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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Harvard University

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest institution of learning in the United States, was founded in Cambridge, Mass., in 1636. At a meeting of the General Court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, convened on 8 September, six years after its first settlement, it was voted to give £400 toward a “schoale or colledge,” for the purpose of educating the “English and Indian youth in knowledge and Godliness.” The ensuing year 12 of the eminent men of the colony, including John Winthrop and John Cotton, were authorized “to take order for a college at New Towne.” The name Cambridge was adopted soon afterward in recognition of the English university where many of the colonists had been educated. In 1638 John Harvard, a young Non-Conformist minister, died in Charlestown, leaving to the college £750 and his entire library of 300 volumes. The institution was opened soon after and was named Harvard in honor of its first benefactor.

In 1637 the first building was erected. The first president was Rev. Henry Dunster, who was elected in 1640. The first graduating class was in 1642, and consisted of nine members. This same year a change was made in the government of the college; a board of trustees was

created, the members of which were the governor, the deputy governor, the teaching elders of the "5 next adjoining towns" — Boston, Cambridge, Charlestown, Dorchester and Roxbury — the magistrates and the president of the college. The college was established as a corporation in 1650, with power of control over the educational and financial concerns of the institution. The members of the corporation were the president, the treasurer and five fellows. In 1657 the corporation charter was changed so that the overseers had practically no control over the internal management of the college, although a final appeal might be made to them if necessary. Now there were two governing bodies; the overseers and the corporation, at times working in harmony and again antagonistic to each other. In 1780 the board of overseers consisted of the governor, lieutenant-governor, senate and council of the Commonwealth, the president of the college and the ministers of the Congregationalist churches of the “six adjoining towns” already mentioned. In 1810 a further change was made in the board of overseers, and instead of the senate and the ministers of certain churches, there were substituted 15 Congregationalist ministers, 15 laymen, the president of the senate and the speaker of the house, all to be inhabitants of the State. The members constituting the senate were restored as overseers in 1814. A still further broadening of the spirit of the board was shown by the act of 1834, but not ratified until 1843, when clergymen of all denominations were made eligible for membership to the board, and in 1851 an act was passed in which no mention was made of clergymen, but the clause that made only inhabitants of the State eligible was retained. It was not until 1880 that Harvard was freed from all sectional lines, and non-residents of the State of Massachusetts became eligible for membership to the board of overseers.

During the 17th century Harvard had to contend with serious obstacles, many of which had their origin in religious differences or shades of differences; but the desire to give the youth of Massachusetts an opportunity to learn the things taught to their fathers in the schools of Europe never faltered. It required heroic courage then to persevere in such a work, which at present seems a comparatively easy task. The religious controversies continued even after donations and endowments had come to the aid of the institution and had made its success seem almost certain. Under the presidency of Rev. Increase Mather, the college was placed under the control of the Calvinists (1692), but in 1707 the liberals gained the ascendency. An English merchant, Thomas Hollis, in 1721, founded a chair of divinity, and directed that no religious test should be given to the candidate for the professorship. The gift was refused by the overseers, but the corporation urged its acceptance, and the latter finally prevailed. However, the first candidate for a professorship was really subjected to a religious test, for a confession of faith on various disputed points was exacted of him. The religious controversies were carried so far that at one time there was a strong effort made by the orthodox friends of learning to found another college in the colony; but Governor Bernard refused them a charter.

In 1764 the college met with a serious loss

by fire; the first Harvard Hall, containing the library and apparatus, was entirely destroyed, but the loss was repaired to some extent by the generous aid of the Colonies. Harvard was loyal to the American cause during the Revolutionary period; even going so far in the readjustment of its financial affairs as to suffer considerable loss. The alumni and students have ever been patriotic, ready to contribute their best to the needs of their country. The fine building, Memorial Hall, was erected by the alumni in memory of their dead who fell in the Civil War. Harvard has always followed a conservative course when parties were agitating questions of government.

Between 1636 and 1782 Harvard College conferred only the degrees of bachelor and master of arts, but in 1780 the term university was applied to it in the constitution of the State of Massachusetts. The class of 1768 evidently gave some attention to dress, as they voted to wear homespun at their graduating exercises, although their action on the matter is often quoted to prove their democratic simplicity. In 1782 and 1783 three professorships of medicine were established, and the first degree of bachelor of medicine was conferred in 1788. In 1810 the lectures in medicine were transferred to Boston, and there the first medical college was built. The law school was established in 1817, and it has the distinction of being the earliest school of law in the country connected with a university and authorized to confer degrees in law. The divinity school was a gradual outgrowth of the college; the Hollis professorship of divinity, which has been mentioned, was established in 1721, but the divinity faculty was not formally organized until 1819. It is now undenominational, no assent to the special doctrines of any sect or denomination of Christianity being required of any instructor or student. The schools of medicine, law and divinity are the three oldest additions to the college proper, and it was decided that such an institution, having four schools and several departments, justified the title university.

In about 1822, a number of the friends of education and of the institution thought the time had come when further changes should be made in the work required of the students, George Ticknor (q.v.), professor in the department of modern languages, urged that some division of studies should be made where students might be permitted to pursue special courses or specialize on certain subjects. A committee, with Joseph Story as chairman, was appointed to investigate the wisdom of such a change, and how best to meet the needs of the students. The committee reported (1824) the advisability of instituting two lines of study — the one a course necessary for a degree, the other a scientific and mechanical course for those not intending to take degrees, but who desired to fit themselves for certain departments of work. The departure from old customs as recommended by the committee was opposed by many, but in 1825 changes were made and the special students were admitted. Professor Ticknor and later his successor, Henry W. Longfellow, introduced to some extent elective courses in the department of modern languages, but not until a number of years later did these courses become popular in other departments.

Charles William Eliot (q.v.) was elected president in 1869. At this time the departments were almost independent schools, to which no entrance examinations were required, but the students were largely from classical preparatory schools, the majority of which were located in New England. The college required certain courses, and all demanded good work and a high degree of scholarship before graduation. In four years practically a reorganization had been made, the departments had been correlated and individual work had been given recognition. In 1909, Dr. Eliot retired and was succeeded by Dr. Abbott Lawrence Lowell, formerly professor of the science of government at the university.

To Harvard much credit is due for the conservative manner in which it has dealt with the question of higher education of women. The Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women was the name of an organization which began the work (1869) of providing ways and means for giving young women an opportunity to obtain a collegiate education. The name of the organization was changed, in 1894, by the General Court of Massachusetts to that of ../Radcliffe College/ (q.v.). Systematic collegiate instruction is now given in this college, under the professors and teachers of Harvard University. The requirements are the same as for admission to the university.

The various schools and departments of Harvard University now comprise: (1) Harvard College and the Graduate School, established in 1872 for students making original research. In 1916 there were in attendance 3,017 students under the faculty of arts and science. Of this number 598 were in the graduate school and were engaged in original research. Par the students of this school who are engaged in original investigations there is available a number of fellowships, at present 41, which are from $400 to $1,200, The Edward Austin Fellowship and the Austin Teaching Fellowship are given only to resident graduate students. Some of the fellowships may be given to persons pursuing their studies in other parts of the country or abroad: but non-resident appointments are given only to persons who have been resident students in some department of the university. (2) The law school has been mentioned. The attendance in 1916 was 788. (3) The divinity school, already noticed, has an attendance of 64. (4) The medical school, founded in 1782, and the dental school, established in 1867, were united in 1899 and are in charge of the faculty of medicine. The school is located in Boston. The attendance in 1918 was, in the medical school, 387; in the dental school, 271. The new buildings erected since 1903 for the accommodation of the medical departments are second to none other in the world. There are seven separate buildings; the central structure and two of the side pavilions are provided for by the gift of $1,000,000 from J. Pierpont Morgan and $1,000,000 from other friends. The site comprises 26 acres, in Brookline, about three miles from the main buildings of the university in Cambridge. (5) The Graduate School of Business Administration, founded in 1908, had an enrolment of 190 in 1916. (6) The Bussey Institute, a school of agriculture and horticulture, was established in 1870 in accordance with the will of Benjamin Bussey.

It is at Jamaica Plain, in the southwestern part of Boston. (7) The Arnold Arboretum, established in 1872, is devoted to scientific research in forestry, dendrology and arboriculture, ll was founded under the will of James Arnold. It is practically a large park containing about 220 acres, and is located in West Roxbury. (8) The astronomical observatory was established in 1843 by means of a public subscription. The Sears Tier was built in 1846 and two years later Edward Bromfield Phillips bequeathed to the university the sum of $100,000 for the observatory; this early bequest has since been supplemented by many others, so that the observatory now has an endowment of about $900,000. It has a director and four other professors and 40 assistants. A branch station is established on a mountain 8,000 feet high, near Arequipa, Peru. The annals of the observatory fill about 50 volumes. Among the more important instruments are the 15-inch and 6-inch equatorial telescopes, the 8-inch transit-circle, the 11-inch Draper photographic telescope, the 8-inch photographic telescope and the meridian photometer. A special grant has recently been made by the Carnegie Institution for the study of the collection of photographs at the Harvard Observatory. The amount of material, including photographs and photographic charts of the sky that has been collected in this department, requires a special building for its accommodation. (9) The university library, including the libraries of the schools and departments, contains about 1,181,635 volumes and 701,358 pamphlets. (10) The Gray Herbarium, so named because it contains the herbarium of Asa Gray (q.v.), presented to the university in 1864. (11) The university museum is made up of the following collections: the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology; the Museum of Comparative Zoology, established in 1859 by private subscription, State aid and the collection of Louis Agassiz, and valuable gifts from his son; the Mineralogical Museum, established in 1890-91; the Semitic Museum, completed in 1902; the William Hayes Fogg Art Museum, completed in 1895; and the Germanic Museum, established in 1902. (12) The botanical garden, established in 1809, covers about seven acres and contains thousands of plants for scientific study.

Great credit is due Harvard for its leadership in the movement to better the teaching of the English language and literature in the schools of the country. Harvard mentioned the subject in its catalogue of 1865-66; an announcement was made in the catalogue of 1869-70 that “Students would be examined, as early as possible after their admission, in English.” In 1874, for the first time, every applicant for admission to Harvard was required to present English composition. The report of the committee who visited the preparatory schools to ascertain what they were doing with the subject of English, the discussions by educators on the “new demand of Harvard,” the progress of the movement, the grand results, all now are parts of the “History of Education” of America.

The university summer school gives short courses of study under the charge of a committee of the faculty of arts and sciences, and is held in the college building during the summer vacation. The school is popular and has

had a large attendance each year. In 1910 the students numbered about 700. Athletics are provided for — two fields of 24 acres each and the Hemenway gymnasium furnish opportunities for physical training. The stadium erected on Soldiers' Field has a seating capacity of about 30,000. It is shaped like the letter “U,” with the open space toward the Charles River. It is of steel and concrete construction. The mezzanine floor under the seats, the promenade above the seats, the stairs, the perfect arrangement of all the parts make this stadium a model of construction. It was built under the auspices of the class of '79. A club house, called the Harvard Union, was donated by Henry Lee Higginson in 1901. The Phillips Brooks house is used for religious meetings. In 1903 Harvard received a valuable collection of plaster replicas of Germanic art; a number of them were given by Emperor William II of Germany. Among them is a replica of the equestrian statue of the Great Elector by Schülter, one of Frederick the Great, by Schadow, a cast of the golden gate of the cathedral of Freiburg, the bronze door of Hildesheim Cathedral, on which is the Biblical story of Creation, the wood screen of Naumburg Cathedral and several other reproductions of great value.

In 1915 the Widener Memorial Library was completed. This building was erected by Mrs. George D. Widener of Philadelphia in memory of her son, Harry Elkins Widener, a graduate of Harvard in the class of 1907, who lost his life with the sinking of the Titanic.

In 1918, the number of members of the corporation was 7; of overseers, 30; of professors and instructors, tutors and assistants, 831; of students in all the schools and departments, 5,731. In 1915 the invested funds of the university amounted to $28,177,578; the annual income was $3,032,999, and bequests and gifts amounted to $1,220,021. Harvard has had 23 presidents, including the present incumbent, Abbott Lawrence Lowell. There are 13 periodicals which represents the interests of the university as a whole, and of special schools and departments.

Bibliography. — Quincy, ‘The History of Harvard University’; Thayer, ‘Historical Sketch of Harvard University’; Hill, ‘Harvard College by an Oxonian’; Peabody, ‘Harvard Graduates Whom I Have Known’; Bush, ‘History of Harvard’; Eliot, ‘A Sketch of the History of Harvard University’; Thayer, ‘History of Middlesex County.’


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 Rh that agriculturists from France and elsewhere flocked to the colony, and ever since this date it has maintained a high standard of agricultural advance. The names of the cacao estates at the present day are nearly all Spanish or French, and throughout the British occupation of more than a hundred years the old families have in many cases held the same lands.

The oldest estates in the island lie in the northern valleys of Santz Cruz, Maracas, and Arima; but cultivation has been considerably extended in the Montserrat and Naparima districts, and more recently in almost every part of the island reached by the extension of the railway and the coasting steamboat. The Trinidad bean is the largest and finest flavoured, and commands a higher price on the market than any other from the West Indies.

Next in importance to Trinidad is the little

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Amherst (Massachusetts)

AMHERST, Mass., a town in Hampshire County, on the Boston & Maine and the Central Vermont railroads, 23 miles northeast of Springfield. It has manufactories of paper, straw and palm-leaf hats and leather, and is best known as the seat of ../Amherst College/ (q.v.), the State Agricultural College and the State Experiment Station. Pop. (1916), 5,300.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Amherst College

AMHERST COLLEGE, one of the best known institutions of learning in the United States, is situated in Amherst, Hampshire County, Mass. The cornerstone of the present South College, the first of the college buildings, was laid on 9 Aug. 1820, and upon this occasion an address was delivered by Noah Webster. Exercises of dedication and inauguration were held on 18 Sept. 1821, and on the following day, with a president, two professors and 47 students, the work of the college was begun. The first president was the Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore, D.D., who had resigned the presidency of Williams College in order to come to Amherst, and who brought with him 15 students from Williamstown. After two adverse votes in the legislature the college finally secured a charter from the commonwealth, the date of its approval being 21 Feb. 1825. A number of students in the intervening classes, being compelled to graduate without a degree, received their degrees from Union College, on suitable certificates from Amherst. Of the charter just mentioned a few words are all that the present sketch permits, or that are pertinent to present conditions. As to the board of trustees, it “provided,. . . that the number of members (including the president of said college for the time being, who shall ex officio be one of said corporation) shall never be greater than seventeen”; and as to keeping that number good, it was in the same section “provided, further, that as vacancies shall occur in said board, they shall be so filled that the said board shall as soon as may be, and forever after, consist of seven clergymen and ten laymen.” The first five vacancies that occurred in the board were filled by vote of the legislature; but when, 50 years after the founding of the college, the number of alumni had become sufficient to warrant it, the alumni were empowered to choose five members of the board, electing one each year as their terms of service expired. Regarding instructors and students, it was enacted, “That no instructor in said college shall ever be required by the trustees to profess any particular religious opinions as a test of office; and no student shall be refused admission to or denied any of the privileges, honors or degrees of said college on account of the religious opinions he may entertain.” By an act approved 4 Feb. 1916, that part of the act of 1825 which required that the board of trustees should consist of seven clergymen and ten laymen was repealed. Amherst College is a college of liberal arts and sciences and does not undertake to provide a technical training. The course of study, normally requiring four years, and leading to the degree of bachelor of arts, is

partly prescribed and partly elective. The requirements for admission are based upon the subjects usually studied during a four years' course in the best high schools. In order to secure a degree a student must complete 40 semester courses which shall include one year of English, one year of mathematics, one year of history or philosophy, two years of Greek or two years of Latin, two years of science in the group, biology, chemistry, physics, and he must have a reading knowledge of either German or a Romance language (French, Italian or Spanish). In addition to the 40 courses, work is required in public speaking and in physical education. On the other hand, the fact that many courses are elective allows a student to follow to some extent his own inclinations; in fact it is possible for a student to so shape his college course that after graduation he may secure an engineering degree from a technical school by two years of additional study. The college also offers to holders of the bachelor's degree a year's course of study leading to the degree of master of arts. For many years the college offered a course leading to the degree of bachelor of science. The requirements for this degree placed less emphasis upon the classical languages and more upon the sciences than do those of the course leading to the degree of bachelor of arts. No candidates have been accepted in this course, however, since those who entered college in 1913. The catalogue for the academic year 1915-16 shows a student enrolment of 429, and a faculty of 48 actively engaged in teaching. Since the college was founded about 9,000 students have been enrolled, and of this number about 5,000 are living. The buildings and equipment are valued at approximately $1,200,000 and include, besides recitation halls, laboratories, dormitories, etc., an infirmary, a gymnasium, two large athletic fields and a skating rink. The college has also many valuable collections. Among these are the Adams collection of shells, a part of Audubon's celebrated collection of birds, the Woods collection of minerals, the Shepard collection of meteorites, the famous Hitchcock ichnological collection, an anthropological collection and an unusually complete and interesting collection of Indian relics. The total funds of the college amount to over $2,800,000, of which the income of more than $420,000 is available annually for fellowships, scholarships and prizes. The corporate name of the institution is “The Trustees of Amherst College.”


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Rh consisted of cocoa mixed with a fermented liquor prepared from maize; but a more harmless invention was a drink composed of cocoa-butter and maize.

There remain three forms in which pure cocoa may be prepared as a beverage:

1. Cocoa-nibs.—The natural broken segments of the roasted cocoa-bean, after the shell has been removed, prepared for table as an infusion by prolonged simmering.

It is strange that this ridiculous and wasteful means is still in use at all, as next to none of the valuable portions of the nib are extracted. The quantity of matter removed by the hot water is so small, that close upon 90 per cent, of the nourishing and feeding constituents are left behind in the undissolved sediment, the substances extracted being principally salts and colouring matters. One can but suppose that the long habit of drinking an infusion from coffee-beans and tea-leaves has fixed in the mind the erroneous idea that the substance of the cocoa-bean is also valueless. The fact remains, however, that it is still customary at


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18 some hydropathic establishments, and perhaps in a few other instances, for doctors to order "nibs" for their patient, which may sometimes be accounted for by injury having resulted from drinking one of the many "faked" cocoas offered for sale; the order for "nibs" being a despairing effort to obtain the genuine article.

2. Consolidated Nibs—i.e., cocoa-nibs ground between heated stones, whence it flows in a paste of the consistency of cream, which, when cool, hardens into a cake containing all the cocoa-butter. Cocoa in this form (mixed with sugar before cooling) is served in the British Navy—a somewhat wasteful and inconvenient practice, as when stirred, the excess of fat at once floats to the top of the cup, and is generally removed with a spoon, to make the drink more appetising.

3. Cocoa Essence.—This is the same article as No. 2, with about 60 per cent, of the natural butter removed; consequently the proportion of albuminous and stimulating elements is greatly increased. It is prepared instantly by pouring


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Rh boiling water upon it, thus forming a light beverage with all the strength and flesh-forming constituents of the decorticated bean.

Chemical analysis of cacao-nibs and cocoa essence shows them to contain on an average:

The cocoa-butter when clarified is of a pale


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 or father of the gods has little of the personal element in it. A consort Antum (or as some scholars prefer to read, Anatum) is assigned to him, on the theory that every deity must have a female associate, but Antum is a purely artificial product—a lifeless symbol playing even less of a part in what may be called the active pantheon than Anu.

ANUBIS (in Egyptian Anūp, written Īnpw in hieroglyphs), the name of one of the most important of the Egyptian gods. There were two types of canine divinities in Egypt, their leading representatives being respectively Anubis and Ophois (Wp-w ⹄ -wt, “opener of the ways”): the former type is symbolized by the recumbent animal, the other by a similar animal (in a stiff standing attitude), carried as an emblem on a standard in war or in religious processions. The former comprised two beneficent gods of the necropolis; the latter also were beneficent, but warlike, divinities. They thus corresponded, at any rate in some measure, respectively to the fiercer and milder aspects of the dog-tribe. In late days the Greeks report that  (dogs) were the sacred animals of Anubis while those of Ophois were  (wolves). The above figure is coloured black as befits a funerary and nocturnal animal: it is more attenuated than even a greyhound, but it has the bushy tail of the fox or the jackal. Probably these were the original genii of the necropolis, and in fact the same lean animal figured passant is s;b “jackal” or “fox.” The domestic dog would be brought into the sacred circle through the increased veneration for animals, and the more pronounced view in later times of Anubis as servant, messenger and custodian of the gods.

Anubis was the principal god in the capitals of the XVIIth and XVIIIth nomes of Upper Egypt, and secondary god in the XIIIth and probably in the XIIth nome; but his cult was universal. To begin with, he was the god of the dead, of the cemetery, of all supplies for the dead, and therefore of embalming when that became customary. In very early inscriptions the funerary prayers in the tombs are addressed to him almost exclusively, and he always took a leading place in them. In the scene of the weighing of the soul before Osiris, dating from the New-kingdom onwards, Anubis attends to the balance while Thoth registers the result. Anubis was believed to have been the embalmer of Osiris: the mummy of Osiris, or of the deceased, on a bier, tended by this god, is a very common subject on funerary tablets of the late periods. Anubis came to be considered especially the attendant of the gods and conductor of the dead, and hence was commonly identified with Hermes (cf. the name Hermanubis); but the rôle of Hermes as the god of eloquence, inventor of arts and recorder of the gods was taken by Thoth. In those days Anubis was considered to be son of Osiris by Nephthys; earlier perhaps he was son of Rē, the sun-god. In the 2nd century his aid was “compelled” by the magicians and necromancers to fetch the gods and entertain them with food (especially in the ceremony of gazing into the bowl of oil), and he is invoked by them sometimes as the “Good Ox-herd.” The cult of Anubis must at all times have been very popular in Egypt, and, belonging to the Isis and Serapis cycle, was introduced into Greece and Rome.

ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city of Ceylon, famous for its ancient monuments. It is situated in the North-central province. Anuradhapura became the capital of Ceylon in the 5th century, and attained its highest magnificence about the commencement of the Christian era. In its prime it ranked beside Nineveh and Babylon in its colossal proportions—its four walls, each 16 m. long, enclosing an area of 256 sq. m.,—in the number of its inhabitants, and the splendour of its shrines and public edifices. It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was finally deserted as a royal residence in 769. It fell completely into decay, and it is only of recent years that the jungle has been cleared away, the ruins laid bare, and some measure of prosperity brought back to the surrounding country by the restoration of hundreds of village tanks. The ruins consist of three classes of buildings, dagobas, monastic buildings, and pokunas. The dagobas are bell-shaped masses of masonry, varying from a few feet to over 1100 in circumference. Some of them contain enough masonry to build a town for twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Remains of the monastic buildings are to be found in every direction in the shape of raised stone platforms, foundations and stone pillars. The most famous is the Brazen Palace erected by King Datagamana about 164 The pokunas are bathing-tanks or tanks for the supply of drinking-water, which are scattered everywhere through the jungle. The city also contains a sacred Bo-tree, which is said to date back to the year 245 The railway was extended from Matale to Anuradhapura in 1905. Population: town, 3672; province, 79,110.

ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon anfilt or onfilti, either that on which something is “welded” or “folded,” cf. German falzen, to fold, or connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German amboss, in which case the final syllable is from “beat,” and the meaning is “that on which something is beaten”), a mass of iron on which material is supported while being shaped under the hammer (see ). The common blacksmith’s anvil is made of wrought iron, often in America of cast iron, with a smooth working face of hardened steel. It has at one end a projecting conical beak or bick for use in hammering curved pieces of metal; occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, which is then partly rectangular in section. There is also a square hole in the face, into which tools, such as the anvil-cutter or chisel, can be dropped, cutting edge uppermost. For power hammers the anvil proper is supported on an anvil block which is of great massiveness, sometimes weighing over 200 tons for a 12-ton hammer, and this again rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. In anatomy the term anvil is applied to one of the bones of the middle ear, the incus, which is articulated with the malleus.

ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D’ (1697–1782), perhaps the greatest geographical author of the 18th century, was born at Paris on the 11th of July 1697. His passion for geographical research displayed itself from early years: at the age of twelve he was already amusing himself by drawing maps for Latin authors. Later, his friendship with the antiquarian, Abbé Longuerue, greatly aided his studies. His first serious map, that of Ancient Greece, was published when he was fifteen, and at the age of twenty-two he was appointed one of the king’s geographers, and began to attract the attention of the first authorities. D’Anville’s studies embraced everything of geographical nature in the world’s literature, as far as he could master it: for this purpose he not only searched ancient and modern historians, travellers and narrators of every description, but also poets, orators and philosophers. One of his cherished objects was to reform geography by putting an end to the blind copying of older maps, by testing the commonly accepted positions of places through a rigorous examination of all the descriptive authority, and by excluding from cartography every name inadequately supported. Vast spaces, which had before been covered with countries and cities, were thus suddenly reduced almost to a blank.

D’Anville was at first employed in the humbler task of illustrating by maps the works of different travellers, such as Marchais, Charlevoix, Labat and Duhalde. For the history of China by the last-named writer he was employed to make an atlas, which was published separately at the Hague in 1737. In 1735 and 1736 he brought out two treatises on the figure of the earth; but these attempts to solve geometrical problems by literary material were, to a great extent, refuted by Maupertuis’ measurements of a degree within the polar circle. D’Anville’s historical method was more successful in his 1743 map of Italy, which first indicated numerous errors in the mapping of that country, and was accompanied by a valuable memoir (a novelty in such work), showing

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 Spanish, so that M. Amoretti saw in it rather a copy than the original of the relation presented to the Pope or to the Grand Master; these defects M. Amoretti removed by translating them into good Italian: also that the French edition of Fabre, though stated to be a translation from the Italian, was used in 1536 to publish an Italian edition; whereas if an Italian edition had existed before, that of Fabre would not have been required. Fabre's edition, moreover, is very imperfect: and he puts what Pigafetta says in the third person. M. Thomassy concludes, therefore, that the version of Fabre was made from some Italian resumé.

In addition to the motives urged by M. Thomassy for believing that Pigafetta himself composed the French manuscripts, there is evidence of it in the phraseology of the MSS.; had these been translations from the Italian, every word would have been translated into French, whereas, instead of that, we find a great many Italian words used, especially in the vocabularies, also some Italian idioms. It was natural that Pigafetta, if he had not the French word at command, should write down an Italian one, such as "calcagno" for "talon".

For the same reason, I should be inclined to believe that the Ambrosian MS., with its mixture of Spanish words, was composed by Pigafetta himself, in whom such a mixture of words would be more natural after so long a voyage in a Spanish ship, than in an Italian scribe.

That Pigafetta did compose a work in Italian appears


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 from a document in the archives of Venice, containing a petition of Pigafetta to the Doge and Council of Venice, dated August 5th, 1524, applying for leave to print his account of his circumnavigation of the globe, and to have a privilege for twenty years. This is followed by a statement that the prayer of the petition was granted by the Doge and 152 of the Council, six members of which voted against Pigafetta. The text of this document is given in the Appendix; it was communicated to me by the Geographical Society of Paris, which has published a translation of it in its bulletin of February 1869.

Until M. Amoretti published his edition of Pigafetta from the Ambrosian MS. in 1800, there never was a complete or an original Italian edition of Pigafetta; for the quarto edition of 1536 (Grenville, 6,977), without name of author or printer, is, as is mentioned in the address to the reader, a translation from the edition of Jacques Fabre. This edition of 1536 had a privilege for fourteen years; it must be by Ramusio, for the address to the reader is almost the same as his more abridged "discourse" in his collection of travels of Venice, 1550, and Venice, 1613, folio, 346 v. In Ramusio's collection, and in the edition of 1536, Pigafetta's voyage is preceded by the letter of Maximilian Transylvanus, Secretary of the Emperor Charles V, to the Cardinal of Salzburg. This letter of Maximilian's is not quite the same in the two books in the division of the paragraphs; in Pigafetta's voyage there is greater similarity, and the paragraphs are numbered


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 identically in the edition of 1536 and in Fabre's French edition. Ramusio says:

"Magellan's voyage was written, with details, by Don Pietro Martire, of the Council of the Indies of the Emperor, and that he had examined all those who had survived the voyage, and returned to Seville in the year 1522; but, having sent it to be printed at Rome, in the miserable sack of that town it was lost, and it is not yet known where it is. One who saw it and read it gives testimony of it, and amongst the other things worthy of recollection which the above-named Don Pietro noted in this voyage, was that the Spaniards having navigated about three years and a month, and the greater part of them (as is the custom of those who navigate on the ocean) having noted down each day of each month, when they rejoined Spain they found they had lost one day; that is, when they reached the port of Seville, which was on the 7th of September, by the account which they had kept it was the 6th. Don Pietro having related this particularity to an excellent and rare man, Sig. Gasparo Contarino, a Venetian senator, who was then in Spain as ambassador to his Majesty from his Republic, and having asked him how it could be, he, as a very great philosopher, shewed him that it could not be otherwise, as they had navigated three years, always accompanying the sun, which was going westwards; and he said that the ancients had observed that those who navigated to the west greatly lengthened their day."

This book of Don Pietro's having been lost, says Ramusio, he thought of translating the Latin letter of Maximilian, and of adding to it the summary of a book which was written by the valiant knight of Rhodes, Messer Antonio Pigafetta, a Vicentine; and this said book was abridged and translated into French by a


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cole, Christopher


text: United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense/III. The Geneva Accords


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cole, George Vicat


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Colebrooke, William Macbean George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Coleridge, Henry James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Coleridge, John Duke


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Colling, Charles


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Colomb, Philip Howard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Congreve, Richard


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 in full the sources of the design. A trigonometrical survey which Benedict XIV. soon after had made in the papal states strikingly confirmed the French geographer’s results. In his later years d’Anville did yeoman service for ancient and medieval geography, accomplishing something like a revolution in the former; mapping afresh all the chief countries of the pre-Christian civilizations (especially Egypt), and by his Mémoire et abrégé de géographie ancienne et générale and his États formés en Europe après la chute de l’empire romain en occident (1771) rendering his labours still more generally useful. In 1754, at the age of fifty-seven, he became a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, whose transactions he enriched with many papers. In 1775 he received the only place in the Académie des Sciences which is allotted to geography; and in the same year he was appointed, without solicitation, first geographer to the king. His last employment consisted in arranging his collection of maps, plans and geographical materials. It was the most extensive in Europe, and had been purchased by the king, who, however, left him the use of it during his life. This task performed, he sank into a total imbecility both of mind and body, which continued for two years, till his death in January 1782.

D’Anville’s published memoirs and dissertations amounted to 78, and his maps to 211. A complete edition of his works was announced in 1806 by de Manne in 6 vols. quarto, only two of which had appeared when the editor died in 1832. See Dacier’s Éloge de d’Anville (Paris, 1802). Besides the separate works noticed above, d’Anville’s maps executed for Rollin’s Histoire ancienne and Histoire romaine, and his Traité des mesures anciennes et modernes (1769), deserve special notice.

ANWARI [Auhad-uddin Ali Anwari], Persian poet, was born in Khorasan early in the 12th century. He enjoyed the especial favour of the sultan Sinjar, whom he attended in all his warlike expeditions. On one occasion, when the sultan was besieging the fortress of Hazarasp, a fierce poetical conflict was maintained between Anwari and his rival Rashidi, who was within the beleaguered castle, by means of verses fastened to arrows. Anwari died at Balkh towards the end of the 12th century. The Diwan, or collection of his poems, consists of a series of long poems, and a number of simpler lyrics. His longest piece, The Tears of Khorassan, was translated into English verse by Captain Kirkpatrick (see also . Literature). ANWEILER, or, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, 8 m. west of Landau, and on the railway from that place to Zweibrücken. Pop. 3700. It is romantically situated in the part of the Haardt called the Pfälzer Schweiz (Palatinate Switzerland), and is surrounded by high hills which yield a famous red sandstone. On the Sonnenberg (1600 ft.) lie the ruins of the castle of Trifels, in which Richard Cœur de Lion was imprisoned in 1193. The industries include cloth-weaving, tanning, dyeing and saw mills. There is also a considerable trade in wine. ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG (1839–1889), Austrian dramatist and novelist, was born at Vienna on the 29th of November 1839. He was educated at the Realschule of his native town, and then entered a bookseller’s shop; from 1860 to 1867 he was an actor, without, however, displaying any marked talent, although his stage experience later stood him in good stead. In 1869 he became a clerk in the Viennese police department, but having in the following year made a success with his anti-clerical drama, Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld, he gave up his appointment and devoted himself entirely to literature. He died at Vienna on the 10th of December 1889. Anzengruber was exceedingly fertile in ideas, and wrote a great many plays. They are mostly of Austrian peasant life, and although somewhat melancholy in tone are interspersed with bright and witty scenes. Among the best known are Der Meineidbauer (1871), Die Kreuzelschreiber (1872), Der G’wissenswurm (1874), Hand und Herz (1875), Doppelselbstmord (1875), Das vierte Gebot (1877), and Der Fleck auf der Ehr’ (1889). Anzengruber also published a novel of considerable merit, Der Schandfleck (1876; remodelled 1884); and various short stories and tales of village life collected under the title Wolken und Sunn’schein (1888).

Anzengruber’s collected works, with a biography, were published in 10 vols. in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897); his correspondence has been edited by A. Bettelheim (1902). See A. Bettelheim, L. Anzengruber (1890); L. Rosner, Erinnerungen an L. Anzengruber (1890): H. Sittenberger, Studien zur Dramaturgie der Gegenwart (1899); S. Friedmann, L. Anzengruber (1902).

ANZIN, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the Scheldt, 1½ m. N.W. of Valenciennes, of which it is a suburb. Pop. (1906) 14,077. Anzin is the centre of important coal-mines of the Valenciennes basin belonging to the Anzin Company, the formation of which dates to 1717. The metallurgical industries of the place are extensive, and include iron and copper founding and the manufacture of steam-engines, machinery, chain-cables and a great variety of heavy iron goods. There are also glass-works and breweries. AONIA, a district of ancient Boeotia, containing the mountains Helicon and Cithaeron, and thus sacred to the Muses, who are called by Pope the “Aonian maids.” AORIST (from Gr. , indefinite), the name given in Greek grammar to certain past tenses of verbs (first aorist, second aorist). AOSTA (anc. Augusta Praetoria Salassorum), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 80 m. N.N.W. by rail of the town of Turin, and 48 m. direct, situated 1910 ft. above sea-level, at the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction of the Great and Little St Bernard routes. Pop. (1901) 7875. The cathedral, reconstructed in the 11th century (to which one of its campanili and some architectural details belong), was much altered in the 14th and 17th; it has a rich treasury including an ivory diptych of 406 with a representation of Honorius. The church of St Ours, founded in 425, and rebuilt in the 12th century, has good cloisters (1133); the 15th-century priory is picturesque. The castle of Bramafam (11th century) is interesting. Cretinism is common in the district.

After the fall of the Roman empire the valley of Aosta fell into the hands of the Burgundian kings; and after many changes of masters, it came under the rule of Count Humbert I. of Savoy (Biancamano) in 1032. The privilege of holding the assembly of the states-general was granted to the inhabitants in 1189. An executive council was nominated from this body in 1536, and continued to exist until 1802. After the restoration of the rule of Savoy it was reconstituted and formally recognized by Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson Prince Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta. Aosta was the birthplace of Anselm. For ancient remains see. APACHE (apparently from the Zuni name, = “enemy,” given to the Navaho Indians), a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. The Apaches formerly ranged over south-eastern Arizona and south-western Mexico. The chief divisions of the Apaches were the Arivaipa, Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno, Mogollon, Naisha, Tchikun and Tchishi. They were a powerful and warlike tribe, constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved, were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military imprisonment. The Apaches are now in reservations in Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma, and number between 5000 and 6000.

APALACHEE (apparently a Choctaw name, = “people on the other side”), a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock. They have been known since the 16th century, and formerly ranged the country around Apalachee Bay, Florida. About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a successful mission among them, but early in the 18th century the tribe suffered defeat at the hands of the British, the mission churches were burnt, the priests killed, and the tribe practically annihilated, more than one thousand of them being sold as slaves.

APALACHICOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Franklin county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anwari

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anwari


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cook, Eliza


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anweiler

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anweiler


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cook, Frederic Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cook, Thomas (1808-1892)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cooke, George (1768-1837)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Cooper, Thomas (1805-1892)


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anzengruber, Ludwig


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anzin

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anzin


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aosta

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aosta


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apache

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apache


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apalachee

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Apalachee


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Rh form of the other person (in the sun), the joints of the one (Rik and Sâman) are the joints of the other, the name of the one (ut) is the name of the other.

6. He is lord of the worlds beneath that (the self in the eye), and of all the wishes of men. Therefore all who sing to the vînâ (lyre), sing him, and from him also they obtain wealth.

7. He who knowing this sings a Sâman, sings to both (the adhidaivata and adhyâtma self, the person in the sun and the person in the eye, as one and the same person). He obtains through the one, yea, he obtains the worlds beyond that, and the wishes of the Devas;

8. And he obtains through the other the worlds beneath that, and the wishes of men.

Therefore an Udgâtri priest who knows this, may say (to the sacrificer for whom he officiates);

9. "What wish shall I obtain for you by my songs?" For he who knowing this sings a Sâman is able to obtain wishes through his song, g.

1. There were once three men, well-versed in udgîtha, Silaka Sâlâvatya, Kaikitâyana Dâlbhya, and Pravâhana Gaivali. They said: 'We are well-versed in udgîtha. Let us have a discussion on udgîtha.'

2. They all agreed and sat down. Then Pravâhana Gaivali said: 'Sirs, do you both speak first,


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 manca, 22 July 1812 (ib. iv. 261–72). He was sent home, and in 1813 he was made K.B. for distinguished conduct at Corunna, Busaco, Badajoz, and Salamanca, where, in personally leading a successful charge, ‘he and the whole of his personal staff were severely wounded.’ He also received ‘honourable augmentations’ to his family arms in consideration of his services at Badajoz and Salamanca. In 1813 Leith became a lieutenant-general, a rank he had held locally in Spain and Portugal since 1811. He rejoined the Peninsular army on 31 Aug. 1813, two days before the final assault on St. Sebastian (ib. v. 272–86), where he was again disabled while directing the movements of his division. Leith, who was temporarily replaced by Major-general Andrew Hay [q. v.], remained with the army, on the sick list, for a couple of months, and then went home again. In 1814 he was appointed commander of the forces in the West Indies and governor of the Leeward islands. Gurwood reproduces a letter from Wellington very cordially congratulating Leith on obtaining ‘one of the most lucrative positions in the service,’ but suggesting that he should calculate his expenditure on ‘the lowest scale suitable to the situation he occupies’ (Wellington Desp. vii. 213). Leith arrived at Barbadoes 15 June 1814. He carried out the restoration of the French West India islands to the Bourbons; but on the news of the return of Napoleon from Elba most of the islands re-hoisted the tricolour. In consequence, an expedition was despatched from Barbadoes in June 1815 under Leith, to secure the islands on behalf of the king of France. Martinique and Marie-Galante were reoccupied without trouble, but at Guadeloupe there was some sharp fighting before the place surrendered on 8 Aug. 1815, a month after the general peace. For his services at this juncture the British government presented Leith with a sword of the value of two thousand guineas; he also received the grand cordon of military merit from Louis XVIII. Leith was created a G.C.B. (2 Jan. 1815), and for his Peninsular services wore the Portuguese grand cross of the Tower and Sword and the gold cross and clasp for Corunna, Busaco, Badajoz, Salamanca, and St. Sebastian. He died of yellow fever at Barbadoes, after six days' illness, 16 Oct. 1816. His nephew, Sir Andrew Leith Hay [q. v.], succeeded him.

 LEITH, THEODORE FORBES, M.D. (1746–1819), physician, second son of John Forbes Leith and Jean Morrison, was born in 1746 in Aberdeenshire. He studied medicine in the university of Edinburgh, where he graduated M.D. 12 Sept. 1768. His thesis was read 31 Aug. 1768, and was published at the University Press. It is on the delirium of fever, is dedicated to William Cullen [q. v.] and John Gregory [q. v.], his instructors, and shows some subtlety of distinction and of argument. He practised at Greenwich, and was elected F.R.S. in 1781, and 26 June 1786 licentiate of the College of Physicians of London. In 1806, on the death of his elder brother, he inherited Whitehaugh, Aberdeenshire, went to reside there, and there he died, after breaking his clavicle, 6 Sept. 1819. He married Marie d'Arboine in 1776, and had six children.

 LE KEUX, JOHN (1783–1846), engraver, born in Sun Street, Bishopsgate, on 4 June 1783, and baptised at St. Botolph, Bishopsgate, in September of that year, was son of Peter Le Keux by Anne Dyer, his wife. His father, a wholesale pewter manufacturer in Bishopsgate, was the representative of a large and flourishing Huguenot family. Le Keux was apprenticed to his father, but, acquiring a taste for engraving from an experimental practice on pewter, he turned his attention to copperplate engraving. In consequence of this he was transferred by his father for the remaining years of his apprenticeship to James Basire the first [q. v.], the engraver, to whom his brother Henry had been already apprenticed. Under Basire Le Keux acquired that peculiar skill in architectural engraving which characterised his work. He developed a very fine yet free style in the line manner, and may be considered, perhaps, the best engraver of his day in the somewhat mechanical style then in vogue. His engravings contributed very largely to the success of the architectural publications of John Britton [q. v.], A. W. Pugin [q. v.], J. P. Neale [q. v.], and similar works. He engraved the plates to Ingram's ‘Memorials of Oxford,’ and published himself two volumes of engravings, ‘Memorials of Cambridge,’ with text by Thomas Wright and Harry Longueville Jones [q. v.]; some of these plates were subsequently used for Cooper's ‘Memorials of Cambridge.’ He engraved, after J. M. W. Turner, R.A., ‘Rome from the Farnese Gardens’ for Hakewill's ‘Italy,’ and ‘St. Agatha's Abbey, Easby,’ for Whitaker's ‘History of Richmondshire.’ Le Keux's engravings did much to disseminate a taste for


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 the revival of Gothic architecture. Le Keux married, on 27 Sept. 1809, at St. Mary's, Lambeth, Sarah Sophia (1836–1871), daughter of John Lingard, by whom he was father of John Henry Le Keux (b. 1813), who inherited his father's skill in engraving. Le Keux died on 2 April 1846, and was buried in Bunhill Fields cemetery.

(1787–1868), engraver, younger brother of the above, was born on 13 June 1787, and baptised at St. Dunstan's, Stepney. He was apprenticed by his father to James Basire, and worked for Basire on the ‘Oxford Almanacs’ and the plates for the Society of Antiquaries. He was associated with his brother in some of his architectural works, and also engraved for the fashionable ‘annuals’ between 1820 and 1840. He engraved two plates, after J. M. W. Turner, R.A., for Rogers's ‘Italy,’ and was associated with Edward Blore [q. v.] in producing the latter's ‘Monumental Remains.’ Le Keux was a member of the Associated Society of Engravers, and engraved for them some pictures by Claude and Canaletto in the National Gallery, one of his latest works being the former's ‘Embarkation of St. Ursula.’ About 1838 he abandoned engraving and joined in starting a crape manufactory at Bocking in Essex. He died there on 3 Oct. 1868, and was buried at Halstead, Essex. Unlike his contemporaries, Le Keux executed his engravings entirely himself. He did not attain quite the same proficiency as his brother.

LEKPREVICK, ROBERT (fl. 1561–1581), Scottish printer, is of unknown parentage, but the name, though uncommon, is Scottish. In 1561 he printed at Edinburgh the Confession of Faith authorised by the estates of the Scottish parliament in that year. He was the principal printer of the reformed party in Scotland, nearly all the ballads, pamphlets, proclamations, and broadsides on their behalf being sent forth from his press. In December 1562 he obtained a loan of 200l. from the kirk to aid him in printing the Psalms. In 1565 he was authorised by a letter under the great seal to print the acts of Queen Mary's and of her predecessor's parliaments, and also the Psalms of David in metre. The murder of Darnley and the following events kept his press very busy. After Mary's imprisonment in Lochleven he was formally appointed king's printer for twenty years. On 14 April 1568 he also received special license to ‘print the Inglis Bibell aftir the Geneva version for twenty years to come,’ but either on account of his poverty or the unsettled condition of the country, the work, if begun, was never completed. In 1569 the kirk assigned him 50l., to be paid yearly out of the thirds of the kirk (Buik of the Universal Kirk, i. 164). At the instance of Maitland of Lethington, Kirkaldy of Grange on 14 April 1571 sent Captain Melville from the castle to search Lekprevick's house for Buchanan's ‘Chamæleon,’ which Maitland suspected had been printed there. Lekprevick having, however, been warned of the purposed visit, made his escape, carrying with him ‘such things as he feared should have hurt him’ (, Memorials, p. 110). For a short time he carried on his work at Stirling, where he printed Buchanan's ‘Admonition to the True Lords.’ Shortly after Knox's arrival in St. Andrews, in May 1571, he followed him thither, and here James Melville ‘first saw that excellent art of printing’ (Diary, p. 26). After the fall of Stirling Castle he returned to Edinburgh, and in 1574 he was summoned before the law-courts for printing Davidson's ‘Dialog, or Mutuall talking betwix a Clerk and ane Courteour,’ which reflected on the Regent Morton. The acts under which he was committed were those of 1 Feb. 1551 and 19 April 1567, and were specially aimed at the reformed party, the latter being passed against the ‘defamers’ of the queen after the murder of Darnley. There was therefore a certain baseness in Morton utilising them on his own behalf. Lekprevick was committed to the castle of Edinburgh, and although he was possibly set at liberty soon afterwards, he was on 16 July 1574 forbidden to print without a license (Reg. P. C. Scotl. ii. 727). For some time he enjoyed a half-yearly bounty of five merks from Thomas Bassendyne [q. v.], who in 1577 bequeathed to him the sum of 20l. (Bannatyne Miscellany, ii. 203). Notwithstanding his severe treatment by Morton, probably the first publication that Lekprevick issued after his imprisonment was Semple's ‘Ane Complaint upon Fortune,’ mourning Morton's fate. He was then dwelling at the Netherbow. In the same year he printed Archbishop Adamson's Catechism. Nothing further is known of him. It seems unlikely that he is identical with the Robert Lekprevick whose name occurs in a list of reversions delivered by Lady Lennox to Lord Aubigny on 13 Jan. 1579–80 (Reg. P. C. Scotl. iii. 256). [For a full list of Lekprevick's publications see Dickson and Edmond's Annals of Scottish


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16 for I wish to hear what two Brâhmanas have to say.'

3. Then Silaka Sâlâvatya said to Kaikitâyana Dâlbhya: 'Let me ask you.'

'Ask,' he replied.

4. 'What is the origin of the Sâman?' 'Tone (svara),' he replied.

'What is the origin of tone?' 'Breath,' he replied.

'What is the origin of breath?' 'Food,' he replied.

'What is the origin of food?' 'Water,' he replied.

5. 'What is the origin of water?' 'That world (heaven),' he replied.

'And what is the origin of that world?'—

He replied: 'Let no man carry the Sâman beyond the world of svarga (heaven). We place (recognise) the Sâman in the world of svarga, for the Sâman is extolled as svarga (heaven).'

6. Then said Silaka Sâlâvatya to Kaikitâyana Dâlbhya: 'O Dâlbhya, thy Sâman is not firmly established. And if any one were to say, Your head shall fall off (if you be wrong), surely your head would now fall.'

7. 'Well then, let me know this from you, Sir,' said Dâlbhya.

'Know it,' replied Silaka Sâlâvatya.

'What is the origin of that world (heaven)?' 'This world,' he replied.

'And what is the origin of this world?'—

He replied: 'Let no man carry the Sâman beyond this world as its rest. We place the Sâman


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 Printing, i. 206–72. There is a less complete list in Ames's Typographical Antiquities. There is a biographical notice of Lekprevick, founded on that by Dickson and Edmond, in Cranstoun's Satirical Poems of the Time of the Reformation (Scottish Text Society), pt. ii.]

LELAND or LEYLOND, JOHN, the elder (d. 1428), grammarian, was perhaps a native of Lancashire, and studied at Oxford, where he afterwards taught as a grammarian, and acquired so great a reputation that it was said of him:—

Ut rosa flos florum, sic Leland grammaticorum.

He resided at Vine Hall, and dying 30 April 1428 was buried in the lady-chapel at St. Frideswide's. On 4 July 1435 the chancellor of the university ordered all cautions, &c., deposited with John Leland, lately deceased, to be sold. There are some laudatory epigrams on Leland by John Seguard in Merton College MS. 299. Leland was probably collaterally related to his namesake, the famous antiquary. The spelling Leylond is that of the manuscripts of his works.

He wrote: In Bodley MS. 832 there are various short treatises, such as ‘De modo punctandi,’ ‘Hymnarium compendiose compilatum,’ ‘De Accentu,’ which it has been suggested may be by Leland, but there is no proof of this except that the second article in the volume contains this odd colophon:—
 * 1) ‘Distinctiones Rhetoricæ,’ Bodley MS. 832, ff. 1–8.
 * 2) ‘Præterita et supina verborum secundum Magistrum Johannem Leylond, Oxoniæ, 1414,’ manuscript in Lincoln Cathedral Library.
 * 3) ‘Liber Accidentium,’ MS. Worcester Cathedral Library, 123 (, Cat. MSS. Angliæ, ii. 19).
 * 4) ‘Fundamentalis instructio puerorum,’ formerly in the monastery of Sion.

The whole volume appears to be in one handwriting.

LELAND or LEYLAND, JOHN (1506?–1552), antiquary, born in London about 1506, probably belonged to a Lancashire family. He had a brother known as John Leland senior, and the distinguishing appellation of ‘junior’ sometimes applied to him is doubtless due to his bearing the same christian name as his brother. He was doubtless a collateral descendant of the older Latin writer called, like his brother, the elder [q. v.], and of Richard Leland or Leyland, treasurer of the Duke of Bedford's household, who witnessed his master's will in 1435 (, Testamenta Vetusta, p. 243). When on his great tour about 1537 the antiquary visited Sir William Leyland, possibly a kinsman, at his house at Morley near Leigh in Lancashire (Itinerary, v. 89;, Lancashire, iii. 601–2), and a John Leyland, who may have been the antiquary's brother, acted subsequently as Sir William's executor.

John was sent to St. Paul's School, London, under [q. v.] He found a patron in one Thomas Myles, whose generosity in paying all the expenses of his education he freely acknowledged in an ‘encomium’ inscribed ‘ad Thomam Milonem’ (, Encomia, 1589). He removed in due course to Christ's College, Cambridge, and proceeded B.A. in 1522. Subsequently he studied at All Souls' College, Oxford, where he appears to have made the acquaintance of Thomas Caius. He ultimately completed his studies in Paris under Francis Sylvius, and became intimate with Budé (Budæus), Jacques le Febvre (Faber), Paolo Emilio (Paulus Emilius), and Jean Ruel (Ruellus) (Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. v. 492). He returned home a finished scholar in both Latin and Greek, and with a good knowledge of French, Italian, and Spanish. After taking holy orders, he acted in 1525 as tutor to a younger son of Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and wrote with much elegance Latin panegyrics on the king and his ministers of state, which appear to have recommended him to favour at court. At Christmas 1528 he was in receipt of a small annual income from the king (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, v. 305). Before 1530 Henry VIII made him his library keeper; and he frequently gave the king presents of books. He became a royal chaplain, and on 25 June 1530 was presented to the rectory of Pepeling in the marches of Calais (Lansd. MS. 980, f. 108). On 31 May 1533 he and [q. v.] wrote ‘verses and ditties’ recited and sung at Anne Boleyn's coronation (ib. vi. No. 564). On 19 July following Pope Clement VII granted him a dispensation to hold four benefices, of which the annual value was not to exceed one thousand ducats (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, vi. App. No. 4). In 1537, on the birth of Edward VI, he composed an elaborate Latin poem.

In 1533 Leland was made ‘king's antiquary,’ an office in which he had neither predecessor nor successor, and in the same


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 year a commission was granted him under the broad seal directing him to make a search for English antiquities in the libraries of all cathedrals, abbeys, priories, and colleges, and all places where records, writings, and secrets of antiquity were deposited. In 1532 he had been returned as an absentee from his rectory at Pepeling (ib. v. No. 711), and by a special dispensation, 12 July 1536, he was relieved of the obligation of residence, and was allowed to keep a curate there. Although he does not claim to have spent more than six years (1536–42) in his antiquarian tour through England, he seems to have been mainly occupied in the expedition from 1534 to 1543. He intended his collections to be the basis of a great work on the ‘History and Antiquities of this Nation.’ According to his own account he spared himself neither labour nor cost. He claims to have visited almost every bay, river, lake, mountain, valley, moor, heath, wood, city, castle, manor-house, monastery, and college in the land. And not only did he note the present aspect of the places visited, but he investigated and described all Roman, Saxon, or Danish remains of which he could obtain knowledge, and carefully examined very many coins and their inscriptions. As became a personal adherent of the king, he championed the new religious establishment. He was at York in June 1534, when Sir George Lawson, treasurer of Berwick, informed Cromwell that he and Leland paid a visit to York minster; noting on a tablet on the wall a statement that one of Henry VIII's predecessors ‘took this kingdom of the Pope by tribute to hold of the Church of Rome,’ they rased the offending words ‘out of the tablet’ (ib. vii. App. 23). Bale shared Leland's antiquarian zeal and protestant opinions, and when Bale was imprisoned ‘for his preaching’ in January 1537, Leland wrote on his behalf to Cromwell, and emphasised his learning, judgment, and modesty (ib. XII. i. 230;, Orig. Lett. 3rd ser. iii. 154).

The havoc made among the monastic manuscripts at the dissolution of the monasteries caused Leland infinite distress, and he entreated Cromwell (16 July 1536) to extend his commission so as to enable him to collect the manuscripts for the king's library. ‘It would be a great profit to students and honour to this realm,’ he wrote: ‘whereas now the Germans, perceiving our desidiousness and negligence, do send daily young scholars hither that spoileth them and cutteth them out of libraries, returning home and putting them abroad as monuments of their own country.’ Leland's desire was only in part gratified, but he despatched some valuable manuscripts to London in 1537, the chief of which came from St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury (De Script. Brit. p. 299). After Leland's tour was finally concluded, he presented in 1545 an address to Henry VIII, entitled ‘A New Year's Gift,’ in which he briefly described the manner and aims of his researches. He had by that date prepared an account of early English writers, but he hoped to draw up within a year a full description or topography of England, with a map engraved in silver or brass; a work on the antiquities or civil history of the British Isles in fifty books; a survey of the islands adjoining Britain, including the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, and Isle of Man, in six books; and an account of the nobility in three. He also designed an account of Henry's palaces, in imitation of Procopius, who is said to have described the palaces of the emperor Justinian.

But the first work that he completed after his return home was a manuscript treatise dedicated to Henry VIII, and entitled ‘Antiphilarchia,’ in which he claimed to defend the king's supreme dignity in church matters, ‘closely leaning to the strong pillar of Holy Scripture against the whole college of the Romanists.’ The immediate object of his attack was the ‘Hierarchiæ Ecclesiasticæ Assertio’ of Albertus Pighius (Cologne, 1538, fol.) (Newe Yeare's Gifte, sig. F).

Leland soon applied to Archbishop Cranmer, who had already shown some interest in his labours, for church preferment. On 3 April 1542, accordingly, he was presented to the rectory of Haseley, Oxfordshire, and he held a canonry at King's College, Oxford, until 1545, when that institution was converted into Christ Church. He was also prebendary of East and West Knoll or Knoyle in the cathedral of Salisbury, but in his later years he spent most of his time in his house in the parish of St. Michael le Querne in London, where he occupied himself in arranging his notes. He wrote to a friend at Louvain to procure him as an assistant ‘a forward young man about the age of xx years, learned in the Latin tongue, and able sine cortice nare in Greek.’ He seems to have involved himself in some literary quarrel with Richard Croke [q. v.], whom he denounced as a slanderer (Collectanea, v. 161;, Cranmer, iii. 738). In 1544, according to Craig's ‘Scotland's Sovereignty asserted,’ p. 9, Leland drew up the form of the declaration of war made by Henry VIII against the Scots. At length his antiquarian studies overtaxed his brain, and he became incurably insane. On 21 March 1550 the privy council gave him into the custody of his brother, John Le-


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20 yellow colour, and as it melts at about 90° F. it is of great value for pharmaceutical purposes, especially as it only becomes rancid when subjected to excessive heat and light, as to the direct rays of the sun.

The albuminoid or nitrogenous constituents will be seen to form about a sixth of the whole


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Rh nib, or more than a fifth of the cocoa essence, and to their presence is due the fact that absolutely pure cocoa is such a remarkable flesh-former.

The carbohydrates, producing warmth and fat, are also important food substances, the proportion of which, while forming about a fifth of the whole bean, rises to close upon a third of the essence.

Cocoa also contains a volatile oil, from which it derives its peculiar and delicious aroma.

Thus nearly nine-tenths of the cacao-bean may be assimilated by the digestive organs, while three-fourths of tea and coffee are thrown away as waste. For the same bulk, therefore, cocoa is said to yield thirteen times the nutriment of tea, and four and a half times that of coffee. Its value as a substitute for mother's milk has already been alluded to, but may well be emphasized by a quotation from a paper read before the Surgical Society of Ireland in 1877 by one of its Fellows, Mr. Faussett:

"Without presuming to pass any judgment on the many artificial substitutes which, on alleged chemical


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22 and scientific principles, have from time to time been pressed forward under the notice of the profession and the public to take the place of mother's milk, I beg to call attention to a very cheap and simple article which is easily procurable—viz., cocoa, and which, when pure and deprived of an excess of fatty matter, may safely be relied on, as cocoa in the natural state abounds in a number of valuable nutritious principles, in fact, in every material necessary for the growth, development, and sustenance of the body."

After giving some remarkable cases of children being restored from "the last stage of exhaustion" by its use, and "continued through the whole period of infancy," with the effect of their becoming fine, healthy children, he concluded by saying:

"I beg therefore respectfully to commend cocoa, as an article of infant's food, to the notice of my professional brethren, especially those who, holding office under the Poor Laws, have such large and extensive opportunities of testing its value."

As a beverage for mothers or nurses cocoa is recommended by Dr. Milner Fothergill, in his work on "The Food we Eat," in preference to


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Rh porter, stout or ale, an opinion now becoming generally adopted. It may, therefore, be regarded as the indispensable, all-round nursery food, if not the constant stand-by of the family.

That it is as nutritious for old as well as young we have an interesting proof in the fact that the first Englishman born in Jamaica, Colonel Montague James, who lived to the age of 104, took scarcely any food but cocoa and chocolate for the last thirty years of his life. For athletes and all who desire the development of the muscular tissues, its use is most beneficial. Professor Cavill, in his celebrated swim from Southampton to Portsmouth, and his nearly successful attempt to swim across the English Channel, considered it to be the most concentrated and sustaining food he could use for that trying test of endurance.

In his a "Treatise on Food and Dietetics," Dr. Pavy remarks that:


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24

Indeed, the value of cocoa as food for ordinary mortals as well as for mythical beings cannot be better summed up than in the words of Professor Lankester, Superintendent of the Food Collections at South Kensington, who declares:


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OCOA is now grown in many parts of the tropics, reference to which is made in another

chapter. The conditions, however, do not greatly vary, and there are probably many lands in the tropical belt where it is yet unknown that possess soil well suited to its extended cultivation.

The cacao-tree grows wild in the forests of Central America, and varieties have been found also in Jamaica and other West Indian islands,


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26 and in South America. It does not thrive more than fifteen degrees north or south of the equator, and even within these limits it is not very successfully grown more than 600 feet above the sea-level; in many districts where sugar formerly monopolized the plains, it was supposed that cocoa needed an altitude of at least 200 feet, but experiments of planting on the old sugar estates and other low-lying places are generally successful where the soil is good, as in Trinidad, Cuba, and British Guiana. It has been found that the expense saved in roads, labour, and transit on the level has been very considerable in comparison with that incurred on some of the hill estates.

In appearance the cacao-tree is not greatly unlike one of our own orchard trees, and trained by the pruning knife it grows similar in shape to a well-kept apple tree, no very low boughs being left, so that a man on horseback can generally pass freely down the long glades. Left to nature, it will in good soil reach a height of over twenty feet, and its branches will extend for ten feet from the centre.


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104

A later writer remarks of this process:

And, further on, in speaking of the Spaniards' mode of preparation, he says:


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28 The preparation of the land is the first and greatest expense; trees have to be felled, and bush cut down and spread over the land, so that the sun can quickly render it combustible. When all is clear, the cacao is put in among a "catch crop" of vegetables (the cassava, tania, pigeon-pea, and others), and frequently bananas, though, as taking more nutriment from the soil, they are sometimes objected to. But the seedling cacao needs a shade, and as it is some years before it comes into bearing, it is usual to plant the "catch crop" for the sake of a small return on the land, as well as to meet this need.

In Trinidad, at the same time that the cacao is planted at about twelve feet centres, large forest trees are also planted at from fifty to sixty feet centres, to provide permanent shade. The tree most used for this purpose is the Bois Immortelle (Erythrina umbrosa); but others are also employed, and experiments are


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Rh now being made on some estates to grow rubber as a shade tree. In recent clearings in Samoa, trees are left standing at intervals to serve this end.

In Grenada, British West Indies, and some other districts, shade is entirely dispensed with, and the trees are planted at about eight feet centres, thus forming a denser foliage. By this means at least 500 trees will be raised on an acre, against less than 300 in Trinidad, the result showing almost invariably a larger output from the Grenada estates. This practice is better suited to steep hillside plantations than to those in open valleys or on the plains.

The cacao leaves, at first a tender yellowish-brown, ultimately turn to a bright green, and attain a considerable size, often fourteen to eighteen inches in length, sometimes even larger. The tree is subject to scale insects, which attack the leaf, also to grubs, which quickly rot the limbs and trunks, this last being at one time a very serious pest in Ceylon. If left to Nature the trees are quickly covered with lichen, moss, "vines," ferns, and


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Rh has been made, and a bean or so extracted, the animal passes on to similarly attack another pod; such pods rot at once. Snakes generally abound in the cacao regions, and are never killed, being regarded as the planters best friends, from their hostility to his animal foes. A boa will probably destroy more than the most zealous hunter's gun.

From its twelfth to its sixtieth year, or later, each tree will bear from fifty to a hundred and fifty pods, according to the season, each pod containing from thirty-six to forty-two beans. Eleven pods will produce about a pound of cured beans, and the average yield of a large estate will be, in some cases, four hundredweight


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32 per acre, in others, twice as much. The trees bear nearly all the year round, but only two harvests are gathered, the most abundant from November to January, known as the "Christmas crop," and a smaller picking about June, known as the "St. Johns crop." The trees throw off their old leaves about the time of picking, or soon after; should the leaves change at any other time, the young flower and fruit will also probably wither.

Of the many varieties of the cacao, the best known are the criollo, forastero, and calabacilla. The criollo ("native") fruit is of average size, characterized by a "pinched" neck and a curving point. This is the best kind, though not the most productive; it is largely planted in Venezuela, Columbia and Ceylon, and produces a bean light in colour and delicate in flavour. The forastero ("foreign") pod is long and regular in shape, deeply furrowed, and generally of a rough surface. The calabacilla ("little calabash") is smooth and round, like the fruit after which it is named. All varieties are seen in bearing with red, yellow, purple, and sometimes green


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 very learned philosopher, named Messer Jacopo Fabri, of Paris, at the instance of the most serene mother of the most Christain King Francis, Madame Louisa the Regent, to whom the aforesaid knight had made a present of one [of his books].

This French epitome by Fabre is a small octavo of seventy-six leaves, in Gothic type (Grenville, 7,065); it is without date; the title is as follows:

Simon de Colines, the printer, issued his last work in 1546, and his heirs are mentioned on a work of 1550.

In 1801, a French translation of Amoretti's edition of Pigafetta was published by H. J. Jansen, who added a translation from the German of M. de Murr's Notice on the Chevalier M. Behaim. In this translation, some liberties have been taken with the text; and it is to be regretted that this translation was published instead of the French text contained in the two MSS. of the Bibliothèque Impériale; these, even were they not Pigafetta's own composition, possess a philological interest of their own.

An English translation of Pigafetta by Richard


text:
User talk:Deouse

The Stupidity Epiphany and Sudden Realization of Maturity
Darrien Eouse- Stupidity Epiphany- Darrien Eouse There are many, many things that I have heard repeated throughout my life mostly from my parents or others who cared for my well-being that I had just shrugged off or pretended to listen to just so I could go back to doing the same old shit. Over these last few years, looking back it truthfully can't believe how stupid I was. It seemed like a light switch to me, where one second I didn't even think about the weight or wisdom of the things I was lucky to be told and then the next second I want to slap the old me in the face for not seeing, understanding, or implementing these too-good-to-be-true pieces of advice, that actually were undeniably facts. Once I began to talk to those wise individuals about finally understanding what they meant, each and every one surprised me with another piece of obvious information that I was oblivious too. I had no clue why I suddenly understood all these things and over time continued to understand more. After saying to the person, "I finally understand why/what you were telling me all this time, I was so stupid to not have seen it earlier, I don't know why I didn't." Truthfully not knowing what magic or whack-on-the-head had changed my mind. Their responses were all the same, "Yeah, you finally matured." MATURITY. That is what happened over the years to radically change my views on things. How had I not have known such an obvious answer. Hold on a second, I thought I had matured years ago and my parents and everyone were wrong when they told me I needed to back then. So how is it that if I was mature then that could possibly have changed me so much due to something that had happened? Simple answer, I was wrong. Again, I had never matured and definitely didnt understand the definition of maturity. In fact, I feel guilty for even thinking I knew what maturity was and for taking offense or feeling disrespected by anyone trying to help. Socially you may be wrong all the time, but this was a personal realization and self-belief that I really was wrong. Okay, you are probably wondering where I am going with this, the point is I was WRONG. Every single person when they are young is RIGHT. Every kid no matter what believes that they are right in every situation, whether thats the case or not. We know everything about everything, no one can teach us anything better than we could figure it out on our own. Im better than you na na na boo boo. I can do anything you can do better. Were the smartest person on earth. It's just true, Im not a psychologist or a doctor so I can't tell you why, but every kid whether theyre vocal about it or not, whether they win or not, or whether they are socially considered to be right or wrong, In their heads they are right. Of course some display this more obviously. It could just be stubbornness. It could be because when your a kid the world revolves around you and everything is given to you. It could be the ecoccentric nature of humans. Who knows, if you do tell me please. That's when my brain got turned upside down. If I was wrong then and didnt realize it for years what else could I not only have been wrong about but also still be wrong about. Of course, I found other things that I was morally, ethically, or scientifically wrong about. So that must mean im not the smartest person on earth, i dont know the best ways of doing everything, im not always right, other people can actually teach me something, the world doesnt revolve around me, and i cant do everything better than you na na na boo boo hoo hoo :'( . Also though, to my surprise it wasn't the end of the world. I began to have a whole new respect for people and a definitely a much more willing to learn attitude. I was definitely on to something, something big personally. I began to see the whole world in a completely different way. It was so much more full of learning. I was so eager to meet as many people as I could and experience as much as I could. I realized that every person I met I could learn something from, big or small it did not matter it was something. I began to see advice, stories, compliments, and constructive criticism as gold. I was being forced to step outside of my comfort zone and try new things new ways. I began to research and study the things that I did before doing them, as well as asking for help when I really didnt know what I was doing. I was eager and ready to learn anything from anyone that I could because it was no longer my way or highway, because I didn't ALWAYS know everything about everything but a lot of people know a lot about something and the best way to learn is by asking those people and respecting and being grateful for the wisdom and experience they share with you. Scratch that, it's the ONLY way to learn. I had finally begun to learn. I am talking about a different type of learning than the kind you do in a classroom or learning to ride a bicycle. Although, it does affect the way you look at that type of learning or education. I am talking about learning about yourself. Up until you have that sudden epiphany that your not the best at everything; your parents or whoever has always told you do this do that, say please say thank you, or dont curse. Like a robot you do so, never really knowing why even if your told why. All in all it's pretty ironic considering the "I'm the shit/right/best" mindset. Once again not a doctor, but I was a kid and most of the time it was just to get something, make my parents shut up, or just trying not to get in trouble. After that epiphany, you learn things differently. The things you learn are more engraved, they are more personal, and have more weight to them because now you realize that since your way isnt the only way, then theres millions of ways to do things and the way you do them is up to you, and everyone would still like to be right as much as possible. It's self-learning or life-learning. It's real learning. It's the learning that will build you as a person. It's the learning that will show you who you are (which everyone wants to know). No school can teach it, and it starts at different times with everyone, but its REAL learning. You have to start making decisions of your own. The way you behave, actions, and language you use are all chosen morally and ethically. No matter what you have been taught, told to do, or learned up until now isnt set in stone. This is when you learn about who you are, who you want to be, what kind of person you are, what you want to achieve in life, or the difference between right and wrong. Of course the past information comes in to play and you use it to help you with the decisions but its through these choices and actions and experiences that your learn about yourself. Still it is a continuous process you never stop learning and if you think you cant learn anymore, your wrong so shut up. :) Darrien Eouse, thats me. There will be more from me to come.

title: User talk:Deouse


text:
User talk:74.50.255.69

A from this account or IP address, which appeared to be a test edit, was removed or reverted. Please use the sandbox for this purpose. The community portal has information on contributing to this library. Beeswaxcandle (talk) 06:06, 30 August 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:74.50.255.69


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User talk:MilFlyboy

Welcome
Welcome

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Again, welcome! Beeswaxcandle (talk) 06:11, 30 August 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:MilFlyboy


text: Author:Nicholas Aloysius Weber

title: Author:Nicholas Aloysius Weber


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Page:History of England (Froude) Vol 2.djvu/141

1534.] and displeasure, [that] at your uttermost peril, laying aside all vain affections, respects, and other carnal considerations, and setting only before your eyes the mirrour of the truth, the glory of God, the dignity of your Sovereign Lord and King, and the great concord and unity, and inestimable profit and utility, that shall by the due execution of the premises ensue to yourselves and to all other faithful and loving subjects, ye make or cause to be made diligent search and wait, whether the said bishops do truly and sincerely, without all manner of cloke, colour, or dissimulation, execute and accomplish our will and commandment, as is aforesaid. And in case ye shall hear that the said bishops, or any other ecclesiastical person, do omit and leave undone any part or parcel of the premises, or else in the execution and setting forth of the same, do coldly and feignedly use any manner of sinister addition, wrong interpretation, or painted colour, then we straitly charge and command you that you do make, undelayedly, and with all speed and diligence, declaration and advertisement to us and to our council of the said default.

'And forasmuch as we upon the singular trust which we have in you, and for the special love which we suppose you bear towards us, and the weal and tranquillity of this our realm, have specially elected and chosen you among so many for this purpose, and have reputed you such men as unto whose wisdom and fidelity we might commit a matter of such great weight and importance: if ye should, contrary to our expectation and trust which we have in you, and against your duty and allegiance


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122 towards us, neglect, or omit to do with all your diligence, whatsoever shall be in your power for the due performance of our pleasure to you declared, or halt or stumble at any part or speciality of the same; Be ye assured that we, like a prince of justice, will so extremely punish you for the same, that all the world beside shall take by you example, and beware contrary to their allegiance to disobey the lawful commandment of their Sovereign Lord and Prince.

'Given under our signet, at our Palace, of Westminster, the 9th day of June, 1534.'

So Henry spoke at last. There was no place any more for nice distinctions and care of tender consciences. The general, when the shot is flying, cannot qualify his orders with dainty periods. Swift command and swift obedience can alone be tolerated; and martial law for those who hesitate.

This chapter has brought many things to a close. Before ending it we will leap over three months, to the termination of the career of the Pope who has been so far our companion. Not any more was the distracted Clement to twist his handkerchief, or weep, or flatter, or wildly wave his arms in angry impotence; he was to lie down in his long rest, and vex the world no more. He had lived to set England free—an exploit which, in the face of so persevering an anxiety to escape a separation, required a rare genius and a combination of singular


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1534.] qualities. He had finished his work, and now he was allowed to depart.

In him, infinite insincerity was accompanied with a grace of manner which regained confidence as rapidly as it was forfeited. Desiring sincerely, so far as he could be sincere in anything, to please every one by turns, and reckless of truth to a degree in which he was without a rival in the world, he sought only to escape his difficulties by inactivity, and he trusted to provide himself with a refuge against all contingencies by waiting upon time. Even when at length he was compelled to act, and to act in a distinct direction, his plausibility long enabled him to explain away his conduct; and, honest in the excess of his dishonesty, he wore his falsehood with so easy a grace that it assumed the character of truth. He was false, deceitful, treacherous; yet he had the virtue of not pretending to be virtuous. He was a real man, though but an indifferent one; and we can refuse to no one, however grave his faults, a certain ambiguous sympathy, when in his perplexities he shows us features so truly human in their weakness as those of Clement VII.


text: History of England (Froude)/Chapter 7

title: History of England (Froude)/Chapter 7