text:
Author:Edward Frederick Lindley Wood

Works

 * Lord Halifax to Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 10, 1941)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Author:Edward Frederick Lindley Wood


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Allice


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Jewish Art

JEWISH ART. A term properly applied to art as practiced by the Jews in Palestine, before

the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, as the conditions of the dispersion afterwards did not allow of any independent art. The earliest archæological material known is their pottery, which has been found in considerable quantities, especially at Tell-el-Hesy, where Professor Petrie's systematic excavations have enabled him to distinguish several periods marked by superimposed strata of ruins. His periods are: (1) An Amorite; (2) a Phœnician; and (3) a Jewish period. Jewish designs seem mainly to be copies of Phœnician models, which were themselves copies of other Oriental arts. In the same way the Jewish glyptics were remotely derived, through the Canaanites and Phœnicians, from the glyptics of Babylonia and Assyria; the Hebrew seals, few of which are earlier than the Maccabean age, varying only by the predominance of floral and geometric design, owing to the aversion of the Jews to reproducing the human figure. Nothing remains of Jewish metalwork; carving in wood and ivory and overlaying with metal were practiced, but no works are extant; nor do we know anything of the artistic character of Jewish pictorial decoration, weaving, or erobroidery. The tombs near Jerusalem (Tombs of the Kings, etc.) and scattered throughout Palestine are similar to the late Hellenistic and Roman works of their class throughout Syria (see ), and Herod, when reviving the prosperity of Palestine, rebuilding the temple and founding Cæsarea, with its magnificent structures, frankly adopted the style of Roman art. To this time and to the succeeding century belong the few remaining ancient synagogues in Galilee. Consult: Bliss, Tell-el-Hesy (London, 1894); De Sauley, L'art Judaïque (Paris, 1858); Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquité, vol. iv. (Paris. 1882-98). See .


text:
The Flags of the World/Chapter 5

 * Flags as a Means of Signalling—Army Signalling—the Morse Alphabet—Navy Signalling—First Attempts at Sea Signals—Old Signal Books in Library of Royal United Service Institution—"England expects that every man will do his duty"—Sinking Signal Codes on defeat—Present System of Signalling in Royal Navy—Pilot Signals—Weather Signalling by Flags—the International Signal Code—First Published in 1857—Seventy-eight Thousand different Signals possible—Why no Vowels used—Lloyd's Signal Stations.

We propose in this, our final chapter, to deal with the use of flags as a means of signalling; a branch of the subject by no means wanting either in interest or in practical value.

The flags used for army signalling are only two in number if we consider their design, though, as each of these is made in two sizes, the actual outfit consists of four flags. The large size is three feet square, and the smaller is two feet square; the larger sizes are clearly more visible, but on the other hand the smaller save weight and consequently labour; and with good manipulation and clear weather their messages can be followed by observers, with ordinary service telescopes, up to a distance of twelve miles or so. The poles are respectively five feet six inches long and three feet six inches, and the flags themselves are either white with a blue horizontal stripe across the centre, or wholly blue. Only one flag is used at a time, the first being used when the background is dark and the second when light, so as to ensure under all circumstances the greatest visibility.

The person sending the signals should hold the flag pointing upwards to the left, and with the pole making an angle of about 25°, with an imaginary vertical line passing down the centre of his body. The signals are based upon the dot and dash system of Morse. The dot or short stroke is made by waving the flag from the normal position to the corresponding point on the right hand, while for the dash or long stroke the flag is waved till the head of the pole nearly touches the ground.

The Morse alphabet is so constructed that the letters of most frequent occurrence are represented by the shortest symbols, and no letter requires more than four of these for its expression, while figures are all represented by five signs.

The letters of the alphabet are thus represented:—

The following code is adopted to represent figures:—

A space about equal in length to the dash is left between each letter, and a time interval of about three times the duration between each word. This alphabet, once learned, it is evident can be utilized in many ways. Steamers, by means of short and long whistles, can spell out messages to each other; seamen, across a harbour, can communicate by waving their arms; prisoners by opening and shutting their hands. It is also utilised in the light-flashes of the heliograph, in telegraphy again, and in various other directions.

Classes are held at the School of Army Signalling at Aldershot, and from thence the knowledge permeates the Army and the Auxiliary Forces. The requirements are steadiness, intelligence, quickness of eye-sight and of action, and the power to spell correctly; and it takes a man from fifteen to twenty days, at five hours drill a day, to learn the alphabet and the proper manipulation of the flags. The standard of efficiency is ten words a minute with the large flag or sixteen with the small. If our readers will take the trouble to count the letters in the first sixteen words in this present sentence they will find that they are sixty-nine in number, and they will further find, if they take the additional trouble to translate these letters into Morse, that it will take 105 dots and 60 dashes to do it. Our readers will probably then go on to conclude that as it takes one hundred and sixty-five motions of the flag, plus sixty-eight intervals between the letters to signal these sixteen words, a speed of ten words a minute is a very creditable performance either for the sender to work off or for the receiver to read.

Besides the ordinary spelling out of the words, various arbitrary signs are used, thus a continued succession of dots · · · · · · is used to call attention to the fact that a message is going to be sent, and a series of dashes — — — — — — means that it is finished. G means "go on," R is a request to "move more to the right" and L to "shift a little to the left"; B means "use the blue flag," and W "use the white flag," K.Q is "say when you are ready," F.I means that figures are coming, and F.F indicates that the figures are finished. Those who have to receive the message may see that the background behind the transmitter is not quite satisfactory for the due observation of the flags, and they may then flash back H or O, meaning either "higher up" or "lower down," as the case may be, and in case of any misunderstanding, they will signal I.M.I, which means "please repeat," and as soon as all is clear, they will signal R.T, meaning "all right."

As our man-of-war's-men are also instructed in this system of signalling, communication can be established during an expedition between the ships and the troops on shore. The signal for communication is a white pendant with two black X.X on it. Should this special flag not be forthcoming, the X.X — · · — — · · — (see code of letters) is flashed at night or waved by the flag by day, and as soon as the preparative dots · · · · · · have been acknowledged, the message is dispatched. When the message is of a general character, nothing more need be done, but when it is intended for a particular vessel, the communication is preceded by the special sign apportioned to that vessel.

Though the Morse system has its place, as we have seen, in the drill of our blue-jackets, it does not altogether meet naval requirements. A man waving flags on board ship would be a scarcely conspicuous enough object, and intermediate vessels in a squadron would block out all view of him from those farthest off, hence naval communications are ordinarily made by means of flags exhibited from the mast head or other clearly visible position. Instead of one flag being used, our men-of-war have over forty, and these are all conspicuously distinct from each other. The messages are not spelt out, as in land operations, but the flags are used in various combinations, and the meaning of the signal is found by reference to a code-book. These flags, it is arithmetically evident, can be transposed and grouped in some thousands of different ways, and the code-book contains questions and answers to meet the very varied requirements of naval service, and the special signal hoist for each.

The first real attempt at sea-signalling was made during the reign of Charles II., when a series of signs of the most arbitrary character was devised, consisting for the most part of flags hoisted in various parts of the ship, and altering their significance as their locality was changed. The system was a very cumbrous one, and in 1780 Kempenfeldt, the Commander of the ill-fated Royal George, improved to some extent upon it, but even then the result was not very brilliant. Lord Howe, in 1792, could only make a total of one hundred and eighty-three signals. As yet, however, it had never struck anybody how much simplicity and advantage would be gained by employing numbered or lettered flags, and then using them in the thousands of combinations that such a system rendered possible. It is stated by various authorities—and even authorities have a way of copying from each other—that flags were numbered for the first time about the year 1799, but in the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen "An Essay on Signals, by an Officer of the British Navy," bearing the date 1788. The flags were numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and they are represented in our illustrations by Figs. 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, and 296. It will be seen that they are all of a very clear and distinct character. When such a number as 444 was required, it would appear to be necessary to have three flags like Fig. 290—the No. 4 of the series—but to avoid this multiplication of identical flags, a red triangular flag called a decimal, a white triangular called a centenary, and a blue triangular called a millenary, were used, and these were placed as required before the unit to be repeated. By this plan 444 would be expressed by the yellow flag, the No. 4, having below it the red and white pennants. Sometimes these flags really meant numbers, and then the required number was hoisted, plus a yellow swallow-tailed flag. Thus in answer to "How many guns does she carry?" if the response should be fifty, the five and the nought flags, Figs. 290 and 296, plus the swallowtail or cornet, as it is technically called, would be hoisted, while the same five-nought signal, without the cornet, would signify "whole fleet change course four points to starboard."

If we want to find the English equivalent of some German word, we turn to the German-English half of our dictionary, but if we required the German equivalent of our English word, we should refer to the English-German part of the book, and signal codes are in like manner divided into flag-message and message-flag. By the system we are at present discussing, we should find by referring to the flag-message half of our book, that the three flags 7, 3, 6, meant, "recall cruisers," while 8, 3, 6, signified "sprung a leak." On the other hand, if we wished ourselves to send such an order we should turn to the message-flag half of our code book, and under the heading of "Cruisers," find all the references that could concern the management of such vessels until we presently found "Cruisers, recall—7, 3, 6," and then at once proceed to hoist those particular flags. Only fourteen flags, the ten numerals, the three pennants, and the cornet, suffice for sending many hundreds of messages, but the anonymous author adds, "exclusive of this arrangement, I would propose to have the most current signals in battle made with one flag only, and these should be used on the day of battle only. A similarity between these and the flags used as the numerical signals ought as much as possible to be avoided." Figs. 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, and 286, are illustrations of some of these. The striking design of the rising sun signifies "engage the enemy." Fig. 280 is an order for "close action." Fig. 281 is an instruction to "invert the line of battle by tacking," while Fig. 282 is a direction to "force the enemy's line." It is needless to particularise them all, suffice it to say that each and all are of stirring significance. Many minds were at work on the urgent problem of an adequate system of sea-signalling, and numerous plans, therefore, were suggested. It does not appear that the one we have just referred to as an example of these endeavours to solve the difficulty was ever adopted.

The official "Signal Book for the Ships of War," compiled by the Admiralty in 1799, and afterwards amplified in 1803 by Admiral Sir Hope Popham, is of immense interest, as it was introduced into the Navy for the first time in the fleet of Nelson, and it was therefore the code of Trafalgar. In the copy preserved in the Library of the Royal United Service Museum is written, "this is a copy of the signal book by means of which the battle of Trafalgar was fought." All signals are by numbers. In the book in question, those given have been pasted over others, but some of those underneath are still visible: thus the flag that once represented one here stands for five, and the flag that heretofore was three is now seven. "If the Admiral"—an instruction in the book says—"should have reason to believe that the enemy has got possession of these signals, he will make the signal for changing the figures of the flags. The figure, which by the new arrangement each flag is to represent, is to be immediately entered in every ship's signal-book," and it is evident that one of these transpositions has been made here. The ten flags of the code are represented in Figs. 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, and 278. It is very difficult to say really how the flags were arranged for the world-famed "England expects that every man will do his duty," as the numerical significance of the ten flags was so often changed during the exigencies of war. The book we have referred to makes Fig. 270 stand for 1, Fig. 278 for 2, Fig. 275 for 3, Fig. 273 for 4, Fig. 269 for 5, etc.; and while it declares that it was by this code Trafalgar was fought, we have no evidence as to who wrote this statement. It may have been the authoritative statement of some one at the time in full possession of the facts, or a mere surmise added a dozen years afterwards by some irresponsible scribbler. On turning to the "Naval History" of James, Vol. IV., p. 34, we read "there is not, that we are aware of, a single publication which gives this message precisely as it was delivered. The following is a minute of the several flags, as noted down on board more than one ship in the fleet." He then proceeds to give them, and the arrangement that he follows is that of our illustration, his 1 being Fig. 269; 2, Fig. 270; 3, Fig. 271; 4, Fig. 272; 5, Fig. 273; 6, Fig. 274; 7, Fig. 275; 8, Fig. 276; 9, Fig. 277; and 0 Fig. 278. If he may be accepted as a reliable authority, "England" was expressed by the flags 2, 5, and 3; "expects," by 2, 6, and 9; "that," by flags 8, 6, and 3; "every," by flags 2, 6, and 1; "man," by 4, 7, and 1; "will," by 9, 5, and 8; "do," by 2, 2 and 0; and "his," by 3, 7, 0, those being the code numbers assigned to those words in the vocabulary. This necessitated eight distinct hoists, one group of flags for each word, but singularly enough the code contained no signal for "duty," so that it was necessary to spell this out letter by letter, making four hoists more, flag 4 being for "d"; 2 and 1 for "u"; 1 and 9 for "t"; and 2 and 5 for "y." As given in one or two French historical works the signal is equally short and expressive: "L'Angleterre compte que chacun fera son devoir." The story of Nelson's signal is best told in the words of the Victory's Signal Lieutenant, Pasco, the officer who received Nelson's orders to make it. "His Lordship," Lieutenant Pasco says, "came to me on the poop, and, after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, said, 'Mr. Pasco, I want to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty."' He added, 'You must be quick, for I have one more to add, which is for "close action."' I replied, 'If your Lordship will permit me to substitute "expects" for "confides" the signal will soon be completed, because the word "expects" is in the vocabulary, and "confides" must be spelt.' His Lordship replied in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, 'That will do, Pasco, make it directly.' As the last hoist was hauled down, Nelson turned to Captain Blackwood, who was standing by him, and said, 'Now I can do no more. We must trust to the Great Disposer of all events, and the justice of our cause; I thank God for this great opportunity of doing my duty.'" And Great Britain that day did not call upon her sons in vain, nor was the appeal to the God of Battles unheard, though the rejoicing of victory was turned into mourning at the loss of him who had so nobly done his duty in the nation's service.

In the Royal Navy of the present day, a special code, requiring forty-five different flags, is employed. Figs. 254 to 267 inclusive, are examples of some of these. This code, we need scarcely say, is of a confidential nature, and is not published anywhere for all the world to study. The Commercial code of International signals being now recognised by the principal maritime States of the world, is, by Queen's regulations, made use of by our men-of-war when communicating with foreign war-ships, or with merchant vessels whether British or foreign. The signal codes of the Royal Navy, when not actually in use, are kept in perforated metal cylinders, so that in case of capture of the vessel they may at once be thrown overboard. In the Library of the Royal United Service Institution may be seen the Signal book of the U.S. frigate Chesapeake, with bullets attached to it for the purpose of sinking it. In the confusion incidental to the capture of the vessel by H.M.S. Shannon, it fell into the hands of the Britisher. Besides these regulation signals of the American Navy, a second set, supplied to privateers, was also captured, marked "Strictly confidential. The commanders of private armed vessels are to keep this paper connected with a piece of lead or other weight, and to throw the whole overboard before they shall strike their flag, that they may be sunk." This also, instead of going to the bottom of the Atlantic, may be seen within half a mile of Charing Cross.

Landsmen have a notion, remembering possibly that Nelson went into action with the signal for close action flying, that when a signal is made it is to be instantly obeyed, but the present system of signalling is on somewhat different lines. The hoisting of a signal on the flag ship is preparative. The ships leading the other columns repeat the signal, hoisting their colours three-quarters of the way up the mast. The other ships each hoist their "answering pennants" to show that they have seen and understood the order. Then when the repeating ships notice that all the other vessels have answered, they hoist the signal right up as an intimation to the Admiral that this is the case. Then it is that on the Admiral's ship the signal is hauled down, thus giving the executive order for its purport to be obeyed, so that the signal is cautionary of what is coming, and the manœuvre is only executed when to the eye no instructions at all are to be seen. The answering pennant has vertical stripes—red, white, red, white, red.

Fig. 268 is the flag used by any vessel that wishes to communicate with a coastguard station, or hoisted when one coastguard station wants to send a message to another. Thus when Beachy Head has any notification to make to the neighbouring post away down at Burling Gap, the first thing to be done is to hoist at the masthead Fig. 268. When the men on duty at Burling Gap see this they hoist the answering pennant, meaning "all right, talk away," and then the arms of the Beachy Head semaphore work vigorously, or the gay signal flags flutter in the breeze and send their message across the downs.

War vessels signal to each other at night by means of the Morse system of short and long flashes, and all the large steamship lines have night signals peculiar to themselves, thus the night signal of the Orient Line is red and blue lights burnt alternately. Any vessel seeing this, knows that they are dealing with this special Line and similarly report themselves, and after this due introduction proceed to dot and dash to their heart's content.

The last two rows of flags on plate XXIII. are signals for pilots. These are either the two flags standing for P. and T. in the International Signal Code, a system we have yet to deal with, or it may be a single flag, the special pilot flag of each nation. Fig. 297 is the pilot flag of the Argentine Republic; Fig. 298, that of Brazil; Fig. 299, that of Ecuador. Fig. 300 is the pilot flag of Greece; 301, that of Japan; and 304, that of Spain. France, Mexico and Chili all adopt a flag like Fig. 278, a white flag with broad blue border, while Great Britain, Fig. 104, Germany, Fig. 302, Belgium, Fig. 303, Denmark, Fig. 305, Holland, Fig. 306, Sweden, Austria-Hungary, Italy, all fly the national flag of the country with a broad white border to it. Russia takes the Jack, Fig. 215, for the same purpose, and places this white band around it, while the United States of America takes the star-bestrewn azure canton from the national flag, Fig. 146, and similarly surrounds it with the broad band of white.

Penalties are recoverable, as they clearly should be, if any ship uses or displays signals which may be mistaken for either pilot calls or signals of distress.

The United States uses flags for its weather signals at the various meteorological stations. A violent storm is prognosticated by a red flag with a black centre. A red pennant signifies "storm approaching station," while a yellow pennant signifies "call at station for special information." A plain white flag betokens fine weather and a plain blue one rain or snow, and there are various combinations of other flags that indicate direction, intensity, velocity and so forth. It is evident that this employment of flags could be made a very valuable one.

Another instance of its use with which we are acquainted, is at the London office in St. Paul's Churchyard of the Draper's Record, one of the largest in circulation of any trade paper in the world. The citizen of London may see displayed from its roof by private enterprise the whole of the forecasts issued by the Meteorological Office, viz., the 11 a.m., the 3.30 p.m., and the 8.30 p.m. for the South of England, which officially includes St. Paul's Churchyard. A white flag is hoisted for clear weather, a blue one for rain, while local showers are prognosticated by a flag half blue and half white. Changeable weather is indicated by a flag like Fig. 267, and a coming fog by a yellow flag with black ball in its centre, like Fig. 258. Snow is foretold by a flag like Fig. 278, and squally weather by a swallow-tailed flag, having its upper half black, and the lower white. A plain red triangular flag is used to indicate temperature; when this is hoisted above other flags, it indicates rising temperature; when placed below, falling temperature; and when omitted we are to conclude that things are stationary. Thus the red flag, then below it the white one, and then the blue hoisted together, would mean that we might expect warmer weather, at first fair, but succeeded by rain, while the blue flag above the red would indicate that wet weather was before us, and a fall of temperature.

At the 1894 meeting of the National Rifle Association at Bisley a system of this kind was inaugurated, in order to give those in camp an idea of the weather that might be expected for the ensuing twelve hours, the hoisting of a blue flag indicating fine weather or moderate wind, a red one foretelling stormy weather or strong wind; green, pointing to unsettled weather or gusty wind, and a yellow flag indicating thunder or rain storms. For shooting purposes a knowledge of the strength of the wind is very valuable.

The development of a code of flag signals seems to have exercised a great fascination on many minds, and the result has been that until the general adoption of the International code things had got into a somewhat chaotic state. Some systems had many excellent points in them, while others broke down under the strain of practical use. In some cases, too, the claims of patriotism influenced the choice, it being difficult for an Englishman or an American to believe that the scheme of a Frenchman or German could possibly be better than the home-grown article.

The systems best known in this country are the Admiralty codes of 1808, 1816, and 1826, Lynn's in 1818, Squire's in 1820, Raper's in 1828, Philipps' in 1836, Eardley Wilmot's in 1851, the code of Rogers, the American, in 1854, the French code of Reynolds in 1855, and the system devised by Marryat in 1856, all being superseded by that of the Board of Trade.

The International code of signals was prepared and first published in April, 1857, in accordance with the views and recommendations of a Committee appointed by the Lords of the Privy Council. Three members, Admiral Beechey, Captain Robert Fitzroy, and Mr. J. H. Brown, the Registrar-General of Seamen, were named by the Board of Trade; one member, Admiral Bethune, by the Admiralty; an elder brother, Captain Bax, was appointed as a member by the Trinity House; Mr. W. C. Hammett and Captain Halstead were the members named by Lloyds; while the Liverpool Shipowners' Association, and the General Shipowners' Society, each, by the nomination of a member, had a voice in the discussion.

After a deliberation of more than a year, the examination of the thirteen then existing codes and due attention to any practical suggestion made to them, a mature and valuable scheme was promulgated. Eighteen flags in all, viz., one burgee, four pennants, and thirteen square flags, were employed, and these represented the consonants of the alphabet. These are depicted in the three upper rows on plate XXIV. Figs. 307 to 324, the letter it stands for in the code being placed by each flag. These flags are combined in various ways, either in twos, threes, or fours, and are always read downwards, thus Fig. 325 must be read B.D.T.F; if we read it the reverse way, as F.T.D.B, it would have an entirely different significance.

Of the two-flag signals we have three varieties. Should the burgee, Fig. 307, be uppermost it constitutes what is termed an attention signal; thus the hoisting of B.D signifies, "What ship is that?" If the upper flag be a pennant C.D.F. or G it is a compass signal; thus G.F means west-north-west-half-west. If a square flag be uppermost it is an urgency signal; thus, N.C signifies "am in distress," or N.J "am driving, no more anchors to let go."

Signals made with three flags are not classified according to the upper flag; they relate to subjects of general inquiry or communication of news. In the lower portion of Plate XXIV. we have given five examples of these. Fig. 330, flags B.P.Q, asks "Do you wish to be reported?" while the hoisting of P.D.S, see Fig. 332, replies, "Report me to Lloyds' Agent." Fig. 333, H.V.F, asks, "Do you want assistance?" while Fig. 334, G.B.H, enquires, "Has any accident happened?" Fig. 331, made up of flags V.K.C, gives the reassuring answer to both enquiries—"All safe." As weather signals, we find "barometer rising" indicated by G.F.W; "barometer falling" by G.H.B; and "barometer standing," by G.H.C. Fine weather is prognosticated by the group H.M.S; a breeze off sea is foretold in the combination H.S.V; and a breeze off land by H.S.W.

Signals composed of four flags are divided into different sections again, according to the form of the uppermost flag employed. If this upper flag be either of the pennants C.D or F, it indicates that the signal is what is called vocabulary. If the upper be the burgee—the letter B of the code—it is a geographical signal; thus, any vessel beating up channel and seeing Fig. 325, made up of B.D.T.F, hoisted from a lighthouse, would, even if uncertain before, know their position, as this signal is the one specially assigned to the Eddystone. Fig. 326, the letters B.D.P.Q, signifies that the vessel flying it hails from the port of London, while B.F.Q.T. is Edinburgh, and so on. All names of ships are expressed by four letters, thus N.V.B.Q is the code signal (Fig. 327) of the steamship Germanic; M.N.D.L (Fig. 328) that of the Hesperus; and Fig. 329, made up of G.R.C.T, is the special grouping assigned to H.M.S. Devastation. All these names are recorded in the Shipping List, so that two vessels passing each other in mid-ocean are able at once to determine each others' names if within sighting distance of the flags run up. Should we see a stately liner coming to port, flying M.T.L.Q, we recognise that it is the Australia of the great Peninsula and Oriental Line, but if she runs up L.H.T.B then she is the Orient Company's boat Orotava. Some names occur frequently, thus other Australias, belonging to various owners, are distinguished by the code signals R.L.H.V, J.T.G.K, M.P.F.C, M.Q.N.G, M.T.W.D, W.F.T.N, etc., etc. Figs. 355, 356, 357, 358, 359 are all code signals of various Australias. While the Peninsular and Oriental Company has also a Victoria, K.M.Q.F., they have no monopoly of the name. There are numerous other boats of that popular designation, but even when vessels have the same name no two vessels ever have the same code letters assigned to them. Other Victorias, for example, are differentiated, as W.Q.M.N., L.S.H.R, K.P.G.Q, M.K.C.H, M.S.P.B, M.Q.C.J, L.D.F.H, T.R.B.N, K.J.H.P, T.D.R.F, etc., etc. Figs. 350, 351, 352, 353, 354 are all Victorias; and Figs. 360, 361, 362, 363, 364 are the flag-signals of various Britannias. Our readers will see at once how distinctive they are. Figs. 335 to 349 inclusive are the special flags of well-known steamships of the Peninsular and Oriental, the Orient Line, and the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique.

Should the vessel be a yacht, it is the Aline if she shows the flags P.W.N.D; the Star of the Sea if her signal is T.N.B.H; but if it is the Meteor we shall be aware of the fact from her hoisting the four flags L.C.T.P. The flag signal of the Valkyrie is L.F.M.G.

Applications for the allotment of a code-signal, for the purpose of making ships' names known at sea, should be made, if of the United Kingdom, to the Registrar General of Shipping, Custom House, and, if belonging to a Colony, to the Registrar at the port to which the vessel belongs. If a ship to which this International Code Signal has been alloted is reported wrecked, lost, or sold to a foreigner, and her register is in consequence cancelled, the signal letters allotted to her are also cancelled, so that if the ship is afterwards recovered or re-purchased from foreigners, either in her original or some other name, new signal letters will be necessary, and the owner must make application anew for another allotment, as the signal letters the vessel originally bore may have been in the interval re-allotted.

The flags to be hoisted at one time never exceed four, and it is an interesting arithmetical fact, that, with these eighteen flags, never using more than four at a time, over seventy-eight thousand different combinations can be made. With these flags, only using two at a time, 306 different arrangements can be made, while by using three at a time we get 4,896 possibilities, and by using four at a time, we can make 73,440 changes; a total in all of 78,642 variations made from these simple elements. Marryat's code, prior to the introduction of the International, being the one most in use, twelve out of its sixteen flags were, to save expense, incorporated in the new code. Their significance was, however, entirely changed. Marryat's flags, too, were numerals, while the International code, as we have seen, has its flags named after the letters of the alphabet.

Proposals are in the air to add eight new flags to the code, the X, Y, and Z, and the five vowels, since it is held that even the great number of combinations now possible may in time not suffice. The reason for the absence of the vowels is a somewhat curious one. Directly vowels are introduced we begin to spell words, and it was found that amongst the thousands of combinations possible, would be presently included all the profane, obscene, and otherwise objectionable four-letter words of the whole world. To hoist D.B.M.N could offend no one's susceptibilities, but to run up the signal D.A.M.N in response to an enquiry is quite another matter, and it must be remembered that as this code is used by all civilised nations, a word that is merely meaningless in one country might be most offensive in another. An English Captain might hoist as a necessary signal J.A.L.P. or F.L.U.M. and see no possible objection to it, but "jalp" or "flum" might to the people of some other nationality carry a most atrocious significance.

It is a practical necessity that all connected with the sea should understand the use of the International code, therefore, the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty require that all Royal Naval Reserve men who act as Masters or Mates of ships should be instructed in its working, and the Board of Trade makes like requirements from all candidates for Masters' or Mates' Certificates. Its International character is a most valuable feature, as by its use two captains, say a Dane and a Greek, or a Russian and a Spaniard, who, on the quay, could not comprehend a word of each other's language, can at sea, by this common flag-language, come to a perfectly clear understanding of each other's need, or impart any information required. It is the only code used at the signal stations around our coasts. Lloyds' have thirty-three of these signal stations at Dover, Beachy Head, Lundy Island, Dungeness, Flamborough Head, St. Catherine's Point, North Foreland, and other conspicuous points on our line of ocean traffic, and abroad again at Aden, Ascension, Gibraltar, Bermuda, Honolulu, Suez, Perim, Malta, Teneriffe, and elsewhere, and here too, the International is the only code recognised.

This "Lloyds," that we may see daily referred to in the newspapers, is a Corporation that, amongst other marine business, distributes shipping intelligence. A Mr. Edward Lloyd, in the seventeenth century, kept a coffee house in Tower Street, which in time from the daily gathering there of merchants, captains, and others interested in marine affairs, became a centre for shipping and underwriting news and business. In the year 1692 it was moved to Lombard Street, and in 1774 the coffee supplying part of the business was abandoned and rooms were taken in the Royal Exchange. During the wars with Napoleon, the Government was often indebted to the Committee of Lloyds' for the earliest information of important events all over the world. Lloyds' has its agents in every port, and by its complete organisation and the potent aid of the telegraph, the shipping business of the world is brought day by day before us. Vessels spoken far out on the ocean are reported by the vessel that spoke them immediately on its arrival at any port. Thus a sailing-vessel journeying from London to Vancouver may be five months or more before it touches land, but during that time it is sighted by other vessels from time to time, and these report having seen it, and that all was well on board. So the mother knows that her son, who is parted from her by thousands of miles of ocean, has got thus far in health and safety; and the owners of the vessel learn that their venture has so far surmounted the perils of Cape Horn and the other dangers of the deep. The good ship is drawing nearer at each report to the end of her long voyage, and on arrival at last off Vancouver, as the land is sighted, the signal flags run up once more to the masthead, the news of her coming is flashed across continent and ocean, and the London newspaper of the next morning contains the brief notification that far exceeds to anxious hearts all else of interest its broad pages may contain.

Familiarity, though it may not necessarily breed contempt, dulls the sense of the wonder of it all, and yet how marvellous it is! We have before us the Standard, that came into our hands about seven o'clock this morning, and we find from it that yesterday the Glenshiel had arrived at Hong Kong, that the Arab, from Cape Town, had just put in at Lisbon, that the Sardinian, from Quebec, had reached Moville, that the Circassian was safely at New York, that the Orizaba, speeding on to Sydney, had at 2 a.m. passed the desolate shores of arid Perim, that the Danube, from Southampton, had at 6 a.m. entered the harbour of Rio Janeiro. Of this, and much else of the same tenor, may we read in a space of a quarter-column or so of the paper as we sit at breakfast and see pass before us a panorama of world-wide interest and extent; and to accomplish this result, the flags we have figured have been a potent factor.

Though we have covered much ground, it must have been patent to all readers who have thus far companioned us that much detail was necessarily omitted, unless our book had to grow to the dimensions of an encyclopædia. It would probably, for instance, take some fifty figures or so to give all the distinctive flags of the various government departments, official ranks, etc., of a single Great Power. We trust nevertheless that while our labours have been by no means exhaustive, they have been instrumental in showing that there is much of interest in flag-lore, and that an increased knowledge and appreciation of our subject may be one result of our pleasant labours, and prove full justification for our work.

title: The Flags of the World/Chapter 5


text: Author:William Averell Harriman

title: Author:William Averell Harriman


text:
Author:Helen Bosanquet

Works

 * Aspects of the Social Problem (1895)
 * Rich and Poor (1896)
 * The Standard of Life and Other Studies (1898)
 * The Strength of the People (1902)
 * The Poor Law Report of 1909 : A Summary Explaining the Defects of the Present System and the Principal Recommendations of the Commission, so far as Relates to England and Wales (1909);
 * Bernard Bosanquet : A Short Account of His Life (1924)
 * The Family

Translations

 * Carstanjen, Friedrich. "Richard Avenarius and His General Theory of Knowledge, Empiriocriticism" in Mind, N.S., Vol. 6 (1897).

title: Author:Helen Bosanquet


text: Author:Harry Loyd Hopkins

title: Author:Harry Loyd Hopkins


text:
The Flags of the World/Index

 * A.
 * Aargau, flag of  116
 * "Acta Sanctorum," the  38
 * Admiral's flag, R.N.  56
 * Admiralty, flag of the  71, 72
 * Agincourt, battle of  106
 * Agincourt, flags at  5
 * Agnus Dei, as device on flag  22
 * Ailsa, flag of the yacht  73
 * Allan Line, flag of the  75
 * Allotment of code signals  138
 * Ambulance flag  117
 * Ancient Irish harp  33
 * Anchor as badge  63, 71, 87, 100, 114
 * Andrew, cross of St.  4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
 * Andrew, St., of Scotland  37, 42, 44
 * Andrew, St., of Russia  103, 104
 * Andrew, St., order of  102
 * Anne, Standard of Queen  35
 * Annunciation on flag  4
 * Answering pennant  134
 * Antelope as a device  16
 * Antiquity, standards of  2
 * Antwerp, device of city of  111
 * Anvil as device on flag  7
 * Argentine Republic, flag of  124
 * Armada, defeat of the  3
 * Arms of Canada  81, 82
 * Arms of Washington  91
 * Army, flags of the  61
 * Army signalling  127, 128, 129
 * Arragon, arms of  111
 * Articles of War  56
 * Assaye, special flag for  65
 * Assyrian standards  2
 * Athene, owl of  2
 * Australian Steam Navigation Company's house flag  74
 * Austro-Hungarian flags 101, 102
 * Avondale flag  43
 * Awdeley, standard of Sir John  17

 * B.
 * Bacon on sea-power  84, 85
 * Baden, flag of  101
 * Badge  9, 13, 15, 21, 62, 66, 67, 83, 84, 117
 * Bahamas, Badge of the  84
 * Balmoral tartan  1
 * Banner, its nature  10
 * Banneroll, kind of flag  18
 * Bannockburn, battle of  44
 * Barbadoes, badge of  83
 * Barcelona, arms of  111
 * Bar, banner of Sir John de  11
 * Bardolph, banner of Sir Hugh  11
 * Basel, flag of city of  116
 * Bavaria, flag of  101, 119
 * Bayeux tapestry, flags represented in  19, 22
 * Bear as a device  1, 2
 * Beau-seant of Knights Templars  24
 * Beaver as a device  1, 30
 * Bede on flags  4
 * "Beehive of the Romish Church"  3
 * Bees of the Napoleons  106, 109
 * Belgium, flags of  23, 118
 * Bermuda, badge of  84
 * Berne, flag of  116
 * Beverley, flag of  5
 * Birkenhead, burning of the  64
 * Black and white flag of Prussia  98
 * Black as a flag colour  7, 24, 25
 * Black Swan, device of the  84
 * Blackwall line of shipping  74
 * Black Watch, the  62
 * Blenheim, battle of  64, 66
 * Blue blanket of Edinburgh  42
 * Blue ensign  40, 56, 73, 78, 83
 * Board of Trade, flag of the  71
 * Bohemia, flag of  102
 * Bolivia, flag of  23, 123
 * Bombardment of Scio  118
 * Boots and shoes on a flag  7
 * Bordered Jack  48, 58
 * Botetourte, banner of Sir John  11
 * Bourbon kings, the  107
 * Brabant, lion of  112
 * Brass of Sir John Daubernoun  18
 * Brazil, flag of  23, 24, 123
 * Brazil, pendant of  20
 * Bremen, flag of port of  99
 * Britannia, flag of the yacht  73
 * British East Africa, device of, 84
 * British Guiana, badge of  84
 * British North Borneo, badge of  84
 * Broad pendant  56
 * Brunswick, arms of  35
 * Brunswick, flag of  101
 * Buckles as device on flag  7
 * Bugle-horn as a device  15
 * Builder's square on flag  6
 * Bulgaria, flag of  121
 * Bunker's Hill, battle of  87
 * Bunting as material for flags  22
 * Burgee, variety of flag  19, 73
 * Burgundy, flag of  111, 112
 * Burning of rebel colours  70
 * Butler's "Lives of the Fathers"  39
 * Butterflies as a flag device  17

 * C.
 * Campbell on the national flag  54
 * Canada, Dominion of  10
 * Canada, flags of Dominion of  80
 * Canadian Pacific steamship line  75
 * Candlemakers' flag, the  7
 * Canterbury Cathedral, flags in  66
 * Cantonal colours  116
 * Cape of St. Martin  105
 * Cape St. Vincent, action off  41
 * Castle Line, house flag of the  75
 * Castle on flag as a device  111, 112
 * Cavalry standards  65
 * Cavers standard, the  43
 * Ceylon, device of the Colony of  84
 * Chapel of Royal College, Chelsea, flags in  3, 66
 * Chaucer, quotation from  12, 18
 * Cheering to order  102
 * Cherbourg, flag of port of  75
 * Chili, flag of  121
 * Chili, pendant of  20
 * Chinese flags  125
 * Chrysanthemum flag of Japan  124
 * Coastguard flag  134
 * Codes for flag-signalling  136
 * Coffee plant on flag  123
 * Coins, devices on  2, 88, 90, 120
 * Colombia, flag of United States of  122
 * Colonial Defence Act  78, 79, 80
 * Colonial flags  20, 40, 78
 * Colonies, value of  76, 77
 * Colour party  64
 * Colours, Queen's  61, 65, 67
 * Colours, regimental  61, 65, 67
 * Colours used in flags  23
 * Columbus, flag flown by  86, 111
 * Commodore's broad pendant  56
 * Commonwealth flags  48
 * Company or house flags  74, 75
 * Compasses as a device  6
 * Compass signals  136
 * Confederate States of America  27, 94, 95
 * Congo Free State, flag of  126
 * Conquest of Ireland  33
 * Consecrated banner  3, 103
 * Constantine, Labarum of  2, 3, 51
 * Consular flag  71
 * Consul-General, Russian, flag of  104
 * Cornet, variety of flag  19, 130
 * Costa Rica, flag of  122
 * Courtenay, banner of Sir Hugh de  11
 * Covenanter flags  24, 43, 91
 * Crescent as device  11, 15, 88, 95, 119, 120
 * Croatia, flag of  102
 * Cromwell, arms of  35
 * Cromwell, funeral of  19
 * Cross of St. Andrew  4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
 * Cross of St. George  4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
 * Cross of St. Patrick  4, 51, 53, 116
 * Crown of Charlemagne  35
 * Crowns of Ireland  33
 * Cuba, flag of  124
 * Culloden, battle of  70
 * Cunard Line, house flag of  74
 * Customs Department, flag of  71
 * Czarina, standard of the  102
 * Czar, standard of the  102, 103

 * D.
 * Dalmatia, flag of  102
 * Dannebrog, the  115
 * Demerara and Berbice Steamship Company  74
 * Denis, St., flag of  5
 * Denmark, flags of  115
 * Derivation of word flag  8
 * Desjardins on French flag  107
 * Devitt and Moore house flag  74
 * Diana, crescent of  119
 * Diplomatic Service, flag of  71
 * Dipping the flag  25
 * Dragon as a device  17, 125
 * Drayton, quotation from  15
 * Durham, St. Cuthbert of  5

 * E.
 * Eagle as a device  41, 91, 93, 94, 98, 101, 102, 105, 109, 110
 * Early Spanish flags  27
 * East Africa Company, German  100
 * East India Company, flag of  47, 89
 * East Kent Regiment, flags of  66
 * East Prussia, flag of  98
 * Ecclesiastical flags often pictorial  4
 * Ecuador, flag of  124
 * Eddystone Light flag signal  137
 * Edinburgh Cathedral, flags in  68
 * Edinburgh Trained Bands  42
 * Edmonson on flag usage  9
 * Edward the Confessor, arms of  34
 * Edward III., "King of the Seas"  25
 * Edward VI., funeral of  17
 * Egypt, ancient, standards of  2
 * Egyptian flags, modern  120, 121
 * Electoral bonnet  52
 * Elephant as a device  65, 84, 125
 * Elephant, order of the  115
 * Elizabeth, funeral of Queen  17
 * Elizabeth, thanksgiving service  3
 * Elsass, flag of  101
 * Emperor of Germany  98
 * Ensign  8
 * Ermine as a flag device  24
 * Errors in flag-making  58, 59, 60
 * Excise, flag of the  71
 * Eye as a device on flag  7

 * F.
 * Facings of the regiment  62
 * Falcon as a device  17
 * Favyn "Le Théâtre d'honneur"  4, 107
 * Fiji, badge of colony  84
 * Files represented on trade flag  7
 * Flag-book of the Admiralty  120
 * Flag-lore valuable  58
 * Flagons on trade flag  7
 * Flag-signalling  127, et seq.
 * Flanders, badge of  111
 * Flashing messages at night  134
 * Fleur-de-lys  21, 34, 36, 106, 108, 109, 112
 * Flodden, battle of  6
 * Florida, settlement of  86
 * Florin, arms on the  32
 * Fly of a flag, the  10
 * Fork and spoon on a flag  7
 * Four-flag signals  137
 * France, flags of  1, 21, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110
 * Franco-German War of 1870  97
 * Fribourg, flag of  116
 * Frogmorton, standard of  17
 * Funeral obsequies, flags at  6, 17, 18, 19, 22

 * G.
 * Garter, order of the  38
 * Gautier on the Swiss flag  116
 * Geneva Convention  117
 * Geneva, flag of  116
 * Geographical signals  137
 * George, St., cross of  4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
 * George, St., of England  36, 37, 116
 * George, St., of Russia  102, 103
 * German Unity  97, 98
 * Germany, flags of  99, 100
 * Globe on flag  63, 87
 * Gnu as a flag device  84
 * Golden Legend, the  37
 * Gonfalon, kind of flag  8
 * Government, departments, flags of  71
 * Governor-General of Canada, flag of  81
 * Governors of Colonies, flags of  81, 84
 * Grandison, banner of Sir William de  11
 * Gray, quotation from  9
 * Greater Britain  77
 * Great Seal of Canada  83
 * Great Seal of Richard I.  30
 * Greece, flag of  119
 * Green and white of the Tudors  21
 * Green as a flag colour  23, 43, 113, 123
 * Greyhound as a device  17
 * Growth of the Italian State  113
 * Guards, flags of the  65
 * Guatemala, flag of  23, 122
 * Guidon, form of flag  21
 * Guild flags  6, 7
 * Guinea Company's flag  27

 * H.
 * Half-mast high, flags at  25
 * Hamburg, flag of city of  99
 * Hammer represented on flag  6, 7
 * Hand as a device  2
 * Hanover, arms of  29, 35, 52
 * Hanover, flag of  101
 * Hanseatic League, flag of  99
 * Harfleur, siege of  12
 * Harleian MS. on flags  16, 21
 * Harp of Ireland  4, 29, 32, 33, 34, 49, 54
 * Hayti, flag of  23, 124
 * Heavenly succour  37, 42, 44, 106, 115
 * Henry V., standard of  16
 * Henry VII., flags in chapel of  12
 * Heraldic Exhibition, Edinburgh  43
 * Heraldic requirements in flag devising  23, 54
 * Hesse, flag of  101
 * Highland tartans  1
 * "History and principles of Heraldry"  10
 * Hohenzollerns, arms of the  99
 * Hoisting one flag over another  25
 * Hoist of the flag, the  10
 * Holderton, banner of Sir John de  11
 * Holland, flags of  117, 118
 * Hong Kong, badge of colony of  84
 * Horse as a device  2
 * Horsham, political colours at  8
 * House flags  24, 74, 75
 * House of Orange, flag of  117
 * Hungary, flag of  23, 102

 * I.
 * Idolatrous emblem  87
 * Illiterate voters, mistakes of  7, 8
 * Imperial Eagle  66, 101, 102
 * Inscriptions on flags  3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90, 93, 122, 123
 * International signal code  133, 136, 137, 138
 * Investiture of knight-banneret  14
 * Invocation of saints  3
 * Ireland joined to Great Britain  32
 * Iron cross of Germany  100
 * Isandlwana, battle of  63, 69
 * Istria, flag of  102
 * Italy, flags of  23, 113, 114

 * J.
 * James II., statue of  35
 * Japan, flags of  124
 * Jerusalem, arms of city of  114, 115
 * Jewish standards  3
 * Joan of Arc, standard of  4
 * Jove, Eagle of  2

 * K.
 * Karlaverok, siege of  11, 18
 * Kasan, arms of province of  102
 * Katharine of Arragon flag-making  13
 * Kempenfeldt's signal code  130
 * Key as a device on flag  15
 * Khorsabad, slabs from  2
 * Kingdom of Hungary  101
 * King's Own Borderers  63
 * Kiow, arms of province of  102
 * Knights-banneret  14
 * Knights of the Bath, banners of  12
 * Knights of the Garter, banners of  12
 * Knights Templars, banner of the  24
 * Köbel, book on costume and flags  101
 * Korea, flag of kingdom of  125

 * L.
 * Labarum of Constantine  2, 3, 51
 * Labuan, badge of colony of  84
 * La Haye's book on flags  87
 * Lamartine on the red flag  109
 * Lancer pennon  14, 19
 * Landing of Charles II.  47
 * Land of the rising sun  124
 * Laurel wreath on flag  49, 81
 * Lawyers, flag of the  7
 * Leeward Isles, badge of the  84
 * Leon and Castile, arms of  86, 110, 111
 * Liberia, flag of  125
 * Liberty, figure of  94, 118
 * Lion of Scotland  4, 29, 31, 34
 * Lions of England  4, 29, 30, 34
 * Livery colours  7, 14, 17, 21
 * Livy on Vexillum  2
 * Lloyd's signal stations  139
 * Locksmiths, flag of the  7
 * London, port of, flag signal  137
 * London Trained Bands  41, 67
 * Lone Star State, flag of the  95
 * Lord Cardross, flag of  16
 * Lord High Admiral of England  72, 80
 * Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, flag of  71
 * Lord Mayor's Show, flags at  19, 20
 * Loss of colours at Edgehill  65
 * Lothringen, flag of  101
 * Louisiana, flag of State of  94
 * Louisiana, settlement of  86
 * Lozenges as a device on flag  41
 * Lubeck, flag of city of  99
 * Lucerne, flag of  116
 * Lunenburg, arms of  35
 * Lydgate, the duty of chivalry  12

 * M.
 * Maccabees, standard of the  3
 * Machyn, diary of  6, 17, 21, 39, 111
 * Mackay, extract from  57, 58
 * Mail service flag  72
 * Mainsail emblazoned as banner   12
 * Malplaquet, battle of  64
 * Man-of-war pendant  20, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
 * Maple-leaf of Canada  30, 81
 * Marmion, quotation from  8, 18
 * Martin, description of Western Islands  1
 * Marseillaise, the  98
 * Marseilles, flag of port of  75
 * Martlets on flag  34
 * Massachusetts, flag of  3, 87
 * Mayflower, sailing of the  87
 * Mecklenburg-Strelitz, flag of  101
 * Mediæval spelling  6, 22
 * Mediterranean and New York Company  75
 * Merchant flag, red ensign  40, 47, 58, 73, 80
 * Merchant Shipping (Colours) Act  58
 * Metal-workers, flag of the  7
 * Meteorological signals  135
 * Mexico, flag of  23, 123
 * Milton, quotation from  8
 * Minotaur as a device  2
 * Minden, battle of  64
 * "Mirror for Magistrates," quotation from  15
 * Mohammedan flags often green  24
 * Monasteries, flags of  5
 * Monk, funeral of General  18, 22
 * Monogram, sacred, on flag  3, 42, 51
 * Monthermer, banner of Sir Ralph  11
 * Morse alphabet for signalling  127, 128, 129
 * Mottoes on flags  3, 4, 13, 15, 16, 24, 35, 41, 43, 49, 66, 88, 90, 93, 122, 123
 * Mutiny in the Royal Navy  25

 * N.
 * Napoleon, flags at tomb of  4
 * Nassau, arms of  29, 35
 * Natal, device of colony of  84
 * Naval Discipline Act  56
 * Naval Exhibition at Chelsea  41
 * Navy signalling  129, et seq.
 * Nelson, funeral of  18, 22
 * Neville's Cross, battle of  5
 * New Brunswick, arms of province of  82
 * Newfoundland, badge of colony of  83
 * New Granada, flag of  122
 * New Guinea, badge of colony of  84
 * New South Wales, badge of colony of  84
 * New Zealand, badge of  84
 * New Zealand Shipping Company  24, 75
 * Night signalling at sea  134
 * Nisbet on the tressure  32
 * Norie's "Flags of All Nations"  26
 * Northallerton, sacred flags at  5
 * North German Confederacy  99
 * Norway, flag of  115
 * Nova Scotia, arms of province of  82
 * Nova Scotia, settlement of  87
 * Novgorod, arms of province of  102

 * O.
 * Obsolete flags  8, 22, 26
 * Ontario, arms of province of  82
 * Orange flag  8
 * Orange Free State, flag of  23, 125
 * Order of Black Eagle  100
 * Ordnance Department flag  71
 * Orient Steam Navigation Company  24, 134
 * Oriflamme  105
 * Oudenarde, battle of  64
 * Owl of Athene  2

 * P.
 * Palmetto palm on flag  94, 95
 * Pamiot Azof, flag of the  104
 * Papal States, flag of the  23, 114, 115
 * Paraguay, flag of  122
 * Paris, arms of city of  109
 * Passion symbols on flag  6
 * Patrick, St., life of  51, 52
 * Pendant or pennant,  20, 40, 78, 93, 110, 111, 121, 129, 135
 * Peninsular and Oriental Company, flag of  74
 * Pennoncelle or pencel  19
 * Pennon, nature of the  14, 18, 19
 * Pepys, extract from diary of  55
 * Percy, banner of Sir Henri de  11
 * Percy lion  11, 15
 * Percy motto  15, 16
 * Percy standard  15
 * Persepolis, sculptures of  2
 * Peruvian flag  123
 * Pictorial flags  4
 * Pilgrim Fathers, the  87
 * Pilot flag  48, 100, 104, 134
 * Pine-apple as a device  84
 * Pine-tree flag  87, 88, 89
 * Plantagenet livery colours  21
 * Pliny on Roman standards  2
 * Poland, flag of  105
 * Political colours  7
 * Political devices on flags  4
 * Pomerania, flag of  101
 * Popham's signal code  131
 * Portcullis as a device  21
 * Portobello, capture of  41
 * Ports, flags of  75
 * Portugal, flags of  112, 113
 * Pottery, representation of flags on  89
 * Precedence a difficulty  28
 * Presentation of colours  3, 66
 * President, U.S.A., flag of  93, 94
 * Printed flags  23
 * Protectorate flag, the  50
 * Prussian eagle  98

 * Q.
 * Quarantine flag, the  25, 59
 * Quebec, arms of province of  82
 * Queen's colour  61, 65
 * Queensland, badge of colony of  83
 * Queen's Regulations  54, 55, 64, 71, 78, 81

 * R.
 * Ramilies, battle of  64
 * Rattlesnake flag  1, 13, 87, 88
 * Raven of the Danes  13
 * Rebel colors burnt  70
 * Red ensign  40, 47, 58, 73, 80
 * Red flag of revolution  25, 59, 109
 * Relics of saints worked into flag  5
 * Religious character of early flags  4, 5, 22
 * Religious service  3, 103
 * Revenue flag, U.S.A.  93
 * Rey on the French flag  107
 * Rhode Island, flag of  87
 * Richard II., standard of  17
 * Ridre, standard of Sir William de  11
 * Riga, flag of port of  75
 * Ripon, St. Wilfrid's banner at  5
 * Rolls of arms  10
 * Rome, standards of ancient  2, 42
 * Roses as a flag device  16, 21
 * Rotterdam, flag of port of  75
 * Rouen, capture of  5, 38, 112
 * Roumania, flag of  121
 * Royal Colonial Institute  76
 * Royal Horse Artillery of 1813  19
 * Royal Marines  63
 * Royal Naval Reserve  40, 56, 57, 73, 79, 139
 * Royal Navy, flag code of the  133
 * Royal Oak on coins  88
 * Royal Standard  11, 29, 34, 48, 54, 59, 78
 * Royal United Service Museum  24, 125, 130, 131
 * Royal Yacht Squadron, flag of the  72
 * Royston, political colours at  8
 * Russia, flags of  24, 102, 103, 104, 105
 * Russian American Company's flag  26

 * S.
 * Sacred monogram on flag  3
 * Salique law, operation of  36
 * Salmon as a flag device  82
 * Saluting the flag  26, 55, 56
 * San Salvador, flag of  124
 * Sarawak, flag of  125
 * Sardinia, flag of  26
 * Savoy, flag of  27, 113, 123
 * Saxe-Coburg Gotha, flag of  101
 * Saxony, arms of  35
 * Saxony, flag of  100
 * Schomburg-Lippe, flag of  101
 * School of Army Signalling  128
 * "Scotland for ever"  70
 * Scots Greys 66
 * Scottish grievance as to arms  31, 45, 46, 53
 * Scottish variation of Union flag  46
 * Scott, quotation from  8, 29
 * Servia, flag of  121
 * Seven Champions of Christendom, 38
 * Seventeenth Lancers  66
 * Shakespeare, quotation from  15, 37
 * Shannon and Chesapeake duel  90
 * Shears as a device on trade flag  7
 * Siam, flag of kingdom of  125
 * Signal-book of Chesapeake  133
 * Signalling by flags  20, 23, 127, et seq.
 * Simon de Montfort, banner of, 12
 * Skull and cross-bones device  66
 * Sledge flags of Arctic expedition  16
 * South Australia, badge of  83
 * South Carolina, flag of  87, 88, 94
 * Southern Cross  30, 80, 96
 * Sovereignty of the seas  25, 26
 * Spain, flags of  1, 24, 110, 111, 112
 * Spelling, mediæval liberty of  6, 22
 * Spenser, quotation from  36
 * Sphinx as a badge  62, 63
 * Spoon and fork on trade flag  7
 * Standard, nature of the  14
 * St. Andrew, cross of  4, 35, 42, 43, 45, 53, 116
 * Stars and bars, C.S.A.  95, 96
 * Stars and stripes, U.S.A.  59
 * St. Denis, flag of  105
 * Stewart on tartans  1
 * St. Gallen, flag of  116
 * St. George, cross of  4, 10, 14, 16, 35, 39, 41, 45, 48, 53, 84, 87, 116
 * St. Helena, badge of colony of  84
 * Storm signals by flags  135
 * "Story of Thebes," quotation from  12
 * St. Patrick, cross of  4, 51, 53, 116
 * Straits Settlement, device of  84
 * Streamer, variety of flag  20, 21
 * Strictly confidential signals  133
 * Stuart, livery colours of house of  21
 * Sun as a device  2, 17
 * Swallow-tail flag  14, 18, 93, 110, 115, 116, 130
 * Swan, black, of Western Australia  84
 * Sweden, flag of  115
 * Switzerland, flag of  116
 * Swynnerton, standard of Sir Thomas de  16
 * Sydney, Sir Philip, funeral of  18
 * Sidney, Sir Philip, on war  19
 * Symbols to express colours  74

 * T.
 * Tartans, Scottish  1
 * Tasmania, device of colony of  84
 * Telegraph Department, flag of  71
 * Tessin, flag of Canton  117
 * Teutonic, armament of the  57
 * Teutonic order, cross of the  100
 * Texas, flag of the State of  95
 * Texel, flag of the port of  75
 * "The late unpleasantness"  96
 * "Theorike and Practike of Modern Warres"  61
 * Third Dragoons  66
 * Thistle as a flag device  42, 82
 * Three-flag signals  137
 * Tiger of Korea  125
 * Titus, the arch of  2
 * Tobacco plant on flag  123
 * Torpedo practice flag  133
 * Trafalgar, Nelson's famous signal  132, 133
 * Trajan's column, standards on  2
 * Transport service, flag of the  71, 104
 * Transvaal, flag of the  126
 * Trefoils as a device  41
 * Tressure of Scotland, the  31, 32
 * Tricolor of France  40, 108
 * Trinidad, badge of colony of  84
 * Trinity, banner of the  5, 6
 * Trowel on guild flag  6
 * Trumpet banners  12, 20
 * Tudor flags  17
 * Tughra device, the  120, 121
 * Tunisian flags  120
 * Turkey, flags of  24, 119, 120
 * Twenty-fourth regiment  62
 * Tyrol, flag of the  102

 * U.
 * Union between England and Scotland 45
 * Union between Great Britain and Ireland 50, 52
 * Union flag  1, 4, 45, 47, 50, 54, 61
 * Union flag of Sweden and Norway, 116
 * Union Jack  47, 48
 * Union Steamship Company's flag  75
 * United Italy  113
 * United States of America, flag of  86, 89, 90, 91
 * Universal code for signalling  28
 * Urgency flag signals  136
 * Uri, flag of Canton of  116
 * Uruguay, flag of  122
 * Utilisation of liners as cruisers  57

 * V.
 * Valence, banner of Sir Aymer de  11
 * Valkyrie, flag of the yacht  73
 * Variation in size a sign of rank  17
 * Venezuela, flag of  23, 122, 123
 * Venice, obsolete flags of  27
 * Versailles, palace of  97
 * Vessels spoken at sea  139, 140
 * Viceroy of India, flag of  65, 81
 * Victoria Cross  63
 * Victoria, flag of colony of  80
 * Victualling Department, flag of  71
 * Virginia, settlement of  86
 * Virgin Mary on flag  6
 * Vocabulary signals  137
 * Voldermirz, arms of  102
 * Vowel flags objectionable  138, 139

 * W.
 * Waldeck, flag of  101
 * War cries  37
 * War songs  95, 98
 * Warriors' Chapel at Canterbury  66, 67
 * Washington, arms of  91, 93
 * "Watch upon the Rhine"  98
 * Waterloo, battle of  70
 * Weather signals  135, 137
 * Wellington, funeral of Duke of  18, 22
 * West Africa, device of  84
 * Western Australia, device of  84
 * Western Australia, governor's flag  81
 * West Prussia, flag of  98
 * White cross of France  107
 * White elephant of Siam  125
 * White ensign  40, 55, 59, 72
 * White horse of Hanover  63, 66
 * White horse of Kent  36
 * White Star Line, house flag of 57, 75
 * Why called "Jack"  48
 * William III., standard of  35
 * Wreath on flag  63, 66, 81
 * Wolf as a device  2
 * Wurtemburg, flag of  101

 * Y.
 * Yacht flags  100, 138
 * Yellow flag, its significance  24, 59
 * York, livery colours of house of  21

title: The Flags of the World/Index


text: Author:Ernest King

title: Author:Ernest King


text:
User talk:Dalauhu

Added "the impurity of eons" to the text. I would also suggest to change the title of the sutra to include "Shorter Amitabha Sutra" so that the readers can find this sutra as it is the more commonly known name of this sutra. Dalauhu (talk) 21:36, 29 June 2012 (UTC)

Changed "eons" to "the eon"Dalauhu (talk) 14:58, 1 July 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dalauhu


text:
Author:Alexander Bogdanov

Non-fiction

 * "Science and the Working Class" (1918) Науки И рабочий класс (Nauki I rabochii klass) Proletarskaya kul'tura
 * "Essays in Organisation Science" (1919) (Ocherki organizatsionnoi nauki) Proletarskaya kul'tura, No. 7/8 (April-May)
 * 'Proletarian Poetry' (1918), Labour Monthly, Vol IV, No. 5-6, May–June 1923
 * 'The Criticism of Proletarian Art' (from Kritika proletarskogo iskusstva, 1918) Labour Monthly, Vol V, No.6, December 1923
 * 'Religion, Art and Marxism', Labour Monthly, Vol VI, No.8, August 1924
 * Essays in Tektology: The General Science of Organization, translated by George Gorelik (Seaside, CA:  Intersystems Publications, 1980)

In Russian

 * Kul'turnye zadachi nashego vremeni (The Cultural Tasks of Our Time) (Moscow: Izdanie S. Dorovatoskogo i A. Carushnikova 1911)

title: Author:Alexander Bogdanov


text: Author:John Livingstone McCrea

title: Author:John Livingstone McCrea


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Marcy, William Learned

MARCY, (1780-1857). An American statesman, born December 12, 1780, at Southbridge, Mass. He graduated at Brown University in 1808, and soon entered upon the practice of law at Troy, N. Y. At the opening of the War of 1812 he entered the volunteer service as a lieutenant, and on October 22, 1812, led a successful attack upon Saint Regis, a Canadian post. For this he was soon afterwards promoted to he captain. Before the end of the war he returned to Troy, where he was active as a newspaper writer and politician, supporting the Tompkins faction against the Clintonians, and allying himself with the ‘Albany Regency’ (q.v.). After filling several minor offices,

and after a service of six years as Comptroller of the State, he was made an associate justice of the New York Supreme Court in 1829. In 1831 he was elected Senator of the United States by the Democratic Party, but resigned the office upon being chosen Governor of New York in 1832. In the Senate he served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee, and gained distinction by his defense of Martin Van Buren against the attacks of Henry Clay. In the course of a speech on the question of appointment to office, he upheld the right of the President to bestow the offices upon his political supporters, saying, “We can see nothing wrong in the maxim that to the victors belong the spoils,” thus associating his name in history with the spoils system. He served as Governor for three terms, and was nominated for a fourth term in 1838, but was defeated by William H. Seward (q.v.). He was appointed a commissioner on claims against the Mexican Government in the same year, and served in that capacity until 1842. In 1845 he became the Secretary of War in President Polk's Cabinet. His ability in this position was severely tested by the Mexican War. In the Presidential campaign of 1848 he supported General Cass. The last and most important public station in which he served was that of Secretary of State during Pierce's administration (1853-57). Among the foreign complications or treaties which demanded action on his part in this capacity were the settling of the Mexican boundary, the Canadian reciprocity treaty, Commodore Perry's negotiations with Japan, the British fishery dispute, the Ostend Conference, and the so-called ‘../Koszta Affair/’ (q.v.), which added much to his popularity. In these and in other matters Marcy successfully defended the interests of his country, and displayed the qualities of a trained statesman and accomplished diplomat. One of his notable diplomatic papers was his instructions to the American ministers abroad to appear at Court in the simple dress of an American citizen when this could be done without detriment to the interests of the United States. Marcy's death occurred at Ballston Spa, N. Y., but a few months after the expiration of his term of office. He is entitled to high rank as a statesman, while as a shrewd politician he was at his time almost unsurpassed. A short and incomplete biography was printed in the Lives of the Governors of New York, by Jenkins (Auburn, 1851).


text:
Author:Henry Morgenthau (1891-1967)

Works

 * Henry Morgenthau, Jr. to Franklin D. Roosevelt (June 18, 1940) (letter)

title: Author:Henry Morgenthau (1891-1967)


text: Author:Milo Perkins

title: Author:Milo Perkins


text: Author:James Henry Rowe

title: Author:James Henry Rowe


text: Author:Henry Lewis Stimson

title: Author:Henry Lewis Stimson


text:
User talk:Leutha

Welcome
Welcome

Hello, Leutha, and welcome to Wikisource! Thank you for. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:
 * Help pages
 * Style guide
 * Inclusion policy
 * For Wikipedians

You may be interested in participating in Add the code active projects, PotM or CotW to your page for current wikisource projects.
 * Proofread of the Month
 * Community collaboration
 * Requested texts

You can put a brief description of your interests on your user page and contributions to another Wikimedia project, such as Wikipedia and Commons.

I hope you enjoy contributing to Wikisource, the library that is free for everyone to use! In discussions, please "sign" your comments using four tildes ( ~ ); this will automatically produce your IP address (or username if you're logged in) and the date. If you need help, ask me on my talk page, or ask your question here (click  [ edit] ) and place  before your question.

Again, welcome! Beeswaxcandle (talk) 22:16, 29 June 2012 (UTC)

Revert
I reverted your change while you are probably correct in placing the spelling the user intended; it is considered poor etiquette to change a user words in discussions, or any place where their signature indicates their thoughts or opinions. We also maintain spelling errors when transcribing published works you can use Template:SIC when you notice typos in transcribed published works. Jeepday (talk) 09:24, 14 July 2012 (UTC)

OCRing?
I see that you were working with a scan without a text layer. I am hoping that you have found the OCR gadget and using that, rather than typing lots, or exporting pages, or something equally unpleasant. :-) — billinghurst  sDrewth  14:41, 8 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes, but thanks for the concern. Leutha (talk) 14:43, 8 August 2016 (UTC)

Author:Chris Knight
Does Chris Knight have works in the public domain or freely available that will be added? We only have author pages for living authors if that is the case. — billinghurst  sDrewth  08:53, 13 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Yo, Billingurst, you've hit the nail on the head - spot on! Did you know it took 43 days from posting a dejavu file on commons and arranging for Chris to send the relevant email to getting the OTRS validation. And that was only because I managed to track down someone with OTRS access at the London Meetup. If I lived somehwere more out of the way, the clock would still be ticking. Is there anyway this process can be speed up or made less painful? Leutha (talk) 16:21, 14 March 2017 (UTC)
 * As there is work coming, I will leave the page as it is. Otheriwse it is known that there is a backlog in OTRS through shortage of volunteers. Apart from suggesting that you volunteer, it would being a polite squeaky wheel on the right administrivia pages (generally Commons) or in IRC (OTRS channel) once you know that the permissions have been sent through. — billinghurst  sDrewth  23:08, 14 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Thanks for that. I did volunteer but was rejected. Do we have any people nvolved with the OTRS team specifically working in relation to Wikisource? Leutha (talk) 07:12, 17 March 2017 (UTC)

OTRS
I've had a look, and the following OTRS queues exist that have relevance to our conversation earlier: I'm not awake enough now, but I will see what I can find out about who admins those queues and what the backlog, etc is like.
 * wikisource
 * permissions-commons
 * commons

Replies are probably best here, at least initially, but please ping me. Thryduulf (talk) 01:25, 15 May 2017 (UTC)

Die Aktion
This work appearing to be mostly (or entirely) in German. As such, it is beyond the scope of the English Wikisource and should not be hosted here. --EncycloPetey (talk) 01:13, 24 June 2018 (UTC)

 * The purpose of locating it here is to organise the English translations.Leutha (talk) 03:03, 1 July 2018 (UTC)

 * Published translations? Or user-made translations? Wikisource makes a distinction in how the two are handled. --EncycloPetey (talk) 14:14, 1 July 2018 (UTC)

 * I would be grateful if you could point me to where this distinction is made. Leutha (talk) 15:41, 1 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Refer to Translations, where our Community norms are summarized. User-generated translations must reside in the Translation: namespace. Published translations should reside in the main namespace. --EncycloPetey (talk) 20:06, 1 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks Leutha (talk) 08:39, 2 July 2018 (UTC)

Claude McKay
I am setting up an Index for Harlem Shadows if you'd like to do more for Claude McKay. --EncycloPetey (talk) 18:27, 4 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Great, I have just done After the Winter, from that anthology.Leutha (talk) 18:30, 4 January 2019 (UTC)
 * There should be enough done on the Index now for you to go ahead. I did only the first page of the Contents, but there is enough there that you can copy the format to the other page-and-a-half It's great to see a key figure from the Harlem Renaissance finally getting coverage on Wikisource. --EncycloPetey (talk) 18:46, 4 January 2019 (UTC)

 * I've also set up a Wikidata item for this edition: Q60426086 --EncycloPetey (talk) 18:48, 4 January 2019 (UTC)

This page: Page:Harlem Shadows (1922).djvu/46 should help you format poems.

This page: Harlem Shadows/After the Winter will demonstrate how to transclude.

When you come to poems that span more than one page, I can help with that as well, if you need it. --EncycloPetey (talk) 19:08, 4 January 2019 (UTC)

 * As regards the Introduction by Max Eastman (1883 – 1969), this would appear to still be under copyright? Leutha (talk) 06:58, 5 January 2019 (UTC)

 * No. The book was published in the United States in 1922. Anything published before 1 January 1924 is public domain in the United states. It may still be considered under copyright in other countries, but not in the United States. --EncycloPetey (talk) 14:27, 5 January 2019 (UTC)

 * Thanks. Leutha (talk) 14:25, 6 January 2019 (UTC)

The Liberator
The "class" and "subclass" in the Portal header refer to the Library of Congress cataloging system. "AP" is the prefix in that catalog for general periodicals. --EncycloPetey (talk) 15:45, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

International Planning for Freedom
If this was published in 1942, it's unlikely to be free of copyright. --EncycloPetey (talk) 19:10, 20 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Why? Leutha (talk) 19:12, 20 February 2019 (UTC)
 * Anything published by Blackwell is likely to be registered for US copyright, which grants 95 years of protection, provided there was renewal. Major publishers typically seek renewal for their titles. Did you check US copyright registry and renewals? --EncycloPetey (talk)
 * I have added info about copyright renewal to Author:Otto Neurath. It does not include International Planning for Freedom.Leutha (talk) 20:26, 20 February 2019 (UTC)
 * I assume you'll soon be adding the text? On Wikisource, we don't support pages for texts unless the text is on the page. --EncycloPetey (talk) 20:59, 20 February 2019 (UTC)

Licensing
Reminder: Every work hosted on Wikisource must bear a license statement. For Claude McKay works published before 1923, this would be --EncycloPetey (talk) 16:41, 16 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks Leutha (talk) 16:43, 16 May 2019 (UTC)

When you are working on a book of poems, all by the same author, it isn't necessary to place a license template on every page. Putting the license on the main page of the work is sufficient to cover the contents of the entire collection. --EncycloPetey (talk) 21:06, 26 May 2019 (UTC)

OK, but often the poems appear in different editions, sometimes the same sometimes a bit different. Also, with McKay' Spring in New Hampshire, it has a preface by I. A. Richards who lived until 1979. This is why I haven't tried to tackle this one yet? Leutha (talk) 21:10, 26 May 2019 (UTC)
 * For the "Spring in new Hampshire" volume, the work will still be pre-1923 for US copyright law. For Wikisource hosting the work, this is the information that matters, since the work was published in the US and the Wikimedia servers are located in the US. However, for editors working outside the US, such as those in the EU, they may not wish to proofread the preface because it will have a different license from the rest of the work.

 * As for editions: When the poems appear in different forms (editions), in different publications, we create a Versions page separate from all the editions. This Versions page lists all the different editions and bears a license for the poem. The different editions are sometimes the result of revision by the author, and sometimes are the result of an editor making decisions, and sometimes the printer making decisions. If the differences are substantial, then we usually note this in the header of the Versions page. But the license for the publication (in which a poem appears) should apply equally to all poems included in the volume, even if the poems have been revised.

 * For an example of a simple Versions page see Hope (Brontë). For information about Versions pages, see Versions. --EncycloPetey (talk) 21:33, 26 May 2019 (UTC)

Thanks for that. As it happens "Spring in new Hampshire" was published in London. Although an American edition was planned, I believe it never actually materialised. Leutha (talk) 21:47, 26 May 2019 (UTC)
 * If the book was only ever published in London, then the scan can't be uploaded to Commons because the Preface will still be under copyright in the EU (where it was published). I understand now your reservations about working on it. However, Wikisource can upload a local copy of the scan because any work published before 1924 is PD in the US regardless of where it was published. Wikisource allows for this situation where the work is PD in the US, but not in its country of publication. I can perform the upload, so that you would not be taking any action that might violate copyright on your part. --EncycloPetey (talk) 22:04, 26 May 2019 (UTC)

Thanks, That's brilliant. Leutha (talk) 22:23, 26 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Upload completed and Index page set up. All linked from Author:Claude McKay. I have also proofread the Preface for you. --EncycloPetey (talk) 22:57, 26 May 2019 (UTC)

Your input is requested at Proposed deletions
Hi Leutha,

A number of related pages that you added have been proposed for deletion. Your input is request in the discussion at WS:PD#special:prefixindex/Proletarskaya. --Xover (talk) 21:59, 17 January 2021 (UTC)

Translation:Proletarskaya Kul'tura No.17-19, August – December, 1920 and the like
Hi. Our local style would be to have all these works as subpages of Translation:Proletarskaya Kul'tura rather than each to have its own root page. This keeps it true to the journal, and enables ease of navigation and collection. — billinghurst  sDrewth  21:29, 4 February 2021 (UTC)
 * All pages related to this work have now been moved to subpages and links adjusted.

 * However, this was just a coarse cleanup to get them all as subpages, so we may want to put more thought into the final subpage structure before adding a lot of content (and links). Primarily, we wouldn't usually include the dates etc. in the page name, so these should probably be something like . That will also make linking easier, especially as you add individual articles (which will be subpages under the issue). --Xover (talk) 20:32, 2 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for that, @Xover, I have removed the dates.Leutha (talk) 14:57, 3 April 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Leutha


text:
Author:Grace Tully

Works

 * Grace Tully to Navy Code Room (December 10, 1941)

title: Author:Grace Tully


text:
Author:John Gilbert Winant

Works

 * John Winant to Franklin D. Roosevelt (November 14, 1941)

title: Author:John Gilbert Winant


text: Index:A Picturesque Tour of the Island of Jamaica.djvu


text: Author:Marguerite LeHand

title: Author:Marguerite LeHand


text:
Translation:Proletarskaya Kul'tura/No.7-8/Essays in Organisation Science

I The unity of the organisational point of view
Throughout humanity's struggle with the elements, their task has been to assert their power over nature. Power is the attitude of the organiser to organised. Humanity successfully procedes step by step, which means that step by step they organise the world - for themselves and for their own advantage. This is the meaning and content of humanity's secular work.

However Nature resists humanity, with a countless and endless army of elements, whose tremendous force is spontaneous and blind, dark and chaotic. To defeat Nature, humanity must organise itself into a mighty army. And this organising has been going on for a number of centuries, from when labor groups emerged from small tribal primitive communities to the modern era of co-operation of hundreds of millions of people. This is still unconscious but very real.

If humanity organised itself in face of the world only using those forces and means which have been granted by nature, humanity would have gained no advantage over other living beings, who are also fighting for themselves against the rest of nature. However humanity takes tools from external nature and implements it in their work. This is the basis of success. This gave and continues to give humanity a growing superiority over even the most powerful and fearsome threats. This is how life that sets humanity apart from the rest of her kingdom. But humanity faces an even more difficult task for humanity - to organise themselves, their efforts, their activity at the individual and at the collective level. There are contradictions hidden amongst the complexity of the human body and natural forces of society. These contradictions can be as menacing and destructive, as the very forces of nature, which spawned mankind. Fate has made us witnesses of the monstrous immensity of total warfare. The full story is played out through chains of history, covered with fire and blood, full of the subjugation of millions to the horrors of starvation and hard labour while the few enjoy the parasitic luxury which arises from their cruel domination. The self-organisation of humanity is the struggle with our inner spontaneity, at a biological and social level. Just as humanity takes up tools to fight external nature, the tools of the organisation are no less necessary to humanity. Mankind produces them only with great difficulty and great sacrifices.
 * The first such instrument was the word. All the conscious co-operation of people is facilitated through the word: a call for work, in the form of requests or orders combining staff, and the distribution of roles between them in their work, an indication of the sequence and context of their activities, encouragement to work, concentrating their forces, a warning where a disagreement starts, stops work, rearrangement, change of direction of effort - all this is done verbally. Giant teams are created by the power of words, and giant teams are managed by this power. The people of the twentieth century saw the imperious word direct millions of people in an unprecedented hell of iron and dynamite to kill and die. ... No wonder the old way of thinking, immersed in innocence, gave rise to the myth of the creation of the world in a word. No wonder people believed in the limitless power of the word over the elements: water and mountains, storms and tempests, disease and death all thought to obey those who knew and spoke the proper word ... The organising power of these instruments was fetishised and generalised to the whole world. But this broke free from the primitive mind, just as it can break free from the modern mind.
 * The second such instrument is more complex and subtle, it is the idea. The idea fulfils its role in the organisational scheme as technical regulations, scientific knowledge, or artistic concepts, whether expressed in words, other signs, images or art. The idea of the direct technical and apparently co-ordinated employment of the efforts of people up to the scientific level - does the same thing only more indirectly and on a broader scale. It becomes an instrument of the highest order, as illustrated by the scientific technology of our era, by the idea of art is a living tool for rallying the team in the unity of perception, feelings, moods. In this way we are brought up one for our life in the community, we are prepared for the organisational elements of the group, we are introduced to its internal structure. The old way of thinking was vaguely aware the organisational role of ideas, seeing them as guidance from above: the latest in most cases and it has lost consciousness(?).
 * The third such instrument is the social norm. In all its forms - a custom, law, morality, decency - the social norm sets the attitudes of people in the collective, and fixes their relationship. Thus patriarchal consciousness created the specifc rules of its times understood as a legacy of the ancestors or the command of the gods, fetishised, to suit the collective life, and the latest abstract thinking. It did not penetrate into the socio-organisational nature of these regulations. Nor did it seek the spiritual foundations of their individual experiences.

Where does humanity find such instruments as speech, ideas and norms? Not from external nature, as with material tools, but from our own nature - from our activities and experiences, from my experience. All of this - the products of organising experience are performed by mankind in the course of millennia. The word is not an empty phrase. The social views and aspirations are crystalised and passed amongst the collective from person to person, as with more complex forms of ideology.

We can now summarise how the overall scheme of the content of human life unfolds before us. Let's summarise: Engels, the founding father of scientific socialism, created the formula: the production of people, the production of things and the production of ideas. The term "production" contains hidden within it the concept of organizing activities. Let's refine the formula more accurately: the organisation of the external forces of nature, the organisation of human power, the organisation of experience.

So what have we found out? Mankind has no activities other than the institutional; there are no problems other than the organisational. Do we not see destructive work of disorganisation wherever we look? Yes, but it is - a special case of the same trend. We are in a society, where classes and groups face each other in a destructive way. They disorganise one another, precisely because each such group seeks to organise the world and humanity for themselves in their own way. This is the result of isolation in which social forces are organised separately - they do not reach a point of unity with a shared simplified organisation. This is the struggle of organisational forms.

So, the conclusion is confirmed: all the interests of mankind are organizational. And from this it follows: there cannot and should not be any other point of view on life and the world, except for the organizational one. And if this is not yet admitted, it is only because people's thinking has not yet completely broken out of the shells of fetishism that enveloped it on the path of development.

Well, so be it: we, people, the organisers of nature, ourselves, our experience, our practice, cognition, and artistic creativity, we will consider this from an organisational point of view. But is spontaneous nature an organiser? Wouldn't it be naive subjectivism or poetic fantasy to apply the same point of view to her events and actions?

Yes, of course, nature is the great first organiser; and humanity itself is only one of its organisational products. The simplest of living cells, visible only at a thousandfold magnifications, in complexity and perfection of organisation far surpasses everything that humanity can organise. It is a student of nature and is still very weak.

But if the phenomena of life can be investigated and understood as organisational processes, is there not apart from them a vast area of the "inorganic" world, a dead nature that is not organised? Yes, life is a small part of the universe, lost in the ocean of infinity; but non-living, "non-organic" does not mean unorganised. Until recently, this old delusion reigned over the thought of mankind precisely because of its organisational weakness; it comes to an end.

Science now destroys the impassable boundaries between living and dead nature, fills the gap between them. The world of crystals has revealed the typical properties of organized bodies, which were previously considered exclusively characterizing the kingdom of life: a crystal in a saturated solution maintains its shape by "metabolism"; it repairs any damage, as if "healing the wound"; under certain conditions of supersaturation, it "multiplies", etc. And the connections of the kingdom of crystals with the rest of inorganic nature are such that there can be no question of fundamental, unconditional differences. Among liquids there are formations, the so-called "flowing crystals", which have most of the crystalline properties. And supposedly "living crystals" Lehmann, obtained at known temperatures from para-azoxy-brown ethyl ether are capable of not only multiplying by fission and "copulating", that is, merge in pairs, but also feed and grow, taking matter inward, and move like amoebas: all the essential features that are usually determined by the lower unicellular organisms.

However, even a simple drop of dew on a leaf of grass in an atmosphere supersaturated with steam grows and multiplies by fission. And its surface layer, which is physically similar to an elastic film, "protects" its shape like thin elastic membranes of many living cells, for example, bacteria.

It would be strange to consider the graceful, titanically stable systems of suns with their planets that have taken shape in myriads of centuries as "unorganised". But for the modern theory, the structure of each atom is the same in its type, with its striking stability based on the immeasurably fast, cyclically closed movements of its elements.

Complete disorganisation is a concept without meaning. This is, in essence, the same as naked nothingness. In it one must accept the absence of any connection; but that in which there is no connection can present no resistance to our effort; but only in resistance do we learn about the existence of things; therefore, for us there is no being here. And one can think of absolute incoherence only verbally, no real, living representation can be put into these words, because an absolutely incoherent representation is not an idea at all and, in general, is nothing.

Even the imaginary emptiness of the world space – the world ether – is not devoid of a lower, elementary organisation: and it has resistance; only with a limited speed does the movement penetrate through it; and when the speed of a moving body increases, then, according to the ideas of modern mechanics, this resistance also grows, first with an imperceptible slowness, then ever faster; and at the limit equal to the speed of light, it becomes completely irresistible – infinitely great.

So, proceeding from the facts of experience and ideas of modern science, we inevitably come to the only integral, the only monistic understanding of the universe. It appears before us as an infinitely evolving fabric of forms of various types and levels of organisation, from elements of the ether unknown to us to human collectives and stellar systems. All these forms, in their mutual interweaving and mutual struggle, in their constant changes, form a world organisational process, infinitely fragmented in its parts, continuous and indissoluble in its whole.

II Unity of organisational methods.
This is the organisational point of view. It is completely simple and immutable in its simplicity. What does it give us, what paths does it reveal?

It would be of little use to practice and theory if it boiled down to the philosophical proposition: "everything is organisation." Methods are needed and important for practice and theory. The conclusion in relation to them is clear: "all methods are organisational." Hence the task: to understand and study all and sundry methods, as organisational. This could be a big step forward, but on one condition: that organisational methods are scientifically generalizable.

If the organisational methods in one area were alike, but in another had other methods, completely dissimilar to them, and in a third, for example, in the organisation of things, that is, techniques that have nothing to do with the methods of organising people, i.e. economics, or the organisation of experience, i.e. the world of ideas, then it would become no easier to master them all by designating them all as organisational. It is completely different if, according to research, it turns out that it is possible to establish a connection, kinship between them, that it is possible to subordinate them to general laws. Then the study of this connection, these laws will allow people to master these methods in the best way and develop them systematically - and this will become the most powerful instrument for any practice and any theory. But which is real, the first or the second?

The deepest difference that we know in nature is the difference between spontaneity and consciousness, between the blind action of the forces of nature and the planned efforts of people. Here one should expect the greatest heterogeneity of methods, their greatest irreducibility to unity. This is the best place to start our research.

First of all, it comes across facts of human imitation of nature in the function and methods of organizational activity. Nature organises the resistance of many living organisms to the action of cold, covering them with fluffy fur, feathers or other outer coatings that do not conduct heat well. A person achieves the same results in the same way by arranging warm clothes for themself. Spontaneous development has adapted the fish to movement in water, having developed a certain shape and structure of its body. Man gives the same shape to their boats and ships, and also reproduces the structure of the skeleton of a fish: the keel and frames exactly correspond to its spine and ribs. The "sail" moves the seeds of many plants, animals with flying membranes, etc .; man has mastered the sail method and widely applies it in the memory of history. The natural cutting and stabbing tools of animals, for example, the fangs and claws of predators, were probably imitated by the knives and spears of primitive savages, etc.

The very possibility of imitation, in essence, is already sufficient proof that there is no fundamental, impassable difference between the spontaneous organising work of nature and the consciously planned work of people. There can be no imitation where there is nothing in common. But this basic community is even brighter and more convincing where a person, without imitating nature, develops the same organisational adaptations that are later found by cognition.

The entire history of the development of anatomy and physiology is replete with discoveries of such mechanisms within the living body, from the simplest to the most complex, which had previously been independently invented by people. So, the skeleton of the human motor apparatus is a system of various levers, in which there are also two blocks (for one cervical and one ocular muscle); but levers were used by people to move weights for millennia before anatomists figured this out this, and blocks for many hundreds of years. Suction and delivery pumps with valves were installed long before the opening of the heart apparatus, which was quite similar to them. Also musical instruments with resonators, with sounding membranes were invented much earlier than the structure and functions of the vocal organs of animals were clarified; likewise, it is highly unlikely that that the first collecting glasses were made to imitate the lens of the eye. And the device of electrical organs in fish that possess them was investigated much later than physicists built capacitor banks on the same principle.

These are the first striking examples from one limited area in which many times more could be taken. But here is a comparison of a different kind: the social economy in humans and in higher insects. Of course, there can be no question of imitation between them. Meanwhile, both in the modes of production and in the forms of cooperation, the parallelism is striking. The construction of complex, dissected dwellings for termites and ants, the herding of many ants, which contain herbaceous aphids in the form of dairy cattle, are well known facts; the embryos of agriculture were also found in some American species: weeding out grasses around edible cereals; it is very likely that human agriculture had such a beginning. It is also well established that leaf ants breed edible fungi inside anthills in Brazil. The extensive cooperation and complex division of labour in social insects are, again, known to everyone; true, the division of labour there is mainly "physiological", that is, directly related to the special structure of the organism of different groups - workers, soldiers, etc .; but it should be noted that among people, the initial division of labor was precisely physiological, based on the difference between the male and female organism, adult, child and senile. The general nature of the organisation of ants is a patriarchal clan life; at the same time, the queen is not the leader of the work, nor the power in her community, but their living, blood connection; there are many reasons to believe that this was the role of the progenitor in the primitive forms of matriarchy in humans. There is, however, an authoritarian division of labor, at least embryonic, in the form of the so-called "slavery” in many ants; and termites, according to some indications, have leaders among the warrior caste - "officers" and subordinate "soldiers". Finally, there are many reasons to assume that ants have some kind of communication methods that allow them to transmit rather complex data, which speaks of the "articulate" nature of these methods; but it is not known whether this is sound or tactile, in which various touches of the ties serve as signs; the latter seems more likely.

The path to organizational science
The primordial unity of the organizational point of view was based on the weakness of human work-experience and the authoritarian structure of a homogeneous society. However social development overcame this weakness and created new social relations. This led to the collapse of primordial unity and the fragmentation of experience, placing it in an entirely new context.


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 1

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 1


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 2

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 2


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 3

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 3


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 4

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 4


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 5

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 5


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 6

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 6


text:
User:Leutha

 * I'm on WIkipedia
 * I'm on Wikilivres

 * The Black Prince (John Naimbanna)

Items I have worked on

 * Alfred Lichtenstein
 * The City (1913)

I am interested in the translation of the works of Alexander Bogdanov
 * Alexander Bogdanov
 * Franz Seiwert
 * Otto Neurath (after January 2016)

Useful links

 * Convert pdfs to Deja vus
 * A Culture of Copyright

title: User:Leutha


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 7

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 7


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 8

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 8


text: Henry Stimson to Franklin D. Roosevelt (November 8, 1941)


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 9

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 9


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 10

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 10


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 11

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 11


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 12

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 12


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 13

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 13


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 14

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 14


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 15

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 15


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 16

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 16


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 17

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 17


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 18

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 18


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 19

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 19


text: The Flags of the World/Plate 20

title: The Flags of the World/Plate 20