Assembly.

On January 2, 1956, general elections in France produced a government under Socialist Guy Mollet, a third of the members of which were communists or avowed neutralists. In early March, Mollet's Foreign Minister, Pineau, declared in a speech to the Anglo-American Press Association in Paris that France would actively seek policy position bridging East and West, and that there was no unanimity of policy among the U.S., UK, and France. He cited UK Middle East policy and U.S. support for Diem as country to French interests, and condemned both powers for stirring up the Moslem world to France's distinct disadvantage in North Africa. A few days later, at a SEATO Council meeting in Karachi, Pineau proclaimed the end of the "era of aggression," and called for a "policy of coexistence."

Action followed Pineau's line. On March 22, 1956, France agreed with Diem to withdraw the FEC altogether. On April 26, 1956, the French High Command in Saigon was disestablished. On the due date for the general elections agreed to at Geneva, France possessed no military forces in Vietnam. And the date for the fulfillment of the political portions of the Settlement, July 1956, coincided with the inception of the Suez crisis. Rh

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rh Seen in their sad reality,

Were not as things that gods despise;

What was thy pity's recompense?

A silent suffering, and intense;

The rock, the vulture, and the chain,

All that the proud can feel of pain,

The agony they do not show,

The suffocating sense of woe,

Which speaks but in its loneliness,

And then is jealous lest the sky

Should have a listener, nor will sigh

Until its voice is echoless.

II.

Titan! to thee the strife was given

Between the suffering and the will,

Which torture where they cannot kill;

And the inexorable Heaven,

And the deaf tyranny of Fate,

The ruling principle of Hate,


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 also remember that the change from an activity with an end near by to one with an end farther off does not come all at once, nor at the same time with respect to all things. A child may be ready for occupation with tools like scissors, paint and brush, for setting a table, cooking, etc., while with respect to other activities he is still unable to plan and arrange ahead. Thus there is no ground for the assumption that children of kindergarten age are capable only of make-believe play, while children of the primary grades should be held to all work and no play. Only the false idea about symbolism leads to the former conclusion; and only a false identification of interest and play with trivial amusement leads to the latter conclusion. It has been said that man is man only as he plays; to say this involves some change from the meaning in which play has just been used. But in the broader sense of whole-hearted identification with what one is doing—in the sense of completeness of interest, it is so true that it should be a truism.

Work in the sense in which it has been defined covers all activities involving the use of


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200 I have stamped on my mind both her form and look, and shall mentally read before her my "Iphigenia," and shall not allow my heroine to express a sentiment which the saint herself might not give utterance to.

And now, when I think again of this sweet burden which I carry with me throughout my wanderings, I cannot conceal the fact, that, besides the great objects of nature and art which I have yet to work my way through, a wonderful train of poetical images keeps rising before me, and unsettling me. From Cento to this place I have been wishing to continue my labours on the "Iphigenia;" but what has happened? Inspiration has brought before my mind the plan of an "Iphigenia at Delphi," and I must work it out. I will here set down the argument as briefly as possible.

Electra, confidently hoping that Orestes will bring to Delphi the image of the Taurian Diana, makes her appearance in the Temple of Apollo, and, as a final sin-offering, dedicates to the god the axe which has perpetrated so many horrors in the house of Pelops. Unhappily, she is at this moment joined by a Greek, who recounts to her how, having accompanied Pylades and Orestes to Tauris, he there saw the two friends led to execution, but had himself luckily made his escape. At this news, the passionate Electra is unable to restrain herself, and knows not whether to vent her rage against the gods, or against men.

In the meantime, Iphigenia, Orestes, and Pylades have arrived at Delphi. The heavenly calmness of Iphigenia contrasts remarkably with the earthly vehemence of Electra, as the two sisters meet without knowing each other. The fugitive Greek gains sight of Iphigenia, and, recognising in her the priestess who was to have sacrificed the two friends, makes it known to Electra. The latter, snatching the axe from the altar, is on the point of killing Iphigenia, whan a happy


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The New International Encyclopædia/Mahāyāna

MAHĀYĀNA, (Skt., Great Vehicle). The development of (q.v.) which in the course of a few centuries after the death of Buddha became the dominant system in Northern India as well as in Kashmir and Nepal, and later still spread into China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, etc. Hence it is sometimes spoken of as Northern Buddhism or the ‘Northern School,’ as distinct from the ‘Southern School’ of Ceylon, Siam, and Burma, where the primitive system formulated by Gautama is still the prevailing form. The system of the Northern School is called Mahāyāna, ‘the Great Vehicle or Conveyance,’ because it is supposed to afford the means of salvation to a much larger number than can find places in the Hinayāna, or ‘Little Vehicle,’ as the southern system is disparagingly designated by the followers of the Mahāyāna School. Under the influence of contemporary Hinduism and the Shamanistic notions and practices of the northern barbarians among whom Buddhism had begun to spread, animistic beliefs and views concerning the supernatural were introduced; Shivaitic gods and practices were adopted, the attainment of magic powers by means of occult formulas and phrases was eagerly sought, and objects of worship were multiplied. A thousand new Buddhas were invented, among them the (q.v.), who came to be worshiped in Nepal as the self-existent Supreme Being. By spontaneous acts of contemplation and wisdom each of these Buddhas projected from his own essence other intelligences, called Bodhisattva, or spiritual sons, who are represented as having reached such a stage of saintship that but one more birth was necessary for them to become Buddhas, but who had decided to forego Buddhahood, and become the guardians of the Buddhist community on earth, and to help mankind, between the death of one earthly Buddha and the appearance of the next. Each of the five earthly Buddhas of the present Kalpa or age has his spiritual counterpart, who exists in formless worlds of meditation, as a (q.v.), and has his reflex Bodhisattva. Three correspond to the three Buddhas who preceded Gautama, one to Maitreya, the coming Buddha (expected 2500 years hence), and one, Amitabha, represents the historical Buddha. His spiritual son is Avalokiteshvara of Padmapani, better known in China as (q.v.) and in Japan as Kwan-non. It is thus evident that northern Buddhism has diverged most remarkably from the primitive system evolved by Sakyamuni. In Tibet and Mongolia, where it is known as (q.v.), it has become the contrary of Gautama's system, and so far has

celibacy been discarded that in certain Japanese sects the priests may marry.


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50 Which for its pleasure doth create

The things it may annihilate,

Refused thee even the boon to die:

The wretched gift Eternity

Was thine—and thou hast borne it well.

All that the Thunderer wrung from thee

Was but the menace which flung back

On him the torments of thy rack;

The fate thou didst so well foresee,

But would not to appease him tell;

And in thy Silence was his Sentence,

And in his Soul a vain repentance,

And evil dread so ill dissembled,

That in his hand the lightnings trembled.

III.

Thy Godlike crime was to be kind,

To render with thy precepts less

The sum of human wretchedness,

And strengthen Man with his own mind;

But baffled as thou wert from high,

Still in thy patient energy,

In the endurance, and repulse

Of thine impenetrable Spirit,

Which Earth and Heaven could not convulse,

A mighty lesson we inherit:


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Mahdi

MAHDI, mä'dḗ (Ar. al-Mahdī, the Guided One). The name given to the messenger of Allah, who is expected by certain sections of the Mohammedan world to complete the Prophet's work by converting or exterminating the infidels and by equitably dividing the world's goods. It is supposed that he will be a second Mohammed in name and in appearance; and, since the time of the Abbassides, that he will carry the black flag of the Prophet. He is to meet Jesus in Damascus and Jerusalem, and to reign seven, eight, or nine years, filling the earth with justice. The idea is not contained in the Koran; but later tradition puts the following words into Mohammed's mouth: “Even though time shall have but one more day to last, God will call up a man of my family who will fill the earth with justice, as it is now filled with iniquity.” The Mahdi idea arose in the eastern part of the new Arab empire, nourished by Jewish ideas of the coming of the Messiah, and Christian ideas of the second coming of Jesus; more especially in Persia, where the idea of a ../Saoshyant/ (q.v.) or Redeemer was part of the popular tradition and the trend to mysticism and deification part of the national character. Its first manifestation was due to the anti-Arab feeling of the Persian Mohammedans who, as legitimists, gathered around Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet, and resented his neglect in favor of the Ommiads, the bitterest opponents of the Prophet, Even during his lifetime Ali was deified, though against his will, by the Jew Abd Allah ibn Saba; and his violent death strengthened the belief that he would be awakened at the end of time and would conquer the world. By others Ali was considered simply to be the wāṣi or vicar of the Prophet; and in the circles which regarded him as the legitimate Imam (leader) he was confounded sometimes with the Messiah, sometimes with Elijah. The subject became one of fierce dispute between the Shiites and the Sunnites. In the course of time the idea was used as a political weapon by numerous pretenders, and the Mahdi led the Holy War (jihad) against Moslems as well as against unbelievers. The first Mahdi was Mohammed ibn al-Hanafiyyah, son of Ali, though not of Fatima, who was proclaimed by one Mukhtar in the reign of Abd al-Malik (684-687) after the murder of Ali's son Hosein. When Mohammed died the Persians refused to believe him dead, but asserted that he would return after seventy years. The idea spread, and since then Mahdis have arisen very often among Persians, Egyptians, and the Arabs of the Sudan. One of the most famous of these was the veiled prophet Al-Mokanna (see ), the subject of Moore's poem, who came to be regarded as divine and was worshiped for centuries. A large number of Shiites believe that there have existed only twelve Imams. When the twelfth died at Samarra (941), a child of twelve years, it was held that from that time on the Imam would remain concealed, though he may arise as Mahdi at any moment. Of the Egyptian Mahdis, the mad Hakim (996) is most notorious. He also disappeared, but that he will appear again is the firm conviction of the ../Druses/ (q.v.) in the Lebanon Mountains and the Hauran. Of the sects that have sprung from this idea, the

may be mentioned, who expect the return of a Mahdi, Mohammed ibn Ismail of the family of Ali. The Karmathians also took their origin from this idea. (See .) Even orthodox Islam has been affected, and had its Mahdi in the person of Ibn Tumart (1121), the founder of the Almohade Berber power.

The modern Mahdi is a product of one of the many religious orders (the Sammaniyyah) which, as a protest against the encroachment of the Christian civilization, honeycomb the Moslem world, and are especially numerous in Northern Africa. Born in 1844 or 1848 in the Province of Dongola, he took the name Mohammed Ahmed, asserting that his father was descended from Hosein and his mother from Abbas. He studied at Kereri, four miles north of Omdurman, at Khartum and in Berber. In 1870 he allied himself with the Sammani order, passing part of his time with his uncle, a shipbuilder on the island of Aba in the White Nile, where he lived an ascetic life. He then entered a minor order at Musallemia on the Blue Nile. In these circles the year 1882 (A.H. 1300) was supposed to be the Mahdi year, Mohammed soon became famous in the country between the White and the Blue Niles. He was joined in Kordofan by a Bakkara Bedouin named Abd Allah, who afterwards became his Caliph. He was proclaimed Mahdi in El-Obeid in 1880, but returned to Aba to continue his ascetic life. In May, 1881, he came forward openly and sent circulars to the chiefs of Islam preaching the Jihad, or Holy War, the conversion of all unbelievers, a return to the simple faith of the Prophet, simplicity in dress and manners, and a sort of social communism and asceticism. Afraid of the Egyptian Government, he collected a band of Dijera and Kinaru Bedouins and proclaimed the Jihad. In July, 1881, a small expedition sent against him was destroyed on the island. Imitating the Prophet, he left Aba, his Mecca, and came to Masa in Southern Kordofan, which he proclaimed his Medina. For his subsequent movements, see. He died of smallpox. Consult: Darmesteter, The Mahdi (New York, 1885); G. Hoffmann, Mahdithum (Kiel, 1899); Snouck Hurgronje, in Revue Coloniale Internationale (1886); Ernst Müller, Beiträge zur Mahdilehre des Islams (Heidelberg, 1901).


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Rh Thou art a symbol and a sign

To Mortals of their fate and force;

Like thee, Man is in part divine,

A troubled stream from a pure source;

And Man in portions can foresee

His own funereal destiny;

His wretchedness, and his resistance,

And his sad unallied existence:

To which his Spirit may oppose

Itself—an equal to all woes—

And a firm will, and a deep sense,

Which even in torture can descry

Its own concentered recompense,

Triumphant where it dares defy,

And making Death a Victory. Diodati, July, 1816. [First published, Prisoner of Chillon, etc., 1816.]

A FRAGMENT.

I remount the river of my years

To the first fountain of our smiles and tears,

I would not trace again the stream of hours

Between their outworn banks of withered flowers,


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 4/Prometheus


text:
Manfred (Byron)

 * Manfred, a dramatic poem (1817)
 * "Manfred" in The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) Poetry, Volume 4 (1905)

title: Manfred (Byron)


text:
Beppo (Byron, versions)

 * Beppo (1818) [unindexed]
 * Beppo in The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) Poetry, Volume 4 (1905):

title: Beppo (Byron, versions)


text:
Mazeppa

 * Mazeppa, a Poem (1819)
 * Mazeppa in The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) Poetry, Volume 4 (1905):

title: Mazeppa


text:
Author:Henry Cary

Works

 * Memorials of the Great Civil War in England, from 1646 to 1652 (1842)
 * A Collection of Statutes Affecting New South Wales (1861)

Translations

 * Works of Plato:A New and Literal Version, Chiefly from the Text of Stallbaum (1848).
 * "In His Own Defense" from The World's Famous Orations.
 * "On Being Declared Guilty" from The World's Famous Orations.
 * "On Being Condemned to Death" from The World's Famous Orations.

title: Author:Henry Cary


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive IV. A. 2.


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442 on that of pre-historic times. In this Mexican Pompeii cemented floors and frescoed walls exist whose colors of green, yellow, and red are exceedingly brilliant. A strange and complex order of architecture, with columns and frescoed stonework, is revealed, and the remains of temple, amphitheater, or monument have been partially exhumed. What grand disclosures await the

scientist when full explorations have been made of the buried Mecca, the ancient city, the temple, or place of sepulture of the Toltecs! The Mexican Government has now placed the exhuming of these wonderful ruins under the charge of Señor Leopold Batres, an enthusiastic archæologist, under whom the work is progressing satisfactorily.

At Apizaco we leave the main line for Puebla, distant thirty miles. The entire journey from Mexico consumes only six hours, and the dust is the sole drawback to this delightful trip. But even this discomfort is largely mitigated by passing occasionally through valleys in a high state of cultivation, where the mind is constantly diverted by new scenes and objects of interest. Among them are the peculiar corn-cribs and hay-ricks, the latter built in imitation of churches, with cross, column, and spire in the distance, almost rivaling those of stone and adobe. When at last Puebla is reached, the mind is fully prepared to take in all things new and strange.


text:
Darkness (Byron)

 * "Darkness" from The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) Poetry, Volume 4 (1st ed., 1901):
 * "Darkness" in The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) Poetry, Volume 4 (2nd ed., 1905).

title: Darkness (Byron)


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Rh A fluent English-speaking German—interpreter for the hotel—assured us that the "Casa de las Diligencias" was the best house, and we soon found ourselves in a grand old convent, with corridors lined with gorgeously blooming plants, while the cleanly spread tables reminded us that we had left Mexico without breakfast.

The camarista, with long black hair à la pompadour, keen, beady eyes and rigid lips, presented himself to register us in a book and enroll us on the big bulletin. We ordered separate rooms, and, gathering up our luggage, he preceded us and placed all our chattels in one apartment.

"But the other room—where is it?" I asked.

"You have two beds," he answered.

"Well, but we also want two rooms," I rejoined.

Snapping his eyes, and drawing his lips more closely than ever, he muttered in a long-drawn half whisper: "Dos cuartos y cuatro camas por dos señoritas Americanas solitas! Valgame Dios!" ("Two rooms and four beds for two senoritas alone!") Then, letting his voice fall still lower, he continued: "Que cosa curiosa!" ("What a curious thing!") This man of business had evidently made up his mind that one room with two beds was the proper thing for dos señoritas Americanas solitas. The point of difference being duly settled by the administrador, we were gratified to find in our rooms no printed rules, and that he with the pompadoured hair would have no occasion to announce, like the other camaristas, “Falta Jabon y cerillos" as both soap and matches were bountifully supplied.

It was the carnival season; and from our windows we had views of ludicrous rag-tag processions parading up and down, grotesque enough to call forth smiles from a Niobe. Before my window, in a pretty house with red-tiled front, I saw a señorita, from behind a gay


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444 awning, wave her dainty fingers at her lover on the sidewalk, where he stood at least four hours daily.

Puebla has a population of one hundred thousand, and is one of the handsomest and best-built cities on the American continent, being constructed of gray granite. It is the City of Churches—perhaps more emphatically so than many others that have received the name. The schools, colleges, and public library are upon a grand scale. Public benefactions of the highest order are numerous—hospitals for children, the deaf, dumb, and blind, for men and for women. Of the

latter, the Casa de Maternidad (Maternity Hospital), the newest and handsomest, was founded by a private citizen, who left in his will the sum of $200,000 with which to build and furnish it. The material is red brick and white stone in alternate layers, and the spacious interior is exquisitely neat and orderly. Every possible comfort and convenience that could be afforded in any like institution anywhere, is here liberally dispensed.

Puebla enjoys, and justly so, the reputation of being the most cleanly of all Mexican cities. The streets, like those of Mexico, run at right angles—north and south, east and west—and are swept every


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Rh morning; the sidewalks are well paved, and all have their individual sub-sewers. They are admirably drained by a slight incline towards the middle, and at every corner there is a stone bridge—a guarantee against overflow and in the rainy season the consequent inconvenience to pedestrians.

The elevation above sea level is more than seven thousand feet, but the climate is mild, and being free from dampness, is far more desirable than at Mexico.

Like every other Mexican city, Puebla has a large share of historical associations. Founded by the Spaniards in 1531, it has since that time figured conspicuously in the stirring scenes which have occurred in the country. One of the most desperate encounters that took place between the French and Mexicans was here, and in commemoration of this event has originated one of the greatest national festivals, bearing the name of Cinco de Mayo (5th of May).

This city has been called the Lowell of Mexico. Manufactories of cotton, blankets, crockery, tiles, glass, thread, soap, matches, and hats abound. Some of the latter were snowy white with silver trimmings, the prettiest I ever saw, and in such numbers that every bare head might have been covered—which I regret to say was not the case.

Puebla is called the "City of the Angels." The tradition runs that, in the building of the cathedral, when the artisans ceased from their labors at the close of the day, the angels continued the work at night. This building is the central architectural feature of the city. Bishop Foster, on his visit there, thus wrote of it to The Christian Advocate: "The cathedral itself is surpassingly grand in every respect, quite equal to its better-known and more famous rival in the national capital, and must take rank among the first twenty cathedrals in the world. It is more chaste than, and quite as costly as, its great competitor. Its chapels and shrines, arranged along its transepts, are rich in pictures, images, and adornments. Its high altar is of amazing proportions, symmetry and elegance; filling the vast and high-arched nave, it is most impressive. The choir, occupying the portion of the nave in front, is of elaborate finish in carvings and costly lattices. The


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446 vast columns and capitals are of Mexican marble, as are all the bases of the altars throughout. Everywhere the precious stones of Mexico give beauty and substantial worth to the interior of the vast pile....It comes down to us from an age which it is probable will not repeat itself....The exterior is not comparable to the interior, though of vast and impressive appearance, and of the universal mixture of Spanish and Moorish architecture, built of hewn granite, and swelling grandly above the surrounding structures."

One who appreciates the ancient in architecture will find ample

scope for the gratification of his taste in Mexico. Wonderful masses of stone are reared with a grand and impressive simplicity, and retain their interest even when stripped by time, change, and decay of all their once florid and gorgeous ornamentation. In the last stage they are pathetic and venerable. In one of our rambles we came suddenly on a convent through which the street had been cut, and high up in the niches and recesses we saw life-sized statues and frescoes of great beauty.

We visited churches and convents, many of which are devoted to hospitals and other secular purposes. At the home of the Methodist missionary, in the old building of the Inquisition, we saw niches built


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Rh like chimneys into the walls. It was horrifying to think that these were the identical places where once unhappy victims were immured in living tombs.

A better view is here obtained of Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl than at Mexico, the crater of the former being plainly visible without glasses, while the position of his snow-capped sleeping companion is reversed. At Puebla we have her side view from the feet, while at Mexico the head is toward the city.

Pueblanas enjoy the luxury of ice brought daily from these mountains. The ever-faithful Indian has his own unique method of transportation, and constitutes himself the ice-wagon. He first wraps the ice in straw, and then, to avoid the disagreeable results of leakage, he fastens underneath the cargo large leaves of maguey, which form a conduit. Thus comfortably equipped, these tireless creatures trot the whole thirty-six miles, between the hours of two and ten in the morning, receiving for their pains and trouble one dollar!

It was a gala day in Puebla. The venders of fruit, fancy wares, flowers, and vegetables had assembled from all quarters, in the market. A whole family from Cholula were there—the man and his wife selling vegetables. As they had bright faces, we stopped to converse with them. The usual curious crowd gathered about us, intent upon hearing every word. Questions being in order, I asked the Cholulan what he knew of the Conquest.

"Only what my forefathers have told me," he replied.

"Tell me," I said, "what they told you." He began at once, and related the entire history without a break, as handed down to him, not forgetting to dwell upon the virtues and graces of Doña Marina.

"What do you think of Cortez?" I asked.

"When he came, we were all in darkness"—shutting his eyes to suit the words; but he brought us la lus de la Santa Cruz—the light of the holy cross.

Here I saw the pretty brown-skinned Indian women of San Pablo, a village in close proximity to the city. Their dresses were of uncut manta, washed until snowy white. Kiltings began at the sides, falling


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448 in classic folds, and ceasing near the front in a broad plain space. There was no fullness in the back, which seemed to add to their ease of movement. A broad, hand-wrought, bright-colored sash, tied at the side, held the skirt in place. The chemise had a deep-pointed yoke, elaborately embroidered with various-colored beads. They wore on their heads a kind of hood, also of manta, which partly concealed their shoulders, but left in ease and freedom their exquisitely molded arms. With hair hanging far below the waist, in full braided plaits, lips and cheeks of cherry-red, eyes softly glowing, and white teeth shining, the whole twenty that we saw would have made a gorgeous picture, but my efforts to procure even one portrait were unavailing, owing to their inherited prejudices. As they passed before us in close Indian file, with hardly a hair's-breadth space between them, all stepping as lightly as sylphs, under their burdens of fruits and vegetables, each one spoke to me, and in answer to my inquiries, gave me a kindly "adios, niña."

As but little is known to the outside world of the vast resources of the state and city of Puebla, I append the translation of a letter on this subject to El Diario del Hogar, a paper published at the capital:

"Excepting the capital of the republic, Puebla is the city which has most railroad stations, there being at present six, ample and well built—namely, the Mexican; that of the line of Izucorde Matamoros; that of the Texmelucan line: that called San Marcos; that of the Carboniferous Zone; and the Urbano, or city line. In its neighborhood the city has coal on the ranches of Santa Barbara; it has the inexhaustible quarry on the hill of Guadalupe, from which have come the pavements, houses, palaces, churches, and other great or large edifices in adjacent towns. This stone is dark and of a very fine grain. Further, Puebla has a quarry on the hill of Loreto, from which is taken a soft stone called xalnenen, used in building. There is the kaolin which supplies the factories of Puebla, where are manufactured the tiles that were known as talanera. There is a very fine clay for red earthenware and brick, which supplies the potteries in the suburb of La Luz, and the eighty-nine kilns for making the


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Rh Roblano brick, which is known to have the consistency of stone, and the greater part of the plain on which the city is built is of a calcareous nature. There is abundance of chalk, or marl, for making lime, and this is manufactured in more than sixty kilns which run the year long. There is also another quarry at a league's distance, whence comes in great abundance the stone called chiluca in the capital. From the river Tetlaxcuafar, which traverses the city, and from the full-flowing Atoyac, half a league away, is taken gravel in abundance, and divers sorts of sand for building purposes. Three leagues off plenty of iron is found and a large foundry is kept running, there being others for bronze in Puebla. The neighboring mountains of Ualintze, of Tepenene and Tepozuchitl furnish the town with wood and some charcoal. The city has sweet water and sulphur water, and sundry little streams which all the year nourish the farming and gardening lands.

"Besides these elements, all of which it seems almost an exaggeration to attribute to so restricted a territory, we must mention that its easy means of communication find at a distance of seven leagues the mountains of Tecali and Tepeaca, which consist entirely of translucent marble, fine and vari-colored, which is called 'Mexican onyx,' as well as other solid marbles used for pavements. These mountains of marble would suffice to build a hundred cities of the size of London, Paris, Pekin, Vienna, or New York, without including in the calculation the mountains of transparent marble of Tecuantitlan, in the district of Acatlan, whose territory covers seventy square leagues of stone-fields of divers marbles. The city of Puebla, instead of being built of dark granite, might consist of buildings of transparent marble—a city unique on the continent: it certainly has the material near at hand.

"Brief reference might be made to the resources of Puebla which may be made available at reasonable rates, by means of the easy modes of transport. The range of coal of the district of Acatlan commences at Tefeji de Rodriguez and ends at the Pacific shore in the State of Guerrero, spreading over the State of Oaxaca until it reaches Tehuantepec. To the north of the State extensive fields of


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450 coal in the district of Alatriste and that of Noreste los de Tezintlan. Native quicksilver is plentiful in the districts of Atlixco and Matamoros, and gold and silver mines are worked clandestinely. In the districts of Tecali and Chiantla lead abounds of a high grade. In Chiantla and Acatlan are iron mines, worked only on a small scale. In the district of Chalchicomula exist abandoned mines of gold and silver, the chief one being called 'La Preciosa.' In the district of San Juan de los Llanos is the famous 'Hucha,' now abandoned, and the 'Cristo.' In Tetla de Ocampo are those gold placers which formerly gave the town the surname of 'The Golden.' In the same district is the tract of kaolin which gives life to the manufactory of porcelain or stoneware called 'cuayuca.' In the district of Zacatlan one of the cities furnishes abundance of quicksilver, and another rock crystal; beyond Ahuacatlan there is a mountain, conical in shape, known as Zitlala, which in the Nahuatl tongue means 'star,' this name having been bestowed by the natives by virtue of its brilliancy, like a sparkling star, in the rays of the rising and the setting sun. This is simply one great rock crystal, whose tiniest fragments resemble diamonds. In the district of Huactunango are various mines of gold, silver, and iron, which no one has engaged to work, and in Tefiji are three crags where emeralds are found, but which the natives of the Zapoteco race have concealed from the eye of the explorer. As a specimen of these emeralds, in a little town in the district of Cholula existed one of these gems, three-quarters of a Spanish yard in length, which served as the ara, or consecrated stone, on the altar of the church. Maximilian had it in his hands, and offered for it $1,000,000, which the Indians would not accept. Later, an armed force went to attack the town, to capture this gem, which was worth more than $2,000,000, but they were repulsed. In consequence of this attempt, the Indians concluded to lose the emerald by design, to protect it from the covetous. However, that remarkable treasure found its way into the hands of the wily Jesuits. They, in order to secure it, promised eternal salvation to the dead, the living, and the as yet unborn, in the vicinity of that town, that they might obtain


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Rh the stone and cut it in portions as they have done, to sell it piecemeal beyond the seas. This is historical: it were better the neighbors of the town had received their $1,000,000 for the jewel, rather than only the hope of eternal glory for the past, the present and the future crimes among them. An emerald of immense value suffered Hell for those who have sinned and who shall sin, giving them a key to open the doors of Heaven eternally at their will.

"In the district of Chalchimula there are also marbles, and in A!atriste there are great hot springs superior to those of the capital of Puebla, and equal probably to those of Aguascalientes and of Atotonilco el Grande, of the State of Hidalgo.

"Treating of the vegetable kingdom, the districts of Huachinango, Zacatlan, Tetela, Zacapoatla, Tlalauqui, and Tezuitlan produce the finest woods in the world, such as the varieties of cedar, ebony, the mahogany, zapatillo, the oyametl, pine, ocotl, juniperus sabina, oak, madroño, bamboo, ayacohuite, liquidambar, India-rubber tree, and that which yields the gum chitle, and, above all woods, the writing-tree, whose veins of color upon a yellowish ground form monograms, flourished letters, abbreviated words, and a thousand capricious figures and profiles. This wood has been adjudged, at the Expositions of Vienna, Paris, and Philadelphia, the finest from the five continents. In the districts of Acatlan, Chiuatla, and Matamoros, belonging to this State, to the southward, are produced the aloe, silk-cotton tree, log-wood, tamarind, huizacha (a species of acacia), mezquit, venenillo, tlalhuate, huaje, and other woods with Mexican names, whose qualities and duration leave nothing to be desired. Some of the trees produce the most exquisitely fragrant gums, known as myrrh, incense, and copatle, besides the rich essence of the aloe. The yellow dye known as Zacatlaxcatl, so highly prized in China, Cochin-China, Tartary, and Japan, is abundantly produced in these districts and in Tecamachalco and Telmacan. The palm which is used for mats and common hats is produced in the districts of Tepip, Tepeaca, Tecali and Tehuacan; and in the last named, cactus of the most extraordinary dimensions, as well as the vine from which is made a wine superior to that of Spain and


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454 Italy. In the district of Tlatlauquitepec is raised the famous ramie, or vegetable silk, which has enriched and given a name to Asiatic India. This plant was with difficulty brought to France and acclimated in Provence, but without success as an industry. It was then brought to Louisiana in the United States, and, although acclimated, it was never successfully treated by mechanical means, notwithstanding American effort. The magistrate of the Supreme Court of Mexico, Licentiate Mariano Zavala, brought from Louisiana a small lot of ramie, which was planted and successfully developed in the village of San Angel; but his attention did not go beyond curiosity. One day he was visited by his friend, D. Manuel Ortega y Garcia, of the district of Tlatlauqui, and Zavala presented him with the plants, six in number, telling him the mode of cultivating them. Ortega y Garcia went to the little village and transplanted the plants with brilliant success. In two years his plantations contained forty thousand plants two and three meters in height, although the plant obtains no greater height than a meter and a half in Asia. Ortega knew that the treatment of ramie was impracticable by the mechanical means employed in Europe and America; therefore he studied chemical means for that purpose, and after much endeavor, he succeeded in separating the fiber and presenting to the Minister of the Interior fine skeins, dyed in three colors, three meters and a half in length, which are now displayed spread over statues in the salon of the Minister Riva Palacio and in the house of the venerable editor. Don Ygnacio Complido, who also received a gift of several skeins. The ramie propagates prodigiously in portions of our warm, moist climate, as in Cordoba, Tlatlauqui, Cuetzala, and Huachinango. When the plant is developed, the sprouts bearing four or five leaves are removed and planted a Spanish yard apart, with surety of the success of the new plantation. The ramie is little sensitive to changes in temperature, and it neither breeds nor nourishes worms or caterpillars; neither gives life to mildew or parasitic growth. Each plant produces from $1.75 to $2.25 worth of fiber, the cost of its cultivation amounting to six cents. Thus the profit is greater than from tobacco, coffee, cacao, or cotton:


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Rh, from the refuse fiber is manufactured fine Chinese paper, and coarse wrapping-paper.

"The State of Puebla has a variety of climates, from that which is oppressively hot to one cloudy and cold. In some northern districts are produced cotton, tobacco, vanilla, coffee, rice, sugar cane, and all the fruits of the cold zones and the hot; in the southern districts the fruits of the hot zones, cotton, tea, coffee, and the Mexican agave of the species oyamee, which produces the mezcal liquor. The best sugar plantations are in the south, and they produce molasses, aguardientes, and sugar of various grades. In this zone are the immense grazing lands of cattle, goats, sheep, and horses; the salt mines of Chiautla, Chinantla, and Piaxtla, and the purgative-salt of Chietla. In Atlixco are produced pease, rice, corn, beans, chile pepper, barley, benne-seed, and some wheat. The districts of the north yield the same products, excepting the wheat, the salt mines and the grazing on a large scale; in exchange, Zacatlan produces apple-brandy superior to the Spanish Catalan, and delicious wines from the orange, quince, and blackberry. In the central districts grows the best wheat raised in eastern Mexico, all the fruit and grain of cold climates, the mulato chile, whence comes a soda refined here, and another which is treated in France; also wool and bristles.

"The flora of this State is abundant and varied, as known to the scientific commission exploring the territory, and its products would supply the perfumeries and drug-shops of the world.

"The races and classes inhabiting Puebla are as follows: The Hispano-American, which is the principal one; the Aztec, the Chichimeca, the Tatonavue, the Cuatocomaque, the Tepounga, and the Mizteca, whose tongues and dialects to-day, as well as a great part of their customs, are of the primitive people. The capitals of the most populous and cultivated districts outside the State capital are: Tehuacan, preeminent in agriculture and commerce; Teziutlan, under the same conditions, where live some capitalists, almost millionaires. The city of Chalchicomula is agricultural and industrial, in the line of mills. Atlixco and Matamoros are beautiful, rich, and productive of utensils.


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456 Zacatlan, agricultural and industrial in the branch of liquors, and Tecamachalco, given to agriculture and milling. The garden spots of the north are: Zacatlan, with its natural beauty, its fair, lovely race, and distinguished families; Teziutlan, with the panoramas its territories offer; its people white and elegant, and the culture of its sons; Zacapoaxtla, with its florid vegetation, its agreeable, fine, mixed race, and the inclination of its sons toward literature, distinguished above all the people of the State; the inhabitants of Tetela de Ocanepo, whose people are clever and unpretentious—every one here can read and write, understands domestic history, general geography, geometry, numbers, the use of arms, and constitutional rights. In the towns forming the district of Tetela there is no Roman Catholic guild, nor is there need of a police judge, because here occur no robberies, no homicides, no quarrels, no impositions, no adulteries, nothing of crime or disorder. The Tetelanos are the Lacedemonians of the State of Puebla. The gardens of the south are: Picturesque Atlixco, watered by a hundred streams of crystal flood, with its orchards of varied fruits, its thickets of mixed flowers of loveliest hue, and withal a cultured society; Izricar of Matamoros, traversed by an overflowing stream like Atlixco, with its proud buildings, its lovely brown women, its ardent temperament, its fertile meadows, and its valuable sugar plantations, which bring enormous rental to their owners; Acatlan, land of fire, with its forward meadows, its fruitful ground-plots, its sugar-mills; its cane-fields, and its active commerce with the Pacific coast."

Tram-cars, built in New York, run in all directions from the city, some extending from ten to fifty miles, to villages, sugar haciendas, and factories. To Cholula it is but seven miles over the lovely green valley of Puebla, and in making the trip, we constantly enjoyed fresh and charming views. These included an ancient aqueduct and an old Spanish bridge across the river Atoyac, which affords water-power for factories and foundries.

We see the great pyramid of Cholula for miles before reaching it—a grand and imposing monument to the aboriginal builders! That these ready-handed Indian workers should have erected a mountain,


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Rh without beasts of burden or implements of any kind, and by passing the brick from hand to hand, surpasses the calculations of all scientists.

It is built of adobe bricks of irregular size, from sixteen to twenty-three inches in length. The erection of this stupendous structure could never have been imposed upon freemen, and must have been the work of slaves or prisoners of war. According to Prescott, the base covers about forty-four acres—other authorities say sixty—

while Baron Humboldt suggests a comparison with "a square four times greater than the Place Vendôme in Paris, covered with layers of brick, rising to twice the elevation of the Louvre." The platform on the summit is more than an acre in extent.

The sides of the mound face the cardinal points; but the regularity of its outlines has been broken and defaced by time, and the whole surface is covered with the dirt and vegetable growth of ages. From this circumstance many have supposed that the elevation was not artificial, at least as regards its interior; but so far as explorations


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458 have been made, there is no reason to doubt that it is entirely a work of art.

In addition to trees and shrubs covered with vines and mosses, lovely wild flowers of delightful fragrance abound everywhere. We gathered our hands full, and pressed them on the spot as souvenirs of the Pyramid of Cholula. Relic venders in rags followed us around with a unique collection of cross-bones, pottery, idolos, and the customary bric-à-brac. We were ready purchasers, being willing to believe almost anything on this historic and pre-historic ground.

Much speculation has arisen as to the object in rearing so stupendous a work, whether constructed for religious use, or as a place of sepulture for kings and notables. A recent theory is, that it was erected for defense, as a place of refuge for an agricultural population otherwise unprotected.

According to Humboldt, "In its present state (and we are ignorant of its original height), its perpendicular proportion is to its base as 8 to 1, while in the three great pyramids of Gizeh, the proportion is found to be 1-6/10 to 1-7/10 to 1; or nearly as 8 to 5."

A table made by Baron Humboldt, relating to the proportions of various pyramids, is as follows:

Humboldt continues: "The inhabitants of Anahuac apparently designed giving the Pyramid of Cholula the same height, and double


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {| |} Rh
 * -valign="top"
 * The import of Secretary Acheson's statement of February 1 is made clear by the first paragraph of the Department of State press release of that date: "The recognition by the Kremlin of Ho Chi Minh's communist movement in Indochina comes as a surprise. The Soviet acknowledgment of this movement should remove any illusions as to the 'nationalist' nature of Ho Chi Minh's aims and reveals Ho in his true colors as the mortal enemy of independence in Indochina..."
 * -valign="top"
 * As President Truman was later to write concerning his view of Chinese operations in November 1950, "The situation in Korea...was not the only instance of a new aggressiveness on the part of Communist China. There was evidence that the communist rebel forces in Indochina were receiving increasing aid from Peiping. Also, in the last days of October, Communist China had moved against the ancient theocracy of Tibet. We were seeing a pattern in Indochina and Tibet timed to coincide with the attack in Korea as a challenge to the Western world.", Volume 2, p. 380.
 * -valign="top"
 * On May 3, 1949, General Chennault told two Congressional Committees that unless the U.S. took immediate steps to save the Nationalists, all Asia would fall to the communists.
 * -valign="top"
 * Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, from Joint Chiefs of Staff, Subject: Strategic Assessment of Southeast Asia, April 10, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * NSC 48, 64 series, 124 series, 177, 5405.
 * -valign="top"
 * NSC 64, p.2.
 * -valign="top"
 * NIE 5,, December 29, 1950, p.2 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * NIE 5, p. 2. Lucien Bodard in his (pp. 228–229) contends that the French High Command "systematically put out false intelligence that was meant to end up in Washington" on this and related issues. Only subsequent events showed the French that there was a real Chinese threat.
 * -valign="top"
 * Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, April 5, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * NIE 5, pp. 1, 2.
 * -valign="top"
 * ., p. 1.
 * -valign="top"
 * See Department of State Outgoing Telegram to AM Consul Saigon 25, Personal for Jessup from Butterworth, January 20, 1950, "...marked opposition has been encountered which demonstrates at least that Bao Dai's popular support has not yet widened."
 * -valign="top"
 * NIE 5, p. 1.


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive IV. A. 3.

 * A.

 * 1.

After 100 years of investment, interest and influence, France got out of Vietnam in less than a year after the Geneva Conference of July 1954. And France did not want to leave. On July 25, three days after signing the Geneva Accords, Prime Minister Mendes-France said France would maintain cultural and economic ties with North Vietnam and would assist the development of Free (South) Vietnam, The predecessor Laniel Government had recognized "Vietnam as a fully independent and sovereign state in possession of all qualifications and powers known in international law" on June 4, 1954; Mendes-France pledged to uphold and further that treaty. In August he announced a three-phase formula to implement it. Economic, administrative and financial ties with the Associated States would be terminated as fast as possible. By December 1954, the last vestiges of the French colonial apparatus had been eliminated. However, Mendes-France's formula viewed membership in the French Union as compulsory — indicative of French desire to stay in Vietnam but inimical to demands lodged by Diem and the United States for independence which included the right to withdraw from the French Union.

Also in August, General Paul Ely, French High Commissioner in Vietnam, reaffirmed French support of Vietnamese independence and French readiness to further Vietnamese development. That the French had a role to play was clear: French economic investment, cultural institutions, military, political and administrative operations were already part of South Vietnamese life. That France must play a role was also clear. Under the Geneva Accords, France had pledged to guarantee all-Vietnam elections in 1956, guarantee execution of the armistice agreement, guarantee Vietnamese sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity, pledged to maintain the French Expeditionary Corps until Vietnam requested its removal. General Ely had been delegated extensive political and military authority to enable him to meet these obligations. He worked sincerely to persuade both Vietnamese and French that mutual cooperation would be mutually beneficial, to erase the colonialist tinge of French presence, to both speed and smooth the French transition from master to equal partner of Vietnam. Rh


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 intervening materials, appliances, and forms of skill consciously used in achieving results. It covers all forms of expression and construction with tools and materials, all forms of artistic and manual activity so far as they involve the conscious or thoughtful endeavor to achieve an end. They include, that is, painting, drawing, clay modeling, singing so far as there is any conscious attention to means—to the technique of execution. They comprehend the various forms of manual training, work with wood, metal, textiles, cooking, sewing, etc., so far as these involve an idea of the result to be accomplished (instead of working from dictation or an external model which does away with the need for thought). They cover also the manual side of scientific inquiry, the collection of materials for study, the management of apparatus, the sequence of acts required in carrying on and in recording experiments.

3. So far as this latter interest—the interest in discovery or in finding out what happens under given circumstances—gains in importance, there develops a third type of interest—the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, Hildebrand


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, Joseph


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {| |} Rh
 * -valign="top"
 * Department of State Incoming Telegram from Paris 837, February 22, 1950.
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 * NSC 64, The Position of the United States with Respect to Indochina, February 27, 1950, p. 3 (TS).
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 * Department of State letter from Deputy Under Secretary Rusk to Major General James H. Burns, March 7, 1950 (TS).
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 * Memorandum for the President from the Secretary of Defense, approved by SecDef, March 6, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * By March 6, State and Defense had agreed on a military assistance program for Indochina and Thailand in the amounts of $15 and 10 million respectively. Draft memorandum to the President, "Allocation of Funds to Provide Military Assistance to Thailand and Indochina Under Section 303 of Mutual Defense Assistance Act, March 6, 1950 (TS).
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 * Ninth Report to Congress of ECA, 1951, p. 99.
 * -valign="top"
 * Quoted in Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from Secretary of the Navy, "Aid to Indochina," March 28, 1950, p. 2. (TS)
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 * Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, "Strategic Assessment of Southeast Asia, 11 April 5, 1950 (TS).
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 * Department of State Outgoing Telegram to AmEmbassy London 20149, May 3, 1950 (TS).
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 * Statement of the President, June 27, 1950.
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 * Memorandum for the Joint Chiefs of Staff from Secretary of Defense, June 6, 1950. Cited in OCMH Draft TS-62-5-3 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Annex 2, October 16, 1950 (S); see also, OCMH Draft TS-64-7-1 (TS), pp. 22–23; the generally pessimistic conclusions of the mission are also presented in Annex 2 to Southeast Asia Policy Committee "Proposed Statement of U.S. Policy in Indochina for NSC Consideration," October 11, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * OCMH Draft TS-64-7-1, p. 23.
 * -valign="top"
 * In their comment on this paper, the Joint Secretaries recommended strengthening this restriction by including in it the contingency of "augmented internal communist offensives." Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from the Joint Secretaries, October 18, 1950 (TS).


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, Joshua


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 intellectual interest. Our wording should be carefully noted. The intellectual interest is not a new thing, now showing itself for the first time. Our discussion of the development of the so-called physical activities of a baby, and of the constructive work of children, youth, and adults has been intended to show that intelligence, in the form of clear perception of the result of an activity and search for and adaptation of means, should be an integral part of such activities. But it is possible for this intellectual interest to be subordinate, to be subsidiary, to the accomplishment of a process. But it is also possible for it to become a dominating interest, so that instead of thinking things out and discovering them for the sake of the successful achievement of an activity, we institute the activity for the sake of finding out something. Then the distinctively intellectual, or theoretical, interest shows itself.

As there is no sharp line of division in theory, so there is none in practice. Planning ahead, taking notice of what happens, relating this to what is attempted, are parts of all intelligent or


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, William (1762?-1851)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacob, William Stephen


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacobsen, Theodore


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jacobson, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jaenbert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jaffray, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jago, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James the Cistercian


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James Francis Edward Stuart


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Bartholomew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Charles


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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {| |} Rh
 * -valign="top"
 * Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Subject: Possible Future Action in Indochina, October 27, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * Report to the National Security Council by the Secretary of Defense on the Position of the United States with Respect to Indochina, December 21, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * Department of State Incoming Message from U.S. Minister Saigon 763, November 4, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * NSC Staff Study on Position of the United States with Respect to Indochina, December 28, 1950 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * Progress Report by the Under Secretary of State to the National Security Council on the Implementation of NSC 64, March 15, 1951 (IS).
 * -valign="top"
 * OCMH TS-64-7-1, pp. 36, 47–48. All numbers are taken to be approximations.
 * -valign="top"
 * Irving Heymont, .,, RAC-TP-232, June 1967, Vol 1, p. 10 (S).
 * -valign="top"
 * ., informal memorandum from Mr. Max Lehrer to General Bonesteel of April 21, 1954: "This [attached] report makes it clear that the U.S. MAAG has little information available on which it could operate. The written report actually understates the deficiencies in information. Our people find that the morale of the MAAG in Indochina is virtually non-existent and the MAAG is reduced to relative impotence."
 * -valign="top"
 * Department of State Incoming Telegram from Paris 837, February 22, 1950 (S).
 * -valign="top"
 * NIE 63–54,, April 30, 1954 (S).
 * -valign="top
 * Regarding the Letourneau-Allard plan, General Trapnell, Chief MAAG, reported, "while this plan is slow and expensive, the other course of action is to accept a stalemate which is also not only expensive, but in the long run, favors the Viet Minh and offers no solution." (Memorandum from General Trapnell, OSD files, March 31, 1953)
 * -valign="top"
 * Although General O'Daniel, in his report of July 15, 1953 (TS) waxed enthusiastic over the successor Navarre Plan, broadly and attractively described to him by General Navarre himself, it was clear to others that the plan was hollow. "There is no concrete evidence that the French Union forces will be able to take decisive action to win the war in the foreseeable future..." (Comments by Army Attache, Saigon, November 24, 1953 (S))


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Eleanor


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Francis


text:
Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Frank Linsly

References: 1) Hitchcock, Mrs Edward;The Genealogy of the Hitchcock Family; 1894 Press of Carpenter and Morehouse, Amherst, Mass. P.29. 2) UK Death register Jan. Feb Mar. 1870 Prescott 8b. 431. 3) UK census 1851 Liverpool: Daniel James head of household, Sopia H James wife. 4) Census 1861 Frank Linsly son aged 9, Daniel's wife still Sophia.
 * Erratum: Frank James’s mother was Sophia Hall Hitchcock. Sophia's mother was Electa (Hall) Hitchcock, father John Hitchcock.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, George Payne Rainsford


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Henry


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 purposive activities. It is the business of educators to see that the conditions of expression of the practical interests are such as to encourage the developing of these intellectual phases of an activity, and thereby evoke a gradual transition to the theoretical type. It is a commonplace that the fundamental principle of science is connected with the relation of cause and effect. Interest in this relation begins on the practical side. Some effect is aimed at, is desired and worked for, and attention is given to the conditions for producing it. At first the interest in the achievement of the end predominates; but in the degree in which this interest is bound up with thoughtful effort, interest in the end or effect is of necessity transferred to the interest in the means—the causes—which bring it about. Where work with tools, gardening, cooking, etc., is intelligently carried on, it is comparatively a simple matter to secure a transfer of interest from the practical side to experimentation for the sake of discovery. When any one becomes interested in a problem as a problem and in inquiry and learning for the sake of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John (d.1661)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John (d.1746)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John (1729-1785)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John (1811-1867)


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Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part IV. A. 2.djvu/36

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  {|
 * -valign="top"
 * Thus the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1954: "There are two basic military concepts for the defense of Southeast Asia: . Static type defense (Korea type), . An offensive to attack the source of communist military power being applied in Southeast Asia [., China]." It is interesting that in this assessment the Chiefs selected ., although "The force requirements and logistic support...have not been fully developed." Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Subject: "Defense of Southeast Asia in the Event of Loss of Indochina to the Communists," May 21, 1954 (TS).
 * -valign="top"
 * ., the reports of General O'Daniel following his three missions to Indochina. Following the second mission, O'Daniel reported that "prospects for victory appear increasingly encouraging and I heartily recommend continuation and intensification of United States support." (Progress Report on Military Situation in Indochina as of November 19, 1953 (TS).) Following the third mission, which General Navarre tried unsuccessfully to prevent, O'Daniel was even more optimistic in his remarks, including those on Dien Bien Riu, given the circumstances. (Report of U.S. Special Mission to Indochina, February 5, 1954 (TS))
 * -valign="top"
 * Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens found it necessary to write, even following the U.S. experiences of the Korean war, "I am becoming increasingly concerned over the frequency of statements by individuals of influence within and without the government that United States air and sea forces alone could solve our problem in Indochina, and equally so over the very evident lack of appreciation of the logistics factors affecting operations in that area." Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, Subject: Indochina, May 19, 1954 (TS). See also Note 53.
 * -valign="top"
 * NSC 5405 file of OSD.
 * } Rh


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John Angell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John Haddy


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, John Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Thomas (1593?-1635?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, Thomas (1748-1804)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (1542-1617)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (1635?-1663)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (fl.1760-1771)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (1721-1783)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (d.1827)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William (1771-1837)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/James, William Milbourne


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, Anna Brownell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, James Sligo


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, Robert (1774-1854)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, Robert William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, William (fl.1689-1720)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, William (1796-1873)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jameson, William (1815-1882)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamesone, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamieson, John Paul


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamieson, Robert (1780?-1844)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamieson, Robert (d.1861)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamieson, Robert (1802-1880)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jamrach, Johann Christian Carl


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Jane (d.1445)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Seymour, Jane


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Rh identity of every portion of the fluid obtained, yet the crystallization and other characters of the latter seemed to show that it was a pure substance.

Carbonic acid.—The solidification of carbonic acid by is one of the most beautiful experimental results of modern times. He obtained the substance, as is well known, in the form of a concrete white mass like fine snow, aggregated. When it is melted and resolidified by a bath of low temperature, it then appears as a clear, transparent, crystalline, colourless body, like ice; so clear, indeed, that at times it was doubtful to the eye whether anything was in the tube, yet at the same time the part was filled with solid carbonic acid. It melts at the temperature of -70° or -72° ., and the solid carbonic acid is heavier than the fluid bathing it. The solid or liquid carbonic acid at this temperature has a pressure of 5.33 atmospheres nearly. Hence it is easy to understand the readiness with which liquid carbonic acid, when allowed to escape into the air, exerting only a pressure of one atmosphere, freezes a part of itself by the evaporation of another part.

gives -100°C. or -148°. as the temperature at which carbonic acid becomes solid. This however is rather the temperature to which solid carbonic acid can sink by further evaporation in the air, and is a temperature belonging to a pressure, not only lower than

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50 that of 5.33 atmospheres, but even much below that of one atmosphere. This cooling effect to temperatures below the boiling-point often appears. A bath of carbonic acid and ether exposed to the air will cool a tube containing condensed solid carbonic acid, until the pressure within the tube is less than one atmosphere; yet, if the same bath be covered up so as to have the pressure of one atmosphere of carbonic acid vapour over it, then the temperature is such as to produce a pressure of 2.5 atmospheres by the vapour of the solid carbonic acid within the tube.

The estimates of the pressure of carbonic acid vapour are sadly at variance; thus, Thilorier says it has a pressure of 26 atmospheres at -4° ., whilst says that for that pressure it requires a temperature of 30°. gives the pressure about 27 atmospheres at 32°, but and myself give it as 36 atmospheres at the same temperature. At 50° estimates the pressure as 60 atmospheres, whilst makes it only 34.67 atmospheres. At 86° finds the pressure to be 73 atmospheres; at 4° more, or 90°, makes it 120 atmospheres; and at 10° more, or 100°,  makes it less than at 86°, and only 62.32 atmospheres; even at 150° the pressure with him is not quite 100 atmospheres.

I am inclined to think that at about 90° state comes on with carbonic acid. From data we may obtain the specific gravity of the liquid and the vapour over it at the temperature of 86° ., and the former is little more than twice that of the latter; hence a few degrees more of temperature

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Rh would bring them together, and result seems to imply that the state was then on, but in that case results could only be accounted for by supposing that there was a deficiency of carbonic acid. The following are the pressures which I have recently obtained:—

Carbonic acid is remarkable amongst bodies for the high tension of the vapour which it gives off whilst in the solid or glacial state. There is no other substance which at all comes near it in this respect, and it causes an inversion of what in all other cases is the natural order of events. Thus, if, as is the case with water, ether, mercury or any other fluid, that temperature at which carbonic acid gives off vapour equal in elastic force to one atmosphere, be called its boiling-point; or, if (to produce the actual effect of ebullition) the carbonic acid be plunged below the surface of alcohol or ether, then we shall perceive that the freezing and boiling-points are inverted, i.e. that the freezing-point is the hotter, and the boiling-point the colder of the two, the latter being about 50° below the former.

Euchlorine.—This substance was easily converted from the gaseous state into a solid crystalline body, which, by a little increase of temperature, melted into an orange-red fluid, and by diminution of temperature again congealed; the solid euchlorine had the colour and

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52 general appearance of bichromate of potassa; it was moderately hard, brittle and translucent; and the crystals were perfectly clear. It melted at the temperature of 75° below 0°, and the solid portion was heavier than the liquid.

When in the solid state it gives off so little vapour that the eye is not sensible of its presence by any degree of colour in the air over it when looking down a tube four inches in length, at the bottom of which is the substance. Hence the pressure of its vapour at that temperature must be very small.

Some hours after, wishing to solidify the same portion of euchlorine which was then in a liquid state, I placed the tube in a bath at -110°, but could not succeed either by continuance of the tube in the bath, or shaking the fluid in the tube, or opening the tube to allow the full pressure of the atmosphere; but when the liquid euchlorine was touched by a platinum wire it instantly became solid, and exhibited all the properties before described. There are many similar instances amongst ordinary substances, but the effect in this case makes me hesitate in concluding that all the gases which as yet have refused to solidify at temperatures as low as 166° below 0°, cannot acquire the solid state at such a temperature.

Nitrous oxide.—This substance was obtained solid by the temperature of the carbonic acid bath in vacuo, and appeared as a beautiful clear crystalline colourless body. The temperature required for this effect must have been very nearly the lowest, perhaps about 150° below 0°. The pressure of the vapour rising from the solid nitrous oxide was less than one atmosphere.

Hence it was concluded that liquid nitrous oxide could not freeze itself by evaporation at one atmosphere, as carbonic acid does; and this was found to be true, for when a tube containing much liquid was freely opened,

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Rh so as to allow evaporation down to one atmosphere, the liquid boiled and cooled itself, but remained a liquid. The cold produced by the evaporation was very great, and this was shown by putting the part of the tube containing the liquid nitrous oxide, into a cold bath of carbonic acid, for the latter was like a hot bath to the former, and instantly made it boil rapidly.

I kept this substance for some weeks in a tube closed by stop-cocks and cemented caps. In that time there was no action on the bitumen of the graduation, nor on the cement of the caps; these bodies remained perfectly unaltered.

Hence it is probable that this substance may be used in certain cases, instead of carbonic acid, to produce degrees of cold far below those which the latter body can supply. Down to a certain temperature, that of its solidification, it would not even require ether to give contact, and below that temperature it could easily be used mingled with ether; its vapour would do no harm to an air-pump, and there is no doubt that the substance placed in vacuo would acquire a temperature lower than any as yet known, perhaps as far below the carbonic acid bath in vacuo as that is below the same bath in air.

This substance, like olefiant gas, gave very uncertain results at different times as to the pressure of its vapour; results which can only be accounted for by supposing that there are two different bodies present, soluble in each other, but differing in the elasticity of their vapour. Four different portions gave at the same temperature, namely, -106° ., the following great differences in pressure, 1.66; 4.4; 5.0; and 6.3 atmospheres, and this after the elastic atmosphere left in the tubes at the conclusion of the condensation had been allowed to escape, and be replaced by a portion of the respective liquids which then rose in vapour. The following Table gives

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54 certain results with a portion of liquid which exerted a pressure of six atmospheres at -106°.

The second column expresses the pressures given as the fluid was raised from low to higher temperatures. The third column shows the pressures given the next day with the same tube after it had attained to and continued at the atmospheric temperature for some hours. There is a difference of four or five atmospheres between the two, showing that in the first instance the previous low temperature had caused the solution of a more volatile part in the less volatile and liquid portion, and that the prolonged application of a higher temperature during the night had gradually raised it again in vapour. This result occurred again and again with the same specimen.

Cyanogen.—This substance becomes a solid

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Rh crystalline body, as Bunsen has already stated, which raised to the temperature of -30°. then liquefies. The solid and liquid appear to be nearly of the same specific gravity, but the solid is perhaps the denser of the two.

The mixed solid and liquid substance yields a vapour of rather less pressure than one atmosphere. In accordance with this result, if the liquid be exposed to the air, it does not freeze itself as carbonic acid does.

The liquid tends to distil over and condense on the cap cement and bitumen of the gauge, but only slightly. When cyanogen is made from cyanide of mercury sealed up hermetically in a glass tube, the cyanogen distils back and condenses in the paracyanic residue of the distillation, but the pressure of the vapour at common temperatures is still as great, or very nearly so, as if the cyanogen were in a clean separate liquid state.

A measured portion of liquid cyanogen was allowed to escape and expand into gas. In this way one volume of liquid at the temperature of 63°. gave 393.9 volumes of gas at the same temperature and the barometric pressure of 30.2 inches. If 100 cubic inches of the gas be admitted to weigh 55.5 grains, then a cubic inch of the liquid would weigh 218.6 grains. This gives its specific gravity as 0.866. When first condensed I estimated it as nearly 0.9.

Cyanogen is a substance which yielded on different occasions results of vaporous tension differing much from each other, though the substance appeared always to be pure. The following are numbers in which I place some confidence, the pressures being in atmospheres of 30 inches of mercury, and the marked results experimental.

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56 {| align=center
 * colspan=3|Fahr. °|||Atmospheres.|| colspan=3|Fahr. °|||Atmospheres.|| colspan=3|Fahr. °|||Atmospheres.
 * width=3%| ||width=5%| ||width=5%| || width=20%| ||width=3%| ||width=5%| ||width=5%| || width=20%| ||width=3%| ||width=5%| ||width=5%| || width=20%|
 *  |||0|| |||1.25|| √|||38||.5|||2.72|| |||77|| |||5.00
 *  |||8||.5|||1.5 || √|||44||.5|||3.00|| √|||79|| |||5.16
 *  √|||10|| |||1.53|| √|||48|| |||3.17|| |||83|| |||5.50
 *  |||15|| |||1.72|| √|||50|| |||3.28|| |||88||.3|||6.00
 *  √|||20|| |||1.89|| √|||52|| |||3.36|| √|||93||.5|||6.50
 *  |||22||.8|||2.00|| |||54||.3|||3.50|| √|||95|| |||6.64
 *  √|||27|| |||2.20|| √|||63|| |||4.00|| |||98||.4|||7.00
 *  √|||32|| |||2.37|| √|||70|| |||4.50|| √|||103|| |||7.50
 *  |||34||.5|||2.50|| √|||74|| |||4.79|| ||
 * }
 *  √|||20|| |||1.89|| √|||52|| |||3.36|| √|||93||.5|||6.50
 *  |||22||.8|||2.00|| |||54||.3|||3.50|| √|||95|| |||6.64
 *  √|||27|| |||2.20|| √|||63|| |||4.00|| |||98||.4|||7.00
 *  √|||32|| |||2.37|| √|||70|| |||4.50|| √|||103|| |||7.50
 *  |||34||.5|||2.50|| √|||74|| |||4.79|| ||
 * }
 *  √|||32|| |||2.37|| √|||70|| |||4.50|| √|||103|| |||7.50
 *  |||34||.5|||2.50|| √|||74|| |||4.79|| ||
 * }
 * }

Ammonia.—This body may be obtained as a solid, white, translucent, crystalline substance, melting at the temperature of 103° below 0°; at which point the solid substance is heavier than the liquid. In that state the pressure of its vapour must be very small.

Liquid ammonia at 60° was allowed to expand into ammoniacal gas at the same temperature; one volume of the liquid gave 1009.8 volumes of the gas, the barometer being at the pressure of 30.2 inches. If 100 cubic inches of ammoniacal gas be allowed to weigh 18.28 grains, it will give 184.6 grains as the weight of a cubic inch of liquid ammonia at 60°. Hence its specific gravity at that temperature will be 0.731. In the old experiments I found by another kind of process that its specific gravity was 0.76 at 50°.

The following is a table of the pressure of ammonia vapour, the marked results, as before, being those obtained by experiment:—

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Rh of gases have been made by, in which oxygen, olefiant, nitric oxide, carbonic oxide, fluosilicon, hydrogen, and nitrogen gases were submitted to pressures, rising up to 220 atmospheres in the case of the two last; but this was in the depths of the sea where the results under pressure could not be examined. Several of them were diminished in bulk in a ratio far greater than the pressure put upon them; but both and  have shown that this is often the case whilst the substance retains the gaseous form. It is possible that olefiant gas and fluosilicon may have liquefied down below, but they have not yet been seen in the liquid state except in my own experiments, and in them not at temperatures above 40°. The results with oxygen are so unsteady and contradictory as to cause doubt in regard to those obtained with the other gases by the same process.

Thus, though as yet I have not condensed oxygen, hydrogen, or nitrogen, the original objects of my pursuit, I have added six substances, usually gaseous, to the list of those that could previously be shown in the liquid state, and have reduced seven, including ammonia, nitrous oxide, and sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form. And though the numbers expressing tension of vapour cannot (because of the difficulties respecting the use of thermometers and the apparatus generally) be considered as exact, I am in hopes they will assist in developing some general law governing the vaporization of all bodies, and also in illustrating the physical state of gaseous bodies as they are presented to us under ordinary temperature and pressure.

Royal Institution, Nov. 15, 1844.

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60

Nitrous oxide.—Suspecting the presence on former occasions of nitrogen in the nitrous oxide, and mainly because of muriate in the nitrate of ammonia used, I prepared that salt in a pure state from nitric acid and carbonate of ammonia previously proved, by nitrate of silver, to be free from muriatic acid. After the nitrous oxide prepared from this salt had remained for some days in well-closed bottles in contact with a little water, I condensed it in the manner already described, and when condensed I allowed half the fluid to escape in vapour, that as much as possible of the less condensable portion might be carried off. In this way as much gas as would fill the capacity of the vessels twenty or thirty times or more was allowed to escape. Afterwards the following series of pressures was obtained:—

These numbers may all be taken as the results of experiments. Where the temperatures are not those actually observed, they are in almost all cases within a degree of it, and proportionate to the effects really observed. The departure of the real observations from the numbers given is very small. This table I consider as far more

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Rh worthy of confidence than the former, and yet it is manifest that the curve is not consistent with the idea of a pure single substance, for the pressures at the lowest temperature are too high. I believe that there are still two bodies present, and that the more volatile, as before said, is condensable in the liquid of the less volatile; but I think there is a far smaller proportion of the more volatile (nitrogen, or whatever it may be) than in the former case.

Olefiant gas.—The olefiant gas condensed in the former experiment was prepared in the ordinary way, using excellent alcohol and sulphuric acid; then washed by agitation with about half its bulk of water, and finally left for three days over a thick mixture of lime and water with occasional agitation. In this way all the sulphurous and carbonic acids were removed, and I believe all the ether, except such minute portions as could not interfere with my results. In respect of the ether, I have since found that the process is satisfactory; for when I purposely added ether vapour to air, so as to increase its bulk by one-third, treatment like that above removed it, so as to leave the air of its original volume. There was yet a slight odour of ether left, but not so much as that conferred by adding one volume of the vapour of ether to 1200 or 1500 volumes of air. I find that when air is expanded th or rd more by the addition of the vapour of ether, washing first of all with about of its volume of water, then again with about as much water, and lastly with its volume of water, removes the ether to such a degree, that though a little smell may remain, the air is of its original volume.

As already stated, it is the presence of other and more volatile hydrocarbons than olefiant gas, which the tensions obtained seemed to indicate, both in the gas and the liquid resulting from its condensation. In a

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62 further search after these I discovered a property of olefiant gas which I am not aware is known (since I do not find it referred to in books), namely its ready solubility in strong alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and such like bodies. Alcohol will take up two volumes of this gas; ether can absorb two volumes; oil of turpentine two volumes and a half; and olive oil one volume by agitation at common temperatures and pressure; consequently, when a vessel of olefiant gas is transferred to a bath of any of these liquids and agitated, absorption quickly takes place.

Examined in this way, I have found no specimen of olefiant gas that is entirely absorbed; a residue always remains, which, though I have not yet had time to examine it accurately, appears to be light carburetted hydrogen; and I have no doubt that this is the substance which has mainly interfered in my former results. This substance appears to be produced in every stage of the preparation of olefiant gas. On taking six different portions of gas at different equal intervals, from first to last, during one process of preparation, after removing the sulphurous and carbonic acid and the ether as before described, then the following was the proportion per cent, of insoluble gas in the remainder when agitated with oil of turpentine, 10.5; 10; 10.1; 13.1; 28.3; 61.8. Whether carbonic oxide was present in any of these undissolved portions I cannot at present say.

In reference to the part dissolved, I wish as yet to guard myself from being supposed to assume that it is one uniform substance; there is indeed little doubt that the contrary is true; for whilst a volume of oil of turpentine introduced into twenty times its volume of olefiant

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Rh gas cleared from ether and the acids, absorbs 2 volumes of the gas, the same volume of fresh oil of turpentine brought into similar contact with abundance of the gas which remains when one-half has been removed by solution only dissolved 1.54 part, yet there was an abundant surplus of gas which would dissolve in fresh oil of turpentine at this latter rate. When two-thirds of a portion of fresh olefiant gas were removed by solution, the most soluble portion of that which remained required its bulk of fresh oil of turpentine to dissolve it. Hence at first one volume of camphine dissolved 2.50, but when the richer portion of the gas was removed, one volume dissolved 1.54 part; and when still more of the gas was taken away by solution, one volume of camphine dissolved only one volume of the gas. This can only be accounted for by the presence of various compounds in the soluble portion of the gas.

A portion of good olefiant gas was prepared, well-agitated with its bulk of water in close vessels, left over lime and water for three days, and then condensed as before. When much liquid was condensed, a considerable proportion was allowed to escape to sweep out the uncondensed atmosphere and the more condensable vapours; and then the following pressures were observed:—

On examining the form of the curve given by these pressures, it is very evident that, as on former occasions,

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64 the pressures at low temperatures are too great to allow the condensed liquid to be considered as one uniform body, and the form of the curve at the higher pressures is quite enough to prove that no ether was present either in this or the former fluids. On permitting the liquid in the tube to expand into gas, and treating 100 parts of that gas with oil of turpentine, eighty-nine parts were dissolved, and eleven parts remained insoluble. There can be no doubt that the presence of this latter substance, soluble as it is under pressure in the more condensable portions, is the cause of the irregularity of the curve, and the too high pressure at the lower temperatures.

The ethereal solution of olefiant gas being mixed with eight or nine times its volume of water, dissolved and gradually minute bubbles of gas appeared, the separation of which was hastened by a little heat. In this way about half the gas dissolved was re-obtained, and burnt like very rich olefiant gas. One volume of the alcoholic solution, with two volumes of water, gave very little appearance of separating gas. Even the application of heat did not at first cause the separation, but gradually about half the dissolved olefiant gas was liberated.

The separation of the dissolved gas by water, heat, or change of pressure from its solutions, will evidently supply means of procuring olefiant gas in a greater state of purity than heretofore; the power of forming these solutions will also very much assist in the correct analysis of mixtures of hydrocarbons. I find that light carburetted hydrogen is hardly sensibly soluble in alcohol or ether, and in oil of turpentine the proportion dissolved is not probably th the volume of the fluid employed; but the further development of these points I must leave for the present.

Carbonic acid.—This liquid may be retained in glass tubes furnished with cemented caps, and closed by plugs

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Rh or stop-cocks, as described, but it is important to remember the softening action on the cement which, being continued, at last reduces its strength below the necessary point. A tube of this kind was arranged on the 10th of January and left; on the 15th of February it exploded, not by any fracture of the tube, for that remained unbroken, but simply by throwing off the cap through a failure of the cement. Hence the cement joints should not be used for long experiments, but only for those enduring for a few days.

Oxygen.—Chlorate of potassa was melted and pulverized. Oxide of manganese was pulverized, heated red-hot for half an hour, mixed whilst hot with the chlorate, and the mixture put into a long strong glass generating tube with a cap cemented on, and this tube then attached to another with a gauge for condensation. The heat of a spirit lamp carefully applied produced the evolution of oxygen without any appearance of water, and the tubes, both hot and cold, sustained the force generated. In this manner the pressure of oxygen within the apparatus was raised as high as 58.5 atmospheres, whilst the temperature at the condensing place was reduced as low as -140° ., but no condensation appeared. A little above this pressure the cement of two of the caps began to leak, and I could carry the observation no further with this apparatus.

From the former scanty and imperfect expressions of the elasticity of the vapour of the condensed gases. . was led to put forth suggestion, whether it might not ultimately appear that the same addition of heat (expressed in degrees of the thermometer) caused the same

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66 additional increase of expansive force for all gases or vapours in contact with their liquids, provided the observation began with the same pressure in all. Thus to obtain the difference between forty-four and fifty atmospheres of pressure, either with steam or nitrous oxide, nearly the same number of degrees of heat were required; to obtain the difference between twenty and twenty-five atmospheres, either with steam or muriatic acid, the same number were required. Such a law would of course make the rate of increasing expansive force the same for all bodies, and the curve laid down for steam would apply to every other vapour. This, however, does not appear to be the case. That the force of the vapour increases in a geometrical ratio for equal increments of heat is true for all bodies, but the ratio is not the same for all. As far as observations upon the following substances, namely, water, sulphurous acid, cyanogen, ammonia, arseniuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, muriatic acid, carbonic acid, defiant gas, &c., justify any conclusion respecting a general law, it would appear that the more volatile a body is, the more rapidly does the force of its vapour increase by further addition of heat, commencing at a given point of pressure for all; thus for an increase of pressure from two to six atmospheres, the following number of degrees require to be added for the different bodies named: water 69°, sulphurous acid 63°, cyanogen 64°.5, ammonia 60°, arseniuretted hydrogen 54°, sulphuretted hydrogen 56°.5, muriatic acid 43°, carbonic acid 32°.5, nitrous oxide 30°; and though some of these numbers are not in the exact order, and in other cases, as of olefiant gas and nitrous oxide, the curves sometimes even cross each other, these circumstances are easily accounted for by the facts already stated of irregular composition and the inevitable errors of first results. There seems every reason therefore to expect

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Rh that the increasing elasticity is directly as the volatility of the substance, and that by further and more correct observation of the forces, a general law may be deduced, by the aid of which, and only a single observation of the force of any vapour in contact with its fluid, its elasticity at any other temperature may be obtained.

Whether the same law may be expected to continue when the bodies approach near to the state is doubtful. That state comes on sooner in reference to the pressure required, according as the liquid is lighter and more expansible by heat and its vapour heavier, hence indeed the great reason for its facile assumption by ether. But though with ether, alcohol and water, that substance which is most volatile takes up this state with the lowest pressure, it does not follow that it should always be so; and in fact we know that ether takes up this state at a pressure between thirty-seven and thirty-eight atmospheres, whereas muriatic acid, nitrous oxide, carbonic acid and olefiant gas, which are far more volatile, sustain a higher pressure than this without assuming that peculiar state, and whilst their vapours and liquids are still considerably different from each other. Now whether the curve which expresses the elastic force of the vapour of a given fluid for increasing temperatures continues undisturbed after that fluid has passed the point or not is not known, and therefore it cannot well be anticipated whether the coming on of that state sooner or later with particular bodies will influence them in relation to the more general law referred to above.

The law already suggested gives great encouragement to the continuance of those efforts which are directed to the condensation of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, by the attainment and application of lower temperatures than those yet applied. If to reduce carbonic acid from

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68 the pressure of two atmospheres to that of one, we require to abstract only about half the number of degrees that is necessary to produce the same effect with sulphurous acid, it is to be expected that a far less abstraction will suffice to produce the same effect with nitrogen or hydrogen, so that further diminution of temperature and improved apparatus for pressure, may very well be expected to give us these bodies in the liquid or solid state.

Royal Institution, Feb. 19, 1845.

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text: The Liquefaction of Gases/On the Liquefaction and Solidification of Bodies Generally Existing as Gases


text: The Liquefaction of Gases/Note-Additional Remarks Respecting the Condensation of Gases