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100, though he sympathized with it. He walked on alone in his deep seriousness, of which she was not aware. Yet when he noticed her abandon, he drew her nearer, and his heart softened with protecting tenderness towards her, and grew heavy with responsibility.

The fields breathed off a scent as if they were come to life with the night, and were talking with fragrant eagerness. The farms huddled together in sleep, and pulled the dark shadow over them to hide from the supernatural white night; the cottages were locked and darkened. Helena walked on in triumph through this wondrous hinterland of night, actively searching for the spirits, watching the cottages they approached, listening, looking for the dreams of those sleeping inside, in the darkened rooms. She imagined she could see the frail dream-faces at the windows; she fancied they stole out timidly into the gardens, and went running away among the rabbits on the gleamy hillside. Helena laughed to herself, pleased with her fancy of wayward little dreams playing with weak hands and feet among the large, solemn-sleeping cattle. This was the first time, she told herself, that she had ever been out among the grey-frocked dreams and white-armed fairies. She imagined herself lying asleep in her room, while her own dreams slid out down the moon-beams. She imagined Siegmund sleeping in his room, while his dreams, dark-eyed, their blue eyes very dark and yearning at night-time, came wandering over the grey grass seeking her dreams.

So she wove her fancies as she walked, until for very weariness she was fain to remember that it was a long way—a long way. Siegmund’s arm was about her to


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Rh support her; she rested herself upon it. They crossed a stile and recognized, on the right of the path, the graveyard of the Catholic chapel. The moon, which the days were paring smaller with envious keen knife, shone upon the white stones in the burial-ground. The carved Christ upon his cross hung against a silver-grey sky. Helena looked up wearily, bowing to the tragedy. Siegmund also looked, and bowed his head.

“Thirty years of earnest love; three years’ life like a passionate ecstasy—and it was finished. He was very great and very wonderful. I am very insignificant, and shall go out ignobly. But we are the same; love, the brief ecstasy, and the end. But mine is one rose, and His all the white beauty in the world.”

Siegmund felt his heart very heavy, sad, and at fault, in presence of the Christ. Yet he derived comfort from the knowledge that life was treating him in the same manner as it had treated the Master, though his compared small and despicable with the Christ-tragedy. Siegmund stepped softly into the shadow of the pine copse.

“Let me get under cover,” he thought. “Let me hide in it; it is good, the sudden intense darkness. I am small and futile: my small, futile tragedy!”

Helena shrank in the darkness. It was almost terrible to her, and the silence was like a deep pit. She shrank to Siegmund. He drew her closer, leaning over her as they walked, trying to assure her. His heart was heavy, and heavy with a tenderness approaching grief, for his small, brave Helena.

“Are you sure this is the right way?” he whispered to her.

“Quite, quite sure,” she whispered confidently in

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102 reply. And presently they came out into the hazy moonlight, and began stumbling down the steep hill. They were both very tired, both found it difficult to go with ease or surety this sudden way down. Soon they were creeping cautiously across the pasture and the poultry farm. Helena’s heart was beating, as she imagined what a merry noise there would be should they wake all the fowls. She dreaded any commotion, any questioning, this night, so she stole carefully along till they issued on the highroad not far from home.


text: The Trespasser/Chapter 12

title: The Trespasser/Chapter 12


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/140

 the basis of Britannia-metal, small quantities of copper, lead, zinc or bismuth being added. It is a white metal of bluish tint and is malleable and ductile. For the linings of brasses, various white metals are used, these being alloys of copper, antimony and tin, and occasionally lead.

Antimony is a silvery white, crystalline, brittle metal, and has a high lustre. Its specific gravity varies from 6·7 to 6·86; it melts at 432° C. (Dalton), and boils between 1090-1600° C. (T. Carnelley), or above 1300° (V. Meyer). Its specific heat is 0·0523 (H. Kopp). The vapour density of antimony at 1572° C. is 10·74, and at 1640° C. 9·78 (V. Meyer, Berichte, 1889, 22, p. 725), so that the antimony molecule is less complex than the molecules of the elements phosphorus and arsenic. An amorphous modification of antimony can be prepared by heating the metal in a stream of nitrogen, when it condenses in the cool part of the apparatus as a grey powder of specific gravity 6·22, melting at 614° C. and containing 98-99% of antimony (F. Hérard, Comptes Rendus, 1888, cvii. 420).

Another form of the metal, known as explosive antimony, was discovered by G. Gore (Phil. Trans., 1858, p. 185; 1859, p. 797; 1862, p. 623), on electrolysing a solution of antimony trichloride in hydrochloric acid, using a positive pole of antimony and a negative pole of copper or platinum wire. It has a specific gravity of 5·78 and always contains some unaltered antimony trichloride (from 6 to 20%, G. Gore). It is very unstable, a scratch causing it instantaneously to pass into the stable form with explosive violence and the development of much heat. Similar phenomena are exhibited in the electrolysis of solutions of antimony tribromide and tri-iodide, the product obtained from the tribromide having a specific gravity of 5·4, and containing 18-20% of antimony tribromide, whilst that from the tri-iodide has a specific gravity of 5·2-5·8 and contains about 22% of hydriodic acid and antimony tri-iodide.

The atomic weight of antimony has been determined by the analysis of the chloride, bromide and iodide. J. P. Cooke (Proc. Amer. Acad., 1878, xiii. i) and J. Bongartz (Berichte, 1883, 16, p. 1942) obtained the value 120, whilst F. Pfeiffer (Ann. Chim. et Phys. ccix. 173) obtained the value 121 from the electrolysis of the chloride.

Pure antimony is quite permanent in air at ordinary temperatures, but when heated in air or oxygen it burns, forming the trioxide. It decomposes steam at a red heat, and burns (especially when finely powdered) in chlorine. Dilute hydrochloric acid is without action on it, but on warming with the concentrated acid, antimony trichloride is formed; it dissolves in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the sulphate Sb2(SO4)3 being formed. Nitric acid oxidizes antimony either to the trioxide Sb4O6 or the pentoxide Sb2O5, the product obtained depending on the temperature and concentration of the acid. It combines directly with sulphur and phosphorus, and is readily oxidized when heated with metallic oxides (such as litharge, mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide, &c.). Antimony and its salts may be readily detected by the orange precipitate of antimony sulphide which is produced when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through their acid solutions, and also by the Marsh test (see ); in this latter case the black stain produced is not soluble in bleaching powder solution. Antimony compounds when heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate in the reducing flame give brittle beads of metallic antimony, and a white incrustation of the oxide. The antimonious compounds are decomposed on addition of water, with formation of basic salts.

Antimony may be estimated quantitatively by conversion into the sulphide; the precipitate obtained is dried at 100° C. and heated in a current of carbon dioxide, or it may be converted into the tetroxide by nitric acid.

Antimony, like phosphorus and arsenic, combines directly with hydrogen. The compound formed, antimoniuretted hydrogen or stibine, SbH3, may also be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of antimony and zinc, or by the action of nascent hydrogen on antimony compounds. As prepared by these methods it contains a relatively large amount of hydrogen, from which it can be freed by passing through a tube immersed in liquid air, when it condenses to a white solid. It is a poisonous colourless gas, with a characteristic offensive smell. In its general behaviour it resembles arsine, burning with a violet flame and being decomposed by heat into its constituent elements. When passed into silver nitrate solution it gives a black precipitate of silver antimonide, SbAg3. It is decomposed by the halogen elements and also by sulphuretted hydrogen. All three hydrogen atoms are replaceable by organic radicals and the resulting compounds combine with compounds of the type RCl, RBr and RI to form stibonium compounds.

There are three known oxides of antimony, the trioxide Sb4O6 which is capable of combining with both acids and bases to form salts, the tetroxide Sb2O4 and the pentoxide Sb2O5. Antimony trioxide occurs as the minerals valentinite and senarmontite, and can be artificially prepared by burning antimony in air; by heating the metal in steam to a bright red heat; by oxidizing melted antimony with litharge; by decomposing antimony trichloride with an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, or by the action of dilute nitric acid on the metal. It is a white powder, almost insoluble in water, and when volatilized, condenses in two crystalline forms, either octahedral or prismatic. It is insoluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, but is readily soluble in hydrochloric and tartaric acids and in solutions of the caustic alkalies. On strongly heating in air it is converted into the tetroxide. The corresponding hydroxide, orthoantimonious acid, Sb(OH)3, can be obtained in a somewhat impure form by precipitating tartar emetic with dilute sulphuric acid; or better by decomposing antimonyl tartaric acid with sulphuric acid and drying the precipitated white powder at 100° C. Antimony tetroxide is formed by strongly heating either the trioxide or pentoxide. It is a nonvolatile white powder, and has a specific gravity of 6·6952; it is insoluble in water and almost so in acids—concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolving a small quantity. It is decomposed by a hot solution of potassium bitartrate. Antimony pentoxide is obtained by repeatedly evaporating antimony with nitric acid and heating the resulting antimonic acid to a temperature not above 275° C.; by heating antimony with red mercuric oxide until the mass becomes yellow (J. Berzelius); or by evaporating antimony trichloride to dryness with nitric acid. It is a pale yellow powder (of specific gravity 6·5), which on being heated strongly gives up oxygen and forms the tetroxide. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. It possesses a feeble acid character, giving metantimoniates when heated with alkaline carbonates.

Orthoantimonic acid, H3SbO4, is obtained by the decomposition of its potassium salt with nitric acid (A. Geuther); or by the addition of water to the pentachloride, the precipitate formed being dried over sulphuric acid (P. Conrad, Chem. News, 1879, xl. 198). It is a white powder almost insoluble in water and nitric acid, and when heated, is first converted into metantimonic acid, HSbO3, and then into the pentoxide Sb2O5. Pyroantimonic acid, H4Sb2O7 (the metantimonic acid of E. Frémy), is obtained by decomposing antimony pentachloride with hot water, and drying the precipitate so obtained at 100° C. It is a white powder which is more soluble in water and acids than orthoantimonic acid. It forms two series of salts, of the types M2H2Sb2O7 and M4Sb2O7. Metantimonic acid, HSbO3, can be obtained by heating orthoantimonic acid to 175° C., or by long fusion of antimony with antimony sulphide and nitre. The fused mass is extracted with water, nitric acid is added to the solution, and the precipitate obtained washed with water (J. Berzelius). It is a white powder almost insoluble in water. On standing with water for some time it is slowly converted into the ortho-acid.

Compounds of antimony with all the halogen elements are known, one atom of the metal combining with three or five atoms of the halogen, except in the case of bromine, where only the tribromide is known. The majority of these halide compounds are decomposed by water, with the formation of basic salts. Antimony trichloride (“Butter of Antimony”), SbCl3, is obtained by burning the metal in chlorine; by distilling antimony with excess of mercuric chloride; and by fractional distillation of antimony tetroxide or trisulphide in hydrochloric acid solution. It is a colourless deliquescent solid of specific gravity 3·06; it melts at 73·2° C. (H. Kopp) to a colourless oil; and boils at 223° (H. Capitaine). It is soluble in alcohol and in carbon bisulphide, and also in a small quantity of water; but with an excess of water it gives a precipitate of various oxychlorides, known as (q.v.). These precipitated oxychlorides on continued boiling with water lose all their chlorine and ultimately give a residue of antimony trioxide. It combines with chlorides of the alkali metals to form double salts, and also with barium, calcium, strontium, and magnesium chlorides. Antimony pentachloride, SbCl5 is prepared by heating the trichloride in a current of chlorine. It is a nearly colourless fuming liquid of unpleasant smell, which can be solidified to a mass of crystals melting at −6°C. It dissociates into the trichloride and chlorine when heated. It combines with water, forming the hydrates SbCl5·H2O and SbCl5·4H2O; it also combines with phosphorus oxychloride, hydrocyanic acid, and cyanogen chloride. In chloroform solution it combines with anhydrous oxalic

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text:
Page:Scientific American - Series 1 - Volume 014 - Issue 05.pdf/1

 Scientific American.

THE ADVOCATE OF INDUSTRY,AND JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC, MECHANICAL AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS.

VOL. XIV. NE,V YOHK, TIlE

OF

IN D USTH Y,

each

SCI E N T I F I C A I E HI CAN, At o. 128 Fulton street. (Sun Buildings,). BY JIL'NN & CO. punLlSHED WEEKLY

KINGSLAND'S PULP ENGINE.

O. D. ::lUY, S. H. ,V ALES, A. E. BEACH.

Re!,pou!ble AI!I?-DU lllHV :tho b fonnd in all the principal cities and towns of the Luitell States. S!tmpson J.r!w :-Ion & Co the Americnn Bookflellcrs, t fv11'i:ilf/f:s(IItt8 Single copies of the paper aTe on 8aIQ at the office of })ublication. and at all the periodical storea in this city Brooklyn and J etoey City. TERMS-Two Dollars per annum.-One Doll... in' advance, and the remainder in six months. on last puge. No Traveling A Jl:d:ectuB =-====. --- ---.

.

N(w

York,

p' .!7!j.. 1

have been, ar:d are, the t hougs of man, from the e arlie t ages to Great and giga n tic necessary then which are for the

Paper and Paper-:U"king.

t o - day; and as each true thinker has ideas

widely diffused, and securely transmitted to ..fT' 'j posterity, so th at the w orld shall be gro wing - if/-happier and wiser every day, by the posse ssion of the knowledge of the past, and the science of the present. All the peop le of the earth h av e felt this, and thus with some it was the cu stom for the orators and priests to pro uounce in public pl a ces the great thoughts of the great men, in order that they should ever The Egyptians, who had be remembered. .rIore kll o l�.'le dge than any othe r Rm�icnt ruce,, kuew th e value of recordbg f"dS, 1I1ld made l thin a n d flexible material of the PUi':;i'IlJ obtain is, that there are about 750 )JuI",r mi1l3 from which our word ,; p"per" is deriv e d- and in the Uni ted States, the average p roduc t i on Oil it in s c ri bed, by symbolic pictures, their b ein g about One tu n per day. As, le llrning and IIIws. This kind of writing is of each however, more than three-quurters of them c'Ll led "hieroglyphic," from two Greek wonlo, e d by w ater power, which IS only sig nify i ng the w ri t i ng of the priest, because are work eight months in the year, the in those days the prie s ts WCl'C the scribes of available for tion will b e about 220,000 the nation, and to them was left the re cording total annuILI pro du which we import lIbout two milof thll great deeds of t he heroes, lind extulling t uns, besides l y from France and Engthe virtues of the k i ngs. The intensely prac lion pounds ann ual

i de as, sugg estive or retrospeqtive, should be

does it become that theee

good of his sp ecies,

end, so that the y clln move around it., and a stream of clean w at er is constantly The rags are thrown p assing thr o ugh it. against a wire gauze screen, 50 t!lat the water p a sse s through and the rags remain behind, and the y arc moved fUl"ward by a cylinder that has a Berie,; of knives on its p e r ip h ery, wlJich cut thelli up, a n d force them around Thi s is called a "washing to the washcrs. engine." The dir ty water i s removed by a rotating st r ainer, of h e xagonal or o c tag onal sha pe, havi ng a wire gauze s urface, that rubs them, lind the dirty water p lls s e s thro ugh iti c enter to a s hute, by w hic h it is conve:,6d Whcn thorough ly waohcd, the rags away. lime.

are mixed with a clellr solution of chloride of in."

how

adued, und if the paper is to be colored, the stufr" is p a ss e d

T he s e pl"ocesses are ca lled "breaking stllY twenty-four hours in con tact '" iLh th e chloridQ of l im e in tanke, and when thi, hai; beea druiud off it is cal led ". !Jalt' btuff." All tIle bleaching is now washed out in a maebil1e ,Eiimilal' to a "washing engino," and the b l uein g ( ul tr a mllrine), sizing, und alum The rags

with

sc rape off a n y dirt or mud th at may

with t his they cut the rags into strip 3, and

11

shurp

knife projecting from it, aud

their surface. straw

conveyed to

a

cutters,

The threaded bol ts, V, passed thro ugh lugs, is p llper made? Through the This D, bring up the back p la t e, 0, wliiln F form of Mess rs. J. & R. Kingsland, of all th e dust out and tears them again. sisted of sixteen. Cadm n s, the builder of enabled to g ive an I m u"h ine is not unlike mllny smut m achines, gu ides for E. B e twe e n 0 1I1ld Q a p late, P, Theb es, carried the invention into Greece Franklin, N. J., we are account of the pro c e ss e s, having i nspected b eing an horizontal drum s lig htly conical, is pl ace d ; it hlls steel teeth, find is ro t llted ab out 1400 B. C.. and from thence they of learning how with a spiked beatcr revolving in it; thi s, rapidly bet ween them by :1 shnft and belt. travele d over the whole w orl d, and thus in their mill for the purpose p aper is really mad e . Eve ry one knows that however, tears, while the smut mach ine ouly This .,h aft works in jo urnals, and has no c' .1tillie every nation had its written, as well as l and ru bs. In mills where coarser varieties of Pll ],trs, so thllt it CRn ttd j ust its el f to the vary its spok en lang u aze . ow arose a great it is made from rags, co Uan, or iIlCII, about these rags there are some c urio u s par- per are made, the spiked duster is represented ing d ist a nce s betweeu the outer plate", and necessity for a material on which to impress are imported by a machine c all ed "the devil," from the the different texture of th" .tcd and Cll>t iron these characters, that words might be formed ticulars. Thus the rags which from Leghorn in Italy (lIe ganer,dly very fero cio u s style ill which it tears up 1111 sub teeth insures thu perfect workin g order of ILo by the combination of letters, and thus whole ' The pulp, when groun d, pa,,", stan c es placed within range of its teeth. The mach in e. sentences would be indelibly fixed. Papyrus dirty, and well worn; and from a bale of th em it is as tonishing how o:,e can obtaiu in- d us t which flie s from the duster, as it con th rongh a pipe, I, in a continuous strcl111J in would n ot supply the dem and, so the skins of s ; tains some fiber, is sold to other paper makers, to the intermediate r eceiv er , H, and from that animals were next c all ed into requisition, and formation of the c ustoms of the w earer who pro duce from it the paper of which boxes through a s hute, J, o ver a strainer, K, to a 'parchment was used, then cotton and linen pa thus, for e xample , it is only d ur i ng the last One pound of the best r ugs will " stuff chest," in lilly convenient lo""tion. corsets have been found among these are made. per was invented. In some times and places the few years In our illustrations Fig. 1 is a per>pective make thre e - qUar t ers of a pound of paper; skius of fishes and the back of tortoises have rags, so it is safe to aSsume that the p easant women of Italy have only latel'y "'ttl'n tho<3 some rags will only make half their weight of vie w, Fig. 2 a back vie w, Fig. 3 " "'rtical been written upon. Nearly all kinds of leaves paper . cross s e c tio n, and Fig. ! a front vie IV of the have thus been made useful, and on this con "particular vanitie3." L egho rn rags.are wor th The torn and dusted rags are next boile d plate, 0, of the engine. from 7 to 7t cent8 per pound . We also saw tinent the Aborigine s expressed their i de as by This is a decided improvement ovu' the old be- in l arg e boilers with lime and soda ash, in hieroglyphics inscribed on bark. The Chinese SODle r ags which h ad been picked ul'ft-om work wi t h fore Sevastopol.,..-tents and c lo t hing. Strange varying propor tio ns, accordin g to the s ta t e of " beating engiue," doing better have made and used excellent paper from time The trap- rags, and other conditions. A false bottom is less attention and power, and its p erform ance mu t ations, but happy change! immemorial. The inventor and about ten cwt. of and delivery is centinuous. d i At the present time, when not only good ping> of hvrri d wlIr at last come to lin Ameri- place n the boiler, rags with lime and soda ash pile d o n it until states thi14 one of these engines of 30 inches th oughts, but every thought and deed is re call paper mill, and are. made into newspapers of doin g as m u ch work -the heralds of pe ll c e-il nd books and maps the boiler is quite full, the li.d is then placed in diameter is capable

tical Phumicians, the Yankees of tho olden

Illnd.

time, invented letters, and their

alphau et Con

kiudne s s

But how

strip, lind the next cutter cuts them trans that they leave the cutters in small pieces. These small bits are c arried by an en d l ess balld to a sp iked du s te r, which ueats v e rs ely, so

straighter; the

this r oom the strips lire series of cutters not u nlike vnly that the knive s lire tir,t one cuta them iuto shorter Frolll

be

on

from this into a cdern, where it is kept in motion by Ull agilator, and frolll tilb, in 11lo)t milh, it is carried to u. "beating ellgiuc," which make. ")Julp" of the " half bltdf" ill flOll! lour to twelve Lour,; but ut Iesbrs. King.land's it i:; elevated by eleva tor.s f'.nd passed through a pIlIp engine, the rlln-cHciuu of J:03C'pli �Kmblp,li.J, u"r., and put. cnted by !Jim December 16[h "nd :!3d, 1::;:Jti. It is fully represented in the acc01l1!",,,ying illustration. The " half staff" descends th e pi I,e, 13, Fig. 1, lind passes into 11 circular chlHb"r, the sides of which are formed of two plates, � Q, provided wi th cast iron teeth; these arc stll tion ary, and call be brought clo"er together

col oring matter is here introduced. The "half

I

or plllced further a par t by the handle and stuff" into pulp of tho d esir ed leng th of fiber.

ge ari ng.

G ACE,

so as to grind the " h alf

corded, when nearly every one can write and

tion among mankind, the amo un t of p aper

as books or lIewspapers, waiti ng for distribu used must be imme nse ; add to these the finer used to

read, when printed information lies in heaps,

-the diffus ers of knowledge.

Iy take l ess labor in th e first process, which is them into colored and white, linen alld cot ton, The bales are cut open, and the rags conveyand they enter the factory in separ ate bal es. " dressing. " The rag pic ker or collector sorts

when they arr ive at the mill, and conse quent-

Domestic rags are least worn and c lea n e s t

eighteen hours, when the fali e bottom is lifted process softens the rags and lo osens the dirt, out, and the rags with it. The lime in this

on, and steam admitted for from twelve to

>J'l

) the

'0'

(

lsi

paper used for

-� 1858 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC.

wri t i ug, and the coarser paper elhelop parcels, and the q uan tity s well., almost beyu"d conception. It ; .; 'cry d lfncult tv "btain statisti cs con cerning the paper tra de in this country, and only informa tion we have been able to

in the fabric, makes a soap, which enables the dirt to be more easily washed out. The next proces is that of washing and

and the soda ash c ombiuin g with the grealle

furnish one that will suitable for siz ed or water leaf, white or colored, coarse or fine paper, at half the first cost, and requirin g one-third less power for the Sam e quantit y of beat clearer

J. & R. Kingsland

as four of the ordinary engines, w i th rolls 28 inches in diameter and 30 inch e s face. Messrs. and better pulp, can

ber of females,

ed to the" dressing " room. each s tandi ng before a table

Here are a num-

divided down the center, with an opening at

bleaching.

T he rags are placeti in long tubs

work-as an ordinary one. dre ss ed as above.

They may be ad

The" stuff chest" is a large wo oden

cis t er n


text:
Page:War and Other Essays.djvu/21

 X

I would rather correct my own mistakes than have other people do it for me." In view of these circmnstances it is natural that the shorter writings and lectures of Professor Sumner should have been more characteristic of him than are most of his books — how- ever weighty the latter in theb scholarship and however highly esteemed by his colleagues in the social sciences. The most characteristic of all his activities was his teaching, for this was his absorbing interest; but next to that, I think, come his occasional essays — with which I should class the two little volumes on Protectionism and What Social Claases Owe to Each Other. Sumner had time for essays where he was sure to be hurried on his books; his consecutive leisure came in small fragments. And he could improve such shorter periods with great success, for he was remarkably rapid in his composition; his ideas were in order from his much teaching, and he could go ahead, he once told me, as fast as he could drive the pen. These are the main reasons why Sumner's essays form a more spontaneous, characteristic, and finished product than his longer writings; and so he has been known, if not to scholars, at any rate to the general public, better through them than through his books. No one who has the interests of American education at heart can regret that Sumner's fidelity to duty prevented him from writing more — or even from completing what he had begun. His enduring output is the human document, the awakened minds of many young men, which is a product that can only roll up in significance as time passes, and is incapable of being antedated or superseded. It was the influence of a mind and character that could not harbor the small and mean which made Simmer such a power in his world. This was true through- out his career, and neither the force of his intellect nor that of his character ever deserted him, even in the shadow of the end. It is the Sumner of the later years whom the present writer knew; and I have been asked, as a close associate and co-worker, to afford his friends and admirers some idea of his activities, and of the man himself, particularly in this his latter

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Rh phase. I am aware that, in these days, so soon after his death, anything that I may write of him is sure to betray a persona] feeling for the man, one which grew ever stronger as I knew him better.

Of Sumner's labors one might say in general that they were as unremitting as strength would allow, whereas before his illness of the early nineties they had been virtually incessant. There seems to have been in this man such intellectual eagerness, such a very mania for discovering the truth, coupled with so strong a power of will, that he wore out a robust physique untimely — for with his vigorous frame and sound constitution he might well have lived out the life of a Humboldt. As it was. Professor Sumner retained his large elective courses and ruled them with iron discipline, up to a few years before his retirement; and to the very end of his active service he remained an incomparable leader in the college faculty. We younger men are told that at a crisis the leadership has been wont to creep into his hand as by some inherent urge; he hit about him rather regardlessly in the preliminary skirmishes, but as others grew hot he grew cool and took command of the situation. One who seeks to account for what Yale College has become, and who realizes that such an institution is not built of bricks and stones, but of men, cannot leave out of reckoning the often determinative influence wielded for nearly forty years by Professor Sumner. He did not fumble about in the mazes of compromise, and he was unafraid. Even during the last years of his life he never lost his characteristic power of cutting straight to the core of an issue; nor, indeed, was he deprived, until the latest days, of his joy in battle. He remained, as he had been in his prime, the redoubtable debater, confronting opposition with a combination of manner, matter, and method with which few ever successfully coped. But the fight, though Homeric in its tactics, was always fair; Sumner took his wounds in front, and as one observer remarked, always shouted, "Look out! I'm com-

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Page:War and Other Essays.djvu/23

xii ing for you!" before he charged. The greatest immediate loss involved in Professor Sumner's retirement and death, excluding the bereavement of those who loved him, is that sustained by the faculty of Yale College. It is no derogation to anybody to say that he was sui generis and can have no successor. What the larger Yale College thought of him was finely expressed in the demonstration of June, 1909, when Yale accorded him the doctorate of laws — when fathers and sons united in applauding the great teacher of two generations. This affected him, as he admitted, to tears; and during the succeeding summer he received many letters expressive of gratitude and affection, which made him feel, as he told me, that the world was using him well.

But whatever may be said of his intellectual qualities, yet the most attractive and the grandest aspect of Sumner's latter years was that, not of his mind, but of his character. He was a Roman soul among us; he lived before his students and colleagues as the embodiment of honesty and fearlessness. Duty always preceded all else with him; the memory of his performance of what some would call hackwork, even when he was ill, would have been pathetic if it had not been done with such unconsciousness and simple dignity. Until the aid he would not ask for was almost forced upon him, be used to grade between three hundred and five hundred test papers every week. He was to the end the uncompromising foe of hypocrisy, sham, ostentation, and weak sentiment — which last he curtly denominated "gush." Further, he was in character a humble man. He seemed at all times positive and even intellectually arrogant, but his personal opinion of his own services and work was entirely self-depreciatory. In personal relations he was unassuming, helpful, excessively grateful for small services rendered, but beset by the fear that he would cause anybody else some trouble. In many respects his character was strangely like that of Charles Darwin. He was ready at all times with kindly counsel and sympathy — and the counsel was that of deep wisdom and the sympathy that of a warm heart. I have somewhat enlarged

title: Page:War and Other Essays.djvu/23


text: Page:All the Year Round - Series 3 - Volume 1.pdf/1


text:
Author:Kirsten Weinoldt

Translations of lyrics by Noel Rosa

 * For the Tenth Time (1935)
 * In the Form of a Prayer (1933)
 * Last Wish (1937)
 * My Shack
 * Spell of the Vila (1936))
 * Three Whistles (1933)
 * Unhappy Thought (1935)
 * Yellow Ribbon (1932)

title: Author:Kirsten Weinoldt


text: Page:All the Year Round - Series 3 - Volume 1.pdf/2


text:
War (Coates, "In the beginning was I born")

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1900), "War" in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine (April 1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1904), "War" in Mine and Thine (1904).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "War" in Poems I.


text:
War (Coates, "The serpent-horror writhing in her hair")

 * Coates, Florence Earle (1900), "War" in The Athenaeum (8 August 1914).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1900), "War" in The Living Age (3 October 1914).
 * Coates, Florence Earle (1916), "War" in Poems II.


text:
Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/495

325

1. To the draft-oxen ⌊do thou⌋ first, to the milch kine ⌊do thou⌋, O arundhatī́, to the non-milch cow, in order to vigor (váyas), to four-footed creatures do thou yield protection.

2. Let the herb, the arundhatī́, allied with the gods (?), yield protection; may it make the cow-stall rich in milk, and the men (púruṣa) free from disease (yákṣma).

3. I appeal to the all-formed, well-portioned, vivifying one; let it conduct the hurled missile of Rudra far away from our kine.

1. Here cometh Aryaman, with locks ⌊-stupá⌋ loosened in front, seeking a husband for this spinster, and a wife for a wifeless one.

Ppp. reads in b viṣatastugaḥ (i.e. viṣitastukaḥ). Our edition has -srupaḥ, the manuscript distinction of sru and stu being always doubtful, and the majority of the authorities here giving as plainly sru as it is possible to give it. The comm. explains viṣita- as viçeṣeṇa sito baddhaḥ, and as used of the "rays" (stupa-) of the sun (aryaman) in the east (purastāt). Aryaman is perhaps properly rendered here by 'suitor, match-maker' ('Brautwerber,' Weber, Grill); but doubtless at any rate the address implies an identification of such a functionary with the god Aryaman. The

title: Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/495


text:
Author talk:Robert Redpath McLean

Death
Name: 	Robert Redpath McLean Gender: 	Male Birth Date: 	8 Mar 1875 Birth Place: 	California Death Date: 	28 Sep 1941 Death Place: 	San Diego Mother's Maiden Name: 	Gilbert Father's Surname: 	McLean

US census

 * 1940 and 1930 both show Robert R. McLean in San Diego county, and as County Commissioner.

World War I Draft Registration Cards
Name: 	Robert Redpath McLean City: 	San Diego County: 	San Diego State: 	California Birth Date: 	7 Mar 1875 Race: 	White Draft Board: 	1
 * Source Citation: Registration State: California; Registration County: San Diego; Roll: 1543649; Draft Board: 1.

title: Author talk:Robert Redpath McLean


text:
Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/496

vi. 60-  in b, vísita॰stupaḥ, is quoted under Prāt. iv. 77. In c, asyā́ ichán is the chosen example in the Prāt. commentary (under ii. 21 et al.) of the saṁdhi it illustrates, although the meter shows that the irregular combination asye ’chan requires to be made, and the Anukr. apparently winks at it. Ppp. has the corrupt reading sa vāi chāyad ag- ⌊intending sa vāi ’ched?⌋. ⌊Correct the ed. to -stupaḥ.⌋

2. This woman, O Aryaman, hath toiled, going to other women's assembly; now, O Aryaman, shall another woman come to her assembly.

3. The creator (dhātár) sustains the earth; the creator [sustains] the sky and the sun; let the creator assign (dhā) to this spinster a husband that is according to her wish.

1. To me let the waters send what has sweetness; to me the sun brought [it] in order to light; to me the gods, and all those born of penance—to me let god Savitar assign expansion ⌊vyácas⌋.

2. I expanded (?) earth and heaven, I generated the seasons, seven together; I speak true what is untrue; I encompass (pári) divine speech and people (víças).

For the doubtful viveca in a, Ppp. has dadhāra, and K. astabhnām. Some of the mss. read ajanayan in b (also in 3 b); K. has ajanam (if the reading is correct); Ppp. substitutes sindhūn sasṛje (for ṛtūṅr aj-). The second half-verse in K. is quite different: ahaṁ vācam pari sarvām babhūva ya indrāgni asanaṁ sakhāyāu (the last pāda is parallel with our 3 d). The sense of c is obscure, and the rendering given only tentative; it implies vadāmi instead of vádāmi: perhaps, 'I declare what [is] true [and

title: Page:Atharva-Veda samhita.djvu/496


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 59

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 59


text: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 60

title: Atharva-Veda Samhita/Book VI/Hymn 60


text:
Author talk:Adriaan Joseph van Rossem

Biographical sources

 * Adriaan Joseph van Rossem article on French Wikipedia. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 23:52, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Author talk:Adriaan Joseph van Rossem


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/141

 acid to form a compound, Sb2Cl8(C2O4), which is to be considered as tetra-chlorstibonium oxalate (R. Anschütz and Evans, Annalen, 1887, ccxxxix. 235). Antimonyl chloride, SbOCl, is produced by the decomposition of one part of the trichloride with four parts of water. Prepared in this way it contains a small quantity of the unaltered chloride, which can be removed by ether or carbon bisulphide. It is a white powder insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. On heating, it is converted into the oxychloride Sb4O5Cl2 (Sb2O3·SbOCl). Antimony oxychloride, SbOCl3, is formed by addition of the calculated quantity of water to ice-cooled antimony pentachloride, SbCl5 + H2O = SbOCl3 + 2HCl. It forms a yellowish crystalline precipitate which in moist air goes to a thick liquid. Compounds of composition, SbOCl3·2SbCl5 and SbO2Cl·2SbOCl3, have also been described (W. C. Williams, Chem. News. 1871, xxiv. 234).

Antimony tribromide, SbBr3, and tri-iodide, SbI3, may be prepared by the action of antimony on solutions of bromine or iodine in carbon bisulphide. The tribromide is a colourless crystalline mass of specific gravity 4·148 (23°), melting at 90° to 94° C. and boiling at 275·4° C. (H. Kopp). The tri-iodide forms red-coloured crystals of specific gravity 4·848 (26°), melting at 165° to 167° C. and boiling at 401° C. By the action of water they give oxybromides and oxyiodides SbOBr, Sb4O5Br2, SbOI. Antimony penta-iodide, SbI5, is formed by heating antimony with excess of iodine, in a sealed tube, to a temperature not above 130°C. It forms a dark brown crystalline mass, melting at 78° to 79° C., and is easily dissociated on heating. Antimony trifluoride, SbF3, is obtained by dissolving the trioxide in aqueous hydrofluoric acid or by distilling antimony with mercuric fluoride. By rapid evaporation of its solution it may be obtained in small prisms. The pentafluoride SbF5 results when metantimonic acid is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, and the solution is evaporated. It forms an amorphous gummy mass, which is decomposed by heat. Oxyfluorides of composition SbOF and SbOF3 are known.

Two sulphides of antimony are definitely known, the trisulphide Sb2S3 and the pentasulphide Sb2S5; a third, the tetrasulphide Sb2S4, has also been described, but its existence is doubtful. Antimony trisulphide, Sb2S3, occurs as the mineral antimonite or stibnite, from which the commercial product is obtained by a process of liquation. The amorphous variety may be obtained from the crystalline form by dissolving it in caustic potash or soda or in solutions of alkaline sulphides, and precipitating the hot solution by dilute sulphuric acid. The precipitate is then washed with water and dried at 100° C., by which treatment it is obtained in the anhydrous form. On precipitating antimony trichloride or tartar emetic in acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange-red precipitate of the hydrated sulphide is obtained, which turns black on being heated to 200° C The trisulphide heated in a current of hydrogen is reduced to the metallic state; it burns in air forming the tetroxide, and is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, in solutions of the caustic alkalis, and in alkaline sulphides. By the union of antimony trisulphide with basic sulphides, livers of antimony are obtained. These substances are usually prepared by fusing their components together, and are dark powders which are less soluble in water the more antimony they contain. These thioantimonites are used in the vulcanizing of rubber and in the preparation of matches. Antimony pentasulphide, Sb2S5, is prepared by precipitating a solution of the pentachloride with sulphuretted hydrogen, by decomposing (q.v.) with an acid, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into water containing antimonic acid. It forms a fine dark orange powder, insoluble in water, but readily soluble in aqueous solutions of the caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates. On heating in absence of air, it decomposes into the trisulphide and sulphur.

An antimony phosphide and arsenide are known, as is also a thiophosphate, SbPS4, which is prepared by heating together antimony trichloride and phosphorus pentasulphide.

Many organic compounds containing antimony are known. By distilling an alloy of antimony and sodium with mythyl iodide, mixed with sand, trimethyl stibine, Sb(CH3)3, is obtained; this combines with excess of methyl iodide to form tetramethyl stibonium iodide, Sb(CH3)4I. From this iodide the trimethyl stibine may be obtained by distillation with an alloy of potassium and antimony in a current of carbon dioxide. It is a colourless liquid, slightly soluble in water, and is spontaneously inflammable. The stibonium iodide on treatment with moist silver oxide gives the corresponding tetramethyl stibonium hydroxide, Sb(CH3)4OH, which forms deliquescent crystals, of alkaline reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide readily. On distilling trimethyl stibine with zinc methyl, antimony tetra-methyl and penta-methyl are formed. Corresponding antimony compounds containing the ethyl group are known, as is also a tri-phenyl stibine, Sb(C6H5)3, which is prepared from antimony trichloride, sodium and monochlorbenzene. See Chung Yu Wang, Antimony (1909).

Antimony in Medicine.—So far back as Basil Valentine and Paracelsus, antimonial preparations were in great vogue as medicinal agents, and came to be so much abused that a prohibition was placed upon their employment by the Paris parlement in 1566. Metallic antimony was utilized to make goblets in which wine was allowed to stand so as to acquire emetic properties, and “everlasting” pills of the metal, supposed to act by contact merely, were administered and recovered for future use after they had fulfilled their purpose. Antimony compounds act as irritants both externally and internally. Tartar emetic (antimony tartrate) when swallowed, acts directly on the wall of the stomach, producing vomiting, and after absorption continues this effect by its action on the medulla. It is a powerful cardiac depressant, diminishing both the force and frequency of the heart’s beat. It depresses respiration, and in large doses lowers temperature. It depresses the nervous system, especially the spinal cord. It is excreted by all the secretions and excretions of the body. Thus as it passes out by the bronchial mucous membrane it increases the amount of secretion and so acts as an expectorant. On the skin its action is that of a diaphoretic, and being also excreted by the bile it acts slightly as a cholagogue. Summed up, its action is that of an irritant, and a cardiac and nervous depressant. But on account of this depressant action it is to be avoided for women and children and rarely used for men.

Toxicology.—Antimony is one of the “protoplasmic” poisons, directly lethal to all living matter. In acute poisoning by it the symptoms are almost identical with those of arsenical poisoning, which is much commoner (See ). The post-mortem appearances are also very similar, but the gastro-intestinal irritation is much less marked and inflammation of the lungs is more commonly seen. If the patient is not already vomiting freely the treatment is to use the stomach-pump, or give sulphate of zinc (gr. 10–30) by the mouth or apomorphine (gr. –) subcutaneously. Frequent doses of a teaspoonful of tannin dissolved in water should be administered, together with strong tea and coffee and mucilaginous fluids. Stimulants may be given subcutaneously, and the patient should be placed in bed between warm blankets with hot-water bottles. Chronic poisoning by antimony is very rare, but resembles in essentials chronic poisoning by arsenic. In its medico-legal aspects antimonial poisoning is of little and lessening importance. ANTINOMIANS (Gr. , against,  , law), a term apparently coined by Luther to stigmatize (q.v.) and his following, indicating an interpretation of the antithesis between law and gospel, recurrent from the earliest times. Christians being released, in important particulars, from conformity to the Old Testament polity as a whole, a real difficulty attended the settlement of the limits and the immediate authority of the remainder, known vaguely as the moral law. Indications are not wanting that St Paul’s doctrine of justification by faith was, in his own day, mistaken or perverted in the interests of immoral licence. Gnostic sects approached the question in two ways. Marcionites, named by Clement of Alexandria Antitactae (revolters against the Demiurge) held the Old Testament economy to be throughout tainted by its source; but they are not accused of licentiousness. Manichaeans, again, holding their spiritual being to be unaffected by the action of matter, regarded carnal sins as being, at worst, forms of bodily disease. Kindred to this latter view was the position of sundry sects of English fanatics during the Commonwealth, who denied that an elect person sinned, even when committing acts in themselves gross and evil. Different from either of these was the Antinomianism charged by Luther against Agricola. Its starting-point was a dispute with Melanchthon in 1527 as to the relation between repentance and faith. Melanchthon urged that repentance must precede faith, and that knowledge of the moral law is needed to produce repentance. Agricola gave the initial place to faith, maintaining that repentance is the work, not of law, but of the gospel-given knowledge of the love of God. The resulting Antinomian controversy (the only one within the Lutheran body in Luther’s lifetime) is not remarkable for the precision or the moderation of the combatants on either side. Agricola was apparently satisfied in conference with Luther and Melanchthon at Torgau, December 1527. His eighteen Positiones of 1537 revived the

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/141


text:
Author talk:Laurence Bedford Potter

Biographical sources
Obituary in The Auk (Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1944), page 341. PDF cover and table of contents here. PDF extract of obituaries here, HTML extract of obituaries here. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 00:07, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Author talk:Laurence Bedford Potter


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antimony

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antimony


text:
Author talk:Ralph Todd Kellogg

Biographical sources
First name and address from 1924 Directory of Members of the Cooper Ornithological Club (PDF) held by e-library of the University of New Mexico. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 00:30, 22 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Middle name and birth/death years from Find a Grave, matched to the ornithologist by Google search results, although source page inaccessible. His collection of birds now appears to be kept by the Cincinnati Museum Center. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 00:43, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Author talk:Ralph Todd Kellogg


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part II.djvu/63

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive II. B.

Among the more frequently cited misapprehensions concerning U.S. policy in Vietnam is the view that the Eisenhower Administration flatly rejected intervention in the First Indochina War. The record shows plainly that the U.S. did seriously consider intervention,, and advocated it to the U.K. and other allies. With the intensification of the French–Viet Minh war and the deterioration of the French military position, the United States was forced to take a position on: first, a possible U.S. military intervention in order to avert a Viet Minh victory; second, the increasingly likely contingency of negotiations between Paris and Ho Chi Minh to end the war through a political settlement. In order to avoid a French sell-out, and as an alternative to unilateral U.S. intervention, the U.S. proposed in 1954 to broaden the war by involving a number of allies in a collective defense effort through "united action."

The U.S. Government internal debate on the question of intervention centered essentially on the desirability and feasibility of U.S. military action. Indochina's importance to U.S. security interests in the Far East was taken for granted. The Eisenhower Administration followed in general terms the rationale for American interest in Indochina that was expressed by the Truman Administration. With respect to intervention, the Truman Administration's NSC 124 of February 1952 recognized that the U.S. might be forced to take some military action in order to prevent the subversion of Southeast Asia. In late 1953 – early 1954, as the fall of Indochina seemed imminent, the question of intervention came to the fore. The Defense Department pressed for a determination by highest authority of the size and nature of the forces the U.S. was willing to commit in Indochina. Some in DOD questioned the then operating assumption that U.S. air and naval forces would suffice as aid for the French. The Army was particularly concerned about contingency planning that assumed that U.S. air and naval action alone could bring military victory, and argued for realistic estimates of requisite land forces, including the degree of mobilization that would be necessary. The State Department thought that Indochina was so critical from a foreign policy viewpoint that intervention might be necessary. But DOD and the JCS, estimating that air-naval action alone could not stem the surging Viet Minh, recommended that rather than intervening directly, the U.S. should concentrate on urging Paris to train an expanded indigenous army, and should exert all possible pressures — in Europe as well as in Asia — to motivate the French to fight hard for a military victory. Many in the U.S. Government (the Ridgway Report stands out in this group) were wary that U.S. intervention might provoke Chinese Communist intervention. In the latter case, even a considerable U.S. deployment of ground forces would not be able to stem the tide in Indochina. A number of special high-level studies were unable to bridge the evident disparity between those who Rh

title: Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part II.djvu/63


text: Portal:Aaron

title: Portal:Aaron


text:
Author:Amos

Works

 * Book of Amos (attributed)

Works about Amos

 * "Amos," in A Dictionary of the Book of Mormon, by George Reynolds

title: Author:Amos


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/142

 controversy and made it acute. Random as are some of his statements, he was consistent in two objects: (1) in the interest of solifidian doctrine, to place the rejection of the Catholic doctrine of good works on a sure ground; (2) in the interest of the New Testament, to find all needful guidance for Christian duty in its principles, if not in its precepts. From the latter part of the 17th century charges of Antinomianism have frequently been directed against Calvinists, on the ground of their disparagement of “deadly doing” and of “legal preaching.” The virulent controversy between Arminian and Calvinistic Methodists produced as its ablest outcome Fletcher’s Checks to Antinomianism (1771–1775).

ANTINOMY (Gr. , against,  , law), literally, the mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Kant, who used it to describe the contradictory results of applying to the universe of pure thought the categories or criteria proper to the universe of sensible perception (phenomena). These antinomies are four—two mathematical, two dynamical—connected with (1) the limitation of the universe in respect of space and time, (2) the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist), (3) the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality, (4) the existence of a universal being—about each of which pure reason contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis. Kant claimed to solve these contradictions by saying, that in no case is the contradiction real, however really it has been intended by the opposing partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment. It is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational cosmology is possible.

ANTINOÜS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied on his journeys. He committed suicide by drowning himself in the Nile ( 130), either in a fit of melancholy or in order to prolong his patron’s life by his voluntary sacrifice. After his death, Hadrian caused the most extravagant respect to be paid to his memory. Not only were cities called after him, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all parts of the empire, but he was raised to the rank of the gods, temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. The city of Antinoöpolis was founded on the ruins of Besa where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11; Spartianus, Hadrian). A number of statues, busts, gems and coins represented Antinoüs as the ideal type of youthful beauty, often with the attributes of some special god. We still possess a colossal bust in the Vatican, a bust in the Louvre, a bas-relief from the Villa Albani, a statue in the Capitoline museum, another in Berlin, another in the Lateran, and many more.

ANTIOCH. There were sixteen cities known to have been founded under this name by Hellenistic monarchs; and at least twelve others were renamed Antioch. But by far the most famous and important in the list was  (mod. Antakia), situated on the left bank of the Orontes, about 20 m. from the sea and its port, Seleucia of Pieria (Suedia). Founded as a Greek city in 300 by Seleucus Nicator, as soon as he had assured his grip upon western Asia by the victory of Ipsus (301), it was destined to rival Alexandria in Egypt as the chief city of the nearer East, and to be the cradle of gentile Christianity. The geographical character of the district north and north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the natural centre of Syria, so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic, and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of Damascus. The two easiest routes from the Mediterranean, lying through the Orontes gorge and the Beilan Pass, converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake (Balük Geul or El Bahr) and are met there by (1) the road from the Amanic Gates (Baghche Pass) and western Commagene, which descends the valley of the Kara Su, (2) the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Kuwaik, and (3) the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. Travellers by all these roads must proceed south by the single route of the Orontes valley. Alexander is said to have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus, which lay in the north-west of the future city. But the first western sovereign practically to recognize the importance of the district was Antigonus, who began to build a city, Antigonia, on the Kara Su a few miles north of the situation of Antioch; but, on his defeat, he left it to serve as a quarry for his rival Seleucus. The latter is said to have appealed to augury to determine the exact site of his projected foundation; but less fantastic considerations went far to settle it. To build south of the river, and on and under the last east spur of Casius, was to have security against invasion from the north, and command of the abundant waters of the mountain. One torrent, the Onopniktes (“donkey-drowner”), flowed through the new city, and many other streams came down a few miles west into the beautiful suburb of Daphne. The site appears not to have been found wholly uninhabited. A settlement, Meroe, boasting a shrine of Anait, called by the Greeks the “Persian Artemis,” had long been located there, and was ultimately included in the eastern suburbs of the new city; and there seems to have been a village on the spur (Mt. Silpius), of which we hear in late authors under the name Io, or Iopolis. This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians—an anxiety which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on the city’s coins. At any rate, Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (Javan). John Malalas mentions also a village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.

The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the “gridiron” plan of Alexandria by the architect, Xenarius. Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mt. Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I., which, from an expression of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II. Callinicus began a third walled “city,” which was finished by Antiochus III. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175–164 ); and thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about 4 m. in diameter and little less from north to south, this area including many large gardens. Of its population in the Greek period we know nothing. In the 4th century it was about 200,000 according to Chrysostom, who probably did not reckon slaves. About 4 m. west and beyond the suburb, Heraclea, lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, founded by Seleucus I. and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/142


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Antinomians


text: United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense/II. B. Toward a Negotiated Settlement


text:
Page:Inquiry into the shipwreck of 'Geffrard' 1875-07-07.djvu/7

 looked & previous to the accident I considered the chain sufficient to hold a larger ship I was told that there was now a heavier sea running where the Geffrard lay than either at Lockville or the Lighthouse. I consider Geographe Bay perfectly safe in the winter months but ships must be extremely well found in ground tackle. I consider the anchorage to be thorough good holding ground. I left no special instructions with the Chief Officer on leaving the ship he knew what my wishes were and acted the same as if I had been there I do not know whether the heavy chain was tested  Had the second anchor been on the bottom with 40 fathoms out I consider it would have parted just the same  The ship sheered a great deal as much as 4 or 5 points. A very strong current runs in the Bay during blowing weather When I left the ship the Barometer was at 29.90 it falls to 29.60 before any bad weather be apprehended There was no indication of bad weather when I left the ship.

Sd J W Munday

Taken and sworn Before us

George Allen sworn oath

I am chief mate of the 'Geffrard' Sunday 13th 1875 5 a.m. Calm with a heavy swell from the North 6 a.m.; breeze sprung up from the N.E & reeled round to north & commenced to freshen put riding tackle on the chain 10 a.m. blew a perfect gale


text:
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 of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great Ruhne 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in

strength near Fuenterrabia to the astonishment of the enemy, who in view of the width of the river and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing impossible at that point. The French right was then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle. The loss was about—Allies, 1600; French, 1400. The passage of the Bidassoa “was a general's not a soldiers' battle” (Napier).

On the 31st of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Wellington was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before further invading France. The British government, however, in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate advance, so on the night of the 9th of November 1813 he brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000), in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence, behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade, Wellington on the 10th of November 1813 attacked this extended

position of 16 m. in five columns, these being so directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works a mass of about 50,000 men converged towards the French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting, it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it, cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne from the sea to the left bank of the Nive.

After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains and Campo The weather had become bad, and the Nive unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington, who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, determined to occupy the right as well as the left bank of the Nive. He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications through Irun. Therefore, on the 9th of December 1813, after making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with

a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford, Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque, where Soult barred his way across the road to Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage of his central position to attack it with all his available force, first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning of the 10th of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns, upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position from the sea 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes (or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected

ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end, Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the

French retired baffled. On the 11th and 12th of December there were engagements of a less severe character, and finally on the 13th of December Soult with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about 14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battles of the Nive) were-Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly distinguished themselves in these battles.

In eastern Spain Suchet (April 11, 1813) had defeated Elio's Murcians at Yecla and Villena, but was subsequently routed by Sir John Murray near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13).

Campaign in the South of France, 1814.—When operations recommenced in February 1814 the French line extended from Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill, observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclusive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place on both banks of the river.

At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil near its banks made the transport of bridging matériel by land laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, convinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected, decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed chasse-marées) Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to watch Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's left. Hill on the 14th and 15th of February, after a combat at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze and Gave de Mauleon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000 men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavourable weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25). Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, succeeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across

the river in boats. The nature of the ground, and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this point, led to the French coming out very tardily to oppose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets (then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of

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Author talk:Earl Sparling

Possible match
Edward Earl Sparling (1897/8-1951?) is a possible match. According to WorldCat he was writing in New York on similar subjects at the right time. Library of Congress gives his birth year as 1897. Find a Grave shows a gravestone with a matching name and the years 1898-1951. Various genealogy sites record Edward Earl Sparling from 1897 or 1898 to 1951. American Fiction, 1901-1925: A Bibliography by Geoffrey D. Smith (Google Books link) lists Edward Earl Sparling as author of Under the Levee with the lifespan 1897-1951. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 01:04, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

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 fishing-grounds are in water about 40 ft. deep, and the season lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that one shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped in barrels from San Francisco and Panama Some pearls of rare beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats, the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz in California The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Caribbean Sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from St Thomas and from the Island of Margarita, off the coast of Venezuela. From Margarita Philip II. of Spain is said to have obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats.

Of late years good pearls have been found in Shark’s Bay, on the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless Harbour. Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other points along the western coast, between the 15th and 25th parallels of south latitude. An important pearl-fishery is also established in Torres Strait and on the coast of Queensland. The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the divers are generally Malays and Papuans, though sometimes native Australians. On the western coast of Australia the pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving. Pearl-shells have also been found at Port Darwin and in Oakley Creek, New Zealand.

River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anodonta, especially by Unio margaritiferus. These species belong to the family Unionidae, order Eulamellebranchia. They inhabit the mountain streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere especially in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, Lapland and Canada. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by Tacitus and by Pliny and a breastplate studded with British pearlS was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as 1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived in 1860 by a German named Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasantry, thus leading to an eager search for more pearls the following season. It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the season’s fishing in the Scotch rivers was worth at least £12,000. This yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional fisherman.

The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon, the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain to the queen of Charles II, presented her with a Conway pearl which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls. It is said that Sir John Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent for pearl fishing in the Irt in Cumberland. Although the pearl-fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of Germany. The most important of these are in the forest-streams of Bavaria, between Ratisbon and Passau. The Saxon fisheries are chiefly confined to the basin of the White Elster, and those of Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa. For more than two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated by inspectors, who examine the streams every spring, and determine where fishing is to be permitted. After a tract has been fished over, it is left to rest for ten or fifteen years. The fisher-folk open the valves of the mussels with an iron instrument, and if they find no pearl restore the mussel to the water.

River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and have been systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren county, Ohio, and also on the Mississippi, especially about Muscatine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anodonta japonica. But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative purposes. More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned as products of the western part of the empire in the Rh’ya, a dictionary compiled earlier than 1000 A process for promoting the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the 13th century; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages, and is said to give employment to about 5000 people. Large numbers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction of various foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked bamboo stick. These “matrices” are generally pellets of prepared mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood. After a number of these ob]ects have been placed in convenient positions on one valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is repeated on the other valve The mussels are then placed in shallow ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of nightsoil being thrown in from time to time. After several months, in some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells, while the molluscs themselves serve as food. The matrix is generally extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white wax, the aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the appearance of the pearl as perfect as possible. Millions of such pearls are annually sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted as previously described. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicata. It should be mentioned that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden.

Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L.; but these, though much prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade They are also produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L. Yellowish-brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa, and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta. Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of little value.

According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is secreted. The parasite is a stage in the life history of a Trematode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form resembling the common liver-fluke of the sheep, or of a tapeworm. As long ago as 1852 Filippi of Turin showed that the species of Trematode Distomum duplicatum was the cause of a pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodanta. Kuchenmeister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of water mite which is a very common parasite of Anadonta. Filippi however states that the mite is only rarely found within a pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases. R. Dubois and Dr H. Lyster Jameson have made special investigations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis. The latter states that the pearl is produced in a sac which is situated beneath the epidermis of the mantle and is lined by an epithelium. This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the epidermis but from the internal connective-tissue cells. This statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for calcareous matter is usually secreted by the external epidermis only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of Trematode belonging to the genus Leucithodendrium, a species closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriae, which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers, Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another species of duck, namely the common Scoter, Oedemia nigra, which is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trematodes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and

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 Plantagenet days. The earl got into difficulties, and as some say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practically a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeded. Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of Edward II. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brotherton in 1312. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas, recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906 the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground that in law Bygod’s surrender was invalid, and that therefore Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made, but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can, if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as 1663 we find the Crown, naturally with the concurrence of its legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that, on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626, in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord great chamberlainship and the baronies of Bolebec, Badlesmere and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away or alien his inheritance, because it was “a personal dignity annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood.” Fourteen years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly resolved, “That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king.” In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in 1660 taken into its hands, by surrender of Robert Villiers, 2nd viscount, the viscount of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William jones, the attorney-general, who reported that “this (surrender) was a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of,” the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords were very explicit, being “unanimously of the opinion, and do resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time hereafter to be levied by the king, can bar such title of honour (i.e. of a peer of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that levied, or shall levy such fine.” On these resolutions passed in the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical from the legal point of view. It was urged that in 1302 no real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years, was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on parliamentary principles should not apply. To this answer was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape of even a hundred years later, the “Model Parliament” was summoned seven years before Bygod’s surrender, and it is necessary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a legal beginning-a point of law with which an historian can have little sympathy.

Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case it may be permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days the Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered

because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becoming stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition of their rights, and their resolutions in Stuart days were only declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so, resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down must, when in point, always be followed.

The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to peerages arises out of their close connexion with the tenure of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded as personal until well on into the 14th century. Conviction for any kind of felony—and treason originally was a form of felony—was always followed

by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1285 of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone’s Commentaries, ii. 116) which made possible the creation of estates tail, and when a tenant-in-tail was at tainted forfeiture extended only to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g. dignities conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only. The position then became that peerages of any kind were forfeitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies by writ remained as before forfeit able for attainder following on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three years after Queen Anne’s death the effects of corruption of blood consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished, and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. 7 Anne, c. 21, § 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, § 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every crime other than high and petty treason and murder was restricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo. III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry, was altogether abolished and it was provided that “no judgment of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat.” The necessity for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary history will be realized when it is remembered that there still exist dormant and abeyant peerages dating from 1295 onwards which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 1725 leaving two sons James and George, George the younger was attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John. James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder.

In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the common law or from special or general acts of parliament can

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 planted an unsuccessful colony at Heraclea in the Trachinian territory north-west of Thermopylae.

In the summer of 426 Nicias led a predatory expedition along the north-west coast without achieving any positive victory. More important, though equally ineffective, was the scheme of Demosthenes to march from Naupactus through Aetolia, subduing the wild hill tribes, to Cytinium in Doris (in the upper valleys of the Cephissus) and thence into Boeotia, which was to be attacked simultaneously from Attica. The scheme was crushed by the courage and skill of the Aetolians, who thereupon summoned Spartan and Corinthian aid for a counter attack on Naupactus. Demosthenes averted this, and immediately afterwards by superior tactics inflicted a complete defeat at Olpae in Acarnania on Eurylochus at the head of a Spartan and Ambracian force. An Ambracian reinforcement was annihilated at one of the peaks called Idomene, and a disgraceful truce was accepted by the surviving Spartan leader Menedaeus. This was not only the worst disaster which befell any powerful state up to the peace of Nicias (as Thucydides says), but was a serious blow to Corinth, whose trade on the West was, as we have seen, one of the chief causes of the war.

The year 425 is remarkable for the Spartan disaster of (q.v.). The Athenians had dispatched 40 triremes under Eurymedon and Procles to Sicily with orders to call first at Corcyra to prevent an expected Spartan attack. Meantime Demosthenes had formed the plan of planting the Messenians of Naupactus in Messenia—now Spartan territory—and obtained permission to accompany the expedition. The fleet was, as it chanced, delayed by a storm in the Bay of Navarino, and rough fortifications were put up by the sailors on the promontory of Pylos. Demosthenes was left behind in this fort, and the Spartans promptly withdrew from their annual raid upon Attica and their projected attack on Corcyra to dislodge him. After a naval engagement (see ) a body of Spartan hoplites were cut oft on Sphacteria. So acutely did Sparta feel their position that an offer of peace was made on condition that the hoplites should go free. The eloquence of Cleon frustrated the peace party's desire to accept these terms, and ultimately to the astonishment of the Greek world the Spartan hoplites to the number of 292 surrendered unconditionally (see ).

Thus in 424 the Athenians had seriously damaged the prestige of Sparta, and broken Corinthian supremacy in the north-west, and the Peloponnesians had no fleet. This was the zenith of their success, and it was unfortunate for them that they declined the various offers of peace which Sparta made. The next two years changed the whole position. The doubling of the tribute in 425 pressed hardly on the allies (see ): Nicias failed in a plot with the democratic party in Megara to seize that town; and the brilliant campaigns of (q.v.) in the north-east, culminating in the capture of Amphipolis (422), finally destroyed the Athenian hopes of recovering their land empire, and entirely restored the balance of success and Spartan prestige. Moreover, the admirably conceived scheme for a simultaneous triple attack upon Boeotia at Chaeronea in the north, Delium in the south-east, and Siphae in the south-west had fallen through owing to the inefficiency of the generals. The scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party in Thebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium by the Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the policy of an Athenian land empire.

These disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens with only one trump card—the possession of the Spartan hoplites captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in the spring of 423 induced Sparta in spite of the successes which Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the “truce of Laches ”—which, however, was rendered abortive by the refusal of Brasidas to surrender Scione. The final success of Brasidas at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant.

2. From 421 to 413.—Peace was signed in March 421 on the basis of each side's surrendering what had been acquired by

the war, not including those cities which had been acquired by capitulation. It was to last for fifty years. Its weak points, however, were numerous. Whereas Sparta had been least of all the allies interested in the war, and apart from the campaigns of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her allies benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not regain Sollium and Anactorium, while Megara and Thebes respectively were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea and receive Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refusal to carry out the terms of agreement. The history of the next three years is therefore one of complex inter-state intrigues combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta and Athens concluded a defensive alliance; the Sphacterian captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pylos. Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens nothing but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nicias and Alcibiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argos was expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Argos as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos, Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (420). This coalition between two different elements—an anti-oligarchic party and a war party—had no chance of permanent existence. The war party in Sparta regained its strength under new ephors and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Argos and Boeotia. The details cannot here be discussed. The result was a re-shuffling of the cards. The democratic states of the Peloponnese were driven, partly by the intrigues of Alcibiades, now anti-Laconian, into alliance with Athens, with the object of establishing a democratic Peloponnese under the leadership of Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset by Alcibiades himself, who, having succeeded in displacing Nicias as strategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to help in attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determine Alcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the election to the post of strategus in the next year, and the suspicions of the Peloponnesian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spartans were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and soon afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an alliance between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oligarchy was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athens. It was thus left to Athens to expend men and money on protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped practically to control the Peloponnesus. All this time, however, the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken.

The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Peloponnesian coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to the Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may be found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch (in his comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the inscription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (Hicks and Hill, Gr. Hist. Inscr. 70), we can scarcely doubt that there were expeditions in 418 (Euthydemus) and the summer of 417 (Nicias), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadron under Chaeremon was dispatched. This policy—which was presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Alcibiades—having failed, the way was cleared for a reassertion of that policy of western conquest which had always had advocates from Themistocles onward in Athens, and was part of the democratic programme.

The tragic fiasco of the Sicilian expedition, involving the death

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Page:Inquiry into the shipwreck of 'Geffrard' 1875-07-07.djvu/8

 gale with rain squalls Barometer 29.80 and falling. Noon ditto weather heavy sea running ship taking seas over all. Weather continued same until 7 P.M. when it fell calm with heavy rain for about 20 minutes when the wind came suddenly with hurricane violence at 7.30 Chain parted immediately at 90 starboard Bower paid out to about 45 fathoms when it parted ship canted to the north West Hoisted the F.T. Mast staysail & set main lower top sail Ship stuck aft first on account of drawing 2 feet more than forward kept the topsail set; 8.30 sounded the well and found 9 inches ship lying on the port bilge not striking heavily 9 P.M. very heavy squall with rain and fell calm. Barometer 29.40 She continued t move toward shore till about 11 P.M  There were 90 fathoms of chain out side the hawse  the riding tackle was composed of two 3 fold blocks and 4 ½ inch manilla rope. We had the second anchor ready to let go the ship was in shore 4 fathoms The first chain was an 1¼ inch one and nearly new when I joined the ship 2½ years ago  I consider the chain quite sufficient to hold the ship during the winter gales on this coast had it been good. I found on the piece of chain recovered an opening in the weld in one of the links sufficiently large to admit the blade of a small pen knife I saw no other defect I do not consider the weather was bad enough for a second anchor to be down thinking the first chain fit to hold the ship  It is a matter of opinion as to a second anchor being down, it would have helped had there been 2 anchors down & 90 fathoms on each in each case there would have been danger in fouling and also difficulty in recovering