text:
Statutes in Force/Guide to the Edition/1 June 1972

Statutes in Force

Official Revised Edition

Guide to the Edition

with a Foreword by the Lord Chancellor

1st June 1972

LONDON

HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE

17p net

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FOREWORD

by

The Right Honourable Lord Hailsham of St. Marylebone

Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain

The Third Edition of Statutes Revised was published in 1950 under the supervision of the Statute Law Committee as part of the program of statute law reform inaugurated soon after the end of the last war. At that time it was recognised that a further edition would be needed when the projected work on consolidation and statute law revision had borne some fruit. The time has now been reached when a large amount of consolidation and revision has been done. The combined effect of this work and of the ordinary legislation passed since 1950 has been to repeal or amend a large part of the Acts contained in the Third Edition. The Committee has therefore decided to undertake the publication of a new official revised edition of the statutes.

The three editions of Statutes Revised published between 1885 and 1950 were bound collections of the Public General Acts as amended. The Third Edition and the succeeding annual volumes were supplemented by an annual noter-up service which provided details of subsequent amendments and repeals. This was a useful service, but noting up is a laborious process and can easily be a source of error.

The new edition is renamed Statutes in Force. It is designed as a self-renewing, self-expanding and thus permanent edition. The Acts will be printed as separate booklets and assembled in loose-leaf binders. In this way it will be possible to keep the new edition up to date without disfiguring the text.

It is to be an official edition of the statutes currently in force and is published by authority. An Editorial Board is responsible for developing the work until it includes all Public General Acts in force, and for keeping it continuously up-to-date.

The new edition offers an arrangement by subject-matter. Those who require all the statutes currently in force will be best served by the complete edition so arranged. But those whose interest is limited and who require part only of the statute law do not have to buy the whole work. They will be able to make do with their own selection.

Statutes in Force is designed to meet the obligation of the State to provide an accurate and up-to-date text of all statutes currently in force, edited in a helpful and comprehensive way, but without commentary. I hope that both the new edition and its fresh approach will prove equally useful to the profession and the public. As ex officio President of the Statute Law Committee I wish it every success.

Hailsham of St. Marylebone

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CONTENTS

page

Contents of the Edition ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

Arrangement of the Acts ... ... ... ... ... 7

Source of the Text ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

Arrangements of Sections ... ... ... ... ... 9

Amendments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9

Repeals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11

Blanket Repeals and Substitutions ... ... ... ... 12

Omissions under Statutory Authority ... ... ... ... 12

Lists of Omissions ... ... ... ... ... ... 13

Annotations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14

 * (a) General ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14

 * (b) Footnotes ... ... ... ... ... ... 14

 * (c) Crossnotes ... ... ... ... ... ... 14

 * (d) Notes in Statutes of the Realm ... ... ... 15

Marginal Notes and References ... ... ... ... 16

Date of Royal Assent ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Regnal Year ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Short Titles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Running Head ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16

Territorial Extent of an Act ... ... ... ... ... 16

Dating of the Text ... ... ... ... ... ... 17

Subordinate Legislation ... ... ... ... ... ... 17

Indexes and Lists of Acts ... ... ... ... ... 17

Keeping the Edition up to date ... ... ... ... 17

Suggestions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18

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SF-B

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STATUTES IN FORCE

Official Revised Edition

Contents of the Edition

This Edition contains the Public General Acts for the time being in force in | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office or some part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office (including Acts of the Parliament of Scotland and selected Acts of the Parliament of Ireland but not Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland) and Measures of the National Assembly or General Synod of the Church of England for the time being in force, but (with a few exceptions) not
 * (a) Consolidated Fund Acts, Appropriation Acts, Expiring Laws Acts, Statute Law Revision Acts and Statute Law (Repeals) Acts
 * (b) Acts or parts of Acts of a local or personal nature
 * (c) Acts or parts of Acts extending to Northern Ireland, but to neither England and Wales nor Scotland, which deal with matters placed within the competence of the Parliament of Northern Ireland and were passed before the 3rd May 1921 (which is the day appointed for the purposes of section 6 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 (c. 67))
 * (d) Acts or parts of Acts extending only to territory outside of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

The Edition includes Acts which have not yet come into force.

Arrangement of the Acts

Acts are arranged in groups and subgroups according to their subject-matter. Within groups and subgroups, Acts are arranged in chronological order.

Where an Act deals with more than one subject the following rules are observed
 * (a) if the Act is mainly concerned with one subject, it is grouped according to that subject and not according to any of the other subjects with which it deals
 * (b) if the Act deals with a number of related subjects within the subject-matter of a single group, without being mainly concerned with any one of them, it is allocated to a general subgroup within that group
 * (c) if the Act deals with a number of miscellaneous or otherwise unrelated subjects and is not mainly concerned with any one of them, the provisions relating to each subject are sometimes separated and allocated to the group to which they belong; examples are the Finance Acts and some of the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Acts. Such separations are kept to a minimum, and wherever they occur the Act is printed in each of the

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 * groups in such a form as to include its long title, the provisions relating to its citation, commencement and extent and any other general provisions, including those relating to its application or interpretation so far as they are material.

Certain Acts are included in each of the groups or subgroups with whose subject-matter they deal; for example, an Act which deals with the subject matter of both an English and a Scottish group or subgroup may be included in both.

The Acts are desinged to be kept in binders issued for the purpose; a blue divider sheet is provided to mark the beginning of each group and a yellow divider sheet to mark the beginning of each subgroup. A group divider sheet carries a list of the Acts in the group, except where there are subgroups, in which case the Acts are listed on the subgroup divider sheets and the group divider sheet carries only the name of the group and the names of the subgroups in numerical order.

The arrangement of the Acts may be altered in the future to meet, for instance, the introduction of new topics of legislation.

If the reader wishes to place the Acts in some different order of his own choosing, there is nothing to prevent his doing so.

Source of the Text

The text of the Acts of the Parliament at Westminster down to the end of the year 1713 is taken from the collection entitled The Statutes of the Realm, printed by command of His Majesty King George the Third in pursuance of an Address of the House of Commons of Great Britain, from Original Records and Authentic Manuscripts. The introduction to that work describes the instruments and other material comprised in the work and their arrangement, and gives an explanation of the principles governing their selection, with particulars of the different sources from which the material was taken and the rules observed in their use. There is a chapter on the original language of the ancient charters and statutes and the translations used for the work; in an appendix to the introduction may be found a catalogue of earlier printed collections, translations and abridgements of the statutes, and a table of original records and manuscript copies of the great charters and of the statutes specifying the repositories in which they were preserved, followed by an explanation of the contractions used in printing the records and manuscripts copied in the collection.

From 1714 to 1800 the text is based on the collection of statutes known as The Statutes at Large by Owen Ruffhead, and from 1801 to 1869 on the collection of statutes known as The Statutes of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office of Great Britain and Ireland. From 1870 to the present time the text is based on the bound volumes of statutes known variously as The Public General Statutes, The Public General Acts, and (since 1926) The Public General Acts and Measures.

8

A revised and extended edition of The Statutes at Large by Charles Runnington first appeared in 1786. Between that edition and The Statutes of the Realm there are variances with respect to years, statutes and chapters, and a table of these variances will be found at the beginning of the Chronological Table of the Statutes published annually by authority.

The text of the Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland is taken from the Second Revised Edition of The Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland 1424-1707. Prepared by the Scottish Parliamentary Draftsmen and published by authority in 1966, the Second Revised Edition was based on the First Revised Edition published in 1908 which in turn was based on the collection of Acts known as the Record Edition. The year and chapter number of each Act as given in the Record Edition are printed on the title page of the Act, and to facilitate reference to the collection known as the Duodecimo Edition the year and chapter number as given in that edition (which are often different) are added in square brackets. Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland are distinguished in this Edition by the letter [S] printed on the title page immediately after the short title.

The text of the Acts of the Parliament of Ireland is taken from the Revised Edition of the The Irish Statutes prepared by Wm. F. Cullinan and published by authority in 1885. These Acts are distinguished in this Edition by the letter [I] printed on the title page immediately after the short title.

Arrangements of Sections

Every Act containing ten or more sections is preceded by an arrangement of sections reproducing, as in the Queen's Printer's copy, the marginal notes of the various sections of the Act and the cross-headings of the Act, and its schedules (if any).

If a marginal note is not a reliable guide to the current text, this is signified by a dagger, both in the arrangement of sections and in the body of the Act.

Where a section has been omitted from the text because it has been wholly repealed or for some other reason, its marginal note is not included in the arrangement of sections, but where a repealed section is printed in small because it is necessary for the understanding of the surviving text, its marginal note is included in the arrangement of sections, also in small type.

Where an Act has been amended by the addition, insertion or substitution of a new section without a marginal note, the arrangement of sections gives only the number of the section.

Amendments

Every Act contained in this Edition incorporates amendments made up to the date printed on its title page (subject to what is said below as to Northern Ireland).

Where the amendment has been made textually by the addition, insertion or substitution of a new provision or new words, it is

9

incorporated in the text and accounted for in a footnote. The new provision or new words are enclosed in square brackets with a figure referring to the footnote, so that what has been added, inserted or substituted can be clearly seen.

Where new words have been substituted for other words in a provision but the substitution is partial, that is to say, the original words remain in force either in part of the territory to which they originally extended or for certain restricted purposes, then either
 * (a) both the original words and the words which have been substituted for them are enclosed in square brackets with a figure referring to a footnote explaining the substitution and stating in which part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office the substituted words have efect or for what purposes they do or do not have effect

or, if the text as so amended would be difficult to read,
 * (b) the provision is printed in its original form with an asterisk referring to a crossnote stating that the provision has been amended in its application to part of the territory or for certain purposes, and the provision is printed again in its amended form and enclosed in square brackets with a figure referring to a footnote stating in which part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office it has effect in its amended form or for what purposes it does or does not have effect in that form.

Where a self-contained provision has been substituted for another self-contained provision and the substitution is partial, the substitution is also indicated and accounted for in this alternative way, except where the partial substition has been effected by another provision of the same Act, such as a section amending the Act in its application to Scotland, in which case the amending section is left to speak for itself.

Where the amendment is made otherwise than textually, attention is drawn to it in a crossnote.

Where an Act which extends to Northern Ireland has been amended either by the Parliament of Northern Ireland or by Her Majesty by Order in Council in the exercise of the powers conferred by section 1(3) of the Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972 (c. 22), the following special rules apply
 * (a) if the Act deals with a matter which is within the powers of the Parliament of Northern Ireland and was passed before the 3rd May 1921, neither is the amendment incorporated in the text nor is attention drawn to it in a crossnote (for such amendments reference should be made to The Statutes Revised, Northern Ireland and the Chronological Table of the Statutes Affecting Northern Ireland)
 * (b) if the Act was passed on or after the 3rd May 1921, crossnote draws attention to the amendment except where it is textual and its effect is to alter the law of England and

10

 * Wales or Scotland, in which case the amendment is incorporated in the text and accounted for in a footnote as though it had been made by the Parliament at Westminster.
 * (c) if the Parliament of Northern Ireland in the exercise of a specific power given by the Parliament at Westminster has amended an Act of that Parliament which deals with a matter not otherwise within the powers of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the amendment is incorporated as though it had been made by the Parliament at Westminster.

Repeals

Generally, where provisions or words have been wholly repealed, they are omitted, and if nothing has been substituted a row of dots is printed in their place. The omission is accounted for
 * (a) if it is a self contained provision which has been repealed, in the list of omissions at the end of the Act
 * (b) otherwise, in a footnote

In the following cases what has been repealed is not omitted

 * (a) where the repeal is partial, so that what has been repealed remains in force either in part of the territory to which it originally extended or for certain restricted purposes, in which case if what has been repealed is a self-contained provision it is printed with an asterisk referring to a crossnote stating the extent of the repeal, or if words not amounting to a self-contained provision, the words are enclosed in square brackets with a figure referring to a footnote giving the same information
 * (b) where what has been repealed is needed for the understanding of the surviving text, in which case it is printed in small type with a figure referring to a footnote which explains why it is printed notwithstanding the repeal, unless it is a preamble in which case the explanation appears in a crossnote under the long title.

In the following cases what has been repealed is omitted without a row of dots being printed in its place, but a crossnote drawing attention to the omission is placed under the long title of the Act
 * (a) preambles repealed by Statute Law Revision Acts passed before 1890 or after 1953
 * (b) words of enactment and certain other words and expressions having no practical effect which have been repealed by various Statute Law Revision Acts
 * (c) words barring the allowance in any action or proceeding of any essoin or privilege or protection or wager of law or imparlance or of bail or mainprise or benefit of clergy, and the words "that part of Britain called" or "that part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office called", or words to the like

11

 * effect, where used before the words "England", "Scotland" or "Ireland", repealed wherever occurring by section 4 of the Statute Law Revision Act 1948 (c. 62).

Where a preamble is omitted in these cases, its purport may be summarised in the crossnote.

Where the Parliament of Northern Ireland or Her Majesty by Order in Council in the exercise of the powers conferred by section 1(3) of the Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972 (c. 22) has repealed an Act which extends to Northern Ireland and was passed on or after the 3rd May 1921, attention is drawn to the repeal in a crossnote under the long title (for repeals of Acts passed before the 3rd May 1921 reference should be made to The Statutes Revised, Northern Ireland and the Chronological Table of the Statutes Affecting Northern Ireland.

Blanket Repeals and Substitutions

Where a number of Acts each of which contains the same provision or the same word or expression in a particular context have been amended by the repeal of that provision, word or expression or by the substitution of a new provision, word or expression and the Acts have been amended as a class and not individually, it may not be practicable to discover every instance; but with this reservation and subject to what is said as to the repeal of certain words and expressions by various Statute Law Revision Acts, these 'blanket' amendments if textual are incorporated in the text and accounted for in footnotes, or if they are not textual attention is drawn to them in crossnotes in the same way as amendments which have been made individually.

Omissions under Statutory Authority

The following are omitted under the authority of section 3 of the Statute Law Revision Act 1948 (c. 62)
 * (a) words of enactment (except where they have meaning for the text), and words referring to or consequential on them
 * (b) clauses of attestation added to ancient statutes
 * (c) in any enactment relating to courts now merged in the Supreme Court, the words "debt", "suit", "bill", "plaint" or "proceeding" occurring after or in connection with the word "action"
 * (d) in any enactment relating to Scotland, the word "stewartry" occurring in connection with the words "shire", "sheriffdom" or "county", and the word "stewart" occuring in connection with the word "sheriff"
 * (e) the words "of", "and" or "or" where used in connection with the words specified in the last two paragraphs.

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Certain preambles also are omitted under the authority of various Statute Law Revision Acts passed between 1890 and 1953 inclusive unless they are needed for the understanding of the surviving text, in which case they are printed in normal type.

None of these omissions is indicated in the text, but a crossnote drawing attention to the omission is placed under the long title of the Act. Where a preamble is omitted, its purport may be summarised in the crossnote.

Lists of Omissions

At the end of each Act is a list of all the self-contained provisions which have been omitted from the text on the ground that
 * (a) they have been wholly repealed
 * (b) they repeal or textually amend other provisions
 * (c) their effect is spent
 * (d) they are irrelevant because they deal with a subject outside the scope of the group
 * (e) they are outside the scope of the work as a whole.

Rows of dots are printed in the place of these provisions; the numbers assigned to them and the letters, if any, are retained in the text, and each entry in the list gives the number and the letter, if any, of the omitted provision, the reason for its omission and such further particulars as are likely to help the reader. For example, the entry relating to a provision which is omitted because it textually amends other provisions may state what those provisions are. Where the provision which is omitted has been repealed and is specified in a schedule, the entry does not cite the section introducing the schedule unless it contains some saving or exception or its operation is otherwise expressly limited, in which case the entry cites the section with the schedule. The fact that a repeal is subject to a saving is not always disclosed: common savings such as those excepting subordinate legislation from the effect of the repeal, and savings which are transitional, are not generally mentioned, and there may be other savings of importance in particular circumstances for which reference must be made to the provisions containing them.

The omission of certain provisions such as parts of an amendments schedule which are not self-contained may also be accounted for in the list of omissions and not in a footnote. Not all provisions which repeal or textually amend other provisions are omitted from the text; for example, if a provision explains why it has repealed a certain enactment or contains an exception, it is printed for the information of the reader.

Where the substantive provisions of an Act have all been omitted from the text, the Act is nevertheless printed in such a form as to include its long title, the provisions relating to its citation, commencement and extent and any other general

13

provisions, including those relating to its application or interpretation which are contained in the Act.

The list of omissions cites Acts by their short titles (if any) and chapter numers.

Annotations

(a) General

The annotations are of two kinds: crossnotes which appear in the body of the text and footnotes which appear below it. Crossnotes and footnotes serve different purposes which are explained more fully below, but the broad distinction between them is that footnotes account for amendments of the text itself, whereas crossnotes draw attention to other provisions which do not amend the text and yet affect the Act. In other words, footnotes give the authority for printing the text as it is, whereas crossnotes contain warnings against treating the text as definitive.

(b) Footnotes

As has been said, footnotes give the authority for printing the text as it is; they explain why the text is in its present form wherever it has been amended (otherwise than by the total repeal of a self-contained provision which, being entered in the list of omissions, does not need to be accounted for in a footnote).

Footnotes indicate the nature of an amendment by stating whether it is a repeal, a substitution, an insertion or an addition, and they are printed in roman type at the foot of the page containing the amendments to which they relate.

Where an amendment has effect in part only of the territory to which the amended provision extends, that part is indicated by means of the initial letters of the countries it comprises enclosed in brackets.

Where the amendment is specified in a schedule, the footnote does not cite the section introducing the schedule unless it contains some saving or exception or its operation is otherwise expressly limited, in which case the footnote cites the section with the schedule. The fact that a repeal is subject to a saving is not always disclosed: common savings and savings which are transitional are not generally mentioned, and there may be other savings of importance in particular circumstances for which reference must be made to the enactment itself.

Where an amendment is not yet in force, the abbreviation prosp., meaning that it is prospective, appears in brackets immediately after the word indicating the nature of the amendment, and the abbreviation temp. is employed for amendments which are temporary.

(c) Crossnotes

As has been said, crossnotes contain warnings against treating the text as definitive. Where a provision is affected by some other

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provision which does not textually amend it, a crossnote gives a warning of this fact by briefly describing the wayin which the one provision operates on the other, and only exceptionally will more information be given.

Crossnotes are printed in italic type. They are placed as follows
 * (i) if relating to the Act as a whole or to a number of its provisions, under the long title
 * (ii) if relating to a numbered Part of the Act, under the cross-heading describing its subject matter
 * (iii) if relating to a section of the Act, under that section
 * (iv) if relating to a schedule to the Act, under the cross-heading of that schedule
 * (v) if relating to a numbered Part of a schedule, under the cross-heading of that Part
 * (vi) if relating to a paragraph of a schedule, under that paragraph

If there is more than one crossnote relating to the same section or other part of an Act, the crossnotes appear in chronological order.

Where the provision cited by the crossnote has effect in part only of the territory to which the provision on which it operates extends, that part is indicated by means of the initial letters of the countries it comprises enclosed in brackets.

Where the style and title of a Minister of the Crown or other person or body referred to in the text has been changed, a crossnote gives the new style and title. If the functions or some of the functions formerly exercisable by a Minister or other person or body have been transferred, a crossnote names the person or body by whom those functions are now exercisable. Intermediate changes are not shown in are not shown in either case, but the enactments or instruments effecting the successive changes are all cited to assist the reader.

(d) Notes in Statutes of the Realm

At foot of the text on each page of The Statutes of the Realm there were added such variant readings as appeared necessary to correct its errors or to supply its deficiences, or to reconcile any material contradiction or repugnance between the text and the translation or between diferrent copies of the text where they were of equal authority, with particulars of the records or manuscripts or printed copies in which they were found. The introduction to The Statutes of the Realm explains the manner in which the variant readings are indicated in the text and noted for the information of the reader, and it also explains how variant translations and translations of doubtful authority or accuracy are shown. These notes are reproduced in this Edition so far as they are still material, and both the text and its translation are marked as in The Statutes of the Realm with such changes as the style and format of the present Edition appear to require.

15

Marginal Notes and References

Marginal notes are printed in their original form, except that the use of capital letters conforms with modern practice. Where the marginal notes are not a reliable guide to the current text, this is signified by a dagger, and a crossnote explaining the meaning of this symbol is placed under the long title.

Where the text of an Act refers to another Act by its short title, a reference to the year and chapter number of that other Act and, in certain cases, the regnal year or years of the Parliamentary session in which it received the Royal Assent is printed in the margin, but where it is cited with other Acts by a collective title, there is no marginal reference.

Date of Royal Assent

The date on which an Act received the Royal Assent is printed (in square brackets) immediately after the long title of the Act, in accordance with the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793 (c. 13).

Regnal Year

The regnal year or years of the Parliamentary session in which before 1963 an Act (other than an Act of the Parliaments of Scotland) received the Royal Assent are printed on its title page. In footnotes, crossnotes, lists of omissions and marginal references, the regnal year or years are referred to only if the Act cited received the Royal Assent in the second or subsequent session of the calendar year in which it was passed.

Short Titles

Where an Act has been given a short title since its enactment (for instance, by the Short Titles Act 1896 (c. 14) or the Statute Law Revision Act 1948 (c. 62)), attention is drawn to this fact in a crossnote under the long title. Where an Act cites or refers to another Act otherwise than by its short title, the short title is substituted for this citation or reference under the authority of section 3 of the Statute Law Revision Act 1893 (c. 14).

Running Head

At the top of each page is printed the short title of the Act, its chapter number and the numbers of the Parts, sections, schedules and Parts of schedules which appear wholly or partly on the individual page.

Territorial Extent of an Act

On the title page of each Act are printed in the bottom right-hand corner letters indicating the Acts territorial extent, namely
 * U.K. for | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office
 * E.W. for England and Wales
 * S. for Scotland
 * N.I. for Northern Ireland

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These may appear in combination (except for U.K.). They are meant primarily as a guid for purchasers and should not be taken as indicating the application of any particular part of an Act.

Where an Act extends to Northern Ireland because it contains a provision conferring on the Parliament of Northern Ireland or on Her Majesty the power to make laws for Northern Ireland, it is shown as extending to Northern Ireland notwithstanding that it contains no other provision extending to Northern Ireland.

Where there is doubt whether an Act extends to a particular part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office, it is nevertheless shown as extending to that part; and an Act is shown as extending to a particular part of | override_author = Her Majesty's Stationery Office however small its application is.

An Act is shown as extending to Northern Ireland notwithstanding that the Act is such that it does not incorporate amendments effected by the Parliament of Northern Ireland or by Her Majesty, but a crossnote stating that the Act in its application to Northern Ireland has effect subject to any such amendments is placed under the long title.

Dating of the Text

As has been said, the date up to which amendments have been incorporated in an Act is prinnted on its title page. Indexes, general lists of Acts, annual supplements and companion lists of subordinate legislation bear corresponding dates.

Subordinate Legislation

For each group (or in some cases each subgroup of a group) there is a companion list of the general Statutory Rules & Orders and Statutory Instruments in force under the Acts in the group (or subgroup), and this list is generally arranged by Acts placed in chronological order and by enabling sections in numerical order.

Indexes and Lists of Acts

Each group has its own index except for a few large groups each subgroup of which may have its own index. When the work is complete there will also be an index to the work as a whole.

At the end of every index is a list of cross-references to relevant enactments which have not been cited in any relevant crossnote.

The Edition contains the following general lists of Acts in the groups so far published
 * (a) an alphabetical list
 * (b) a chronological list

The alphabetical list of Acts gives the group and subgroup of each Act, its territorial extent and the date up to which amendments have been incorporated in it.

Keeping the Edition up to date

This is done by issuing
 * (a) newly-enacted Acts solely or principally concerned with the subject-matter of groups already published, printed in the style and format of the Edition

17

 * (b) new editions of Acts which have been so extensively amended as to require replacement in their amended form
 * (c) an annual cumulative supplement divided into parts, each complete in itself and confined to a single published group and containing
 * (i) separate lists of newly-enacted Acts that have been allocated to the group, Acts that have not been so allocated but which affect Acts in the group, Acts in the group that have been wholly repealed and Acts in the group of which new editions have been issued
 * (ii) textual amendments which have not yet been incorporated in the Acts in the group, any necessary corrections of the Edition, and notes of provisions of newly-enacted Acts that affect Acts in the group, including provisions that have repealed Acts in the group.
 * (d) revised general lists of Acts and indexes as required.

Suggestions

Communications regarding this work should be addressed to the Editor, Statutory Publications Office, Queen Anne's Chambers, 41 Tothill Street, London SW1H 9JX

Printed in England for Her Majesty's Stationery Office by McCorquodale Printers Ltd. London

HM 4765 Dd 139942 K 40 7/72 McC 3336/2

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© Crown copyright 1972

SBN 11 800150 7


text:
Page:Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management.djvu/88

60 each end instead of one only in the middle. They are made in copper, with draining plates, in sizes from 20 inches to 30 inches in length

The Fish Pan, or Kettle.—This utensil is fitted with a drainer inside, which is lifted when the fish is sufficiently cooked. The drainer is then laid across the kettle, and the fish lifted on to the dish with the fish-slice—a perforated plate attached to a long handle, sold at 1s., 1s. 3d. and 1s. 6d., according to size. Fish kettles are longer than they are wide, and are made either with handles at the side, or with a swing handle, like that of a pail. The former is the more convenient shape, on account of the facility which the two handles at the ends afford for putting the kettle on the range or taking it off. Prices range from 3s. 6d. to 9s. for kettles in strong block-tin plate, and from 15s. to 42s. for iron kettles. Copper fish kettles, from 16 inches to 22 inches, are supplied at prices ranging from 45s. to 85s. The mackerel-kettle, or saucepan, which will serve as a fish-kettle for all long fish, such as whiting, haddock, etc., and for soles and small plaice, is an elongated saucepan, with cover, and having a long handle on one side and an iron looped handle opposite to it on the other side. It is made in three sizes, sold respectively at 3s., 4s. and 5s.

Fish Fryer and Drainer.—This is an admirable contrivance for frying fish, by using which an experienced cook is much more likely to insure success and send a dish of fried fish properly to table. It is in shape not unlike a preserving-pan fitted with a closely-made wire drainer; and in this the fish is placed and lowered into the heated fat. As in frying fish it is necessary to have a large amount of fat, the depth of this kettle gives it a considerable superiority over the ordinary frying-pan. There is, besides, very little danger of the fish breaking, for being lifted up on the drainer when done, it is easily dished. Cooked in this manner the fish does not require turning, as the fat quite covers it, and of course browns it on both sides at once. The greasy moisture, too, is more effectually got rid of. Fat-pans with drainers may be obtained from a good ironmonger at the following prices:—

Extra Strong Copper, with Drainer:— 14-in.15-in.16-in.17-in.18 in. £1 16 0£2 0 0£2 5 0£2 8 0£2 14 0

Strong Wrought Steel:— 12-in.13-in.14-in.15-in.16-in.17-in.18-in. 11s.11s. 6d.13s.15s.16s. 6d.18s. 6d.£1 0 0

Wire Vegetable Strainer.—This useful article consists of a wire frame, round which thinner wire is coiled and fastened. It is made to fit inside a stewpan or saucepan, and thus forms a convenient utensil in which to boil vegetables and to lift them at once out of the water; or

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56 broken shins by falling over the rack-bar, which projects in high altitudes in front of the telescope, when in the hurry the cap had been forgotten to be put over it. In the long days of the summer months many ten- and seven-foot mirrors were finished; there was nothing but grinding and polishing to be seen. For ten-foot several had been cast with ribbed backs by way of experiment to reduce the weight in large mirrors. In my leisure hours I ground seven-foot and plain mirrors from rough to fining down, and was indulged with polishing and the last finishing of a very beautiful mirror for Sir William Watson. An account of the discoveries made with the twenty-foot and the improvements of the mechanical parts of that instrument during the winter of 1785, is given with the Catalogue of the first 1000 new nebulæ. By which account it must plainly appear that the expenses of these improvements, and those which were yet to be made in the apparatus of the twenty-foot (which in fact proved to be a model of a larger instrument), could not be supplied out of a salary of £200 a year, especially as my brother's finances had been too much reduced during the six months before he received his first quarterly payment of fifty pounds (which was Michaelmas, 1782). Travelling from Bath to London, Greenwich, Windsor, backwards and forwards, transporting the telescope, &c., breaking up his establishment at Bath and forming a new one near the Court, all this, even leaving such personal conveniences as he had for many years been used to, out of the question, could not be obtained for a trifle; a good large piece of ground was required for the use of the instruments, and a habitation in which he could receive and offer a bed to an astronomical friend, was necessary after a night's observation.

It seemed to be supposed that enough had been done when my brother was enabled to leave his profession that he might


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Rh have time to make and sell telescopes. The King ordered four ten-foot himself, and many seven-foot besides had been bespoke, and much time had already been expended on polishing the mirrors for the same. But all this was only retarding the work of a thirty or forty-foot instrument, which it was my brother's chief object to obtain as soon as possible; for he was then on the wrong side of forty-five, and felt how great an injustice he would be doing to himself and to the cause of Astronomy by giving up his time to making telescopes for other observers. Sir William Watson, who often in the lifetime of his father came to make some stay with us at Datchet, saw my brother's difficulties, and expressed great dissatisfaction. On his return to Bath he met among the visitors there several belonging to the Court (among the rest Mde. Schwellenberg), to whom he gave his opinion concerning his friend and his situation very freely. In consequence of this my brother had soon after, through Sir J. Banks, the promise that £2000 would be granted for enabling him to make himself an instrument. Immediately every preparation for beginning the great work commenced. A very ingenious smith (Campion), who was seeking employment, was secured by my brother, and a temporary forge erected in an upstairs room.

It soon became evident that the big, tumble-down old house, which had been taken possession of with such eagerness, would not do: the rain came through the ceilings; the damp situation brought on ague, and in June the brother and sister left it for a place called Clay Hall, Old Windsor. But here again unlooked-for troubles arose in consequence of the landlady being a


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58 "litigious woman," who refused to be bound to reasonable terms, and at length, on the 3rd of April, 1786, the house and garden at were taken, and all the apparatus and machinery immediately removed there. .... And here I must remember that among all this hurrying business, every moment after daylight was allotted to observing. The last night at Clay Hall was spent in sweeping till daylight, and by the next evening the telescope stood ready for observation at Slough. . . . . A workman for the brass and optical parts was engaged, and two smiths were at work throughout the summer on different parts for the forty-foot telescope, and a whole troop of labourers were engaged in grinding the iron tools to a proper shape for the mirror to be ground on (the polishing and grinding by machines was not begun till about the end of 1788). These heavy articles were cast in town, and caused my brother frequent journeys to London, they were brought by water as far as Windsor At Slough no steady out-of-door workman for the sweeping handle could be met with, and a man-servant was engaged as soon as one could be found fit for the purpose. Meanwhile Campion assisted, but many memorandums were put down: "Lost a neb. by the blunder of the person at the handle." If it had not been sometimes for the intervention of a cloudy or moonlight night, I know not when my brother (or I either), should have got any sleep; for with the morning came also his workpeople, of whom there were no less than between thirty and forty at work for upwards of three months together, some employed in felling and rooting out trees, some digging and preparing the ground for the bricklayers who were laying the foundation for the telescope, and the carpenter in Slough, with all his men. The smith, meanwhile, was converting a


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Rh washhouse into a forge, and manufacturing complete sets of tools required for the work he was to enter upon. Many expensive tools also were furnished by the ironmongers in Windsor, as well for the forge as for the turner and brass man. In short, the place was at one time a complete workshop for making optical instruments, and it was a pleasure to go into it to see how attentively the men listened to and executed their master's orders; I had frequent opportunities for doing this when I was obliged to run to him with my papers or slate, when stopped in my work by some doubt or other.

I cannot leave this subject without regretting, even twenty years after, that so much labour and expense should have been thrown away on a swarm of pilfering work-people, both men and women, with which Slough, I believe, was particularly infested. For at last everything that could be carried away was gone, and nothing but rubbish left. Even tables for the use of workrooms vanished: one in particular I remember, the drawer of which was filled was slips of experiments made on the rays of light and heat, was lost out of the room in which the women had been ironing. This could not but produce the greatest disorder and inconvenience in the library and in the room into which the apparatus for observing had been moved, when the observatory was wanted for some other purpose; they were at last so encumbered by stores and tools of all sorts that no room for a desk or an Atlas remained. It required my utmost exertion to rescue the manuscripts in hand from destruction by falling into unhallowed hands or being devoured by mice. But I will now return to July, 1786, when my brother was obliged to deliver a ten-foot telescope as a present from the King to the Observatory of Göttingen. Before he left Slough on July 3rd, the stand of the forty-foot telescope stood on two circular walls capped with Portland stone


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Rh for frying whitebait, or parsley or sliced vegetables for soups, etc. They are made in sizes from 6 inches to 10 inches in diameter, and sold at prices from 2s. 3d. to 5s., according to size.

The Frying-pan.—This article is so well known that it is only necessary to mention shapes, sizes and prices. They may be had either round or oval in form, with shelving sides; the round pans being made in sizes ranging from $7 1/2$ inches to 9 inches at top, at prices varying from 9d. to 1s. 2d. The oval pans, which are more commonly used, are made in sizes from $11 1/2$ inches to 15 inches in length, and are supplied from 1s. to 2s.

The Omelet Pan.—This pan is a variety of the frying-pan, and generally made circular in form, but shallower than the frying-pan, for convenience in turning pancakes, omelets, etc. These pans are made in bright polished wrought iron, raised in one piece, from 6 inches to 10 inches in diameter, and sold from 5s. to 8s. 3d. Bowl omelet pans for soufflé omelets, are made 8 inches, 9 inches and 10 inches in diameter, and sold at 7s., 8s. and 9s. each. Copper omelet pans, with burnished iron handles, range from $6 1/2$ inches to 16 inches in diameter, and are sold from 5s. to 11s. each. Pans of the same material, with rounded or bowl bottoms for soufflés, are made 8 inches, $8 1/2$ inches and 9 inches in diameter, and sold at 9s. 6d., 10s. 6d. and 11s. 6d. each.

The Fricandeau or Cutlet Pan.—This is another variety of the frying-pan. It is made with upright sides, from 7 inches to 14 inches in diameter, at prices ranging from 21s. to 68s., according to size when made of copper; but iron or steel pans are also made, especially in the intermediate sizes, from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, which are cheaper. The sauté pan is not so deep as the cutlet pan, and has no cover, and differs only from the omelet pan in having its handle more raised above the edge of the pan. It is made in sizes ranging from 7 inches to 14 inches in diameter, and sold at prices ranging from 6s. 6d. to 20s. A few sizes, 8 inches, 9 inches and 10 inches in diameter, and made extra deep and furnished with covers like the fricandeau-pan, are sold at 21s., 25s. and 30s. respectively.

Bain-Marie Pan and Stewpans, etc.—The bain-marie is not used so much in England as it deserves to be, and is only to be found in large establishments. In serving a large dinner it is a most useful and indeed necessary article. The pan is filled with boiling water and stands on the hot-plate of the range or kitchener. The saucepans containing the sauces, gravies, entrées, etc., stand in the water, and the bain-marie keeps their contents at a proper heat without any risk of burning or loss of flavour. If the hour of dinner is uncertain in any establishment, no means of preserving the warmth and flavour of the dishes to be served is so sure and harmless as the employment of the bain-marie. Prices vary according to the number of stew-pans required. Each set comprises the bain-marie pan, 1 glazepot, 1 soup-pot, and from 4 to 12 stewpans in sizes ranging from 3 inches to $5 1/2$


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60 (which, cracking by frost, were afterwards covered with oak) ready to receive the tube. The smith was left to continue to work at the tube, which was sufficient employment cut out for him before he would want farther direction. The mirror was also pretty far advanced, and ready for the polish, for I remember to have seen twelve or fourteen men daily employed in grinding or polishing. To give a description of the task (or rather tasks) which fell to my share, the readiest way I think will be to transcribe out of a day-book which I began to keep at that time, and called "Book of work done."

July 3.—My brothers William and Alex, left Slough to begin their journey to Germany. Mrs. [Alex.] Herschel was left with me at Slough. By way of not suffering too much by sadness, I began with bustling work. I cleaned all the brass-work for seven and ten-foot telescopes, and put curtains before the shelves to hinder the dust from settling upon them again.

4th.—I cleaned and put the polishing-room in order, and made the gardener clear the work-yard, put everything in safety, and mend the fences. 5th.—I spent the morning in needle-work. In the afternoon went with Mrs. Herschel to Windsor. We chose the hours from two to six for shopping and other business, to be from home at the time most unlikely for any persons to call, but there had been four foreign gentlemen looking at the instruments in the garden, they had not left their names. In the evening Dr. and Mrs. Kelly (Mr. Dollond's daughter) and Mr. Gordon came to see me. 6th.—I put all the philosophical letters in order, and the collection of each year in a separate cover.

12th.—I put paper in press for a register, and calculated for Flamsteed's Catalogue.


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Rh Mem.—When Flamsteed's Catalogue was brought into zones in 1783, it was only taken up at 45° from the Pole, the apparatus not being then ready for sweeping in the zenith.

By July 23rd the whole Catalogue was completed all but writing it in the clear, which at that time was a very necessary provision, as it was not till the year 1789 that Wollaston's Catalogue made its appearance. Many sweeps nearer the Pole than the register of sweeps, which only began at 45°, being made, it became necessary to provide a register for marking those sweeps and the nebulæ discovered in them.

14th.—Dr. and Mrs. Maskelyne called here with Dr. Shepherd.

15th.—I spent the day with Mrs. Herschel at Mrs. Kelly's. We met Dr. and Mrs. Maskelyne and Dr. Shepherd, Marquis of Huntley, &c., &c., there. 16th.—I ruled part of the register of sweeps.

18th.—I spent the whole day in ruling paper for the register; except that at breakfast I cut out ruffles for shirts. Mr. and Mrs. Kelly and Mrs. Ramsden (Dollond's sister) called this evening. I tried to sweep, but it is cloudy, and the moon rises at half-past ten. 19th.—In the evening we swept from eleven till one.

20th.—Prince Charles (Queen's brother) Duke of Saxe-Gotha and the Duke of Montague were here this morning. I had a message from the King to show them the instruments.

I had intended to go on with my Diary till my brother's return, but it would be tedious, so of the rest I shall give only a summary account, and will mention in this place that all what follows would but be the same thing over again; for the advantage of being quietly at work in the presence of


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LEGISLATION] that no such dependence on free competition was possible, either in practice or in theory. This difficulty is not peculiar to railways; but it was in the history of railway economy and railway control that certain characteristics which are now manifesting themselves in all directions where large investments of fixed capital are involved were first brought prominently to public notice.

For a large number of those who use a railway, competition in its more obvious forms does not and cannot exist. Independent carriers cannot run trains over the same line and underbid one another in offering transportation services. It would be practically impossible for a line thus used by different carriers to be operated either with safety, or with economy, or with the advantage to the public which a centralized management affords. It is equally impossible for the majority of shippers to enjoy the competition of parallel lines. Such duplication of railways involves a waste of capital. If parallel lines compete at all points, they cause ruin to the investors. If they compete at some points and not at others, they produce a discrimination or preference with regard to rates and facilities, which builds up the competitive points at the expense of the non-competitive ones. Such partial competition, with the discrimination it involves, is liable to be worse for the public than no competition at all. It increases the tendency, already too strong, towards concentration of industrial life in large towns. It produces an uncertainty with regard to rates which prevents stability of prices, and is apt to promote the interests of the unscrupulous speculator at the expense of those whose business methods are more conservative. So marked are these evils that such partial competition is avoided by agreements between the competing lines with regard to rates, and by divisions of traffic, or pools, which shall take away the temptation to violate such rate agreements. The common law has been somewhat unfavourable to the enforcement of such agreements, and statutes in the United States, both local and national, have attempted to prohibit them; but the public advantage from their existence has been so great as to render their legal disabilities inoperative. In those parts of the continent of Europe where railways are owned and administered by state authority, the necessity for such agreements is frankly admitted.

But if rates are to be fixed by agreement, and not by competition, what principle can be recognized as a legitimate basis of railway rate-making? The first efforts at railway legislation were governed by the equal mileage principle; that is, the attempt was made to make rates proportionate to the distance. It was, however, soon seen that this was inadmissible. So much of the expense of the handling, both of freight and of passengers, was independent of the length of the journey that a mileage rate sufficiently large for short distances was unnecessarily burdensome for long ones, and was bound to destroy long-distance traffic, if the theory were consistently applied. The system has been retained in large measure in passenger business, but only because of the conflict which inevitably occurs between the authorities and the passengers with regard to the privilege of breaking and resuming a journey when passenger rates are arranged on any other plan. In freight schedules it has been completely abandoned.

A somewhat better theory of rate regulation was then framed, which divided railway expenditures into movement expense, connected with the line in general, and terminal expense, which connected itself with the stations and station service. Under this system each consignment of freight is compelled to pay its share of the terminal expense, independently of distance, plus a mileage charge proportionate to the length of the journey or haul. There has been also a further attempt in England to divide terminal charges into station and service terminals, according to the nature of the work for which compensation is sought. But none of these classifications of expense reaches the root of the matter. A system of charges which compels each piece of traffic to pay its share of the charges for track and for stations overlooks the fundamental fact that a very large part of the expenses of a railway—more than half—is not connected either with the cost of moving traffic or of handling traffic at stations, but with the cost of maintaining the property as a whole. Of this character are the expenditures necessary for maintenance of way, for general administration and for interest on capital borrowed, which are almost independent of the total amount of business done, and quite independent of any individual piece of business. To say that all traffic must bear its share of these interest and maintenance charges is to impose upon the railways a rate which would cut off much of the long distance traffic, and much of the traffic in cheap articles, which is of great value to the public, and which, from its very magnitude, is a thing that railways could not afford to lose. It is also a fact that with each recurring decade these general expenses (also called indirect, undistributed or fixed charges) have an increased importance as compared with the particular (direct, distributed or operating) expense attaching naturally to the particular portions of the traffic. For with increased density of population it becomes profitable to make improvements on the original location, even though this may involve increased charges for interest and for some parts of its maintenance, for the sake of securing that economy of operation, through larger train-loads, which such an improved location makes possible.

Whatever the ostensible form of a railway tariff, the contribution of the different shipments of freight to these general expenses is determined on the principle of charging what the traffic will bear. Under this principle, rates are reduced where the increase of business which follows such reduction makes the change a profitable one. They are kept relatively high in those cases where the expansion of business which follows a reduction is small, and where such a change is therefore unprofitable. This theory of charging what the traffic will bear is an unpopular one, because it has been misapplied by railway managers and made an excuse for charging what the traffic will not bear. Rightly applied, however, it is the only sound economic principle. It means taxation according to ability—that ability being determined by actual experiment.

In the practical carrying out of this principle, railways divide all articles of freight into classes, the highest of which are charged two or three, or even four times the rates of the lowest. This classification is based partly upon special conditions of service, which make some articles more economical to carry than others (with particular reference to the question whether the goods are offered to the companies in car-loads or in small parcels), but chiefly with regard to the commercial value of the article, and its consequent ability to bear a high charge or a low one. For each of these classes a rate-sheet gives the actual rate charge per unit of weight between the various stations covered by the tariff. This rate increases as the distance increases, but not in equal proportion; while the rates from large trade centres to other trade centres at a great distance are not higher than those to intermediate points somewhat less remote; if the law permits, there is a tendency to make them actually a little lower. Besides the system of charges thus prescribed in the classification and rate-sheet, each tariff provides for a certain number of special rates or charges made for particular lines of trade in certain localities, independently of their relation to the general system. If these special rates are published in the tariff, and are offered to all persons alike, provided they can fulfil the conditions imposed by the company, they are known as commodity rates, and are apparently a necessity in any scheme of railway charges. If, however, they are not published, and are given to certain persons as individual favours, they become a prolific source of abuse, and are quite indefensible from the standpoint of political economy.

While the superficial appearance of the railway tariff is different for different countries, and sometimes for different parts of the same country, the general principles laid down are followed in rate-making by all well-managed lines, Whether state or private. It is a mistake to suppose that the question of public or private ownership will make any considerable difference in the system of rate-making adopted by a good railway. A state system will be compelled, by the exigencies

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text: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Appendix of Living Writers/Allen, James Lane


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62 my brother to whom I could apply for information the moment a doubt occurred, never returned again, and often have I been racking my poor brains through a day and a night to very little purpose. I found it necessary to continue my memoranda of "work done" to the last day I had the care of my brother's MS. papers. But I had rather copy a few days more, as they contain the discovery of my first comet, and will serve also to show that I attempted to register all discovered nebulæ, after a precept my brother had left me, as this was necessary for revising the MS. of the catalogue of the first thousand nebulæ, which he expected at his return to find ready for correction from the printers. 22nd.—I calculated all the day for Flamsteed's Catalogue. Lord Mulgrave called this evening 23rd.—Received letters from Hanover. Finished calculating for Flamsteed's Catalogue. The two following short letters were carefully preserved, and, though they contain nothing of importance, they are of interest as being of the very few from the same pen which are not on scientific subjects.

HANOVER, Friday, July 14, 1786. ,— This morning we arrived safely at Hanover. We are a little tired, but perfectly well in health. We travelled extra post all the way through very bad roads. The post is going out in a very little time, so that I write in a hurry that you might hear from us so much sooner. After a night or two of sleep here (by way of recovery) I shall go on to Göttingen; but when I have collected my thoughts


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text: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Appendix of Living Writers/Anstey, F


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Rh better together I will write more. Mamma is perfectly well and looks well. Jacob looks a little older, but not nearly so much as I expected. In Sophy [Mrs. Griesbach] there is hardly any change, but a few white hairs on her head. John [Dietrich] is just the same as before, his little boy seems to be a charming creature. Farewell, dear Lina. I hope we shall see you again in a few weeks. I must finish for Alexander to write. Adieu once more.

[August, 1786.] ,— We are still in Hanover, and find it a most agreeable place. I have been in Göttingen, where Jacob went along with me, and the King's telescope arrived there in perfect order. The Society of Göttingen have elected me a member. We long very much to hear from you, as we have never had a letter yet. This is the fourth we have sent you, and we hope you received the former ones. This day fortnight we have fixed for our setting out from this place, and be assured that we shall be happy to see old England again, though old Germany is no bad place. Yesterday and the day before I have seen the Bishop of Osnaburgh and the Prince Edward. If an inquiry should be made about our return, you may say (I hope with truth) that we shall be back by about the 24th of August. Adieu, Lina. 24th.—I registered some sweeps in present time and Pole distance. Prince Resonico came with Dr. Shepherd to see the instruments. I swept from ten till one.

28th.—I wrote part of Flamsteed's Catalogue in the clear. It was a stormy night, we could not go to bed.


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62 inches. A complete set of 7 strong, well-made tin stewpans, 1 glazepot and 1 soup-pot, in a bain-marie pan of wrought steel, may be obtained for £2. Or, the same number of utensils in wrought steel, fitted in a bain-marie pan, 16 x $12 1/2$ inches, would cost £3 13s.; and in the best quality of copper £6. Larger sizes may be bought at a corresponding increase in price.

Warren's Cooking Pot is a vessel in three divisions, in which meat and vegetables may be cooked at the same time, but in separate compartments. The peculiarity of the process consists in cooking without the viands coming in contact with water or steam; the meat, kept from water entirely, is cooked in an inner cylinder, the outer one containing the water, being kept at boiling point. The food thus prepared is cooked in its own vapour, and none of its nutritious properties are wasted. These utensils are also convenient where cooking space is limited, and economical when cooking by gas, because one ring of burners would serve instead of two or three. The price of the round saucepan is from 7s. 9d. to 20s., and the smaller size in the oval cooking pot costs 21s.

The Bottle-jack.—The action of this familiar piece of kitchen furniture, so called from its resemblance to an ordinary glass bottle, is so well known that very little explanation is needed. When the joint is hooked on, the jack requires winding up, an operation which must be repeated once or twice during the time the meat is cooking. A bottle-jack complete, capable of carrying a joint of 20 lbs., may be had for 6s. 9d. This bottle-jack is large enough for ordinary family use; but larger sizes, to carry from 25 to 70 lbs. may be had from 8s. 6d. to 20s. In cases of necessity it may be dispensed with, and a suspender formed of a skein of worsted, knotted here and there throughout its length, used instead.

Meat Screen.—When the meat is roasting a meat-screen should be placed in front of the fire, to concentrate and reflect the radiated heat as much as possible. It is made of tin, 3 feet in width, and costs 12s. 9d. to 15s. 3d. Round screens known as bottle-jack screens, having bands at the top, from which the bottle-jack is suspended, and a dripping-pan in the bottom, are sold in three sizes, varying in price, according to stoutness of make, as follows: No. 1, from 12s. 6d. to 26s.; No. 2, from 15s. 9d. to 25s.; and No. 3, from 19s. 6d. to 30s.

The Dripping-pan.—This is a receptacle for the droppings of fat and gravy from the roast meat. In some cases it forms an integral part of the meat screen, but when it is separate from it, it is supported on an iron stand. The pan is arranged with a well in the centre, covered with a lid, and round this well is a series of small holes, which allow the dripping to pass into the well free from cinders or ashes. When the meat is basted, the lid of the well is lifted up. The basting-ladle used to apply the dripping to the meat is half covered over at the top with a piece of metal perforated with small holes, so that


text: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Appendix of Living Writers/Archer, William


text: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Appendix of Living Writers/Arnim, Countess von


text: A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature/Appendix of Living Writers/Ashton, John


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826 of the public treasury, to arrange its rates to pay interest on its securities; a private company will generally be prevented, by the indirect competition of railways in other parts of the country which it serves, from doing very much more than this. The relative merit of the two systems depends upon the question how we can secure the best efficiency and equity in the application of the principles thus far laid down. There are three different systems of control:—

1. Private operation, subject only to judicial regulation, was exemplified most fully in the early railway history of the United States. Until 1870 railway companies were almost free from special acts of control; and, in general, any company that could raise or borrow the capital was allowed to build a railway wherever it saw fit. In the United Kingdom there was almost as much immunity from legislative interference with charges, but the companies were compelled to secure special charters, and to conform to regulations made by the Board of Trade in the interests of public safety. The advantage of this relatively free system of railway building and management is that it secures efficient and progressive methods. Most of the improvements in operation and in traffic management have had their origin in one of these two countries. The disadvantage attendant upon this system is that the courts are reluctant to exercise the right of regulation, except on old and traditional lines, and that in the face of new business methods the public may be inadequately protected. There is also this further disadvantage, that in the gradual progress of consolidation railway companies take upon themselves the aspect of large monopolies, of whose apparently unrestricted power the public is jealous. As a result of these difficulties there has been, both in the United Kingdom and in the United States, a progressive increase of legislative interference with railways. In the former the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1854 specially prohibited preferences, either in facilities or in rates. The Regulation of Railways Act of 1873 provided for a Railway Commission, which should be so constituted as to take cognizance of cases on the investigation of which the courts were reluctant to enter. Finally, the legislation of 1888 put into the hands of a reorganized Railway Commission and of the Board of Trade powers none the less important in principle because their action has been less in its practical effect than the advocates of active control demanded. In the United States the years from 1870 to 1875 witnessed sweeping and generally ill-considered legislation (“Granger” Acts) concerning railway charges throughout the Mississippi valley; while the years from 1884 to 1887 were marked by more conservative, and for that reason more enforceable, acts, which culminated in the Interstate Commerce Act, prohibiting personal discrimination and gradually restricting discrimination between places, and providing for a National Commission of very considerable power—not to speak of the pooling clause, which was extraneous to the general purpose of the act, and has tended to defeat rather than strengthen its operation.

2. Operation by private companies, under specific provisions of the government authorities with regard to the method of its exercise, has been the policy consistently carried out in France, and less systematically and consistently in other countries under the domination of the Latin race. It was believed by its advocates that this system of prescribing the conditions of construction and operation of lines could promote public safety, prevent waste of capital and secure passengers and shippers against extortionate rates. These expectations have been only partially fulfilled. Well trained as was the civil service of France, the effect of this supervision in deadening activity was sometimes more marked than in its effect in preventing abuse. Moreover, such a system of regulation almost necessarily carries with it a guarantee of monopoly to the various companies concerned, and not infrequently large gifts in the form of subsidies, for without such aid private capital will not submit to the special burdens involved. These rights, whether of monopoly or of subsidy, form a means of abuse in many directions. Where the government is bad, they are a fruitful source of corruption; even where it is good, they enable the companies to drive hard bargains with the public, and prevent the expected benefits of official control from being realized.

3. State operation and ownership is a system which originated in Belgium at the beginning of railway enterprise, and has been consistently carried out by the Scandinavian countries and by Hungary. Since 186O it has been the policy of Australia. It has generally come to be that of Germany and, so far as the finances of the countries allow, of Austria and Russia; British India also affords not a few examples of the same method. The theory of state ownership is excellent. So large a part of the railway charge is of the nature of a tax, that there seem to be a priori reasons for leaving the taxing powers in the hands of the agents of the government. In practice its operation is far more uncertain. Whether the intelligence and efficiency of the officials charged by the state with the handling of its railway system will be sufficient to make them act in the interest of the public as fully as do the managers of private corporations, is a question whose answer can only be determined by actual experience in each case. If they fail to have these qualities, the complete monopoly which a government enjoys, and the powers of borrowing which are furnished by the use of the public credit, increase instead of diminishing the danger of arbitrary action, progressiveness and waste of capital. Even in matters like public safety it is by no means certain that government authorities will do so well as private ones. The question is one which practical railway men have long since ceased to argue on general principles; they recognize that the answer depends upon the respective degree of talent and integrity which characterize the business community on the one hand and the government officials on the other.

.—On economics of construction and of operation, see Wellington, The Economic Theory of Railway Location (5th ed., New York, 1896). On principles governing railway rates in general, and specifically in England, see Acworth, The Railways and the Traders (London, 1891). On comparative railway legislation and the principles governing it, see Hadley, Railroad Transportation; its History and its Laws (New York, 1885). On the history of railway legislation in England, see Cohn, Untersuchungen über die Englische Eisenbahnpolitik (Leipzig, 1874–83). On practice concerning rates in continental Europe, see Ulrich, Das Eisenbahntarifwesen (Berlin, 1886). (Since this was published, continental passenger rates have fallen. The French translation—Paris, 1898—gives Russian tariffs.) On the question of “nationalization” (i.e. state ownership and operation), see an article by Edgar Crammond in the Quarterly Review (London) for October 1909, which cites, among other works on the subject, Clement Edwards’s Railway Nationalization (1898); Edwin A. Pratt’s Railway Nationalization (1908), and E. A. Davis’s Nationalization of Railways (1908).

The first thing a railway company in Great Britain has to do is to obtain a special or private act of parliament authorizing the construction of the line. Not that the mere laying or working of a railway requires parliamentary sanction, so long as the work does not interfere with other people’s rights and interests. An example of a railway built without any legislative authority is the little mountain railway from Llanberis to the summit of Snowdon, which was made by the owner of the land through which it passes. Such a railway has no statutory rights and no special obligations, and the owner of it is liable to be sued for creating a nuisance if the working of the line interferes with the comfort of those residing in the neighbourhood. When, however, a company desires to construct a line on a commercial scale, to acquire land compulsorily, to divert rivers and streams, to cross roads either on the level or by means of bridges, to pass near houses, to build tunnels or viaducts, and to execute all the other works incidental to a railway, and to work the line when completed without interference, it is essential that the authority of parliament should be obtained. The company therefore promotes a bill, which is considered first by select committees of the two houses of parliament, and afterwards by the two houses themselves, during which period it faces the opposition, if any, of rival concerns, of local authorities and of hostile landowners. If this is successfully overcome, and the proposals meet with the

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Rh should a small piece of cinder get into the ladle it will lodge there and not fall on the meat. Dripping-pans of block tin, with wells, are made in four sizes, ranging in price from 2s. to 3s. 6d. Wrought iron stands for these dripping-pans cost from 3s. to 4s., and basting ladles from 1s. to 2s. Extra strong wrought iron dripping-pans with wells, and mounted on wrought iron legs, range in size from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet in length, and cost from 33s. to 90s., according to size. Strong wrought iron basting ladles to accompany these appliances are made in three sizes, namely, 4, 4½ and 5 inches in diameter, costing 7s. 6d. 8s. 6d. and 10s. 6d. respectively.

Double Baking-pan and Stand.—Closely akin to the dripping-pan used in open-fire roasting is the double baking-pan and stand used in ranges and kitcheners for baking meat, poultry, etc. These are usually supplied with ranges and kitcheners when first purchased; but sometimes it is necessary to renew them. The lower pan contains water which may be added through the opening in the lower right-hand corner, made by a depression in the inner pan; the perforated shield or hood, covering the opposite corner being used for pouring off the dripping. These pans are supplied in oblong form, from 13 inches to 18 inches in length, at prices ranging from 3s. 9d. to 7s. 6d.; or square, from 12 inches to 16 inches, from 4s. to 7s. It may be added that single pans are supplied in the above sizes, oblong, from 1s. 2d. to 2s.; and square, from 1s. 4d. to 2s.

The Gridiron.—This utensil, which in its ordinary form consists of a frame supported on four short legs, one at each corner, and with round bars from front to back, and a handle at the back of the frame, is used for broiling purposes of all kinds. The round bar gridiron is made with from 8 to 12 bars, according to size, and is sold at from 10d. to 1s. 3d.

Hanging Gridiron.—The hanging gridiron consists of a double frame, similar in form to the bed or platform of the ordinary gridiron. Below the frames is a small trough or pan, in which the dripping or gravy running from the meat is caught, and above, the centre bars in each frame project upwards, forming the means of keeping the frames together when the meat is placed between them, by a wire ring, square in form, that is slipped over them. The hanging gridiron is suspended before the fire, on bars fastened to hooks, which slip over the top bar of the range. Hooks are attached to the inner frame to take slices of bacon, chops, steaks, etc., when placed between the frames, and to keep them in a proper position. These gridirons are made of wrought iron with from 8 to 12 bars, and are sold at 3s. 6d. and 5s. each, according to size.

American Grip Broiler and Toaster.—This grilling utensil is most useful and desirable for broiling steaks, chops, fish, etc. It is made of polished steel, with perforation in both plates, having their edges turned inwards. Thus it may be turned over on the fire without the escape and


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64 29th.—I paid the smith. He received to-day the plates for the forty-foot tube. Above half of them are bad, but he thinks there will be as many good among them as will be wanted, and I believe he intends to keep the rest till they return. Paid the gardener for four days which he worked with the smith. I registered sweeps to-day. By way of memorandum I will set down in this book in what manner I proceed.

I began some time ago with the last sweep which is booked in the old register (Flamsteed's time and P. D.), viz., 571, and at different times I booked 570, 569, 568, 567, 566, 565. To-day I booked 564; 563 is marked not to be registered; 560 and 561 I was obliged to pass over on account of some difficulty. The rest of the day I wrote in Flamsteed's Catalogue. The storm continued all the day, but now, 8 o'clock, it turns to a gentle rain.

30th.—I wound up the sidereal timepiece, Field's and Alexander's clocks, and made covers for the new and old registers.

31st.—I booked 558, 557, and 554; 556, 555, I was obliged to leave out on account of some difficulty.

Mem.—I find I cannot go on fast enough with the registering of sweeps to be serviceable to the Catalogue of Nebulæ. Therefore I will begin immediately to recalculate them, and hope to finish them before they return. Besides, I think the consequences of registering the sweeps backwards will be bad.

August 1.—I have counted one hundred nebulæ to-day, and this evening I saw an object which I believe will prove to-morrow night to be a comet.

2nd.—To-day I calculated 150 nebulæ. I fear it will not be clear to-night. It has been raining throughout the whole day, but seems now to clear up a little. 1 o'clock.—The object of last night is a comet.

3rd. I did not go to rest till I had wrote to Dr. Blagden


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64 consequent loss of any of the fat or gravy coming from the meat, etc., the basting process being self-acting, and the flavour of the meat, etc., being fully retained. The perforations being turned inwards, grip the meat or fish firmly, and prevent any motion from one part of the pan to another. By frequent turning the gravy, etc., is distributed over the upper surface of the meat or fish, while the under side is being acted on by the heat, and thus uniform tenderness and juiciness of the food that is being cooked is insured. It is suitable for use in the openings on the top of a cooking range or kitchener, or on the hot-plate of a close fire range or over the open fire, and it may be used as a bread toaster on the hot-plate or in front of the fire. It is made in two sizes, namely, 9 inches in diameter, sold at 2s., and 10 inches, at 2s. 6d.

Dutch Oven.—The Dutch oven, or bacon broiler or toaster, is made in different shapes, but the principle and purpose of each is precisely the same, and consists of a flat bottom with triangular sides rising from it at each end. The bottom is fitted with a shallow dripping-pan, over which, with the ends inserted near the top of each triangular sidepiece, is a bar with hooks arranged at regular intervals. On the external surface of each side is a handle, by which the utensil may be placed on or removed from the plate hanger, which consists of a sliding plate on two bars, terminating in hooks in front, to hang on the bars of the range. Attached to the sides of the Dutch oven at the very apex of each, is a cover, or flap, which, in consequence of being fixed on a swivel, may be used on either side. The advantage of this reversible cover is that by turning the utensil round on the plate hanger and reversing the flap, each side of the meat or bacon that is being cooked can be presented to the fire quickly, without turning it on the hooks. Prices vary according to size; one 10 inches long, and fitted with four or five hooks, would cost 2s. 6d.; 12 inches, 2s. 9d.; 14 inches, 3s. 6d.

Toast Grid.—The toast grid for toasting bread is a utensil used for toasting bread on the hot-plate of a range; but if the front of an open-fire range be large enough, and the heat sufficient, it may be used there with equal convenience and facility. It consists of two frames covered with wire, between which the bread is placed; the frames are supplied with wire handles, which can be held together with a sliding ring. These grids are sold at 1s. 3d. and 1s. 9d.

UTENSILS AUXILIARY TO COOKING.

Auxiliary Utensils.—To describe everything that it is possible to introduce into the kitchen for use therein is neither practicable nor desirable. From the thousand and one articles, however, that might be enumerated, some few may be selected that hold a prominent place either from the frequency with which they are brought into use, or from the obvious necessity that exists for having them at hand when required.


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BRITISH LEGISLATION] approval of parliament, the bill is passed and, after securing the Royal Assent, becomes an act of parliament. The company is then free to proceed with the work of construction, and at once becomes subject to various general acts, such as the Companies Clauses Act, which affects all joint-stock companies incorporated by any special act; the Land Clauses Act, which has reference to all companies having powers to acquire land compulsorily; the Railway Clauses Act, which imposes certain conditions on all railways alike (except light railways); the various Regulation of Railways Acts; the Carriers Protection Act; acts for the conveyance of mails, parcels, troops; acts relating to telegraphs, to the conveyance of workmen and to the housing of the labouring classes; and several others which it is unnecessary to specify. From the early days of railways parliament has also been careful to provide for the safety of the public by inserting in the general or special acts definite conditions, and by laying upon the Board of Trade the duty of protecting the public using a railway.

The first act which has reference to the safety of passengers is the Regulation of Railways Act of 1842, which obliges every railway company to give notice to the Board of Trade of its intention to open the railway for passenger traffic, and places upon that public department the duty of inspecting the line before the opening of it takes place. If the officer appointed by the Board of Trade should, after inspection of the railway, report to the department that in his opinion “the opening of the same would be attended with danger to the public using the same, by reason of the incompleteness of the works or permanent way, or the insufficiency of the establishment for working such railway,” it is lawful for the department to direct the company to postpone the opening of the line for any period not exceeding one month at a time, the process being repeated from month to month as often as may be necessary. The company is liable to a fine of twenty pounds a day if it should open the line in contravention of such order or direction. The inspections made by the officers of the Board of Trade under this act are very complete: the permanent way, bridges, viaducts, tunnels and other works are carefully examined; all iron or steel girders are tested; stations, including platforms, stairways, waiting-rooms, &c., are inspected; and the signalling and “interlocking” are thoroughly overhauled. A code of requirements in regard to the opening of new railways has been drawn up by the department for the guidance of railway companies, and as the special circumstances of each line are considered on their merits, it rarely happens that the department finds it necessary to prohibit the opening of a new railway. The Regulation of Railways Act of 1871 extends the provisions of the above act to the opening of “any additional line of railway, deviation line, station, junction or crossing on the level” which forms a portion of or is connected with a passenger railway, and which has been constructed subsequently to the inspection of it. This act further defines the duties and powers of the inspectors of the Board of Trade, and also authorizes the Board to dispense with the notice which the previous act requires to be given prior to the opening of a railway.

It may be remarked that neither of these acts confers on the Board of Trade any power to inspect a railway after it has once been opened, unless and until some addition or alteration, such as is defined in the last-named act, has been made. When a line has once been inspected and passed, it lies with the company to maintain it in accordance with the standard of efficiency it originally possessed, but no express statutory obligation to do so is imposed upon the company, and whether it does so or not, the Board of Trade cannot interfere.

The act of 1871 further renders it obligatory upon every railway company to send notice to the Board of Trade in the case of (1) any accident attended with loss of life or personal injury to any person whatsoever; (2) any collision where one of the trains is a passenger train; (3) any passenger train or part of such train leaving the rails; (4) any other accident likely to have caused loss of life or personal injury, and specified on that ground by any order made from time to time by the Board of Trade. The department is authorized, on receipt of such report, to direct an inquiry to be made into the cause of any accident so reported, and the inspector appointed to make the inquiry is given power to enter any railway premises for the purposes of his inquiry, and to summon any person engaged upon the railway to attend the inquiry as a witness, and to require the production of all books, papers and documents which he considers important for the purpose. The inspector, after making his investigation, is required to make a report to the Board of Trade as to the causes of the accident and the circumstances attending the same, with any observations on the subject which he deems right, and the Board “shall cause every such report to be made public in such manner as they think expedient.” The usual mode of publishing such reports is to forward them to railway companies concerned, as well as to the press, and on application to any one else who is interested. The reports are subsequently included in a Blue-book and presented to parliament. It should be noted that although the inspecting officer may in his report make any recommendations that he may think fit with a view to guarding against any similar accident occurring in the future, no power is given to the Board of Trade, or to any other authority, to compel any railway company to adopt such recommendations. This omission is sometimes held to be an error, but as a fact it is an advantage. The moral effect of the report, with the criticisms of the company’s methods and recommendations appended thereto, is great, and it rarely happens that a company refuses to adopt, or at any rate to test, the recommendations so made. If, on the other hand, the company is of opinion that the suggestions of the inspecting officer are not likely to prove beneficial, or are for any reason inadvisable, it is at liberty to reject them, the responsibility of doing so resting entirely upon itself. The effect of this latitude is to give the company ample discretion in the matter, and to enable the act to be administered and the object of it to be attained without undue interference.

In 1889 a very important act was passed placing upon the Board of Trade the obligation to call upon railway companies throughout the United Kingdom (1) to adopt upon all passenger lines the “block” system of working; (2) to “interlock” their points and signals; (3) to fit all trains carrying passengers with some form of automatic continuous brake. Prior to this some companies had, to a certain extent, done these things, but few, if any, were completely equipped in these respects. A reasonable period was afforded them, according to circumstances, to comply with these requirements, and at the present time the work is practically complete. In this respect the lines of the United Kingdom are far ahead of those of any other country, and a diminution of accidents, particularly of collisions, has resulted therefrom. America is now following the lead thus set, and all the most important lines in the United States have adopted block working and interlocking, but a great deal still remains to be done. In certain respects, on the other hand, America has gone further than the United Kingdom, especially in the matter of automatic signalling, and in the operating of points and signals by electrical power or air-pressure instead of manual labour. In America, also, freight trains are fitted with an automatic continuous brake, whereas in United Kingdom this appliance is required by law only in the case of passenger trains, and in fact is not fitted to goods and mineral trains except in a few isolated instances.

The above-named acts enable the Board of Trade to take all the necessary steps to ensure that the safety of passenger trains is sufficiently guarded. More recently legislation has been passed to safeguard the lives and interests of railway servants. In 1893 an act was passed by parliament giving the Board power to interfere if or when representations are made to them by or on behalf of any servant or class of servants of a railway company that the hours of work are unduly long, or do not provide sufficient intervals of uninterrupted rest between the periods of duty, or sufficient relief in respect of Sunday duty. In such cases the company concerned may, after inquiry, be called upon to submit such a

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Railways/Economics and Legislation


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2 No. 15564


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