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 in the structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part in the economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it has as many as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming to it from the bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal carapace and from the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in. in length and 1 in breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths standing out from it at right angles on each side. It “floats” between the prosomatic nerve centres and the alimentary canal. In each somite of the mesosoma is a small, free entosternite having a similar position, but below or ventral to the nerve cords, and having a smaller number of muscles attached to it. The entosternite was probably in origin part of the fibrous connective tissue lying close to the integument of the sternal surface—giving attachment to muscles corresponding more or less to those at present attached to it. It became isolated and detached, why or with what advantage to the organism it is difficult to say, and at that period of Arachnidan development the great ventral nerve cords occupied a more lateral position than they do at present. We know that such a lateral position of the nerve cords preceded the median position in both Arthropoda and Chaetopoda. Subsequently to the floating off of the entosternite the approximation of the nerve cords took place in the prosoma, and thus they were able to take up a position below the entosternite. In the mesosoma the approximation had occurred before the entosternites were formed.

In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4) the entosternite has tough membrane-like outgrowths which connect it with the body-wall, both dorsally and ventrally forming an oblique diaphragm, cutting off the cavity of the prosoma from that of the mesosoma. It was described by Newport as “the diaphragm.” Only the central and horizontal parts of this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite of Limulus: the right and left anterior processes (marked ap in figs. 3 and 4, and RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two animals, and the median lateral process lmp of the scorpion represents the tendinous outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion’s entosternite gives rise to outgrowths, besides the great posterior flaps, pf, which form the diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus. These are a ventral arch forming a neural canal through which the great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and 4, snp), and further a dorsal gastric canal and arterial canal which transmit the alimentary tract and the dorsal artery respectively (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR).

In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we find in Scorpio, in the only somite of the mesosoma which has a well-developed pair of appendages, that of the pectens, a small entosternite with ten pairs of muscles inserted into it. The supra-pectinal entosternite lies ventral to the nerve cords.

In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form of the entosternite is more like that of Limulus than is that of Scorpio. The anterior notch Ph.N. is similar to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate triangular pieces of the posterior median region resemble the similarly-placed structures of Limulus in a striking manner.

It must be confessed that we are singularly ignorant as to the functional significance of these remarkable organs—the entosternites. Their movement in an upward or downward direction in Limulus and Mygale must exert a pumping action on the blood contained in the dorsal arteries and the ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio the completion of the horizontal plate by oblique flaps, so as to form an actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the rest of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the anterior chamber a physiological advantage in respect of the supply of arterial blood and its separation from the venous blood of the mesosoma. Possibly the movement of the diaphragm may determine the passage of air into or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular fibres connected with the suctorial pharynx are in Limulus inserted into the entosternite, and the activity of the two organs may be correlated.

5. The Blood and the Blood-vascular System.—The blood fluids of Limulus and Scorpio are very similar. Not only are the blood corpuscles of Limulus more like in form and granulation to those of Scorpio than to those of any Crustacean, but the fluid is in both animals strongly impregnated with the blue-coloured respiratory proteid, haemocyanin. This body occurs also in the blood of Crustacea and of Molluscs, but its abundance in both Limulus and Scorpio is very marked, and gives to the freshly-shed blood a strong indigo-blue tint.

The great dorsal contractile vessel or “heart” of Limulus is closely similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are placed in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one additional posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, Frescheville

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, Gervase


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, John (1564?-1637)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, John (1595-1666)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, John (1662-1711)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holles, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holliday, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollings, Edmund


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollingworth, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollins, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollins, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollinworth, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollis, Aiskew Paffard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollis, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollis, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Hollond, Ellen Julia


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holloway, Benjamin


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holloway, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holloway, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holloway, Thomas (1748-1827)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holloway, Thomas (1800-1883)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holman, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holman, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holman, Joseph George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holme, Benjamin


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holme, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holme, Randle


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Abraham


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Alfred


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, George (fl.1673-1715)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, George (1662-1749)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, John (fl.1602)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, John (1640?-1683)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, John (1800-1854)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, John Beck


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58 6.

They know the Chancellor has got

Some pretty livings in disposal:

Each hopes that one may be his lot,

And, therefore, smiles on his proposal.

7.

Now from the soporific scene

I'll turn mine eye, as night grows later,

To view, unheeded and unseen,

The studious sons of Alma Mater.

8.

There, in apartments small and damp,

The candidate for college prizes,

Sits poring by the midnight lamp;

Goes late to bed, yet early rises.

9.

He surely well deserves to gain them,

With all the honours of his college,

Who, striving hardly to obtain them,

Thus seeks unprofitable knowledge:


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Nathaniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, Robert (1622-1692)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, William (1689-1748)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, William (d.1851)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holmes, William Anthony


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holroyd, George Sowley


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Holroyd, John Baker


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Rh 10.

Who sacrifices hours of rest,

To scan precisely metres Attic;

Or agitates his anxious breast,

In solving problems mathematic:

11.

Who reads false quantities in Seale,

Or puzzles o'er the deep triangle;

Depriv'd of many a wholesome meal;

In barbarous Latin doom'd to wrangle:

12.

Renouncing every pleasing page,

From authors of historic use;

Preferring to the letter'd sage,

The square of the hypothenuse.


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60 13.

Still, harmless are these occupations,

That hurt none but the hapless student,

Compar'd with other recreations,

Which bring together the imprudent;

14.

Whose daring revels shock the sight,

When vice and infamy combine,

When Drunkenness and dice invite,

As every sense is steep'd in wine.

15.

Not so the methodistic crew,

Who plans of reformation lay:

In humble attitude they sue,

And for the sins of others pray:

16.

Forgetting that their pride of spirit,

Their exultation in their trial,

Detracts most largely from the merit

Of all their boasted self-denial.


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Rh 17.

'Tis morn:—from these I turn my sight:

What scene is this which meets the eye?

A numerous crowd array'd in white,

Across the green in numbers fly.

18.

Loud rings in air the chapel bell;

'Tis hush'd:—what sounds are these I hear?

The organ's soft celestial swell

Rolls deeply on the listening ear.

19.

To this is join'd the sacred song,

The royal minstrel's hallow'd strain;

Though he who hears the music long,

Will never wish to hear again.

20.

Our choir would scarcely be excus'd,

E'en as a band of raw beginners;

All mercy, now, must be refus'd

To such a set of croaking sinners.

21.

If David, when his toils were ended,

Had heard these blockheads sing before him,


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62 To us his psalms had ne'er descended,—

In furious mood he would have tore 'em.

22.

The luckless Israelites, when taken

By some inhuman tyrant's order,

Were ask'd to sing, by joy forsaken,

On Babylonian river's border.

23.

Oh! had they sung in notes like these

by stratagem or fear,

They might have set their hearts at ease,

The devil a soul had stay'd to hear.

24.

But if I scribble longer now,

The deuce a soul will stay to read;

My pen is blunt, my ink is low;

'Tis almost time to stop, indeed.

25.

Therefore, farewell, old Granta's spires!

No more, like Cleofas, I fly;

No more thy theme my Muse inspires:

The reader's tir'd, and so am I. October 28, 1806.


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Reply to some Verses of J. M. B. Pigot, Esq., on the Cruelty of his Mistress


text: The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 1/Granta. A Medley


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Rh nature, and how delighted I am with the opportunity of continuing them! But, as this is a matter that admits of being communicated, I will not excite the sympathy of my friends by mere exclamations.

The stone-works which have been built against the inroads of the sea consist, first of all, of several steep steps; then comes a slightly inclined plane; then, again, they rise a step, which is once more succeeded by a gently ascending surface; and last of all comes a perpendicular wall with an overhanging coping over these steps: over these planes the raging sea rises, until, in extraordinary cases, it even dashes over the highest wall with its projecting head.

The sea is followed by its inhabitants,—little periwinkles good to eat, monovalve limpets, and whatever else has the power of motion, especially by the pungar-crabs. But scarcely have these little creatures taken possession of the smooth walls, when the sea retires again, swelling and cresting as it came. At first the crowd know not where they are, and keep hoping that the briny flood will soon return; but it still keeps away. The sun scorches, and quickly dries all up; and now begins the retreat. It is on these occasions that the pungars seek their prey. Nothing more wonderful or comical can be seen than the manœuvres of these little creatures, with their round bodies and two long claws (for the other spider-feet are scarcely worth noticing). On these stilted fore-legs, as it were, they stride along, watching the limpets; and, as soon as one moves under its shell on the rock, a pungar comes up, and, inserting the point of his claw in the tiny interstice between the shell and the rock, turns it over, and so manages to swallow the oyster. The limpets, on the other hand, proceed cautiously on their way, and by suction fasten themselves firmly to the rocky surface as soon as they are aware of the proximity of their foe. In such cases the pungar deports himself


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184 amusingly enough: round and round the pulpy animal, who keeps himself safe beneath his roof, will he go with singular politeness; but not succeeding with all his coaxing, and being unable to overcome its powerful muscle, he leaves in despair this intended victim, and hastens after another, who may be wandering less cautiously on his way.

I never saw a crab succeed in his designs, although I have watched for hours the retreat of the little troop as they crawled down the two planes and the intermediate steps.

Oct. 10, 1786.

At last I am able to say that I have seen a comedy. Yesterday, at the theatre of St. Luke, was performed "Le Baruffe Chiozotte," which I should interpret the "Frays and Feuds of Chiozza." The dramatis personæ are principally seafaring people, inhabitants of Chiozza, with their wives, sisters, and daughters. The usual noisy demonstrations of such sort of people in their good or ill luck, their dealings one with another, their vehemence, but goodness of heart, commonplace remarks, and unaffected manners, their naïve wit and humour,—all this was excellently imitated. The play, moreover, is Goldoni's; and as I had been only the day before in the place itself, and as the tones and manners of the sailors and people of the seaport still echoed in my ears and floated before my eyes, it delighted me very much; and, although I did not understand a single allusion, I was, on the whole, able to follow the plot pretty well. I will now give you the plan of the piece. It opens with the females of Chiozza sitting, as usual, on the strand before their cabins, spinning, mending nets, sewing, or making lace. A youth passes by, and notices one of them with a more friendly greeting than he does the rest. Immediately the joking begins, and observes no bounds. Becoming tarter and tarter, and growing ill-tempered,


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Rh TO THE SIGHING STREPHON.

1.

pardon, my friend,

If my rhymes did offend,

Your pardon, a thousand times o'er;

From friendship I strove,

Your pangs to remove,

But, I swear, I will do so no more.

2.

Since your beautiful maid,

Your flame has repaid,

No more I your folly regret;

She's now most divine,

And I bow at the shrine,

Of this quickly reforméd coquette.

3.

Yet still, I must own,

I should never have known,

From your verses, what else she deserv'd;


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64 Your pain seem'd so great,

I pitied your fate,

As your fair was so dev'lish reserv'd.

4.

Since the balm-breathing kiss

Of this magical Miss,

Can such wonderful transports produce;

Since the "world you forget,

When your lips once have met,

My counsel will get but abuse.

5.

You say, "When I rove,"

"I know nothing of love;"

'Tis true, I am given to range;

If I rightly remember,

I've lov'd a good number;

Yet there's pleasure, at least, in a change.

6.

I will not advance,

By the rules of romance,

To humour a whimsical fair;


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Rh it soon bursts out into reproaches: abuse vies with abuse. In the midst of all, one dame, more vehement than the rest, bounces out with the truth; and now an endless din of scolding, railing, and screaming. There is no lack of more decided outrage, and at last the peace-officers are compelled to interfere.

The second act opens with the court of justice. In the absence of the podesta (who, being a noble, could not lawfully be brought upon the stage), the actuarius presides. He orders the women to be brought before him one by one. This gives rise to an interesting scene. It happens that this official personage is himself enamoured of the first of the combatants who is brought before him. Only too happy to have an opportunity of speaking with her alone, instead of hearing what she has to say on the matter in question, he makes her a declaration of love. In the midst of it a second woman, who is herself in love with the actuary, in a fit of jealousy rushes in, and with her the suspicious lover of the first damsel, who is followed by all the rest; and now the same demon of confusion riots in the court, as, a little before, had set at loggerheads the people of the harbour. In the third act the fun gets more and more boisterous, and the whole ends with a hasty and poor dénouement. The happiest thought, however, of the whole piece, is a character who is thus drawn: an old sailor, who, owing to the hardships to which he had been exposed from his childhood, trembles and falters in all his limbs, and especially in his organs of speech, is brought on the scene to serve as a foil to this restless, screaming, and jabbering crew. Before he can utter a word, he has to make a long preparation by a slow twitching of his lips and an assistant motion of his hands and arms: at last he blurts out what his thoughts are on the matter in dispute. But, as he can only manage to do this in very short sentences, he acquires thereby a sort of


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Rh Though a smile may delight,

Yet a frown will affright

Or drive me to dreadful despair.

7.

While my blood is thus warm,

I ne'er shall reform,

To mix in the Platonists' school;

Of this I am sure,

Was my Passion so pure,

Thy Mistress would think me a fool.

8.

And if I should shun,

Every woman for one,

Whose image must fill my whole breast;

Whom I must prefer,

And sigh but for her,

What an insult 'twould be to the rest!

9.

Now Strephon, good-bye;

I cannot deny,

Your passion appears most absurd;


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186 laconic gravity, so that all he utters sounds like an adage or maxim; and in this way a happy contrast is afforded to the wild and passionate exclamations of the other personages.

But, even as it was, I never witnessed anything like the noisy delight the people evinced at seeing themselves and their mates represented with such truth of nature. It was one continued laugh, and tumultuous shout of exultation, from beginning to end. I must, however, confess that the piece was extremely well acted by the players. According to the cast of their several parts, they had adopted among them the different tones of voice which usually prevail among the inhabitants of the place. The first actress was the universal favourite, more so even than she had recently been in an heroic dress and a scene of passion. The female players generally, but especially this one, imitated in the most pleasing manner possible the twang, the manners, and other peculiarities, of the people they represented. Great praise is due to the author, who out of nothing has here created the most amusing divertissement. However, he never could have done it with any other people than his own merry and light-hearted countrymen. The farce is written throughout with a practised hand.

Of Sacchi's company, for which Gozzi wrote (but which by the by is now broken up), I saw Smeraldina, a short, plump figure, full of life, tact, and good humour. With her I saw Brighella, a slight, well-made man and an excellent actor, especially in pantomime. These masks, which we scarcely know, except in the form of mummings, and which to our minds possess neither life nor meaning, succeed here only too well as the creation of the national taste. Here the most distinguished characters, persons of every age and condition, think nothing of dressing themselves out in the strangest costumes; and as, for the greater


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Rh part of the year, they are accustomed to wander about in masks, they feel no surprise at seeing the black visors on the stage also.

Oct. 11, 1786.

Since solitude in the midst of a great crowd of human beings is, after all, not possible, I have taken up with an old Frenchman, who knows nothing of Italian, and suspects that he is cheated on all hands, and taken advantage of, and who, notwithstanding plenty of letters of recommendation, does not make his way with the good people here. A man of rank, who is well bred, but whose mind cannot go beyond himself and his own immediate circle. He is, perhaps, full fifty, and has at home a boy seven years old, of whom he is always anxious to get news. He is travelling through Italy for pleasure, but rapidly, in order to be able to say that he has seen it, but is willing to learn whatever is possible as he hurries along. I have shown him some civilities, and given him information about many matters. While I was speaking to him about Venice, he asked me how long I had been here, and when he heard that this was my first visit, and that I had only been here fourteen days, he replied, "Il parait que vous n'avez pas perdu votre temps." This is the first testimonium of my good behaviour that I can furnish you. He has been here a week, and leaves to-morrow. It was highly delicious to me to meet in a strange land with such a regular Versailles man. He is now about to quit me. It caused me some surprise to think that any one could ever travel in this temper, without a thought for anything beyond himself; and yet he is, in his way, a polished, sensible, and well-conducted person.

Oct. 12, 1786.

Yesterday, at St. Luke's, a new piece was acted, "L'Inglicismo in Italia" ("The English in Italy").


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66 Such love as you plead,

Is pure love, indeed,

For it only consists in the word.

THE CORNELIAN.

1.

specious splendour of this stone

Endears it to my memory ever;

With lustre only once it shone,

And blushes modest as the giver.

2.

Some, who can sneer at friendship's ties,

Have, for my weakness, oft reprov'd me;

Yet still the simple gift I prize,

For I am sure, the giver lov'd me.

3.

He offer'd it with downcast look,

As fearful that I might refuse it;

I told him, when the gift I took,

My only fear should be, to lose it.


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188 As there are many Englishmen living in Italy, it is not unnatural that their ways and habits should excite notice; and I expected to learn from this piece what the Italians thought of their rich and welcome visitors. But it was a total failure. There were, of course (as is always the case here), some clever scenes between buffoons; but the rest was cast altogether in too grave and heavy a mould, and yet not a trace of the English good sense; plenty of the ordinary Italian commonplaces of morality, and those, too, upon the most common topics.

And it did not take: indeed, it was on the very point of being hissed off the stage. The actors felt themselves out of their element, not on the strand of Chiozza. As this was the last piece that I saw here, my enthusiasm for these national representations did not seem likely to be increased by this piece of folly.

As I have at last gone through my journal, and entered some occasional remarks from my tablets, my proceedings are now enrolled, and left to the sentence of my friends. There is, I am conscious, very much in these leaves which I might qualify, enlarge upon, and improve. Let, however, what is written stand as the memorial of first impressions, which, if not always correct, will nevertheless be ever dear and precious to me. Oh, that I could but transmit to my friends a breath merely of this light existence! Verily, to the Italian, "ultramontane" is a very vague idea; and, before my mind even, "beyond the Alps" rises very obscurely, although from out of their mists friendly forms are beckoning to me. It is the climate only that seduces me to prefer awhile these lands to those; for birth and habit forge strong fetters. Here, however, I could not live, nor, indeed, in any place where I had nothing to occupy my mind; but at present novelty furnishes me here with endless occupation. Architecture rises, like an ancient spirit from the tombs,


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 took measures to save himself alive, and was successful. I was not on board. I had been put ashore in New Orleans by Captain Klinefelter. The reason—however, I have told all about it in the book called Old Times on the Mississippi, and it isn't important anyway, it is so long ago.


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Rh 4.

This pledge attentively I view'd,

And sparkling as I held it near,

Methought one drop the stone bedew'd,

And, ever since, I've lov'd a tear.

5.

Still, to adorn his humble youth,

Nor wealth nor birth their treasures yield;

But he, who seeks the flowers of truth,

Must quit the garden, for the field.

6.

'Tis not the plant uprear'd in sloth,

Which beauty shews, and sheds perfume;

The flowers, which yield the most of both,

In Nature's wild luxuriance bloom.

7.

Had Fortune aided Nature's care.

For once forgetting to be blind,

His would have been an ample share,

If well proportioned to his mind.

8.

But had the Goddess clearly seen,

His form had fix'd her fickle breast;

Her countless hoards would his have been,

And none remain'd to give the rest.


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 heart differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio, in that a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as described by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6)) leading to a suppression of the more primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior lateral arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the heart itself (fig. 29).

The arterial system is very completely developed in both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute arterioles are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries; these open into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or venous sinuses. A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described by Owen, is the close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres and nerves by arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass and its out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by arteries. The connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless a very close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods in which the arterial system is well developed, e.g. the Myriapoda and some of the arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a primitive tendency in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany the nerve cords, and a “supra-spinal” artery—that is to say, an artery in close relation to the ventral nerve cords—has been described in several cases. On the other hand, in many Arthropods, especially those which possess tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course, but soon open into wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes nearer to Limulus in the high development of its arterial system, and the intimate relation of the anterior aorta and its branches to the nerve centres and great nerves, than does any other Arthropod.

An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the venous system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by Lankester to be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement has not hitherto been detected in any other class than the Arachnida, and if it should ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would have considerable weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of Limulus and Scorpio.

The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals. Its walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume of blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in each somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins, which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the lung-books to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the heart. The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by a great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In both animals the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by vertical muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus (its lateral expansions around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite through which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these veno-pericardiac vertical muscles in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus (see figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these muscles

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text:
Page:The Works of J. W. von Goethe, Volume 12.djvu/203

Rh and bids me study its laws, just as people study the rules of a dead language, not in order to practise or to take a living joy in them, but only in order to enable myself, in the quiet depths of my own mind, to do honour to her existence in bygone ages, and her for ever departed glory. As Palladio everywhere refers one to Vitruvius, I have bought Galiani's edition; but this folio suffers in my portmanteau as much as my brain does in the study of it. Palladio, by his words and works, by his method and way, both of thinking and of executing, has brought Vitruvius home to me, and interpreted him far better than the Italian translator ever can. Vitruvius himself is no easy reading: his book is obscurely written, and requires a critical study. Notwithstanding, I have read it through cursorily, and it has left on my mind many a glorious impression. To express my meaning better, I read it like a breviary, more out of devotion than for instruction. Already the days begin to draw in, and allow more time for reading and writing.

God be praised! Whatever from my youth up appeared to me of worth is beginning once more to be dear to me. How happy do I feel that I can again venture to approach the ancient authors! For now I may tell it, and confess at once my disease and my folly. For many a long year I could not bear to look at a Latin author, ornor [sic] to cast my eye upon anything that might serve to awaken in my mind the thoughts of Italy. If by accident I did so, I suffered the most horrible tortures of mind. It was a frequent joke of Herder's, at my expense, that I had learned all my Latin from Spinoza; for he had noticed that this was the only Latin work I ever read. But he was not aware how carefully I was obliged to keep myself from the ancients; how even these abstruse generalities were but cursorily read by me, and even then not without pain. At last matters came to that pitch that even the


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190 perusal of Wieland's translation of the "Satires" made me utterly wretched. I had barely read two when I was already beside myself.

Had I not made the resolve which I am now carrying into effect, I should have been altogether lost, to such a degree of intensity had the desire grown to see these objects with my own eyes. Historical acquaintance with them did me no good. The things stood only a hand's-breadth away from me; but still they were separated from me by an impenetrable wall. And in fact, at the present moment I somehow feel as if this were not the first time that I had seen these things, but as if I were paying a second visit to them. Although I have been but a short time in Venice, I have adapted myself pretty well to the ways of the place, and feel confident that I shall carry away with me a clear and true, though incomplete idea of it.

Oct. 14, 1786.

Two o'clock, morning.

In the last moments of my stay here; for I am to start almost immediately, with the packet-boat, for Ferrara. I quit Venice without reluctance; for, to stay here longer with any satisfaction and profit to myself, I must take other steps, which would carry me beyond my present plan. Besides, everybody is now leaving this city, and making for the beautiful gardens and seats on the Terra Firma. I, however, go away well loaded, and shall carry along with me its rich, rare, and unique image.  FROM FERRARA TO ROME.

16, 1786, early in the morning.

And on board the packet.

travelling companions, male and female alike, are all still fast asleep in their berths. For my part, I


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Rh

Þǣr unc hwīle wæshand-gemǣne; holm heolfre wēoll,ond ic hēafde becearf in ðām [grund-]sele Grendeles mōdor ēacnum ecgum;unsōfte þonan feorh oðferede; næs ic fǣge þā gyt; ac mē eorla hlēoeft gesealde māðma menigeo,maga Healfdenes.

  XXXI.

Swā se ðēod-kyningþēawum lyfde; nealles ic ðām lēanumforloren hæfde, mægnes mēde,ac hē mē *[māðma]s geaf, sunu Healfdenes, on [mīn]ne sylfes dōm, ðā ic ðē, beorn-cyning,bringan wylle, ēstum geȳwan.Gēn is eall ǣt ðē lissa gelong;ic lȳt hafo hēafod-māganefne, Hygelāc, ðec.” Hēt ðā in beraneafor, hēafod-segn, heaðo-stēapne helm,hāre byrnan, gūð-sweord geatolīc,gyd æfter wræc: “Mē ðis hilde-sceorpHrōðgār sealde, snotra fengel; sume worde hēt, þæt ic his ǣrest ðēēst gesægde; cwæð þæt hyt hæfdeHiorogār cyning, lēod Scyldunga,lange hwīle;

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text: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Beowulf 29

title: Beowulf (Wyatt)/Beowulf 29


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Page:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero) - Volume 1.djvu/108

68 TO M——

1.

! did those eyes, instead of fire,

With bright, but mild affection shine:

Though they might kindle less desire,

Love, more than mortal, would be thine.

2.

For thou art form'd so heavenly fair,

Howe'er those orbs may wildly beam,

We must admire, but still despair;

That fatal glance forbids esteem.

3.

When Nature stamp'd thy beauteous birth,

So much perfection in thee shone,

She fear'd that, too divine for earth,

The skies might claim thee for their own.

4.

Therefore, to guard her dearest work,

Lest angels might dispute the prize,

She bade a secret lightning lurk,

Within those once celestial eyes.


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Rh 5.

These might the boldest Sylph appall,

When gleaming with meridian blaze;

Thy beauty must enrapture all;

But who can dare thine ardent gaze?

6.

'Tis said that Berenice's hair,

In stars adorns the vault of heaven;

But they would ne'er permit thee there,

Thou wouldst so far outshine the seven.

7.

For did those eyes as planets roll,

Thy sister-lights would scarce appear:

E'en suns, which systems now controul,

Would twinkle dimly through their sphere. Friday, November 7, 1806.


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WISH to discuss in this article no less a question than the ancient metaphysical query, "What is matter?" The question, "What is matter?" in so far as it concerns philosophy, is, I think, already capable of an answer which in principle will be as complete as an answer can hope to be; that is to say, we can separate the problem into an essentially soluble and an essentially insoluble portion, and we can now see how to solve the essentially soluble portion, at least as regards its main outlines. It is these outlines which I wish to suggest in the present article. My main position, which is realistic, is, I hope and believe, not remote from that of Professor Alexander, by whose writings on this subject I have profited greatly. It is also in close accord with that of Dr. Nunn.

Common sense is accustomed to the division of the world into mind and matter. It is supposed by all who have never studied philosophy that the distinction between mind and matter is perfectly clear and easy, that the two do not at any point overlap, and that only a fool or a philosopher could be in doubt as to whether any given entity is mental or material. This simple faith


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126 survives in Descartes and in a somewhat modified form in Spinoza, but with Leibniz it begins to disappear, and from his day to our own almost every philosopher of note has criticised and rejected the dualism of common sense. It is my intention in this article to defend this dualism; but before defending it we must spend a few moments on the reasons which have prompted its rejection.

Our knowledge of the material world is obtained by means of the senses, of sight and touch and so on. At first it is supposed that things are just as they seem, but two opposite sophistications soon destroy this naïve belief. On the one hand the physicists cut up matter into molecules, atoms, corpuscles, and as many more such subdivisions as their future needs may make them postulate, and the units at which they arrive are uncommonly different from the visible, tangible objects of daily life. A unit of matter tends more and more to be something like an electromagnetic field filling all space, though having its greatest intensity in a small region. Matter consisting of such elements is as remote from daily life as any metaphysical theory. It differs from the theories of metaphysicians only in the fact that its practical efficacy proves that it contains some measure of truth and induces business men to invest money on the strength of it; but, in spite of its connection with the money market, it remains a metaphysical theory none the less.

The second kind of sophistication to which the world of common sense has been subjected is derived from the psychologists and physiologists. The physiologists point out that what we see depends upon the eye, that what we hear depends upon the ear, and that all our senses are liable to be affected by anything which affects the brain, like alcohol or hasheesh. Psychologists point out how much of what we think we see is supplied by association


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Rh or unconscious inference, how much is mental interpretation, and how doubtful is the residuum which can be regarded as crude datum. From these facts it is argued by the psychologists that the notion of a datum passively received by the mind is a delusion, and it is argued by the physiologists that even if a pure datum of sense could be obtained by the analysis of experience, still this datum could not belong, as common sense supposes, to the outer world, since its whole nature is conditioned by our nerves and sense organs, changing as they change in ways which it is thought impossible to connect with any change in the matter supposed to be perceived. This physiologist's argument is exposed to the rejoinder, more specious than solid, that our knowledge of the existence of the sense organs and nerves is obtained by that very process which the physiologist has been engaged in discrediting, since the existence of the nerves and sense organs is only known through the evidence of the senses themselves. This argument may prove that some reinterpretation of the results of physiology is necessary before they can acquire metaphysical validity. But it does not upset the physiological argument in so far as this constitutes merely a reductio ad absurdum of naïve realism.

These various lines of argument prove, I think, that some part of the beliefs of common sense must be abandoned. They prove that, if we take these beliefs as a whole, we are forced into conclusions which are in part self-contradictory; but such arguments cannot of themselves decide what portion of our common-sense beliefs is in need of correction. Common sense believes that what we see is physical, outside the mind, and continuing to exist if we shut our eyes or turn them in another direction. I believe that common sense is right in


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128 regarding what we see as physical and (in one of several possible senses) outside the mind, but is probably wrong in supposing that it continues to exist when we are no longer looking at it. It seems to me that the whole discussion of matter has been obscured by two errors which support each other. The first of these is the error that what we see, or perceive through any of our other senses, is subjective: the second is the belief that what is physical must be persistent. Whatever physics may regard as the ultimate constituents of matter, it always supposes these constituents to be indestructible. Since the immediate data of sense are not indestructible but in a state of perpetual flux, it is argued that these data themselves cannot be among the ultimate constituents of matter. I believe this to be a sheer mistake. The persistent particles of mathematical physics I regard as logical constructions, symbolic fictions enabling us to express compendiously very complicated assemblages of facts; and, on the other hand, I believe that the actual data in sensation, the immediate objects of sight or touch or hearing, are extra-mental, purely physical, and among the ultimate constituents of matter.

My meaning in regard to the impermanence of physical entities may perhaps be made clearer by the use of Bergson's favourite illustration of the cinematograph. When I first read Bergson's statement that the mathematician conceives the world after the analogy of a cinematograph, I had never seen a cinematograph, and my first visit to one was determined by the desire to verify Bergson's statement, which I found to be completely true, at least so far as I am concerned. When, in a picture palace, we see a man rolling down hill, or running away from the police, or falling into a river, or doing any of those other things to which men in such places are addicted, we know


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Rh that there is not really only one man moving, but a succession of films, each with a different momentary man. The illusion of persistence arises only through the approach to continuity in the series of momentary men. Now what I wish to suggest is that in this respect the cinema is a better metaphysician than common sense, physics, or philosophy. The real man too, I believe, however the police may swear to his identity, is really a series of momentary men, each different one from the other, and bound together, not by a numerical identity, but by continuity and certain intrinsic causal laws. And what applies to men applies equally to tables and chairs, the sun, moon and stars. Each of these is to be regarded, not as one single persistent entity, but as a series of entities succeeding each other in time, each lasting for a very brief period, though probably not for a mere mathematical instant. In saying this I am only urging the same kind of division in time as we are accustomed to acknowledge in the case of space. A body which fills a cubic foot will be admitted to consist of many smaller bodies, each occupying only a very tiny volume; similarly a thing which persists for an hour is to be regarded as composed of many things of less duration. A true theory of matter requires a division of things into time-corpuscles as well as into space-corpuscles.

The world may be conceived as consisting of a multitude of entities arranged in a certain pattern. The entities which are arranged I shall call "particulars." The arrangement or pattern results from relations among particulars. Classes or series of particulars, collected together on account of some property which makes it convenient to be able to speak of them as wholes, are what I call logical constructions or symbolic fictions. The particulars are to be conceived, not on the analogy of bricks


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130 in a building, but rather on the analogy of notes in a symphony. The ultimate constituents of a symphony (apart from relations) are the notes, each of which lasts only for a very short time. We may collect together all the notes played by one instrument: these may be regarded as the analogues of the successive particulars which common sense would regard as successive states of one "thing." But the "thing" ought to be regarded as no more "real" or "substantial" than, for example, the role of the trombone. As soon as "things" are conceived in this manner it will be found that the difficulties in the way of regarding immediate objects of sense as physical have largely disappeared.

When people ask, "Is the object of sense mental or physical?" they seldom have any clear idea either what is meant by "mental" or "physical," or what criteria are to be applied for deciding whether a given entity belongs to one class or the other. I do not know how to give a sharp definition of the word "mental," but something may be done by enumerating occurrences which are indubitably mental: believing, doubting, wishing, willing, being pleased or pained, are certainly mental occurrences; so are what we may call experiences, seeing, hearing, smelling, perceiving generally. But it does not follow from this that what is seen, what is heard, what is smelt, what is perceived, must be mental. When I see a flash of lightning, my seeing of it is mental, but what I see, although it is not quite the same as what anybody else sees at the same moment, and although it seems very unlike what the physicist would describe as a flash of lightning, is not mental. I maintain, in fact, that if the physicist could describe truly and fully all that occurs in the physical world when there is a flash of lightning, it would contain as a constituent what I see, and also what


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Rh is seen by anybody else who would commonly be said to see the same flash. What I mean may perhaps be made plainer by saying that if my body could remain in exactly the same state in which it is, although my mind had ceased to exist, precisely that object which I now see when I see the flash would exist, although of course I should not see it, since my seeing is mental. The principal reasons which have led people to reject this view have, I think, been two: first, that they did not adequately distinguish between my seeing and what I see; secondly, that the causal dependence of what I see upon my body has made people suppose that what I see can not be "outside" me. The first of these reasons need not detain us, since the confusion only needs to be pointed out in order to be obviated; but the second requires some discussion, since it can only be answered by removing current misconceptions, on the one hand as to the nature of space, and on the other, as to the meaning of causal dependence.

When people ask whether colours, for example, or other secondary qualities are inside or outside the mind, they seem to suppose that their meaning must be clear, and that it ought to be possible to say yes or no without any further discussion of the terms involved. In fact, however, such terms as "inside" or "outside" are very ambiguous. What is meant by asking whether this or that is "in" the mind? The mind is not like a bag or a pie; it does not occupy a certain region in space, or, if (in a sense) it does, what is in that region is presumably part of the brain, which would not be said to be in the mind. When people say that sensible qualities are in the mind, they do not mean "spatially contained in" in the sense in which the blackbirds were in the pie. We might regard the mind as an assemblage of particulars, namely, what


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132 would be called "states of mind," which would belong together in virtue of some specific common quality. The common quality of all states of mind would be the quality designated by the word "mental"; and besides this we should have to suppose that each separate person's states of mind have some common characteristic distinguishing them from the states of mind of other people. Ignoring this latter point, let us ask ourselves whether the quality designated by the word "mental" does, as a matter of observation, actually belong to objects of sense, such as colours or noises. I think any candid person must reply that, however difficult it may be to know what we mean by "mental," it is not difficult to see that colours and noises are not mental in the sense of having that intrinsic peculiarity which belongs to beliefs and wishes and volitions, but not to the physical world. Berkeley advances on this subject a plausible argument which seems to me to rest upon an ambiguity in the word "pain." He argues that the realist supposes the heat which he feels in approaching a fire to be something outside his mind, but that as he approaches nearer and nearer to the fire the sensation of heat passes imperceptibly into pain, and that no one could regard pain as something outside the mind. In reply to this argument, it should be observed in the first place that the heat of which we are immediately aware is not in the fire but in our own body. It is only by inference that the fire is judged to be the cause of the heat which we feel in our body. In the second place (and this is the more important point), when we speak of pain we may mean one of two things: we may mean the object of the sensation or other experience which has the quality of being painful,


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Rh or we may mean the quality of painfulness itself. When a man says he has a pain in his great toe, what he means is that he has a sensation associated with his great toe and having the quality of painfulness. The sensation itself, like every sensation, consists in experiencing a sensible object, and the experiencing has that quality of painfulness which only mental occurrences can have, but which may belong to thoughts or desires, as well as to sensations. But in common language we speak of the sensible object experienced in a painful sensation as a pain, and it is this way of speaking which causes the confusion upon which the plausibility of Berkeley's argument depends. It would be absurd to attribute the quality of painfulness to anything non-mental, and hence it comes to be thought that what we call a pain in the toe must be mental. In fact, however, it is not the sensible object in such a case which is painful, but the sensation, that is to say, the experience of the sensible object. As the heat which we experience from the fire grows greater, the experience passes gradually from being pleasant to being painful, but neither the pleasure nor the pain is a quality of the object experienced as opposed to the experience, and it is therefore a fallacy to argue that this object must be mental on the ground that painfulness can only be attributed to what is mental.

If, then, when we say that something is in the mind we mean that it has a certain recognisable intrinsic characteristic such as belongs to thoughts and desires, it must be maintained on grounds of immediate inspection that objects of sense are not in any mind.

A different meaning of "in the mind" is, however, to be inferred from the arguments advanced by those who regard sensible objects as being in the mind. The arguments used are, in the main, such as would prove the


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134 causal dependence of objects of sense upon the percipient. Now the notion of causal dependence is very obscure and difficult, much more so in fact than is generally realised by philosophers. I shall return to this point in a moment. For the present, however, accepting the notion of causal dependence without criticism, I wish to urge that the dependence in question is rather upon our bodies than upon our minds. The visual appearance of an object is altered if we shut one eye, or squint, or look previously at something dazzling; but all these are bodily acts, and the alterations which they effect are to be explained by physiology and optics, not by psychology. They are in fact of exactly the same kind as the alterations effected by spectacles or a microscope. They belong therefore to the theory of the physical world, and can have no bearing upon the question whether what we see is causally dependent upon the mind. What they do tend to prove, and what I for my part have no wish to deny, is that what we see is causally dependent upon our body and is not, as crude common sense would suppose, something which would exist equally if our eyes and nerves and brain were absent, any more than the visual appearance presented by an object seen through a microscope would remain if the microscope were removed. So long as it is supposed that the physical world is composed of stable and more or less permanent constituents, the fact that what we see is changed by changes in our body appears to afford reason for regarding what we see as not an ultimate constituent of matter. But if it is recognised that the ultimate constituents of matter are as circumscribed in duration as in spatial extent, the whole of this difficulty vanishes.

There remains, however, another difficulty, connected space. When we look at the sun we wish to know


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Rh something about the sun itself, which is ninety-three million miles away; but what we see is dependent upon our eyes, and it is difficult to suppose that our eyes can affect what happens at a distance of ninety-three million miles. Physics tells us that certain electromagnetic waves start from the sun, and reach our eyes after about eight minutes. They there produce disturbances in the rods and cones, thence in the optic nerve, thence in the brain. At the end of this purely physical series, by some odd miracle, comes the experience which we call "seeing the sun," and it is such experiences which form the whole and sole reason for our belief in the optic nerve, the rods and cones, the ninety-three million miles, the electromagnetic waves, and the sun itself. It is this curious oppositeness of direction between the order of causation as affirmed by physics, and the order of evidence as revealed by theory of knowledge, that causes the most serious perplexities in regard to the nature of physical reality. Anything that invalidates our seeing, as a source of knowledge concerning physical reality, invalidates also the whole of physics and physiology. And yet, starting from a common-sense acceptance of our seeing, physics has been led step by step to the construction of the causal chain in which our seeing is the last link, and the immediate object which we see cannot be regarded as that initial cause which we believe to be ninety-three million miles away, and which we are inclined to regard as the "real" sun.

I have stated this difficulty as forcibly as I can, because I believe that it can only be answered by a radical analysis and reconstruction of all the conceptions upon whose employment it depends.

Space, time, matter and cause, are the chief of these conceptions. Let us begin with the conception of cause.

Causal dependence, as I observed a moment ago, is a


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136 conception which it is very dangerous to accept at its face value. There exists a notion that in regard to any event there is something which may be called the cause of that event—some one definite occurrence, without which the event would have been impossible and with which it becomes necessary. An event is supposed to be dependent upon its cause in some way which in it is not dependent upon other things. Thus men will urge that the mind is dependent upon the brain, or, with equal plausibility, that the brain is dependent upon the mind. It seems not improbable that if we had sufficient knowledge we could infer the state of a man's mind from the state of his brain, or the state of his brain from the state of his mind. So long as the usual conception of causal dependence is retained, this state of affairs can be used by the materialist to urge that the state of our brain causes our thoughts, and by the idealist to urge that our thoughts cause the state of our brain. Either contention is equally valid or equally invalid. The fact seems to be that there are many correlations of the sort which may be called causal, and that, for example, either a physical or a mental event can be predicted, theoretically, either from a sufficient number of physical antecedents or from a sufficient number of mental antecedents. To speak of the cause of an event is therefore misleading. Any set of antecedents from which the event can theoretically be inferred by means of correlations might be called a cause of the event. But to speak of the cause is to imply a uniqueness which does not exist.

The relevance of this to the experience which we call "seeing the sun" is obvious. The fact that there exists a chain of antecedents which makes our seeing dependent upon the eyes and nerves and brain does not even tend to show that there is not another chain of antecedents in which the eyes and nerves and brain as physical things are ignored. If we are to escape from the dilemma which


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Rh seemed to arise out of the physiological causation of what we see when we say we see the sun, we must find, at least in theory, a way of stating causal laws for the physical world, in which the units are not material things, such as the eyes and nerves and brain, but momentary particulars of the same sort as our momentary visual object when we look at the sun. The sun itself and the eyes and nerves and brain must be regarded as assemblages of momentary particulars. Instead of supposing, as we naturally do when we start from an uncritical acceptance of the apparent dicta of physics, that matter is what is "really real" in the physical world, and that the immediate objects of sense are mere phantasms, we must regard matter as a logical construction, of which the constituents will be just such evanescent particulars as may, when an observer happens to be present, become data of sense to that observer. What physics regards as the sun of eight minutes ago will be a whole assemblage of particulars, existing at different times, spreading out from a centre with the velocity of light, and containing among their number all those visual data which are seen by people who are now looking at the sun. Thus the sun of eight minutes ago is a class of particulars, and what I see when I now look at the sun is one member of this class. The various particulars constituting this class will be correlated with each other by a certain continuity and certain intrinsic laws of variation as we pass outwards from the centre, together with certain modifications correlated extrinsically with other particulars which are not members of this class. It is these extrinsic modifications which represent the sort of facts that, in our former account, appeared as the influence of the eyes and nerves in modifying the appearance of the sun.


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138 The prima facie difficulties in the way of this view are chiefly derived from an unduly conventional theory of space. It might seem at first sight as if we had packed the world much fuller than it could possibly hold. At every place between us and the sun, we said, there is to be a particular which is to be a member of the sun as it was a few minutes ago. There will also, of course, have to be a particular which is a member of any planet or fixed star that may happen to be visible from that place. At the place where I am, there will be particulars which will be members severally of all the "things" I am now said to be perceiving. Thus throughout the world, everywhere, there will be an enormous number of particulars coexisting in the same place. But these troubles result from contenting ourselves too readily with the merely three-dimensional space to which schoolmasters have accustomed us. The space of the real world is a space of six dimensions, and as soon as we realise this we see that there is plenty of room for all the particulars for which we want to find positions. In order to realise this we have only to return for a moment from the polished space of physics to the rough and untidy space of our immediate sensible experience. The space of one man's sensible objects is a three-dimensional space. It does not appear probable that two men ever both perceive at the same time any one sensible object; when they are said to see the same thing or hear the same noise, there will always be some difference, however slight, between the actual shapes seen or the actual sounds heard. If this is so, and if, as is generally assumed, position in space is purely relative, it follows that the space of one man's objects and the space of another man's objects have no place in common, that they are in fact different spaces, and not merely different parts of one space. I mean by this that such immediate spatial relations as are perceived to hold


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Rh between the different parts of the sensible space perceived by one man, do not hold between parts of sensible spaces perceived by different men. There are therefore a multitude of three-dimensional spaces in the world: there are all those perceived by observers, and presumably also those which are not perceived, merely because no observer is suitably situated for perceiving them.

But although these spaces do not have to one another the same kind of spatial relations as obtain between the parts of one of them, it is nevertheless possible to arrange these spaces themselves in a three-dimensional order. [sic]This is done by means of the correlated particulars which we regard as members (or aspects) of one physical thing. When a number of people are said to see the same object, those who would be said to be near to the object see a particular occupying a larger part of their field of vision than is occupied by the corresponding particular seen by people who would be said to be farther from the thing. By means of such considerations it is possible, in ways which need not now be further specified, to arrange all the different spaces in a three-dimensional series. Since each of the spaces is itself three-dimensional, the whole world of particulars is thus arranged in a six-dimensional space, that is to say, six co-ordinates will be required to assign completely the position of any given particular, namely, three to assign its position in its own space and three more to assign the position of its space among the other spaces.

There are two ways of classifying particulars: we may take together all those that belong to a given "perspective," or all those that are, as common sense would say, different "aspects" of the same "thing." For example, if I am (as is said) seeing the sun, what I see belongs to two assemblages: (1) the assemblage of all my present objects of sense, which is what I call a "perspective";


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/New Hampshire


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140 (2) the assemblage of all the different particulars which would be called aspects of the sun of eight minutes ago—this assemblage is what I define as being the sun of eight minutes ago. Thus "perspectives" and "things" are merely two different ways of classifying particulars. It is to be observed that there is no a priori necessity for particulars to be susceptible of this double classification. There may be what might be called "wild" particulars, not having the usual relations by which the classification is effected; perhaps dreams and hallucinations are composed of particulars which are "wild" in this sense.

The exact definition of what is meant by a perspective is not quite easy. So long as we confine ourselves to visible objects or to objects of touch we might define the perspective of a given particular as "all particulars which have a simple (direct) spatial relation to the given particular." Between two patches of colour which I see now, there is a direct spatial relation which I equally see. But between patches of colour seen by different men there is only an indirect constructed spatial relation by means of the placing of "things" in physical space (which is the same as the space composed of perspectives). Those particulars which have direct spatial relations to a given particular will belong to the same perspective. But if, for example, the sounds which I hear are to belong to the same perspective with the patches of colour which I see, there must be particulars which have no direct spatial relation and yet belong to the same perspective. We cannot define a perspective as all the data of one percipient at one time, because we wish to allow the possibility of perspectives which are not perceived by any one. There will be need, therefore, in defining a perspective, of some principle derived neither from psychology nor from space.

Such a principle may be obtained from the


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70 LINES ADDRESSED TO A YOUNG LADY.

[.]

I.

, sweet girl! the hissing lead,

Wafting destruction o'er thy charms

And hurtling o'er thy lovely head,

Has fill'd that breast with fond alarms.

2.

Surely some envious Demon's force,

Vex'd to behold such beauty here,

Impell'd the bullet's viewless course,

Diverted from its first career.


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Rh of time. The one all-embracing time, like the one all-embracing space, is a construction; there is no direct time-relation between particulars belonging to my perspective and particulars belonging to another man's. On the other hand, any two particulars of which I am aware are either simultaneous or successive, and their simultaneity or successiveness is sometimes itself a datum to me. We may therefore define the perspective to which a given particular belongs as "all particulars simultaneous with the given particular," where "simultaneous" is to be understood as a direct simple relation, not the derivative constructed relation of physics. It may be observed that the introduction of "local time" suggested by the principle of relativity has effected, for purely scientific reasons, much the same multiplication of times as we have just been advocating.

The sum-total of all the particulars that are (directly) either simultaneous with or before or after a given particular may be defined as the "biography" to which that particular belongs. It will be observed that, just as a perspective need not be actually perceived by any one, so a biography need not be actually lived by any one. Those biographies that are lived by no one are called "official."

The definition of a "thing" is effected by means of continuity and of correlations which have a certain differential independence of other "things." That is to say, given a particular in one perspective, there will usually in a neighbouring perspective be a very similar particular, differing from the given particular, to the first order of small quantities, according to a law involving only the difference of position of the two perspectives in perspective space, and not any of the other "things" in the universe. It is this continuity and differential independence in the law ef change as we pass from one


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142 perspective to another that defines the class of particulars which is to be called "one thing."

Broadly speaking, we may say that the physicist finds it convenient to classify particulars into" things," while the psychologist finds it convenient to classify them into "perspectives" and "biographies," since one perspective may constitute the momentary data of one percipient, and one biography may constitute the whole of the data of one percipient throughout his life.

We may now sum up our discussion. Our object has been to discover as far as possible the nature of the ultimate constituents of the physical world. When I speak of the "physical world," I mean, to begin with, the world dealt with by physics. It is obvious that physics is an empirical science, giving us a certain amount of knowledge and based upon evidence obtained through the senses. But partly through the development of physics itself, party through arguments derived from physiology, psychology or metaphysics, it has come to be thought that the immediate data of sense could not themselves form part of the ultimate constituents of the physical world, but were in some sense "mental," "in the mind," or "subjective." The grounds for this view, in so far as they depend upon physics, can only be adequately dealt with by rather elaborate constructions depending upon symbolic logic, showing that out of such materials as are provided by the senses it is possible to construct classes and series having the properties which physics assigns to matter. Since this argument is difficult and technical, I have not embarked upon it in this article. But in so far as the view that sense-data are "mental" rests upon physiology, psychology, or metaphysics, I have tried to show that it rests upon confusions and prejudices—prejudices in favour of permanence in the ultimate constituents of matter, and


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Rh confusions derived from unduly simple notions as to space, from the causal correlation of sense-data with sense-organs, and from failure to distinguish between sense-data and sensations. If what we have said on these subjects is valid, the existence of sense-data is logically independent of the existence of mind, and is causally dependent upon the body of the percipient rather than upon his mind. The causal dependence upon the body of the percipient, we found, is a more complicated matter than it appears to be, and, like all causal dependence, is apt to give rise to erroneous beliefs through misconceptions as to the nature of causal correlation. If we have been right in our contentions, sense-data are merely those among the ultimate constituents of the physical world, of which we happen to be immediately aware; they themselves are purely physical, and all that is mental in connection with them is our awareness of them, which is irrelevant to their nature and to their place in physics.

Unduly simple notions as to space have been a great stumbling-block to realists. When two men look at the same table, it is supposed that what the one sees and what the other sees are in the same place. Since the shape and colour are not quite the same for the two men, this raises a difficulty, hastily solved, or rather covered up, by declaring what each sees to be purely "subjective"—though it would puzzle those who use this glib word to say what they mean by it. The truth seems to be that space—and time also—is much more complicated than it would appear to be from the finished structure of physics, and that the one all-embracing three-dimensional space is a logical construction, obtained by means of correlations from a crude space of six dimensions. The particulars occupying this six-dimensional space, classified in one way, form "things," from which with certain further manipulations we can obtain what physics can


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144 regard as matter; classified in another way, they form "perspectives" and "biographies," which may, if a suitable percipient happens to exist, form respectively the sense-data of a momentary or of a total experience. It is only when physical "things" have been dissected into series of classes of particulars, as we have done, that the conflict between the point of view of physics and the point of view of psychology can be overcome. This conflict, if what has been said is not mistaken, flows from different methods of classification, and vanishes as soon as its source is discovered.

In favour of the theory which I have briefly outlined, I do not claim that it is certainly true. Apart from the likelihood of mistakes, much of it is avowedly hypothetical. What I do claim for the theory is that it may be true, and that this is more than can be said for any other theory except the closely analogous theory of Leibniz. The difficulties besetting realism, the confusions obstructing any philosophical account of physics, the dilemma resulting from discrediting sense-data, which yet remain the sole source of our knowledge of the outer world—all these are avoided by the theory which I advocate. This does not prove the theory to be true, since probably many other theories might be invented which would have the same merits. But it does prove that the theory has a better chance of being true than any of its present competitors, and it suggests that what can be known with certainty is likely to be discoverable by taking our theory as a starting-point, and gradually freeing it from all such assumptions as seem irrelevant, unnecessary, or unfounded. On these grounds, I recommend it to attention as a hypothesis and a basis for further work, though not as itself a finished or adequate solution of the problem with which it deals.


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Rh 3.

Yes! in that nearly fatal hour,

The ball obey'd some hell-born guide;

But Heaven, with interposing power,

In pity turn'd the death aside.

4.

Yet, as perchance one trembling tear

Upon that thrilling bosom fell;

Which I, th' unconscious cause of fear,

Extracted from its glistening cell;—

5.

Say, what dire penance can atone

For such an outrage, done to thee?

Arraign'd before thy beauty's throne,

What punishment wilt thou decree?

6.

Might I perform the Judge's part,

The sentence I should scarce deplore;

It only would restore a heart,

Which but belong'd to thee before.

7.

The least atonement I can make

Is to become no longer free;

Henceforth, I breathe but for thy sake,

Thou shalt be all in all to me.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hale, John Parker


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 my part to assume the role of devil's advocate, suggesting possible weaknesses in ideas that were up for consideration, flaws in deductions from given facts, points of seeming injustice to men or measures and such other features of the cartoon in embryo as might be entitled to consideration before the picture began to develop under his careful pen. As a conscientious man he entered heartily into this trying-out process, engaging with animation in the task of weighing ideas and possible methods of treatment. The caption for the chosen cartoon was given equally careful thought in order that in few words it might clarify the meaning of the picture. Often, however, there was nothing for me to do at these conferences except approve some admirably clear and vigorous sketch which presented a timely subject with the vividness of a lightning flash. It was not uncommon for this man who seemed to think in pictures to present a veritable sheaf of sketches, each relating to a different subject and all so good that he was speedily invited to choose from among them the one which made the strongest appeal to himself.

HE questions most commonly debated in these daily meetings were, first, "Is this a true and just presentation of the case?" and secondly, "Will the average newspaper reader readily catch the point in the picture?" Unless these questions were affirmatively answered there was no chance of the artist's choosing to develop the idea. He was incapable of compromising with his convictions, but he was always ready to consider evidence tending to show that his convictions were wrong. Always looking for good causes to help, he frequently expressed the desire to "strike a blow" for this or that. In a world with so many wrongs to be combated he had no patience with frivolous subjects for cartoons. He took his talent too seriously, he took life too seriously, to waste his time on littlenesses. He was eager to attack any piece of injurious folly or any social tendency indicating deterioration of the mental, moral, or physical fiber of Americans. Cartoons of the type of the one in which he contrasted the sturdy boy of

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 an earlier generation trudging to school through snowdrifts with the languid stripling of to-day stepping into an automobile and saying, "School, James," gave him particular pleasure.

A consistent enemy of individual and national flabbiness, he rejoiced in honorable achievement of every sort. For the great men of the past he had a particular reverence. The birthdays of Washington and Lincoln seldom or never passed without his drawing lessons from their lives for the profitable consideration of the people of to-day. For Roosevelt he had an unwavering admiration and he never grew weary of depicting that virile American in the act of doing some strenuous thing or other. This big, gentle hearted artist dearly loved also to picture women admonishing their husbands on matters of public duty or serenely setting them right when they were in the midst of some wrongheaded action typically masculine. He believed that women commonly had a finer, truer sense in matters of social service than had men, and he championed their cause effectively by expressing in many ways his conviction that as a rule they were no less clear of vision than pure of purpose in dealing with public affairs. On behalf of children, misunderstood at home or mistreated anywhere through poverty or neglect or the barbarities of war, he was always ready to fight in flaming indignation.

When the European war broke out Bradley, in the full enjoyment of his ripe creative power, turned with passionate energy to the task of depicting the gigantic criminality of militarism. The scathing indictments which he drew against it were reproduced in publications throughout the world. Their remarkable merit brought him wide fame and soon he was proclaimed by many the greatest of American cartoonists. From the earlier war cartoons—such as the one entitled "The Harvest Moon," showing a skull-shaped luminary pouring its rays down upon an illimitable plain covered with corpses—to the last three or four of the wonderful series, including "Just Another Little Fellow," showing the slender corpse of stricken Roumania over which the ponderous wheels of war has just passed —

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 they met with wide recognition as masterpieces of the cartoonist's art. Bradley's life went out suddenly but peacefully while his creative power as an artist was at its height. In taking him death ended the career of a devoted champion of goodness, simplicity, and gentleness, of progress and truth.

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text: An Act respecting Commissions, and Oaths of Allegiance and of Office


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 must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a rising of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent increase of volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium and the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the movement is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend on conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in these muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially in increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs. These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory organs.

It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial system Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism for determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs. That this is, so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory organs is seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose in other animals, e.g. the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.

The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described and figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely “transparent ligaments,” and did not discover their muscular structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (4).

6. Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands.—The alimentary canal in Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx, in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth is relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus—in fact is minute, as it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of either animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a straight course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards and backwards towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is a simple, narrow, cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which the gut of Limulus resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of any of the Crustacea, is in possessing more than a single pair of ducts or lateral outgrowths connected with ramified gastric glands or gastric caeca. Limulus has two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as six pairs. The Crustacea never have more than one pair. The minute microscopic structure of the gastric glands in the two animals is practically identical. The functions of these gastric diverticula have never been carefully investigated. It is very probable that in Scorpio they do not serve merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown in other Arthropoda to resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they also become distended by the juices of the prey sucked in by the scorpion—as certainly must occur in the case of the simple unbranched gastric caeca of the spiders.

The most important difference which exists between the structure of Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod insects. Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to this subject below.

7. Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts.—The scorpion is remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom from the walls of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed according to sex, in the form of a simple but extensive network. It is not a pair of simple tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed network. The same fact is true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (7) in regard to the ovary, and by Benham (14) in regard to the testis. This is a very definite and remarkable agreement, since such a reticular gonocoel is not found in Crustacea (except in the male Apus). Moreover, there is a significant agreement in the character of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio. The Crustacea are—with the exception of the Cirrhipedia—remarkable for having stiff, motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found (15) the spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform “tails,” and to resemble very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most terrestrial Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic point of agreement, but is none the less significant.

In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another.

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72 8.

But thou, perhaps, may'st now reject

Such expiation of my guilt;

Come then—some other mode elect?

Let it be death—or what thou wilt.

9.

Choose, then, relentless! and I swear

Nought shall thy dread decree prevent;

Yet hold—one little word forbear!

Let it be aught but banishment.

TRANSLATION FROM CATULLUS.

AD LESBIAM.

to Jove that youth must be—

Greater than Jove he seems to me—

Who, free from Jealousy's alarms,

Securely views thy matchless charms;

That cheek, which ever dimpling glows,

That mouth, from whence such music flows,

To him, alike, are always known,

Reserv'd for him, and him alone.

Ah! Lesbia! though 'tis death to me,

I cannot choose but look on thee;


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Rh But, at the sight, my senses fly,

I needs must gaze, but, gazing, die;

Whilst trembling with a thousand fears,

Parch'd to the throat my tongue adheres,

My pulse beats quick, my breath heaves short,

My limbs deny their slight support;

Cold dews my pallid face o'erspread,

With deadly languor droops my head,

My ears with tingling echoes ring,

And Life itself is on the wing;

My eyes refuse the cheering light,

Their orbs are veil'd in starless night:

Such pangs my nature sinks beneath,

And feels a temporary death.

TRANSLATION OF THE EPITAPH ON VIRGIL AND TIBULLUS, BY DOMITIUS MARSUS.

who, sublime, in epic numbers roll'd,

And he who struck the softer lyre of Love,

By Death's unequal hand alike controul'd,

Fit comrades in Elysian regions move!


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image on left reads: Sir Graham in Harness Again

image on right reads: 'Hands Across the Sea"—A Memory of the London Dock Strike

[These cartoons, which appeared in Melbourne Punch about 1889-90, are published here as samples of the work Luther D. Bradley was doing at that period of his career. The subjects treated have, of course, no savour of the present day. "Sir Graham," represented as having broken down on the road, was Sir Graham Berry, agent general in London for the colony of Victoria. He was seemingly no favorite, politically, of Melbourne Punch. The other cartoon refers to the strike of dock laborers in London in 1889. Workingmen of Australia contributed large sums to the cause of the strikers.]

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74 IMITATION OF TIBULLUS.

SULPICIA AD CERINTHUM (LIB. QUART.).

TRANSLATION FROM CATULLUS.

LUGETE VENERES CUPIDINESQUE (CARM. III.).

Cupids, droop each little head,

Nor let your wings with joy be spread,

My Lesbia's favourite bird is dead,

Whom dearer than her eyes she lov'd:

For he was gentle, and so true,

Obedient to her call he flew,

No fear, no wild alarm he knew,

But lightly o'er her bosom mov'd:


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text: The Dictionary of Australasian Biography/Hoskins, William


text: The Dictionary of Australasian Biography/Hotham, Captain Sir Charles


text: The Dictionary of Australasian Biography/Hovell, Captain William Hilton


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Rh And softly fluttering here and there,

He never sought to cleave the air,

He chirrup'd oft, and, free from care,

Tun'd to her ear his grateful strain.

Now having pass'd the gloomy bourn,

From whence he never can return,

His death, and Lesbia's grief I mourn,

Who sighs, alas! but sighs in vain.

Oh! curst be thou, devouring grave!

Whose jaws eternal victims crave,

From whom no earthly power can save,

For thou hast ta'en the bird away:

From thee my Lesbia's eyes o'erflow,

Her swollen cheeks with weeping glow;

Thou art the cause of all her woe,

Receptacle of life's decay.

IMITATED FROM CATULLUS.

TO ELLEN.

! might I kiss those eyes of fire,

A million scarce would quench desire;


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text: The Dictionary of Australasian Biography/Howard, Rev. Charles B.


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title: Page:Cartoons by Bradley.djvu/41


text: Page:Cartoons by Bradley.djvu/42

title: Page:Cartoons by Bradley.djvu/42


text: An Act respecting the security to be given by Officers of Canada


text:
Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part IV. A. 1.djvu/59

Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive  Rh


text:
An Act respecting the security to be given by Officers of Canada/Schedule

1. I am seized and possessed to my own use of real, or real and personal estate in the Province of, in Canada, of the actual value of $ , over and above all charges upon or incumbranees affecting the same.


text:
User talk:98.30.83.88

Welcome
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title: User talk:98.30.83.88