text:
Maps of Old London/Faithorne

Description.—This map generally goes by the name of Faithorne, the engraver, but in reality the credit is due quite as much to Richard Newcourt the elder (d. 1679), who was the draughtsman. It is selected for a place here because, the date being 1658, it shows the City as it was before the Fire, and therefore forms a supplement to the map of Ogilby which follows, and shows the City as it was when rebuilt after the Fire.

Engraver.—William Faithorne the elder was born in 1616, and was an engraver and portrait painter. He engraved numerous portraits, book-plates, maps, and title-pages. Among his works are two large maps, entitled "Cities of London and Westminster," and of "Virginia and Maryland."

Original.—The only two copies of the original issue known to be extant are in the Print Rooms, British Museum, and in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. The map here given is taken from a sheet of that in the British Museum, and is on the same scale.

Details.—It will be noticed that the sheet chosen for inclusion in this atlas shows very nearly the same area as the map of Ogilby which follows, but does not go quite so far eastward as the Tower. The City wall is clearly shown along the north side of the City, and the bastion near Cripplegate stands out; the town ditch can be traced just beyond this corner running southward. It was the curious and apparently meaningless angle that the wall makes here which led Sir Walter Besant to suggest that it may have been designed to exclude the ancient Roman amphitheatre, of which the site is now lost (see Early London, p. 85). The Fleet River is shown still open and crossed by bridges, of which there are no fewer than five from Holborn to the mouth. That at Fleet Street shows, indeed, a continuous line of houses. St. Paul's is very clearly delineated. The figures within the City refer to the old churches, of which a list is given below. Notice the gable roofs, still the chief style of domestic architecture. The lines of the streets in the heart of the City remain wonderfully the same to our own day. Outside the walls the City is stretching out great arms into the country. There is one such arm made by the continuous houses fringing Bishopsgate Street as far as the extreme northern limit of the map. Then there is a gap between this and Moorgate Street, including all the ground known at Moorfields and Finsbury. A few scattered houses and some cultivated fields cover this space, and in one corner is "Bedlame."

A mass of houses lies westward, running on to the Charter House, northward of which are open fields, and so to "Clarkin Well."

title: Maps of Old London/Faithorne


text:
Maps of Old London/Ogilby

Description.—This is more exclusively a plan of the City than any we have yet considered. It runs roughly from the Tower to Lincoln's Inn Fields, and the reason why it is thus limited is that it was made as a survey to assist in the plotting out of land in the City after the Fire.

Designer.—John Ogilby was born about 1600, and did not turn his attention to surveying until he was about sixty-six, when he secured the appointment as "King's Cosmographer and Geographical Printer." He died in 1676, the year before his map was published. He was assisted in the work by William Morgan, his wife's grandson, and most of the actual engraving of the map was done by Hollar.

Original.—The original is 8 feet 5 inches by 4 feet 7 inches, and is in twenty sheets. It is on the scale of 100 feet to the inch. It may be seen in the British Museum (Crace Collection) and in the Guildhall. The two examples differ a little, and that in the Guildhall has an additional sheet. The reproduction here given is taken from that made by the London and Middlesex Archæological Society from the British Museum copy. The arms of the City are in the left-hand top corner, and those of Sir Thomas Davies, Lord Mayor 1676-77, in the right-hand corner.

Details.—Beginning at the left-hand top corner, we find pastures, bowling-greens, and market-gardens. Aylesbury House, next to St. John Street, has magnificent private gardens, and beyond the Charterhouse bowling-green there is a wood. Further east the Honourable Artillery Company, which had been revived by Cromwell, can be seen, with their equipment and tents. This company is directly descended from the Finsbury Archers, whom we noted in the last map, and it is interesting to know that the actual ground on which they are here depicted is still reserved for their use. Moorfields is neatly laid out and planned, and south of it is new Bethlehem Hospital, now transferred across the river. Eastward, again, there is a large open space at Devonshire House Garden, and southward innumerable gardens can be seen, some of which are preserved to this day behind City halls, etc., but so hidden that no one who did not know of their existence could possibly find them.

On tracing the line of the City wall on the north side we see how some of the churches, notably St. Giles's and St. Botolph's, have taken a part of the town ditch for the enlargement of their churchyards; near St. Bartholomew's the town ditch is still marked. This ditch caused the Mayor and Council as much worry as the increase of houses, because it was the receptacle for every kind of filth, and its cleansing annually swallowed up a large sum of money. The Fleet River is shown flowing down in the open, and is called the New Canal. It is crossed by a bridge at Holborn and another at Fleet Street. We can mark the sinuous line of the great thoroughfare of Holborn as it was before the viaduct and approaches were made. The Strand outside Temple Bar shows the obstructions which have only finally been removed in our own time. Butcher Row disappeared first in 1813; other streets followed to make way for the new Law Courts, and with the destruction of Holywell Row and the opening of Kingsway the improvements here may be considered complete.

To the south are the great houses of Essex and Arundel, with their gardens; their names are preserved in the streets that flow over their sites. Somerset House, the Protector's palace, was then standing, and did not make way for its present representative for another hundred years. The river is covered with wherries, clustered as thickly as ants. It is still the main highway for most people, though there were hackney coaches for hire. There was still only London Bridge by which to get across the river on foot, and the boats were used as ferries. There were tilt-boats, too, as well as the smaller wherries; these ran at stated intervals, like our own omnibuses, and were protected by an awning. Near the Fleet mouth is Bridewell, once a palace, and the scene of the meeting of Parliament, but given by Edward VI. to be a prison. On the east is a blank space, where is now the station of the London Chatham and Dover Railway Co., who purchased it in 1844. The site of St. Paul's was plotted out, but not yet built upon. In fact, the rebuilding of the houses was the first consideration, and was done with remarkable promptness, for in the meantime the poor houseless wretches were camping on Moorfields. The churches and city halls were therefore left to the last; yet even so we may see that, though only eleven years had elapsed since the destruction of the City, about twenty churches had been rebuilt out of the eighty-seven that were destroyed. The picturesque Old London of the gable-ends and overhanging stories was gone, never to return; but gone also was a great deal of rubbish and an insanitariness never afterwards quite so bad. As for the overcrowding, we must see what Sir Walter Besant says:

"If we look into Ogilby's map, we see plainly that as regards the streets and courts London after the Fire was very much the same as London before the Fire; there were the same narrow streets, the same crowded alleys, the same courts and yards. Take, for instance, the small area lying between Bread Street Hill on the west and Garlick Hill on the east, between Trinity Lane on the north and Thames Street on the south: is it possible to crowd more courts and alleys into this area? Can we believe that after the Fire London was relieved of its narrow courts with this map before us? Look at the closely-shut-in places marked on the maps—'1 g., m. 46, m. 47, m. 48, m. 40.' These are respectively Jack Alley, Newman's Rents, Sugar-Loaf Court, Three Cranes Court, and Cowden's Rents. Some of these courts survive to this day. They were formed, as the demand for land grew, by running narrow lanes between the backs of houses and swallowing up the gardens. There were 479 such courts in Ogilby's London of 1677, 472 alleys, and 172 yards, besides 128 inns, each of which, with its open courts for the standing of vehicles and its galleries, stood retired from the street on a spot which had once been the fair garden of a citizen's house" (London in the Time of the Stuarts, p. 280).

We Proceed to the Explanation of the Map, containing 25 Wards, 122 Parishes and Liberties, and therein 189 Streets, 153 Lanes, 522 Alleys, 458 Courts, and 210 Yards bearing Name.

The Broad Black Line is the City Wall. The Line of the Freedom is a Chain. The Division of the Wards, thus oooo. The Parishes, Liberties, and Precincts by a Prick-line, .... Each Ward and Parish is known by the Letters and Figures Distributed within their Bounds, which are placed in the Tables before their Names.... The Wards by Capitals without Figures. The Parishes, &c., by Numbers without Letters. The Great Letters with Numbers refer to Halls, Great Buildings, and Inns. The Small Letters to Courts, Yards, and Alleys, every Letter being repeated 99 times, and sprinkled in the Space of 5 Inches, running through the Map, from the Left Hand to the Right, &c. Churches and Eminent Buildings are double Hatch'd, Streets, Lanes, Alleys, Courts, and Yards, are left White. Gardens, &c. faintly Prick'd. Where the Space admits the Name of the Place is in Words at length, but where there is not room, a Letter and Figure refers you to the Table in which the Streets are Alphabetically dispos'd, and in every Street the Churches and Halls, Places of Note, and Inns, with the Courts, Yards, and Alleys, are named; then the Lanes in that Street, and the Churches, &c. as aforesaid, in each Lane.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Maps of Old London/Ogilby


text:
Maps of Old London/Rocque

Description.—In some ways this map is the most interesting of the whole series, for it comes nearest to our own times, and yet by studying it we can infer the remarkable changes that have taken place within the memory of man. It is much more comprehensive than Ogilby's, including the whole of the outlying suburbs, and even going as far as Edgware and Tottenham, which are still no part even of Greater London.

Designer.—Very little is known about John Rocque. He was probably a native of France, but was residing in England about 1750. He engraved maps and a few views from his own designs.

Original.—The original is in twenty-four sheets, and is 13 feet in length and 6¾ feet in depth. It can be seen at the British Museum. That which is here presented is the central part of this, not reduced, but on the same scale. Its interest is greatly increased by the fact that the names are printed on the map, and are not given separately as in other instances. To facilitate this Rocque has marked the houses bordering streets in white, and only blocked them in black where they line market-gardens and other parts indicated by a light surface. The map is a model of care and comprehensive detail.

Detail.—Beginning in the lower left-hand corner, we have the Royal Hospital, with its neatly-laid-out grounds. Close to it the Westbourne, whose irregular line determined the boundaries of Chelsea, falls into the Thames; higher up its course is through the Five Fields, now one of the most wealthy and popular districts of London—namely, Belgravia. St. George's Hospital is already standing at Hyde Park Corner, and a fringe of houses lines the road to Knightsbridge. Westminster is still largely open in the west by Tothill Fields, scene of so many tournaments and jousts, and the curve of the river encloses innumerable market-gardens. In St. James's Park the stiff canal, memento of Dutch influence, has not yet been transformed into the more attractive ornamental water. Carlton House Terrace has not come into existence. Here Carlton House, which does not appear to be marked, was standing, and was occupied by Frederick, Prince of Wales, father of George III. North of this, with the omission of Regent Street, made in 1813-20, the streets are pretty much as we know them. It is beyond Oxford Street northward that the difference is striking. This district was only just being built upon, and the well-laid-out streets soon run off into open country. "Marybone" Gardens, a favourite tea-garden, and the church, and a few houses, form a little hamlet just connected with the other part of London by a single street, and further westward, north of Berkeley Square, are fields. In the midst of these is the "Yorkshire Stingo," the public-house from which the first omnibus in the Metropolis began to run in 1829. The Tyburn Gallows still had much work to do; it was fifty years later that the last execution took place here. Just within the Hyde Park is the gruesome record, "where soldiers are shot." If we follow Oxford Street eastward to Tottenham Court Road, we find that it is only connected with High Holborn by the curve through High and Broad Streets at St. Giles's. To the south is the star of Seven Dials, and all the district so completely altered by the cutting through of Charing Cross Road, and then Shaftesbury Avenue in modern times. To the north, Montagu House occupies the site the British Museum was destined to fill; it was purchased by the Government in 1753, and pulled down about a hundred years later. Bedford House, the town residence of the Dukes of Bedford, stood until 1800. Behind, Lamb's Conduit Fields run up to Battle Bridge, where one of the early British battles was fought; this is now the site of King's Cross Station. Not far off Bagnigge Wells and Sadler's Wells are in the heyday of their prosperity. The Fleet or River of Wells may be traced passing through the former, but further south it is covered in, and does not appear in the open again until below Fleet Bridge, when it is ignominiously called Fleet Ditch.

Thames side is still fringed with "stairs to take water at" leading from the great houses on the margin, and there is as yet no embankment. Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges, however, afford easy access to the southern side. The labyrinth of the City is not seriously different from that of the present day except in the omission of Cannon Street. Bethlehem Hospital is still conspicuous, and the City wall has vanished strangely. What we now call Finsbury Square is marked as Upper Moorfields. We have to go far before we clear the houses to the east. Stepney and Bethnal Green are fairly thickly populated, and though surrounded by open ground, are connected by houses all the way from the City. But in the bend of the river by Wapping the chief area is occupied by market-gardens. Crossing over to the other side, we find the market-gardens very prominent; as London grows larger she thrusts her sources of supply further from her. The central ganglion of the Borough Road and its ray-like connections are marked out. At one end is the "King's Bench," which was close to the Marshalsea, associated with "Little Dorrit." The Marshalsea itself is not marked. Dickens was yet to come, and it was only through his writings that it gained a sentimental interest. A great part of the Borough is very marshy indeed, and we note frequent ponds. The "Dog and Duck," otherwise "St. George's Spaw," is almost surrounded by them.

To sum up in Sir Walter Besant's words:

"London, then, in the eighteenth century consisted first of the City, nearly the whole of which had been rebuilt after the Fire, only a small portion in the east and north containing the older buildings; a workmen's quarter at Whitechapel; a lawyer's quarter from Gray's Inn to the Temple, both inclusive; a quarter north of the Strand occupied by coffee-houses, taverns, theatres, a great market, and the people belonging to these places; an aristocratic quarter lying east of Hyde Park; and Westminster, with its Houses of Parliament, its Abbey, and the worst slums in the whole City. On the other side of the river, between London Bridge and St. George's, was a busy High Street with streets to right and left; the river bank was lined with houses from Paris Gardens to Rotherhithe; there were streets at the back of St. Thomas's and Guy's; Lambeth Marsh lay in open fields, and gardens intersected by sluggish streams and ditches; and Rotherhithe Marsh lay equally open in meadows and gardens, with ponds and ditches in the east....

"From any part of London it was possible to get into the country in a quarter of an hour. One realizes the rural surroundings of the City by considering that north of Gray's Inn was open country with fields; that Queen Square, Bloomsbury, had its north side left purposely open in order that the residents might enjoy the view of the Highgate and Hampstead Hills. On the south side of the river Camberwell was a leafy grove; Herne Hill was a park set with stately trees; Denmark Hill was a wooded wild; the hanging woods of Penge and Norwood were as lovely as those that one can now see at Cliveden or on the banks of the Wye" (London in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 77-79).

title: Maps of Old London/Rocque


text: Index:Fourth Channel Welsh Language 11July1980.pdf


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 SCHOOLS. 145 in procession to the church, accompanied by vocal musick from his pupils, of the most sweet and touching character. Then the Prefect, in the presence of a large assembly, presented him the medal and the autograph, and in an address proffered the gratitude which the State felt was due, for his services to its children. After prayers, and devotional music, they returned to a festive repast, still enlivened with appropriate musick, and with expressions of applause and affection for the grey-haired instructor. The effect of the whole, was not only to breathe new life into the winter of age, but to impress on the minds of all present, that a pious, faithful teacher, was one of the best friends of the nation, and worthy of honour, from all true patriots. Demonstrations of a regard thus publick, would be repugnant to the delicacy of female instructors. Yet those mothers who commit their heart's jewels to their keeping, should treat them as friends and counsellors, and cheer them with their confidence. Their influence is sometimes stronger in correcting faults of character, than even that of the parent. Let them be selected with the most careful discrimination, and then considered as adjuncts in a high and holy work. Young ladies of affluence need not consider it beneath them, to engage in the work of instruction. It is one of the best modes to complete

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Page:Fourth Channel Welsh Language 11July1980.pdf/1

 RoyalBadgeOfWales BW 1953.PNG CONFIDENTIAL

NOTE OF A MEETING

FOURTH CHANNEL/WELSH LANGUAGE - BROADCASTING BILL

The Secretary of State and PUSS(W), accompanied by and me, attended a meeting at the Home Office on 10 July 1980. Also present were the Home Secretary and Mr Leon Brittan with Home Office officials. In addition Sir Michael Swann, Sir Ian Trethowan, Lady Plowden, Mr Pragnell, Dr Tegai Hughes and Mr Alwyn Roberts were present.

said that he was grateful to Sir Michael and Lady Plowden and their colleagues for attending the meeting at such short notice. He explained that the burden of advice which was being received by the Government suggested that Mr Gwynfor Evans was absolutely serious about his intention to fast. His gesture at Report stage of the Broadcasting Bill had been repudiated. It was possible that another gesture would receive similar treatment; but he was clear that another gesture should be made. He thought it right to discuss this with the broadcasting organisations and to take their advice. There was considerable urgency because it was intended that the Secretary of State for Wales should indicate the Government's view at the Welsh Grand Committee debate on the Welsh language on 16 July.

said that in Wales many people had changed their view on the question of Welsh language broadcasting over the years. Many would say in private that the Government's decision not to isolate Welsh language programmes on the fourth channel was the right decision but few would say so in public. He did not believe that that decision should be reversed and indeed there were sound practical reasons against doing so. However common ground seemed to be emerging not least with Mr Dafydd Elis Thomas who had made a thoughtful speech at Report stage. It seemed to him to be possible to take steps to make Mr Gwynfor Evans' position isolated and perverse. Many of the views being expressed in Wales suggested that the main complaint was the absence of a body which would ensure the provision of a comprehensive Welsh language service. People feared that there would be a casual scatter of programmes. He proposed the establishment of a new body - a Welsh language television committee - consisting of representatives from the BBC and IBA with perhaps 2 independent members and an independent chairman. It would be an advisory body but its recommendations would clearly carry considerable weight. It would be required to submit reports to Ministers and those reports would be laid before Parliament. He did not propose that the scheduling arrangements provided for already in the Bill should be changed but it would be logical if the scheduling arbitrator and the independent chairman were one and the same man. He appreciated that this proposition might cause practical problems, but the establishment of such a body would go a long way to defuse the situation. /Dr Hughes


text:
Maps of Old London

An atlas of Old London maps, showing the growth of the City throughout successive centuries, is now issued for the first time. Up to a recent date the maps here represented had not been reproduced in any form, and the originals were beyond the reach of all but the few. The London Topographical Society has done admirable work in hunting out and publishing most of them; but these reproductions are, as nearly as possible, facsimiles of the originals as regards size, as well as everything else. It is not every one who can afford to belong to the society, or who wishes to handle the maps in large sheets. In the present form they are brought within such handy compass that they will form a useful reference-book even to those who already own the large-scale ones, and, to the many who do not, they will be invaluable.

The maps here given are the best examples of those extant, and are chosen as each being representative of a special period. All but one have appeared in the volumes of Sir Walter Besant's great and exhaustive "Survey of London," for which they were prepared, and the publishers believe that in offering them separately from the books in this handy form they are consulting the interests of a very large number of readers.

The exception above noted is the map known as Faithorne's, showing London as it was before the Great Fire; this is added for purposes of comparison with that of Ogilby, which shows London rebuilt afterwards. Besides the maps properly so called, there are some smaller views of parts of London, all of which are included in the Survey.

The atlas does not presume in any way to be exhaustive, but is representative of the different periods through which London passed, and shows most strikingly the development of the City.

I must acknowledge the valuable assistance I have received from Mr. George Clinch, F.G.S., in the many difficulties which arose in the course of its preparation.

title: Maps of Old London


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Page:Fourth Channel Welsh Language 11July1980.pdf/2

RoyalBadgeOfWales BW 1953.PNG said that although it would be a move in the right direction he doubted whether it would be sufficient to dissuade Mr Gwynfor Evans from his intended fast. Mr Evans had written to him after his recent appointment and had reiterated his demands. These included 25 hours of Welsh programmes per week on one channel; broadcasting of Welsh under Welsh control; adequate financing; and a start to the fourth channel in Wales before the rest of the UK. said that he too doubted if it would be sufficient. The body being proposed would have advisory responsibilities only. agreed that it might not succeed in dissuading Mr Gwynfor Evans. However it seemed to him to be the only possible route that the Government could take. There was alarm about Mr Gwynfor Evans' intentions even within his own party. The Secretary of State also suggested that the committee would have a degree of "authority" in that it would make its report to the Government who had already indicated that it would be bound to accept its recommendations.

said that it was not in anyone's interests for Mr Gwynfor Evans to pursue his intended course. He thought that the proposal should be given a try. He would however like to be given a little time to think further. reiterated the urgency and said that this did not simply relate to the WGC speech; the timing was becoming very difficult. On the one hand Mr Gwynfor Evans' campaign was gaining momentum daily while on the other there was need to have regard to the forthcoming recess and to the timing of the passage of the Broadcasting Bill. He considered it to be of the first importance that the Government was in a position to take the initiative in next week's WGC debate.

said that the proposal appeared to be the only possible solution although she too was not persuaded that it would dissuade Mr Gwynfor Evans. said that he agreed with Sir Ian Trethowan. The proposal should be given a try. But he too doubted if it would succeed. said that he had spoken to Mr Dafydd Elis Thomas on 4 July and he doubted if the proposal would be sufficient to persuade him to make representations to Mr Gwynfor Evans. expressed some surprise at this as the proposal came very close to meeting the intention of Mr Dafydd Elis Thomas' amendment. said that Mr Dafydd Elis Thomas' influence with Mr Gwynfor Evans should not be over-estimated. In his view the proposal would be interpreted as a cosmetic exercise. said that it would show that the Government had taken all reasonable steps that it could to meet the arguments which were being put forward.

said that the presentation of the proposal was of considerable importance. It should be possible to present it as substantially a single Welsh language television service which was being achieved by agreement between the 2 broadcasting organisations. /Sir Michael


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RoyalBadgeOfWales BW 1953.PNG agreed that it was important to get the positive advantages across: it should in fact lead to a more coordinated and better service. He wondered whether there might be a unitary title for broadcasting in Welsh eg a single sign appearing before each programme titled Broadcasting Cymru with BBC and ITV in brackets after it. agreed that the positive side should be stressed.

said that he was very grateful for the constructive response and thanked Dr Swann and Lady Plowden and their colleagues for being so helpful. the broadcasting organisations would put forward their final views on the proposal by Monday 14 July. added that he would very much welcome any suggestions on presentation.

Distribution: cc


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440 crimes had pronounced upon him. He was virtually a stranger as we met in the hallway and shook hands.

"I wish you'd go to a hotel," he said bluntly. "I don't want anyone here." But I didn't go to a hotel. I told him flatly that there was no other course open to me but to stay and take care of him; for obviously he wasn't taking care of himself, and his dismissal of the household help had precipitated a needless burden on his already over-laden shoulders. He needed food, for he was thin to emaciation, and I made him dress at once and accompany me to a restaurant where I saw that he ate a decent meal. I then led him to the theater, a particularly lively musical comedy, and kept him in his seat until the curtain had fallen. But my efforts seemed of no avail, as he was continually depressed and absorbed in his own reflections. That night before retiring he came to my room and again asked me to leave.

"It's for your own good," he said with strange harshness. "For God's sake believe what I say!"

the next several days I watched him sink lower and lower into despondency of so contagious a nature that I felt the insufferable pangs of it myself. He worked late at night on the murder cases, referring constantly to autopsy protocols and police memoranda, and more than once I saw him reading his Bible. On several occasions he visited the county morgue and examined the remains of the Head-hunter's victims, and following each such visit he lapsed into a state of mental and physical agitation that exhausted him within a few hours.

The nights were almost unbearable, and I would lie awake for hours listening to the mumbles and moans which came from his room, oftentimes distinguishing such words as "God forbid it! God forbid it!" and frequently he would scream the word "Head-hunter." There was no doubt that Carse had delved too deeply into this case, and that hour by hour he was descending into the clutch of a dangerous neurosis.

During my stay with him I engaged several servants, but he discharged them, and I was unable to reconcile him to my point of view. His resentment of my visit became more acute as the days passed, and I was beginning to fear that he would forcibly eject me

It was easy to explain this increased irritability, for I myself, as well as every soul in the city, was nervously awaiting the next prowl of the Head-hunter, and in it I recognized more fuel for the fire that was burning Carse" s reason. He was waiting for the fatal Monday night as a man waits for his doom, and each hour found him closer to a mental attack. On Sunday afternoon I discovered him in my room packing my luggage.

"You must go now," he said. "I appreciate your interest in me, but now you must go—you must!"

The tremor of anxiety in his voice nearly convinced me that he was right, but doggedly I clung to my set purpose to save him in spite of himself. I could not leave him alone in face of the developments which would occur sometime between then and Tuesday morning, and I told him so.

"Fool!" he exploded; "I can do nothing with you. Stay if you wish—but it's on your own head!"

The irony of that final statement, whether intentional or not, is something I shall remember to my grave. I don't think that Carse meant it literally—on my own bead—but I was unable to shake his words out of my ears, and throughout the night and the following day they hung about me like a dirge.

Carse did not sleep at all that Sunday


text: Note of a Meeting Fourth Channel Welsh Language Broadcasting Bill


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Rh night, but paced up and down in his study while a fierce, alarming expression hardened on his features. Nor could I sleep, for his continued pacing tore my nerves to shreds, and I spent the night alternately in my own room and at the partly open doorway of the library, where I was able to watch him in secrecy. Several times I saw him bend over a small book and study it with the intent regard of a disciple, and each time that he referred to a certain page he pounded his fist on the desk and cried to himself: "God forbid! God forbid!"

I should have realized what he meant. I should have known and been prepared, but how blind my friendship made me to the horrific implication of those repeated words!

Monday came and went in a slow drizzle of rain which only added to the somber quiet of the city, and as the evening approached and wore on I felt myself caught in the irresistible tide of fearful anticipation which warned of the sixth appearance of the Head-hunter. The streets were deserted throughout the day, and with but few exceptions the only pedestrians were police officers, who now traveled in pairs or squads. The evening papers were brutally frank in predicting that before dawn a sixth headless corpse would be discovered, and this expectation was shared by all.

Carse was at home all day and refused to answer the telephone or to allow me to answer it for him. He ate sparingly, with his same preoccupation, and, contrary to my expectations, he appeared to have lapsed into a state akin to normality, like a man who contemplates a preordained and inexorable occurrence.

At six o'clock he came to me, ghastly haggard and thin, and again asked me to leave his house, but I refused this zero-hour request. He shrugged and went back to his study. I watched him for a while and saw that he was studying that queer little book which so deeply affected him, and I again heard him utter those despairing words: "God forbid! God forbid!"

to bed at a little after ten and tried to sleep, but the city-wide excitement seeped into my room and kept me tossing from the thrusts of nightmares. At midnight Carse came up and stopped just outside my door, obviously listening to determine whether I was asleep. The silence was uncanny for a moment; then I heard a sharp metallic clicking and he went on to his room. After he had closed his door, I swept my sheet aside and went to my own door. Carse had locked it from the outside! I called to him for an explanation of this conduct, but he either didn't hear me or chose to ignore my requests, for the house remained grimly silent. Returning to bed, I managed somehow to doze off.

At two o'clock I was awakened by the sound of someone's walking in the hallway. I sat bolt-upright in bed and heard the unmistakable approach of footsteps coming down the corridor from Carse's bedroom. The tread was stealthy and determined, and as it drew closer to my room I was conscious of a cold mask of sweat clinging to my face, because the footsteps did not sound like those of Jason Carse!

The feeling hit me and hit me again until T was left stunned with the horror of it. It did not sound like Carse! But if it was not Carse, who was it?

I wanted to call out his name, yet I felt, with some indefinable sense, that the treader in the hall was unaware that I was in the house, and for that reason it could not have been Carse. I was afraid to make an outcry, and I sat stricken with dread as the footsteps went past my door descending the stairs. A moment later


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 394 ANUGÎTÂ.

know the mind to be my pupil. And, O Dhanañgaya! I have related this mystery to you out of love for you. If you have love for me, O supporter of the family of the Kauravas! then having heard this (instruction) relating to the self, always duly act1 (according to it). Then when this piety is duly practised, you will attain the absolute final emancipation, getting rid of all sins. It was this same thing I stated to you before2 when the time for battle had come, O you of mighty arms! Therefore fix your mind on this. And now3, O chief of the descendants of Bharata! it is long since I saw the lord my father. I wish to see him, with your consent, O Phâlguna4!

Vaisampâyana said :

When Krishna spoke these words, Dhanañgaya replied (saying), 'O Krishna! let us verily go to-day to the city of Gagasa5. Be pleased, O you who understand piety! to see there king Yudhishthira, who is of a devout heart, and after taking leave of him to go to your own city.'


text:
Portal:Epistle to the Colossians

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Related works

 * "On Colossians" by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistle to the Colossians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to the Colossians


text:
Portal:Epistle to the Philippians

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)

Related works

 * "Philippians," in Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible by Matthew Henry, volume 6, 1700s
 * "On Philippians" by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistle to the Philippians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to the Philippians


text:
Portal:Epistle to the Ephesians

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Related works

 * "On Ephesians" by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistle to the Ephesians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897
 * "Epistle to the Ephesians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to the Ephesians


text:
Portal:Epistle to the Galatians

Translations
Versions and translations of the Epistle to the Galatians are listed at Galatians (Bible).

Related works

 * "The Five Books Against Marcion" (Book 5, Chapter 2) by Tertullian in Ante-Nicene Fathers, volume 3, 1867-73
 * "Apostasy in Galatia" in The Acts of the Apostles, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "On Galatians" by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistle to the Galatians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to the Galatians


text:
Portal:Book of Revelation

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:Book of Revelation


text:
Portal:Epistle of Jude

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:Epistle of Jude


text:
Portal:Third Epistle of John

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:Third Epistle of John


text:
Portal:Second Epistle of John

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:Second Epistle of John


text:
Portal:First Epistle of John

Translations

 * Wycliffe Bible (1380s)
 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:First Epistle of John


text:
Portal:Second Epistle of Peter

Translations

 * Wycliffe Bible (1380s)
 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)

title: Portal:Second Epistle of Peter


text:
Portal:First Epistle of Peter

Translations

 * Wycliffe Bible (1380s)
 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:First Epistle of Peter


text:
Portal:Epistle of James

Translations

 * Wycliffe Bible (1380s)
 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Related works

 * Notes and Introduction to the General Epistle of St. James, 1895 by Author:Edward Hayes Plumptre
 * Notes and Introduction to the Epistle of St. James, 1922by Author: Richard John Knowling

title: Portal:Epistle of James


text:
Portal:Epistle to the Hebrews

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

title: Portal:Epistle to the Hebrews


text:
Portal:Epistle to Philemon

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Related works

 * "On Philemon," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistles to Philemon," in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to Philemon


text:
Portal:Epistle to Titus

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Related works

 * "On Titus," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistle to Titus" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Epistle to Titus


text:
Portal:Second Epistle to Timothy

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)

Related works

 * "Paul's Last Letter," in The Acts of the Apostles, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "On 2 Timothy," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Second Epistle to Timothy" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:Second Epistle to Timothy


text:
Portal:First Epistle to Timothy

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)

Related works

 * "On 1 Timothy," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "First Epistle to Timothy" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897

title: Portal:First Epistle to Timothy


text:
Portal:Second Epistle to the Thessalonians

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Commentaries

 * A critical and exegetical commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, by James Everett Frame (1912)
 * The expositor's Greek Testament, vol. IV, edited by W. Robertson Nicoll (1897)
 * Notes on Epistles of St Paul from unpublished commentaries, by J. B. Lightfoot (1895)
 * St. Paul's epistles to the Thessalonians: with a critical and grammatical commentary, and a revised translation, 3rd ed., by Charles J. Ellicott (1866)
 * St. Paul's epistles to the Thessalonians, by George Milligan (1908)
 * Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans, by J. W. McGarvey & Philip Y. Pendleton, for The Standard Bible Commentary (1916)

Related works

 * "The Thessalonian Letters," in The Acts of the Apostles, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "Epistles to the Thessalonians," in Sketches from the Life of Paul, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "On 2 Thessalonians," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistles to the Thessalonians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897


text:
Portal:First Epistle to the Thessalonians

Translations

 * Tyndale Bible (1526)
 * King James Bible (1611)
 * American Standard Bible (1901)
 * World English Bible (1997-present)
 * Wikisource Bible (2006-present)

Commentaries

 * A critical and exegetical commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, by James Everett Frame (1912)
 * The expositor's Greek Testament, vol. IV, edited by W. Robertson Nicoll (1897)
 * Notes on Epistles of St Paul from unpublished commentaries, by J. B. Lightfoot (1895)
 * St. Paul's epistles to the Thessalonians: with a critical and grammatical commentary, and a revised translation, 3rd ed., by Charles J. Ellicott (1866)
 * St. Paul's epistles to the Thessalonians, by George Milligan (1908)
 * Thessalonians, Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans, by J. W. McGarvey & Philip Y. Pendleton, for The Standard Bible Commentary (1916)

Related works

 * "The Thessalonian Letters," in The Acts of the Apostles, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "Epistles to the Thessalonians," in Sketches from the Life of Paul, 1883 by Ellen Gould White
 * "On First Thessalonians," by St. John Chrysostom in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, series 1, volume 13, 1885

Reference

 * "Epistles to the Thessalonians" in Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897


text:
Help talk:Disambiguation

Versions or translations?
I don't understand the example used on this page. The various "Songs of Songs" are surely different translations of an original, not different versions of an original. Chris55 (talk) 23:46, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

Probably required in our help
We probably should look to give guidance on what to do in main ns for a situation where the pagename is the same name as an author, or a portal, and what sort of linking is, or is not, permitted. — billinghurst  sDrewth  01:35, 19 January 2016 (UTC)

case study
The Proletarian Revolution and Kautsky the Renegade && The proletarian revolution and the renegade Kautsky; are these {{version}s? Arlo Barnes (talk) 14:51, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Help talk:Disambiguation


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/59

 indigo-yielding plants, Indigofera anil, anil being derived from the Sanskrit nīla, dark-blue, and nīlā, the indigo plant. About the same time N. N. Zinin found that on reducing nitrobenzene, a base was formed which he named benzidam. A. W. von Hofmann investigated these variously prepared substances, and proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took their place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine. Pure aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless, melting at −8° and boiling at 184° C. On exposure to air it absorbs oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour; it ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses a somewhat pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly acrid poison.

Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids. Aniline hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which become greenish on exposure; it is the “aniline salt” of commerce. The sulphate forms beautiful white plates. Although aniline is but feebly basic, it precipitates zinc, aluminium and ferric salts, and on warming expels ammonia from its salts. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides to form secondary and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide it gives sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC$6$H$5$)$2$, which may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C6H5CNS, and triphenyl guanidine, C6H5N: C(NHC6H5)2. Sulphuric acid at 180° gives sulphanilic acid, NH2·C6H4·SO3H. Anilides, compounds in which the amino group is substituted by an acid radical, are prepared by heating aniline with certain acids; antifebrin or acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and aniline. The oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated. In alkaline solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid produces the violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potassium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives para-amino phenol and para-amino diphenylamine (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1522).

The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness with which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs. The discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W. H. Perkin was the first of a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by hundreds. Reference should be made to the articles, , , , for more details on this subject. In addition to dyestuffs, it is a starting-product for the manufacture of many drugs, such as antipyrine, antifebrin, &c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing nitrobenzene with iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the product. The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In commerce three brands of aniline are distinguished—aniline oil for blue, which is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidines; and aniline oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine, and is obtained from the distillate (échappés) of the fuchsine fusion. Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are colourless liquids prepared by heating aniline, aniline hydrochloride and methyl alcohol in an autoclave at 220°. They are of great importance in the colour industry. Monomethyl aniline boils at 193–195°; dimethyl aniline at 192°. ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul), a term first used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used to designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other branch known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm, and the series of investigations by which it was established that the cell was a fundamental structure essentially alike in both animals and plants (see ), there was a vague belief that plants, if they could really be regarded as animated creatures, exhibited at the most a lower grade of life. We know now that in so far as life and living matter can be investigated by science, animals and plants cannot be described as being alive in different degrees. Animals and plants are extremely closely related organisms, alike in their fundamental characters, and each grading into organisms which possess some of the characters of both classes or kingdoms (see ). The actual boundaries between animals and plants are artificial; they are rather due to the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually resident in objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that the animal cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous material, whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate material—cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food to repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material which, by chemical change, may liberate the energy which appears in the processes of life. The food is alike in both cases; it consists of water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate material and proteid material. Both animals and plants take their water and inorganic salts directly as such. The animal cell can absorb its carbohydrate and proteid food only in the form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is dependent, in fact, on the pre-existence of these organic substances, themselves the products of living matter, and in this respect the animal is essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life. The plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing chlorophyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both, carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic salts; if it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is dependent on pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable of absorbing, like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able to build up its proteid food from material chemically simpler than proteid. On these basal differences are founded most of the characters which make the higher forms of animal and plant life so different. The animal body, if it be composed of many cells, follows a different architectural plan; the compact nature of its food, and the yielding nature of its cell-walls, result in a form of structure consisting essentially of tubular or spherical masses of cells arranged concentrically round the food-cavity. The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and the attenuated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and necessary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed to the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened laminae and elongated branching growths. The distinctions between animals and plants are in fact obviously secondary and adaptive, and point clearly towards the conception of a common origin for the two forms of life, a conception which is made still more probable by the existence of many low forms in which the primary differences between animals and plants fade out.

An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm of which does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires for its existence proteid material obtained from the living or dead bodies of existing plants or animals. The common use of the word animal as the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to bird or reptile or fish, is erroneous.

The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the article.

ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the temperature of the animal body.

The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat, and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively shown by the fact that both in summer and winter their mean temperature remains the same. But it was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local differences were present, since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the temperature of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal organs. Also for such results to be comparable they must be made in the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in women and some animals the vagina, uterus or bladder.

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/59


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chambré, Alan


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chambre, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chambre, William de


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chamier, Anthony


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/60

 Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use. More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin.

Warm and Cold Blooded Animals.—By numerous observations upon men and animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals lies in the constancy of the temperature of the former, and the variability of the temperature of the latter. Those animals high in the scale of evolution, as birds and mammals, have a high temperature almost constant and independent of that of the surrounding air, whereas among the lower animals there is much variation of body temperature, dependent entirely on their surroundings. There are, however, certain mammals which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer, but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such are the hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested that two groups should be known as “animals of permanent heat at all atmospheres” and “animals of a heat variable with every atmosphere,” but later Bergmann suggested that they should be known as “homoiothermic” and “poikilothermic” animals. But it must be remembered there is no hard and fast line between the two groups. Also, from work recently done by J. O. Wakelin Barratt, it has been shown that under certain pathological conditions a warm-blooded (homoiothermic) animal may become for a time cold-blooded (poikilothermic). He has shown conclusively that this condition exists in rabbits suffering from rabies during the last period of their life, the rectal temperature being then within a few degrees of the room temperature and varying with it. He explains this condition by the assumption that the nervous mechanism of heat regulation has become paralysed. The respiration and heart-rate being also retarded during this period, the resemblance to the condition of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland Simpson has shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal tends to take the same temperature as that of its environment. He demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized with ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradually falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point (about 25° C. in the monkey), the employment of an anaesthetic is no longer necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and incapable of being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact, narcotized by cold, and is in a state of what may be called “artificial hibernation.” Once again this is explained by the fact that the heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered with. Similar results have been obtained from experiments on cats. These facts—with many others—tend to show that the power of maintaining a constant temperature has been a gradual development, as Darwin’s theory of evolution suggests, and that anything that interferes with the due working of the higher nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for the time being, on to a lower plane of evolution.

Variations in the Temperature of Man and some other Animals.—As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the temperature of man varies between 36° C. and 38° C., or if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36·25° C. and 37·5° C. In the mouth the reading would be from ·25° C. to 1·5° C. higher than this; and in the rectum some ·9° C. higher still. The temperature of infants and young children has a much greater range than this, and is susceptible of wide divergencies from comparatively slight causes.

Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that appear to be cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits and puppies, if removed from their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their body heat until their temperature has fallen to within a few degrees of that of the surrounding air. But such animals are at birth blind, helpless and in some cases naked. Animals who are born when in a condition of greater development can maintain their temperature fairly constant. In strong, healthy infants a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but in that of weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary or falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and young immature animals is the imperfect development of the nervous regulating mechanism. The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty and again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is passed the temperature begins to rise again, and by about the eightieth year is as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, the maximum ranging from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., the minimum from 11 P.M. to 3 A.M. Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith have recently done much work on this subject. In their first experiments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked and regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed. The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; in monkeys which are active during the night and resting during the day, the body temperature is highest at night and lowest through the day. They then made observations on the temperature of animals and birds of nocturnal habit, where the periods of rest and activity are naturally the reverse of the ordinary through habit and not from outside interference. They found that in nocturnal birds the temperature is highest during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is lower and the range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That the temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that of man and other homoiothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also that the curves obtained from rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite similar to those from man. The mean temperature of the female was higher than that of the male in all the species examined whose sex had been determined.

Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight depression—alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu/60


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Chamier, Frederick


text:
Translation:Arukh ha-Shulchan/Orach Chaim/431

This chapter contains thirty one sections: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31

Section 1
Generally speaking, Pesach includes three positive commandments and four negative commandments; according to the Rambam there are five negative commandments. The positive commandments are:

 * To eat Matzah on the first night of Pesach
 * To retell the story of the exodus from Egypt on that night
 * To eradicate [Heb. 'Tashbisu'] all Chametz (leavened food) or leavening agents [Lit. sour dough] on the 14th of the month

These are the four negative commandments:

 * Not to eat Chametz (leavened food) all seven days
 * Not to eat any mixture containing Chametz (leavened food or agents) all seven days
 * Not to 'see' Chametz (leavened food or agents) all seven days.
 * Not to be able to 'find' Chametz (leavened food or agents) all seven days

According to the Rambam there is also a prohibition against eating Chamtez on Pesach eve after [halachic] noon. Other authorities relegate this to the province of a positive commandment, that of 'Tashbisu' ('eradicate'). Now note that the prohibition of Chametz and Si'or (leavening agents or sour dough) are one and the same, as Si'or is that which makes foods leavened. One who eats Chametz or Si'or deliberately during the seven days of Pesach incurs the divine punishment of 'Kares' (spiritual excision), as the verse states: "...for any who eat Chamtez - will be cut off." If the act was done accidentally, one must bring a sin offering. It does not matter whether it is eaten or pureed and drunk. There is, however, no punishment of Kares for consuming a foods that have within them some mixture of Chamtez, it is only a Biblical prohibition.

(Rabbi Yehuda and Rabbi Shimon argue regarding Chametz 'before Pesach' [that is, after the sixth hour on Pesach eve, when it must have already been disposed of,] and Chemtz 'after Pesach' [that is, Chametz which was owned over Pesach]. Rabbi Yehuda posits that in both of these scenarios that Chametz is prohibited Biblically, and Rabbi Shimon disagrees [arguing that the prohibition is rabbinic]. In terms of the law, we have already found Rava to rule in Pesachim (30.1) as Rabbi Shimon regarding Chametz after Pesach. Most authorities also rule as Rabbi Shimon regarding the period of 'before Pesach'. The Rambam takes a different approach and rules as Rabbi Yehuda in the 'before Pesach' scenario.)

Section 2
It is prohibited to derive benefit from Chametz on Pesach, as the verse states: "You will not eat Chametz" - that there will no permit to eat - meaning that there be no sequence of events that will permit Chametz to be eaten. In general, all benefits [that have some monetary value] lead to eating, as financial profits are often used to purchase one's daily meals (Rashi on Pesachim 21.2).

This line of reasoning is necessary for the opinion that understands the term "Lo Se-yachel" (do not eat) to refer actual eating. However, the Rambam has already ruled in the eighth chapter of forbidden foods, law 15, that the law is as the opinion that every usage of "Do not eat" in the Torah refers to any manner of usage, and prohibits eating as well as other uses. This definition would only be overruled were the Torah to specifically permits benefit, as is seen in the law of giving a non kosher animal carcass to a non Jew [who has no obligation to eat meat ritually slaughtered]. Here the verse states: "to the non Jew within your gates [community] you may give it and he will eat it." [and benefit will be accrued by this animal's sale] In regard to Chametz, the verse never permits benefit, so it remains prohibited.

(As to why the Rambam wrote in the beginning of the Laws of Chametz and Matzah the reason supplied by Chizkiah in the Talmud, that the prohibition to derive benefit arises from the construction of "Lo YeaOchel" ("לא יֵאָכל","Do not eat") which when modified by the vowelization of a "Tzereah" and a "Kohmatz" changes the meaning of the word so as to prohibits benefit (as is explained there in the Talmud), even though we actually rule in practice like Rabbi Avahu [and not Chizkiah] who does not require this exegesis - this is because the Rambam often quotes the simpler exegesis instead of delving into lengthy explanations, as is his custom in many places [as his work's primary goal is to lay out legal decisions, rather than record the analysis behind those decisions])

Section 3
Here then is the language of the Rambam as found in chapter 1, law 8:

"It is prohibited to eat Chametz on the 14th from [halachic] noon and on, which is from the beginning of the seventh hour of the day. All who eat Chametz during this period receive lashes for the Biblical prohibition, as the verse states: 'Do no eat Chametz with it', meaning to say 'with the Pesach sacrifice'. Our received tradition informs us to interpret this as a prohibition not to eat Chametz from the time it is possible to offer the Pesach sacrifice, which is afternoon i.e., after midday."

Until here is the quote. Now even though the Pesach sacrifice was offered after the daily sacrifice was offered, which happened after midday, therby causing the Pesach sacrificed to be offered quite after midday, nevertheless this delay was only a practical consideration, but does not change the time when a Pesach can technically be offered. Certainly any Pesach offered immediately after the noon is valid, for the Torah also states of a Pesach that it is brought "after noon", only in practice the daily offering precedes it for the reason noted in Pesachim 59.1, that the verse also mentions the 'evening' in regard to the Pesach sacrifice, thus allowing the daily offering to rightly precede it. Furthermore, the daily offering has the advantage of the legal maxim that the more frequent occurrence always takes precedence ['Tadir v'Sheano Tadir, Tadir Kodem'] (Tosafos thereon).

If one had offered the Pesach before the daily sacrifice it is valid post facto, as the Rambam writes in chapter 1 of the Laws of the Pesach Offering. Since this is so, it is clear that when the Torah instructs one not to eat Chametz from the time of the Pesach offering it is referring to after midday, which is the primary time for the offering to commence. The Ra'avad and other authorities dispute this ruling, and their position is that there is no Biblical prohibition after midday [before the festival proper], and one is only afoul of the positive commandment of 'Tashbisu' ('eradicate'), as I have written.

Section 4
The Rambam would quite naturally rule that Chametz after noon is likewise prohibited from benefit, for since the verse states "do not eat" the prohibition against benefit is part and parcel of that term, as he himself writes at the end of the eighth chapter of Forbidden Foods, which we mentioned in section 2 (see Kesef Mishna in the beginning of the first chapter).

To those that dispute his ruling there is no proibition against deriving benefit from Chametz until nightfall. This is the position of most of the authorities. However, note that there still is a rabbinic prohibition, as will be explained later in chapter 443. In terms of the legal nullification of Chametz, the Rambam treats the day before Pesach more leniently than Pesach proper in that the prohibition on Pesach concerns any amount of Chametz, no matter how minimal, whereas on the day before Pesach Chamtez can be considered nullified in 60 parts of non Chametz food ('Batel BiShishim') because at that time a Kares prohibition is not yet in effect, as will be explained in chapter 477 with the help of Heaven.

Section 5
The Rambam writes the following in chapter 1, law 7:

"Eating any amount of actual Chametz on Pesach is forbidden Bibilically, as the verse states: 'Do not eat...'. Even so, one is only liable for 'Kares' or a sin offering if he were to eat a legally significant measure, which is a 'Kezayis' [olive size piece]. One who intentionally eats a less than a 'Kezayis' should receive lashes as a recalcitrant [this is rabbinic lashes]."

Until here is the quote. The Magid Mishna explains his reason to be that even a partial measure is forbidden Bibilically.

Now if this is so, a question arises: Why would the Rambam specify this rule by Chametz? Does it not apply as well by all forbidden foods? Furthermore, the verse he quotes implies quite the opposite, as the eating it refers to is that of a 'Kezayis' (Kesef Mishna). Some attempt to answer that since Chametz is only forbidden on Pesach one might assume that it does not fall under the rule of 'a half measure is Bibilically forbidden'. Therefore, they believe that the Rambam quotes the verse to stress that this prohibition on Chametz is Bibilical (Mishna L'Melech in the name of the RalNach).

However, this answer still appears insufficient, for in the beginning of the last chapter of Yoma (74.2) the Talmud mentions the law of half measures in regard to Yom Kippur, which also is just a one-day prohibition. Moreover, the verse still appears to imply quite the opposite.

There are others who state that the basic legal definition of eating is any amount, no matter how insignificant, whereas the olive-sized measurement [and the consequences dependent upon it] are exceptions to this rule received by Moshe at Mount Sinai (Mishna L'Melech in the name of the R'eim). This is even harder to understand, for all throughout the Talmud eating is defined as an olive-sized measure of foodstuffs. Now though the truth is that all measurements in Jewish law were received by Moshe at Mount Sinai [and are not recorded in the Torah per se], nevertheless it is clear that the law considers the term 'eating' in the Torah to be at least olive-sized, and therefore it is common for the Talmud to state 'eat' without having to specify 'an olive-sized piece'.

Section 6
In my humble opinion, the explanation of the Rambam runs as follows: Chametz does have a Torah verse to prohibit partial measures. Afterall, Chizkiah's position in Pesachim (21.2) is that even the prohbition against benefit can be learned from "Do not eat", which when vocalized with a 'Tzirei' and 'Kohmetz' can be defined as 'benefit'. We also find Rabbi Avuhuh's position to be that all instances of the term 'eat' in the Torah denote benefit as well. The Rambam, for his part, rules as Rabbi Avuhuh, as I have previously written in section 2. According to Rabbi Avuhuh a question therefore arises: Why indeed does the Torah change the Hebrew vowelization of "Do not eat"? To this he would reply 'To include partial measures in the prohibition'. The intent of Rambam is then to point out that the change in the grammar are implying the amplification [including half measures].

If you should ask 'Why by Chametz, isn't the same true for all prohibitions?' Yes, but there is an important distinction. In Yoma there is a reason put forward for the prohibition of half measures: that these amounts may combine into a whole, legally significant measure. Therefore, were one to theoretically eat at the very end of the seventh day a half measure, and could no longer eat on Pesach any amount to reach a full measure, his act would end up being permitted. Now that the Chametz prohibition is sourced from an actual verse it would be prohibited in any event. Nevertheless, this act would not result in 'Kares' or a sin offering as it is only an amplification of a verse and not its intrinsic meaning. In this way it is like all other half measures found in other areas of the law.

ערוך השולחן אורח חיים תלא


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 of putting things to rights. Now that the two children growing up were of more importance in the house, and now that long acquaintance had brushed the dazzle out of Anna's eyes, she began to struggle to make things go here as she thought was right.

She watched and scolded hard these days to make young Julia do the way she should. Not that Julia Lehntman was pleasant in the good Anna's sight, but it must never be that a young girl growing up should have no one to make her learn to do things right.

The boy was easier to scold, for scoldings never sank in very deep, and indeed he liked them very well for they brought with them new things to eat, and lively teasing, and good jokes.

Julia, the girl, grew very sullen with it all, and very often won her point, for after all Miss Annie was no relative of hers and had no business coming there and making trouble all the time. Appealing to the mother was no use. It was wonderful how Mrs. Lehntman could listen and not hear, could answer and yet not decide, could say and do what she was asked and yet leave things as they were before.

One day it got almost too bad for even Anna's friendship to bear out.

"Well, Julia, is your mamma out?" Anna asked, one Sunday summer afternoon, as she came into the Lehntman house.

Anna looked very well this day. She was always careful in her dress and sparing of new clothes. She made herself always fulfill her own ideal of how a girl should look when she took her Sundays out. Anna knew so well the kind of ugliness appropriate to each rank in life.

It was interesting to see how when she bought things for Miss Wadsmith and later for her cherished Miss Mathilda and always entirely from her own taste and often as cheaply as she bought things for her friends or for herself, that on the one hand she chose the things having the right air for a member of the upper class, and for the others always the things having the awkward


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 ugliness that we call Dutch. She knew the best thing in each kind, and she never in the course of her strong life compromised her sense of what was the right thing for a girl to wear.

On this bright summer Sunday afternoon she came to the Lehntmans', much dressed up in her new, brick red, silk waist trimmed with broad black beaded braid, a dark cloth skirt and a new stiff, shiny, black straw hat, trimmed with colored ribbons and a bird. She had on new gloves, and a feather boa about her neck.

Her spare, thin, awkward body and her worn, pale yellow face though lit up now with the pleasant summer sun made a queer discord with the brightness of her clothes.

She came to the Lehntman house, where she had not been for several days, and opening the door that is always left unlatched in the houses of the lower middle class in the pleasant cities of the South, she found Julia in the family sitting-room alone.

"Well, Julia, where is your mamma?" Anna asked. "Ma is out but come in, Miss Annie, and look at our new brother." "What you talk so foolish for Julia," said Anna sitting down. "I ain't talkin' foolish, Miss Annie. Didn't you know mamma has just adopted a cute, nice little baby boy?" "You talk so crazy, Julia, you ought to know better than to say such things." Julia turned sullen. "All right Miss Annie, you don't need to believe what I say, but the little baby is in the kitchen and ma will tell you herself when she comes in."

It sounded most fantastic, but Julia had an air of truth and Mrs. Lehntman was capable of doing stranger things. Anna was disturbed. "What you mean Julia," she said. "I don't mean nothin' Miss Annie, you don't believe the baby is in there, well you can go and see it for yourself."

Anna went into the kitchen. A baby was there all right enough, and a lusty little boy he seemed. He was very tight asleep in a basket that stood in the corner by the open door.

"You mean your mamma is just letting him stay here a little while," Anna said to Julia who had followed her into the kitchen to see Miss Annie get real mad. "No


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Champion, Anthony


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Champion, John George


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 and variations of external temperature within ordinary limits cause very slight change, as there are many compensating influences at work, which are discussed later. Even from very active exercise the temperature does not rise more than one degree, and if carried to exhaustion a fall is observed. In travelling from very cold to very hot regions a variation of less than one degree occurs, and the temperature of those living in the tropics is practically identical with those dwelling in the Arctic regions.

Limits compatible with Life.—There are limits both of heat and cold that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider limits that a cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme a cold is to lessen metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of heat. Both katabolic and anabolic changes share in the depression, and though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. This diminished metabolism tells first on the central nervous system, especially the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness. Both heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished, drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the sleep of death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and a death somewhat similar to that of asphyxia takes place. In some recent experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, they found them unable to survive when the rectal temperature was reduced below 16° C. At this low temperature respiration became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular, apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other hand, too high a temperature hurries on the metabolism of the various tissues at such a rate that their capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre. The rate of the heart is quickened, the beats then become irregular and finally cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected, consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls into a comatose condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All these changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure depends on many things, but no one can survive a temperature of 45° C. (113° F.) or above for very long. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50° C., and obviously should this temperature be reached the sudden rigidity of the whole body would render life impossible. H. M. Vernon has recently done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5° C., Fishes 39°, Reptilia 45°, and various Molluscs 46°. Also in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body, Cestus having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in its body. But in the higher animals his experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical characters of the protoplasm, and hence greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life.

Regulation of Temperature.—The heat of the body is generated by the chemical changes—those of oxidation—undergone not by any particular substance or in any one place, but by the tissues at large. Wherever destructive metabolism (katabolism) is going on, heat is being set free. When a muscle does work it also gives rise to heat, and if this is estimated it can be shown that the muscles alone during their contractions provide far more heat than the whole amount given out by the body. Also it must be remembered that the heart—also a muscle,—never resting, does in the 24 hours no inconsiderable amount of work, and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat. From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of the body is supplied by the muscles. These are essentially the “thermogenic tissues.” Next to the muscles as heat generators come the various secretory glands, especially the liver, which appears never to rest in this respect. The brain also must be a source of heat, since its temperature is higher than that of the arterial blood with which it is supplied. Also a certain amount of heat is produced by the changes which the food undergoes in the alimentary canal before it really enters the body. But heat while continually being produced is also continually being lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces. And it is by the constant modification of these two factors, (1) heat production and (2) heat loss, that the constant temperature of a warm-blooded animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through the faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following are approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these various channels (different authorities give somewhat different figures):—faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin (conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it is clear the chief means of loss are the skin and the lungs. The more air that passes in and out of the lungs in a given time, the greater the loss of heat. And in such animals as the dog, who do not perspire easily by the skin, respiration becomes far more important.

But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin, which regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and also by the nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation of the cutaneous vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood through the skin, and so tends to cool the body, and vice versa. Also the special nerves of perspiration can increase or lessen heat loss by promoting or diminishing the secretions of the skin. There are greater difficulties in the exact determination in the amount of heat produced, but there are certain well-known facts in connexion with it. A larger living body naturally produces more heat than a smaller one of the same nature, but the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion to its bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate. Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the smaller animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat. And in the struggle for existence this has become so.

Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate of production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is reached from about the 6th to the 9th hour. If sugar be included in the meal the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later. Muscular work very largely increases the production of heat, and hence the more active the body the greater the production of heat.

But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the production and loss of heat are themselves probably regulated by the central nervous system, there being a thermogenic centre—situated above the spinal cord, and according to some observers in the optic thalamus.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a “god-body,” at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful name for the living animal at the other end. Added to this, in many works on the subject we find reliance placed, especially for the African facts, on reports of travellers who were merely visitors to the regions on which they wrote.

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text: Our Philadelphia

title: Our Philadelphia


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172 "He insisted on the importance to the lake region of telegraphic interchange of information as to barometric changes, instancing interesting and striking examples.

"This part of the lecture was full of illustration and value, but our space forbids us to do it justice. He said the lake commerce has reached a figure we should have deemed chimerical a few years since for our ocean commerce.

"He would leave out of the question the value of such intelligence to all other departments save commerce. In four years, ending 1858, $10,000,000 and 866 lives were lost on these lakes.

"Suppose but a quarter of this loss might be due to a lack of meteorological foreknowledge shown to be attainable. The same power exists to provide for the lakes, as for the salt water. Government has held back because the lake region has not come forward to ask it"

The following letter, from Maury to his wife, was written after delivering another lecture at Cleveland on Dec. 1st, 1858:—

. . . . I arrived here yesterday at noon, and seem to have bewitched the people last night, as I did those of Cincinnati the evening before. Nannie's is a charming letter. I am so glad she is coming home on the 15th. I shall be turning my face homeward about that time.

Last Monday there was a change of R. R. time, which had played sad havoc with me. I left Chicago at 8 Sunday for Cincinnati, where I was due at noon Monday. But bridges had been washed away. I did not get to Indianapolis till 1 112 miles from Cincinnati. I was to lecture there at 7.30, and all the trains had gone, so I thought I would see if I couldn't charter an engine and go down on it express. I found the President of the road, told him who I was and what I wanted, and he fitted up an elegant car, sent me down in it alone, and would not let me pay a cent. I arrived at 7,


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 and found an immense audience, lectured, got on the cars directly after, came here, and had an elegant night's rest Lecture in Chicago again Saturday, and Monday in St. Louis, on the 11th here, and in Buffalo the 10th and 13th, I think. Don't go in that waggon any more. When you feel well enough to make calls, get a hack, take Nannie with you, and leave my cards everywhere.

Your affectionate

The exposure and fatigue of this lecturing tour brought on his first attack of rheumatic gout, from which he continued to suffer, at intervals, until his death fifteen years afterwards.

The following letters, to his old friend the Bishop of Tennessee, contain the first allusion to the threatened civil war:—

To of Tennessee.

As for the Union, I see that it will have to drift. The dissolution of it will, I fear, come before you or I would be willing to see it. With statesmanship among our rulers, patriotism among our politicians, and virtue among the people, it need never come.

I have laid by the sermon to read it aloud to all hands on Sunday.

You recollect Mr. Malory, of Florida, was an active Navy Board man, and that he was very unfair, to say the least, in the Senate towards me. He has brought in a Bill to increase the pay of all the officers "except the Superintendent of the Observatory," and two other officers. Now, what is to be done with such an uncivil disposition? I do not wish to embarrass the Bill by any opposition to it, for the officers stand greatly in need of more pay; but I think 1*11 have to suggest an amendment making the pay of the "Superintendent of the ^Observatory" that of a Captain in command. Tell me what you think of it. I send you the Bill. . ..

God bless you, my dear old friend, prays your 2em


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174

I saw by the papers yesterday that you had had to give up certain engagements on account of sickness. Immediately my heart yearned towards you, and I said, "I'll write him a letter to-morrow;" so here I am, the first thing after breakfast, seated to carry out the resolve this beautiful Monday morning.

I hope, my friend, your sickness is not grievous. Still, the hope does not keep down my solicitude.

I am here on leave for a month, seeking such rest as within that time will afford most relaxation. I noticed a few weeks ago your advertisement from "University Place." From that I infer that all goes on well with the grand undertaking. You know my heart is always with you in that undertaking. I begin to fear you will have it up not a whit too soon, for I very much fear the Union is in danger. Causes seem to be at work which are destined to destroy the Union. . ..

I have been occupied, during the winter and spring, among other things, with a new edition of the 'Physical Geography of the Sea.' It is greatly, enlarged, and, I hope, improved. It certainly presents many fine subjects for thought and contemplation. I know of nothing more profitable or ennobling than the discovery of new relations in the physical economy. To tell of these would require space beyond the limits of a letter. . ..

I have reason to believe that there is, about the South Pole, a comparatively mild climate. The unexplored regions there embrace an area equal in extent to about one-sixth of all the known land on the surface of the earth. I am quietly seeking to create in the minds of some an interest upon the subject, hoping thereby to foster a desire in right quarters for an Antarctic expedition.

We have in contemplation—Mrs. Maury, Nannie, Molly, and I—a visit to Niagara, intending to tarry at Newburgh a few days with Hasbrouck.

When you get well and are in the vein, let me hear from


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 you; tell me how you are, and how about the prospects and everything connected with the University of the South. God bless you, my friend! Yours,

To the same.

Last Thursday Mrs. Maury and myself, with two of the children, returned from a visit to Hasbrouck and Niagara Falls, where we found your letter of the 3rd to help make our hearts glad. It was Mrs. M.'s first sight of the great cataract.

Take care of your health, my dear friend, for you are one of the men that your fellow-citizens cannot spare just now. I am glad to see you giving signs of returning health, but am sorry to recognise in these the marks of a health by no means completely restored.

I had fixed upon the 15th October for England, but your Corner-stone will put it off, I reckon, till the 20th. I feel as though I must be present when the foundations of this great University are to be laid. It is an institution in the success of which I feel the most lively interest. If I possess influence or weight with the public, it is a talent loaned, and this is precisely one of the occasions on which I ought to put it out.

So if you think my coming and my speech will help you on in your good and noble work, here I am—count on me, my friend.

If I leave here on Monday morning; can I be with you in time on Wednesday?

Yours truly,

Maury's address at the laying of the corner-stone of the University of the South, on the Sewanee Mountains in East Tennessee, was delivered at the request of Bishop Otey on Nov. 30th. 1860.


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176 "Physical geography," he said, "makes the whole world kin. Of all the departments in the domains of physical science, it is the most Christianising. Astronomy is grand and sublime; but astronomy overpowers with its infinities, overwhelms with its immensities. Physical geography charms with its wonders, and delights with the benignity of its economy. Astronomy ignores the existence of man; physical geography confesses that existence, and is based on the Biblical doctrine 'that the earth was made for man.' Upon no other theory can it be studied—upon no other theory can its phenomena be reconciled. . ..

"The astronomer regards the light and heat of the sun as emanations; as forces to guide the planets in their orbits and light comets in their flight—nothing more. But the physical geographer, when he warms himself by the coal fire in winter, or studies by the light of the gas-burner at night, recognises in the light and heat which he then enjoys the identical light and heat which came from the sun ages ago, and which, with provident care, have been bottled away in the shape of a mineral, and stored away in the bowels of the earth for man's use, thence to be taken at his convenience and liberated at will for his manifold purposes.

"Here, in the schools which are soon to be opened, within the walls of this institution which we are preparing to establish in this wood, and the corner-stone of which has just been laid, the masters of this newly-ordained science will teach our sons to regard some of the commonest things as the most important agents in the physical economy of our planet. They are also mighty ministers of the Creator.

"Take this water" (holding up a glassful) "and ask the student of physical geography to explain a portion only of its multitudinous offices in helping to make the earth fit for man's habitation. There may be in it a drop of the very same (for in the economy of nature nothing is ever lost or


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Rh wasted) which watered the Garden of Eden when Adam was there; escaping thence, through the veins of the earth into the rivers, it reached the sea. Passing along its channels of circulation, it was conveyed far away by its currents to those springs in the ocean which feed the winds with vapour for rains among these mountains; taking up the heat in these southern climes, where otherwise it would become excessive, it bottles it away in its own little vesicles. These are invisible; but, rendering the heat latent and innocuous, they pass like sightless couriers of the air through their appointed channels, and arrive in the upper sky. This mountain draws the heat from them; they are formed into clouds and condensed into rain, which, falling to the earth, make it soft with showers, causing the trees of the fields to clap their hands, the valleys to shout, and the mountains to sing. Thus the earth is made to yield her increase, and the heart of man is glad.

"Nor does the office of this cup of water in the physical economy end here. It has brought heat from the sea in the southern hemisphere to be set free here for the regulation of our climates; it has ministered to the green plants, and given meat and drink to man and beast. It has now to cater among the rocks for the fish and insects of the sea. Eating away your mountains, it fills up the valleys, and then, loaded with lime and salts of various minerals, it goes singing and dancing and leaping back to the sea, owning man, by the way, as a taskmaster—turning mills, driving machinery, transporting merchandise for him—and finally reaching the ocean. It there joins the currents to be conveyed to its appointed place, which it never fails to reach in due time, with food in due quantities for the inhabitants of the deep, and with materials of the right kind to be elaborated, in the workshops of the sea, into pearls, corals, and islands—all for man's use.

"Thus the right-minded student of this science is brought


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178 to recognise in the dewdrop the materials of which 'He who walketh upon the wings of the wind maketh His chariot.' He also discovers in the raindrop a clue by which the Christian philosopher may be conducted into the very chambers from which the hills are watered.

"I have been blamed by men of science, both in this country and in England, for quoting the Bible in confirmation of the doctrines of physical geography. The Bible, they say, was not written for scientific purposes, and is therefore of no authority in matters of science. I beg pardon! The Bible is authority for everything it touches. What would you think of the historian who should refuse to consult the historical records of the Bible, because the Bible was not written for the purposes of history? The Bible is true and science is true, and therefore each, if truly read, but proves the truth of the other. The agents in the physical economy of our planet are ministers of Him who made both it and the Bible. The records which He has chosen to make through the agency of these ministers of His upon the crust of the earth are as true as the records which, by the hands of His prophets and servants. He has been pleased to make in the Book of Life.

"They are both true; and when your men of science, with vain and hasty conceit, announce the discovery of disagreement between them, rely upon it, the fault is not with the witness of His records, but with the worm who essays to interpret evidence which he does not understand.

"When I, a pioneer in one department of this beautiful science, discover the truths of Revelation and the truths of science reflecting light the one upon the other, how can I, as a truth-loving, knowledge-seeking man, fail to point out the beauty and rejoice in its discovery? Reticence on such an occasion would be sin, and were I to suppress the emotion with which such discoveries ought to stir the soul, the