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 RICH, RICHARD, 1 (1490?–1567), lord chancellor, was born of a Hampshire family about 1490, in the parish of St Laurence Jewry, London. His great-grandfather, Richard Rich, was a wealthy mercer and sheriff of the city of London in 1441. Probably Lord Rich's father was also a mercer, but, he sent his son to the Middle Temple, where Sir Thomas More was among his acquaintances. More told him at the time of his trial that he was reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer and gamester, and not of any commendable fame;' but he was a commissioner of the peace in Hertfordshire in 1528, and in the next autumn became reader at the Middle Temple. Other preferment's followed, and in 1533 he was knighted and became solicitor-general, in which capacity he was to act under Thomas Cromwell as a “lesser hammer” for the demolition of the monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII.'s act of supremacy. He had an odious Share in the trials of Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. In both cases he made use in his evidence against. the prisoner of admissions made in a professedly friendly conversation, and in More's case the words he had used were misreported and received a misconstruction that could hardly be other than wilful. More expressed his opinion of the witness in open court with a candour that might well have dismayed Rich. Rich became the first chancellor (April 19, 1536) of the Court of Augmentations established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase, included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about a hundred manors in Essex. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same year, and advocated the king's policy. In spite of the share he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, and of the part he was to play under Edward VI., his religious convictions remained Roman Catholic. His testimony helped the conviction of Thomas Cromwell, and he was a willing agent in the Catholic reaction which followed. Anne Askew stated that the Chancellor Wriothesley and Rich screwed the rack at her torture with their own hands.

Rich was one of the executors of the will of Henry VIII., on which so much suspicion has been thrown, and on the,26th of February 1548 he became Baron Rich of Leez. In the next month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor, an office in which he found full scope for the business and legal ability he undoubtedly possessed. He supported Protector Somerset in his subversive reforms in church matters, in the prosecution of his brother Lord Seymour of Sudeley, and in the rest of his policy until the crisis of his fortunes in October 1549, when he deserted to Warwick (afterwards Northumberland), and presided over the trial of his former chief. His daughter had married Warwick's son, and both men were at heart no friends to the reformed religion. Nevertheless, Rich took part in the prosecution of bishops Gardiner and Bonner, and in the harsh treatment accorded to the Princess Mary. Possibly this harshness was exaggerated, for Mary on her accession showed no ill-will to Rich. He retired from the chancellorship on the ground of ill-health in the close of 1551, at the time of the final breach between Northumberland and Somerset. He was now sixty years old, and there is no reason to suspect the sincerity of his plea. There is an improbable story, however, to the effect that Rich warned Somerset of his danger in the Tower, and that the letter was delivered by mistake to the duke of Norfolk, who handed it to Northumberland.

Lord Rich took an active part in the restoration of the old religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most active of persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council wererare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the queen's marriage. He died at Rochford, Essex, on the 12th of June IS61, and was buried in Felsted church. In Mary's reign he had founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church. To, this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the inhabitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred in 1564 to the foundation of a grammar-school at Felsted for instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manols, in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school remained in the family of the founder until 1851. By his wife Elizabeth Ienks, or Gynkes, he had fifteen children. The eldest son Robert (1537?–1581), second Baron Rich, supported the Reformation, and his grandson Robert, third lord, -was created earl of Warwick in 1618.

The chief authorities are the official records of the period covered by his official life, calendared in the Rolls Series. See also A. F. Pollard, England under Protector Somerset (1900); P. Morant, History of Essex (2 vols., 1768); R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of England (6 vols., 1878–1902); and lives in J. Sargeaunt’s History of Felsted School (1889), Lord Campbell's Lives of the Lord Chancellors (1845–69), and C. H. & T. Cooper's Athenae Cantabrigienses (2 vols., 1858–61).

RICHARD, ST, of Wyche (c. 1197–1253), English saint and bishop, was named after his birthplace, Droitwich in Worcestershire. Educated at Oxford, he soon began to teach in the university, of which he became chancellor, probably after he had studied in Paris and in Bologna. About 1235 he became chancellor of the diocese of Canterbury under Archbishop Edmund Rich, and he was with the archbishop during his exile in France. Having returned to England some time after Edmund's death in 1240 he became vicar of Deal and chancellor of Canterbury for the second time. In 1244 he was elected bishop of Chichester, being consecrated at Lyons by Pope Innocent IV. in March 1245, although Henry III. refused to give him the temporalities of the see, the king favouring. the candidature of Robert Passelewe (d. 1252). In 1246, however, Richard obtained the temporalities. The new bishop showed much eagerness to reform the manners and morals of his clergy, and also to introduce greater order and reverence into the services of the church. His term' of office was also marked by the favour which he showed, to the Dominicans, a house of this order at Orleans having sheltered him during his stay in France, and by his earnestness in preaching a crusade. He died at Dover in April 12 53. It was generally believed that miracles were wrought at his tomb in Chichester cathedral, which was long a popular place of pilgrimage, and in 1262 he was canonized at Viterbo by Pope Urban IV. Richard furnished the chronicler, Matthew Paris, with material for the life of Edmund Rich, and instituted the offerings, for the cathedral at Chichester which were known later as “St Richard’s pence.”

His life by his confessor, Ralph Bocking, is published in the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, where a later and shorter life by John Capgrave is also to be found.

RICHARD (d. 1184), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Norman, who became a monk at Canterbury, where he acted as chaplain to Archbishop Theobald and was a colleague of Thomas Becket. In 1173, more than two years after the murder of Becket, it was decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury; there were two candidates, Richard, at that time prior of St Martin's, Dover, and Odo, prior of Canterbury, and in June Richard was chosen, although Odo was the nominee of the monks. Objections were raised against this election both in England and in Rome, but in April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagui by Pope Alexander III., and he returned to England towards the close of the year. The ten years during which Richard was archbishop were disturbed by disputes with Roger, archbishop of York, over the respective rights of the two sees, and in 1175, at a council held in London, there was a free fight between their partisans. Henry II. arranged a truce for five years between the rival prelates, but Richard was soon involved in another quarrel, this being with Roger, abbot of St Augustine's, Canterbury, whose action also trenched upon the privileges of the archbishop. Richard was more acceptable to Henry II. than Becket had been; he attended the royal councils, and more than once he was with the king in Normandy. Henry probably preferred him because he insisted less on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had done; but the monastic writers and the followers of Becket regarded this attitude as a sign of weakness. Richard died at Rochester on the 16th of February 1184 and was

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 buried in his cathedral. See the article by W. Hunt in the Dial. Nat. Blog. vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishop.: of Canterbury.

RICHARD, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans- (1209-1272), was the second son of the English king John by Isabella of Angouléme. Born in 1209, Richard was the junior of his brother, Henry III., by fifteen months; he was educated in England and received the earldom of Cornwall in 1225. From this date to his death he was a prominent figure on the political stage. In the years 1225-27 he acted as governor of Gascony; between 1227 and 12 38, owing to quarrels with his brother and dislike of the foreign favourites, he attached himself to the baronial opposition and bade fair to become a popular hero. But in 1240 he took the command of a crusade in order to escape from the troubled atmosphere of English politics. 9 He was formally reconciled with Henry before his departure; and their amity was cemented on his returnby his marriage with Sancha of Provence, the sister of Henry's queen (1243). Henceforward Richard, though by no means blind to the faults of the government, was among the most constant supporters of Henry III. Whileaffecting to remain neutral in the quarrels of the barons with the Poitevins and Savoyards he constantly assisted the king with loans, and thus enabled him to withstand the pressure of the Great Council for reform. In 1257 a bare majority of the German electors nominated Richard as king of the Romans, and he accepted their offer at Henry's desire. He was elected partly on account of his wealth, but also because his family connexion with the Hohenstaufen and his friendly relations with the papacy made it probable that he would unite all German parties. In the years 1257-68 Richard paid four visits to Germany. He obtained recognition in the Rhineland, which was closely connected with England by trade relations. Otherwise, however, he was unsuccessful in securing German support. In the English troubles of the same period he endeavoured to act as a mediator. On the outbreak of civil war in 1264 he took his brotheri's side, and his capture in a windmill outside Lewes, after the defeat of the royalist army, is commemorated in the earliest of English vernacular satires; he remained a prisoner till the fall of Montfort. But after Evesham he exerted himself, not without success, to obtain reasonable terms for those who had suffered from the vengeance of the royalist party. He died on the 2nd of April' 1272. His end is said to have been hastened by grief for his eldest son, Henry of Almain, who had been murdered in the previous year by the sons of Simon de Montfort at Viterbo. The earldom of Cornwall passed to Richard's eldest surviving son Edmund, who was guardian of, England from 1286 to 1289. On Edmund's death, in October 1300, it became extinct.

Authorities.-The original sources and general works of reference are the same as for the reign of Henry III. G. C. Gebauer's Leben und T haten Herrn Richards von Cornwall (Leipzig, 1744), H. Koch's Richard von Cornwall, 1209-1257 (Strassburg, 1888), and A. Busson's Doppelwahl des Jahres, 1257 (Münster, 1866) are useful mono ra hs. (H. w. E. B.)

RICHARD I. (1157-1199), king of England, nicknamed “Coeur de Lion” and “Yea and Nay,” was the third son of Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine. Born in September II 57, he received at the age of eleven the duchy of Aquitaine, and was formally installed in 1172. In his new position he was allowed, probably from regard to Aquitanian susceptibilities, to govern with an independence which was studiously denied to his brothers in their shares of the Angevin inheritance. Yet in 1173 Richard joined with the young Henry and Geoffrey of Brittany in their rebellion; Aquitaine was twice invaded by the old king before the unruly youth would make submission. Richard was soon pardoned and reinstated in his duchy, where he distinguished himself by crushing a formidable revolt (1175) and exacting homage from the count of Toulouse. In a short time he was so powerful that his elder brother Henry became alarmed and demanded, as heir-apparent, that Richard should do him homage for Aquitaine. Richard having scornfully rejected the demand, a fratricidal war ensued; the young Henryinvaded Aquitaine and attracted to his standard many of Richard's vassals, who were exasperated by the iron rule of the duke. Henry II. marched to Richard's aid; but the war terminated abruptly with the death of the elder prince (1183). Richard, being now the heir to England and Normandy, was invited to renounce Aquitaine in favour of Prince John, The proposal led to a new civil war; and, although a temporary compromise was arranged, Richard soon sought the help of Philip Augustus, to whom he did homage for all the continental possessions in the actual presence of his father (Conference of Bonmoulins, 18th of November 1188) In the struggle which ensued the old king was overpowered, chased ignominiously from Le Mans to Angers, and forced to buy peace by conceding all that was demanded of him; in particular the immediate recognition of Richard as his successor.

But the death of Henry II. (1 189) at once dissolved the friendship between Richard and Philip. Not only did Richard continue the continental policy of his father, but he also re. fused to fulfil his contract with Philip's sister, Alais, to whom he had been betrothed at the age of three. An open breach was only delayed by the desire of both kings to fulfil the crusading vows which they had recently taken. Richard, in particular, sacrificed all other interests to this scheme, and raised the necessary funds by the most reckless methods. He put up for auction the highest offices and honours; even remitting to William the Lion of Scotland, for a sum of 15,000 marks, the humiliating obligations which Henry II. had imposed at the treaty of Falaise. It is true that Richard indemnihed himself on his return by resuming some of his most important grants and refusing to return the purchase money; but it 'is improbable that he had originally planned this repudiation of his ill-considered bargains. By such expedients he raised and equipped a force whichi may be estimated at 4000 men-at-arms and as many foot-soldiers, with a fleet of loo transports (1191).

Richard did not return to his dominions until 1194. But his stay in Palestine was limited to sixteen months. On the outward journey he wintered in Sicily, where he employed himself in quarrelling with Philip and in exacting satisfaction from the usurper Tancred for the dower of his widowed sister, Queen Joanna, and for his own share in the inheritance of William the Good. Leaving Messina in March 1191, he interrupted his voyage to conquer Cyprus, and only joined the Christian besiegers of Acre in June. The reduction of that stronghold was largely due to his energy and skill. But his arrogance gave much offence. After the fall of Acre he inflicted a gross insult upon Leopold of Austria; and his relations with Philip were so strained that the latter seized the first pretext for returning to France, and entered into negotiations with Prince John (see JOHN, king of England) for the partition of Richard's realm. Richard also threw himself » into the disputes respecting the crown 'of Jerusalem, and supported Guy of Lusignan against Conrad of Montferrat with so much heat that he incurred grave, though unfounded, suspicions of complicity when Conrad was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain. None the less Richard, whom even the French crusaders accepted as their leader, upheld the failing cause of the Frankish Christians with valour and tenacity. He won a brilliant victory over the forces of Saladin at Arsuf (1191), and twice led the Christian host Within a few miles of Jerusalem. But the dissensions of the native Franks and the crusaders made it hopeless to continue the struggle; and Richard was alarmed by the news which reached him of John's intrigues in England and Normandy. Hastily patching up a truce with Saladin, under which the Christians kept the coast-towns and received free access to the Holy Sepulchre, Richard started on his return (9th October 1192).

His voyage was delayed by storms, and he appears to have been perplexed as to the safest route. The natural route overland through Marseilles and Toulouse was held by his enemies; that through the empire from the head of the Adriatic was little safer, since Leopold of Austria was on the watch for him. Having adopted the second of these alternatives, he was cap-

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 tured at Vienna in a mean disguise (December 20th, 1192) and strictly confined in the duke's castle of Dürenstein on the Danube. His mishap was soon known to England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. This is the foundation for the tale of his discovery by the faithful minstrel Blondel, which first occurs in a French romantic chronicle of the next century. Early in 1193 Leopold surrendered his prize, under compulsion, to the emperor Henry VI., who was aggrieved both by the support which the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and also by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily. Although the detention of a crusader was contrary to public law, Richard was compelled to purchase his release by the payment of a heavy ransom and by doing homage to the emperor for England. The ransom demanded was 150,000 marks; though it was never discharged in full, the resources of England were taxed to the utmost for the first instalments; and to this occasion we may trace the beginning of secular taxation levied on movable property.

Richard reappeared in England in March 1194; but his stay lasted only a few weeks, and the remainder of his reign was entirely devoted to his continental interests. He left England to be governed by (q.v.), and his personal authority was seldom asserted except by demands for new subsidies. The rule of the Plantagenets was still popular in Normandy and Aquitaine; but these provinces were unable or unwilling to pay for their own defence. Though Richard proved himself consistently the superior of Philip in the field, the difficulty of raising and paying forces to resist the French increased year by year. Richard could only stand on the defensive; the keynote of his later policy is given by the building of the famous Château Gaillard at Les Andelys (1196) to protect the lower courses of the Seine against invasion from the side of France. He did not live to see the futility of such bulwarks. In 1199 a claim to treasure-trove embroiled him with the viscount of Limoges. He harried the Limousin and laid siege to the castle of Châlus; while directing an assault he was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt, and, the wound mortifying from unskilful treatment or his own want of care, he died on the 6th of April 1199. He was buried by his own desire at his father’s feet in the church of Fontevrault. Here his effigy may still be seen. Though contemporary, it does not altogether agree with the portraits on his Great Seal, which give the impression of greater strength and even of cruelty. The Fontevrault bust is no doubt idealized.

The most accomplished and versatile representative of his gifted family, Richard was, in his lifetime and long afterwards, a favourite hero with troubadours and romancers. This was natural, as he belonged to their brotherhood and himself wrote lyrics of no mean quality. But his history shows that he by no means embodied the current ideal of chivalrous excellence. His memory is stained by one act of needless cruelty, the massacre of over two thousand Saracen prisoners at Acre; and his fury, when thwarted or humbled, was ungovernable. A brave soldier, an experienced and astute general, he was never happier than when engaged in war. As a ruler he was equally profuse and rapacious. Not one useful measure can be placed to his credit; and it was by a fortunate accident that he found, in Hubert Walter, an administrator who had the skill to mitigate the consequences of a reckless fiscal policy. Richard's wife was Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI., king of Navarre, whom he married in Cyprus in May 1191. She was with the king at Acre later in the same year, and during his imprisonment passed her time in Sicily, in Rome and in France. Husband and wife met again in 1195, and the queen long survived the king, residing chiefly at Le Mans. She died soon after 1230. Berengaria founded a Cistercian monastery at Espau.

RICHARD II. (1367–1400), king of England, younger son of Edward the Black Prince by Joan "the Fair Maid of Kent," was born at Bordeaux on the 6th of January 1367. He was brought to England in 1371, and after his father's death was, on the petition of the Commons in parliament, created prince of Wales on the 20th of November 1376. When Edward III. died, on the 21st of June 1377, Richard became king. Popular opinion had credited John of Gaunt with designs on the throne. This was not justified; nevertheless, the rivalry of the boy-king's uncles added another to the troubles due to the war, the Black Death and the prospect of a long minority. At first the government was conducted by a council appointed by parliament. The council was honest, but the difficulties of the situation were too great. The ill-considered poll-tax of 1381 was the occasion, though not the real cause, of the Peasants' Revolt in that year. The ministers were quite unequal to the crisis, and when Wat Tyler and his followers got possession of London, it was Richard who showed a precocious tact and confidence in handling it. It was the boy-king who met and temporized with the rebels on the 13th of June at Mile End, and again next day at Smithfield; and he who, with courageous presence of mind, saved the situation when Tyler was killed, by calling on them to take him for their leader. From this time Richard began to assert himself. His chief ministers, appointed by parliament in 1382, were the earl of Arundel and Michael de la Pole. Arundel Richard disliked, and dismissed next year, when he began his personal government. Pole, whom he retained as chancellor and made earl of Suffolk, was a well-chosen adviser. But others, and especially his youthful favourite Robert de Vere, promoted by unheard-of honour to be marquess of Dublin and duke of Ireland, were less worthy. Further, Richard made his own position difficult by lavish extravagance and unseemly outbursts of temper. He chafed under the restraint of his relatives, and therefore encouraged John of Gaunt in his Spanish enterprise. This gave the less scrupulous Thomas of Gloucester his opportunity. Gloucester, supported by Arundel, attacked his nephew's ministers in the parliament of 1386, and by open hints at deposition forced, Richard to submit to a council of control. When Richard, with the aid of his friends and by the advice of subservient judges, planned a reversal of the parliament, Gloucester, at the head of the so-called lords appellant, anticipated him. Richard had been premature and ill-advised. Gloucester had the advantage of posing as the head of the constitutional party. The king's friends were driven into exile or executed, and he himself forced to submit to the loss of all real power (May 1388). Richard changed his

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 methods, and when the lords appellant had lost credit, asserted himself constitutionally by dismissing Gloucester's supporters from office and appointing in their place well-approved men like William of Wykeham. In the next parliament of 1390 the king showed himself ready to meet and conciliate his subjects. The simultaneous return of John of Gaunt from Spain put a check on Gloucester's ambition. For seven years Richard ruled constitutionally and on the whole well. The opposition was quiescent except for two outbreaks by Arundel: the first was a violent attack on John of Gaunt, which rather strengthened Richard's position; the second was a wanton insult to the king at the funeral of his queen.

In January 1383 Richard had married Anne of Bohemia (1366–1394), daughter of the emperor Charles IV. The marriage, though childless, was happy; had Anne lived or borne a son the course of events might have been different. Her death on the 7th of June 1394 was a great shock to Richard, and incidentally had important consequences. Richard sought distraction by an expedition to Ireland, the first visit of an English king for more than two centuries. In his policy there he showed a wise statesmanship. At the same time he was negotiating for a permanent peace with France, which was finally arranged in October 1396 to include his own marriage with Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., a child of seven. Gloucester criticized the peace openly, and there was some show of opposition in the parliament of February 1397. But there was nothing to foreshadow the sudden stroke by which in July Richard arrested Gloucester and his chief supporters, the earls of Arundel and Warwick. The others of the five lords appellant, Henry of Bolingbroke afterwards King Henry IV., and the earl of Nottingham, now supported the king. Richard's action was apparently in deliberate revenge for the events of 1387–88. Gloucester, after a forced confession, died in prison at Calais, smothered by his nephew's orders. Arundel in a packed parliament was condemned and executed; his brother Thomas archbishop of Canterbury was exiled. The king's friends, including Nottingham and Bolingbroke, made dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, were all promoted in title and estate. Richard himself was rewarded for ten years' patience by the possession of absolute power. He might perhaps have established it if he could have exercised it with moderation. But he declared that the laws of England were in his mouth, and supported his court in wanton luxury by arbitrary methods of taxation. By the exile of Norfolk and Hereford in September 1398 he seemed to have removed the last persons he need fear. He was so confident that in May 1399 he paid a second visit to Ireland, taking with him all his most trusted adherents. Thus when Henry landed at Ravenspur in July he found only half-hearted opposition, and when Richard himself returned it was too late. Ultimately Richard surrendered to Henry at Flint on the 19th of August, promising to abdicate if his life was spared. He was taken to London riding behind his rival with indignity. On the 30th of September he signed in the Tower a deed of abdication, wherein he owned himself insufficient and useless, reading it first aloud with a cheerful mien and ending with a request that his cousin would be good lord to him. The parliament ordered that Richard should be kept close prisoner, and he was sent secretly to Pontefract. There in February 1400 he died: no doubt of the rigour of his winter imprisonment, rather than by actual murder as alleged in the story adopted by Shakespeare. The mystery of Richard's death led to rumours that he had escaped, and an impostor pretending to be Richard lived during many years under the protection of the Scottish government. But no doubt it was the real Richard who was buried without state in 1400 at King's Langley, and honourably reinterred by Henry V. at Westminster in 1413.

Richard II. is a character of strange contradictions. It is difficult to reconcile the precocious boy of 1381 with the wayward and passionate youth of the next few years. Even if it be supposed that he dissembled his real opinions during the period of his constitutional rule, it is impossible to believe that the apparent indifference which he showed in his fall was the mere acting of a part. His violent outbursts of passion perhaps give the best clue to a mercurial and impulsive nature, easily elated and depressed. He had real ability, and in his Irish policy, and in the preference which he gave to it over continental adventure, showed a statesmanship in advance of his time. But this, in spite of his lofty theory of kingship, makes it all the more difficult to explain his extravagant bearing in his prosperity. His fall was due to the triumph of national right over absolute government, but it was his personal conduct which made it inevitable. In appearance Richard was tall and handsome, if effeminate. He had some literary tastes, which were shown in fitful patronage of Chaucer, Gower and Froissart. His fancy for splendid dress may have been due to an artistic sense, which found better expression in his great buildings of Westminster Hall and Abbey. Richard's second queen, Isabella (1389–1409), was born in Paris on the 9th of November 1389, and was married to the English king at Calais in October, or November, 1396, but on account of the bride's youth the marriage was never consummated. When Richard lost his crown in 1399 Isabella was captured by Henry IV.'s partisans and sent to Sonning, near Reading, while her father, Charles VI., asked in vain for the restoration of his daughter and of her dowry. In 1401 she was allowed to return to France; in 1406 she became the wife of the poet, Charles, duke of Orleans, and she died on the 13th of September 1409.

RICHARD III. (1452–1485), king of England, youngest son of Richard, duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Fotheringhay on the 2nd of October 1452. After the second battle of St Albans in February 1461, his mother sent him with his brother George for safety to Utrecht. They returned in April, and at the coronation of Edward IV. Richard was created duke of Gloucester. As a mere child he had no importance till 1469–1470, when he supported his brother against Warwick, shared his exile and took part in his triumphant return. He distinguished himself at Barnet and Tewkesbury; according to the Lancastrian story, after the latter battle he murdered the young Edward of Wales in cold blood; this is discredited by the authority of Warkworth (Chronicle, p. 18); but Richard may have had a share in Edward’s death during the fighting. He cannot be so fully cleared of complicity in the murder of Henry VI., which probably took place at the Tower on the night of the 21–22 of May, when Richard was certainly present there. Richard shared to the full in his brother's prosperity. He had large grants of lands and office, and by marrying Anne (1456–1485), the younger daughter of Warwick, secured a share in the Neville inheritance. This was distasteful to George, duke of Clarence, who was already married to the elder sister, Isabel. The rivalry of the two brothers caused a quarrel which was never appeased. Richard does not, however, seem to have been directly responsible for the death of Clarence in 1478; Sir Thomas More, who is a hostile witness, says that he resisted it openly "howbeit somewhat (as men deemed) more faintly than he that were heartily minded to his wealth." Richard's share of the Neville inheritance was chiefly in the north, and he resided usually at Middleham in Yorkshire. In May 1480 he was made the king's lieutenant-general in the north, and in 1482 commanded a successful invasion of Scotland. His administration was good, and brought him well-deserved popularity. On Edward's death he was kept informed of events in London by William, Lord Hastings, who shared his dislike of the Woodville influence.

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 on the 29th of April 1483, supported by the duke of Buckingham, he intercepted his nephew at Stony Stratford and arrested Lord Rivers and Richard Grey, the little king's half-brother. It was in Richard's charge that Edward was brought to London on the 4th of May. Richard was recognized as protector, the Woodville faction was overthrown, and the queen with her younger children took sanctuary at Westminster. For the time the government was carried on in Edward's name, and the 22nd of June was appointed for his coronation. Richard was nevertheless gathering forces and concerting with his friends. In the council there was a party, of whom Hastings and Bishop Morton were the chief, which was loyal to the boy-king. On the 13th of June came the famous scene when Richard appeared suddenly in the council baring his withered arm and accusing Jane Shore and the queen of sorcery; Hastings, Morton and Stanley were arrested and the first-named at once beheaded. A few days later, probably on the 25th of June, Rivers and Grey were executed at Pontefract. On the 22nd of June Dr Shaw was put up to preach at Paul's Cross against the legitimacy of the children of Edward IV. On the 25th a sort of parliament was convened at which Edward's marriage was declared invalid on the ground of his precontract with Eleanor Talbot, and Richard rightful king. Richard, who was not present, accepted the crown with feigned reluctance, and from the following day began his formal reign.

On the 6th of July Richard was crowned at Westminster, and immediately afterwards made a royal progress through the Midlands, on which he was well received. But in spite of its apparent success the usurpation was not popular. Richard's position could not be secure whilst his nephews lived. There seems to be no reasonable doubt that early in August Edward V. and his brother Richard (whom Elizabeth Woodville had been forced to surrender) were murdered by their uncle's orders in the Tower. Attempts have been made to clear Richard’s memory. But the report of the princes' death was believed in England at the time, "for which cause king Richard lost the hearts of the people" (Chronicles of London, 191), and it was referred to as a definite fact before the French states-general in January 1484. The general, if vague, dissatisfaction found its expression in Buckingham's rebellion. Richard, however, was fortunate, and the movement collapsed. He met his only parliament in January 1484 with some show of triumph, and deserves credit for the wise intent of its legislation. He could not, however, stay the undercurrent of disaffection, and his ministers, Lovell and Catesby, were unpopular. His position was weakened by the death of his only legitimate son in April 1484. His queen died also a year later (March 16, 1485), and public opinion was scandalized by the rumour that Richard intended to marry his own niece, Elizabeth of York. Thus the feeling in favour of his rival Henry Tudor strengthened. Henry landed at Milford Haven on the 7th of August 1485, and it was with dark forebodings that Richard met him at Bosworth on the 22nd. The defection of the Stanleys decided the day. Richard was killed fighting, courageous at all events. After the battle his body was carried to Leicester, trussed across a horse's back, and buried without honour in the church of the Greyfriars.

Richard was not the villain that his enemies depicted. He had good qualities, both as a man and a ruler, and showed a sound judgment of political needs. Still it is impossible to acquit him of the crime the popular belief in which was the chief cause of his ruin. He was not a monster; but a typical man in an age of strange contradictions of character, of culture combined with cruelty, and of an emotional temper that was capable of high ends, though unscrupulous of means. Tradition represents Richard as deformed. It seems clear that he had some physical defect, though not so great as has been alleged. John Stow told Buck that old men who remembered Richard described him as in bodily form comely enough. Extant portraits show an intellectual face characteristic of the early Renaissance, but do not indicate any deformity.

RICHARD, FRANÇOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (1819—1908), archbishop of Paris, French prelate, was born at Nantes on the 1st of March 1819. Educated at the seminary of St Sulpice he became successively vicar-general of Nantes, bishop of Belley, and in 1875 coadjutor of Paris. In 1886 the death of Archbishop Guibert was followed by Mgr. Richard's appointment to the see of Paris, and in 1889 he received a cardinal's hat. In January 1900 the trial of the Assumptionist Fathers resulted in the dissolution of their society as an illegal association. Next day an official visit of the archbishop to the Fathers was noted by government as an act of a political character, and Mgr. Richard was officially censured. His attitude was in general exceedingly moderate, he had no share in the extremist policy of the Ultramontanes, and throughout the struggle over the law of Associations and the law of Separations he maintained his reasonable temper. He presided in September 1906 over an assembly of bishops and archbishops at his palace in the rue de Grenelle, a few days after the papal encyclical forbidding French Catholics to form associations for public worship, but it was then too late for conciliation. In December he gave up the archiepiscopal palace to the government authorities. He was then an old man of nearly ninety, and his "eviction" evoked great sympathy. Cardinal Richard died on the 29th of January 1908.

 RICHARD, HENRY (1812–1888), Welsh politician, was the son of the Rev. Ebenezer Richard (1781–1837), a Calvinistic Methodist minister, and was born on the 3rd of April 1812. Educated at Llangeitho grammar school, he also studied at a college at Highbury, and in 1835 he became minister of a Congregational church in the Old Kent Road, London, a position which he retained for fifteen years. Richard is chiefly known as an advocate of peace and international arbitration. In 1848 he became secretary of the Peace Society, and in this capacity he helped to organize a series of congresses in the capitals of Europe, and was partly instrumental in securing the insertion of a declaration in favour of arbitration in the treaty of Paris in 1856. He resigned this post in 1885. In 1868 Richard was elected member of parliament for the Merthyr boroughs, and he remained in the House of Commons until his death at Treborth, near Bangor, on the 20th of August 1888. In parliament he was a leading member of the party which advocated the removal of Nonconformist grievances and the disestablishment of the church in Wales; in 1877 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. Among Richard's writings may be mentioned: Defensive War (1846, and again 1899); Memoirs of Joseph Sturge (1864); Letters on the Social and Political Condition of the Principality of Wales (1866, and again 1884); and The Recent Progress of International Arbitration (1884). He also prepared some of the material for the life of his friend and associate, Richard Cobden, which was written by Mr John, now Lord, Morley; and he did some journalistic work in the Morning Star and the Evening Star.

 RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER (c. 1335–c. 1401), historical writer, was a member of the Benedictine abbey at Westminster, and his name ("Circestre") first appears on the chamberlain's list of the monks of that foundation drawn up in the year 1355. In the year 1391 he obtained a licence from the abbot to go to Rome, and in this the abbot gives his testimony to Richard's

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 perfect and sincere observance of religion for upwards of thirty years. In 1400 Richard was in the infirmary of the abbey, where he died in the following year. His only known extant work is Speculum Historiale de Gestis Regum Angliae, 447–1066. The MS. of this is in the university library at Cambridge, and has been edited for the Rolls Series (No. 30) by Professor J. E. B. Mayor (2 vols., London, 1863–69). It is in four books, and at the conclusion of the fourth book Richard expresses his intention of continuing his narrative from the accession of William I., and incorporating a sketch of the Conqueror's career from his birth. This design he does not, however, appear to have carried into effect. The value of the Speculum as a contribution to our historical knowledge is but slight, for it is mainly a compilation from other writers; while even in transscribing these the compiler is guilty of great carelessness. He gives, however, numerous charters relating to Westminster Abbey, and also a very complete account of the saints whose tombs were in the abbey church, and especially of Edward the Confessor. The work was, however, largely used by historians and antiquaries, until, with the rise of a more critical spirit, its value became more accurately estimated. Besides the Speculum Richard also wrote, according to the statement of William of Woodford in his Answer to Wyclifie (Edward Brown, Fasciculus Rerum expetendarum, p. 193), a treatise De Officiis; and there was formerly in the cathedral library at Peterborough another tractate from his pen, entitled Super Symbolum. Of neither of these works, however, does any known copy now exist.

 RICHARD OF DEVIZES (fl. 1191), English chronicler, was a monk of St Swithin's house at Winchester. His birthplace is probably indicated by his surname, but of his life we know nothing. He is credited by Bale: with the composition of the Annales de Wintonia, which are edited by Luard in the second volume of the Annales Monastici. If this statement be correct, then the chronicler survived King Richard I. But the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, by which Richard of Devizes is chiefly known, only covers the first three years of that king's reign; it is practically an account of events in England and the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. For the events of the crusade itself, Richard is a poor authority. But his account of the preparations for the crusade, and of English affairs in the king's absence, is valuable, in spite of some inaccuracies. The author is intensely conservative, steeped in the prejudices of his order, and particularly hostile to the Jews and to the chancellor, William Longchamp. He writes in a vivid and epigrammatic style; his Latin shows the effect of the 12th century renaissance in its polish and in its reminiscences of classical poets.

 RICHARD OF HEXHAM (d. 1141), English chronicler, became prior of Hexham about 1141, and died between 1163 and 1178. He wrote Brevis Annotatio, a short history of the church of Hexham from 674 to 1138, for which he borrowed from Bede, Eddius and Simeon of Durham. This is published by J. Raine in The Priory of Hexham, its Chroniclers, Endowments and Annals (Durham, 1864–65). More important is his Historia de gestis regis Stephani et de bello Standardii, very valuable for the history of the north of England during the earlier part of the reign of Stephen, and especially for the battle of the Standard. This history, which is a contemporary one, covers the period from the death of Henry I. in 1135 to early in 1139. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by R. Howlett in the Chroniclers of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (1886); and has been translated by J. Stevenson in the Church Historians of England, vol. iv. (1856).  RICHARD OF ILCHESTER (d. 1188), English statesman and prelate, was born in the diocese of Bath, where he obtained preferment. Early in the reign of Henry II., however, he is found acting as a clerk in the king's court, probably under Thomas Becket, and he was one of the officials who assisted Henry in carrying out his great judicial and financial reforms. In 1162, or 1163, he was appointed archdeacon of Poitiers, but he passed most of his time in England, although in the next two or three years he visited Pope Alexander III. and the Emperor Frederick I. in the interests of the English king, who was then engaged in his struggle with Becket. For promising to support Frederick against Alexander he was excommunicated by Becket in 1166. Before this event, however, Richard had been appointed a baron of the exchequer, his great industry and exceptional abilities as an accountant being recognized by giving him a special seat at the exchequer table, and from 1168 until his death he frequently acted as one of the itinerant justices. Although totally immersed in secular business he received several rich ecclesiastical offices, and in May 1173 he was elected bishop of Winchester, being consecrated at Canterbury in October 1174. Richard still continued to serve Henry II. In 1176 he was appointed justiciar and seneschal of Normandy, and was given full control of all the royal business in the duchy. He died on the 21st or 22nd of December 1188, and was buried in Winchester cathedral. Richard owes his surname to the fact that Henry II. granted him a mill at Ilchester; he is also called Richard of Toclyve.

 RICHARD OF ST VICTOR (d. 1173), theologian and mystic of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life; he was born in Scotland or in England, and went to Paris, where he entered the abbey of St Victor and was a pupil of the great mystic, Hugh of St Victor. He succeeded as prior of this house in 1162, and was continually contesting the tyrannical authority of the abbot Ervisius. His-writings, some of which are still in manuscript, are very numerous, the best known being his mystical treatises: De statu horninis interior is, De praeparatione anirni ad contemplation em, De gratia conternplationis, De gradibus caritatis, De arca nuptica, and his two works on the Trinity: De trinitate libri sex, De tribus appropriates personis in Trinitate. As is the case. with all the Victorines, his mysticism was a reaction against the philosophy of the schools of his time, a perpetual justification of contemplation as opposed to logical reasoning. According to him, six steps lead the soul to contemplation: (1) contemplation of visible and tangible objects; (2) study of the productions of nature and of art; (3) study of character; (4) study of souls and of spirits; (5) entrance to the mystical region which ends in (6) ecstasy. His theory of the Trinity is chiefly based on the arguments of Anselm of Canterbury, although a certain deification of the social sense is evident.

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 His style is most affected, and the influence of the neo-Platonist terminology as well as of the works of the pseudo-Dionysius can be clearly detected. In the Paradis Dante has placed Richard de St Victor, whose books were much read by his contemporaries, among the greatest teachers of the Church. His writings seem to have come into favour again in the 16th and 17th centuries, six editions of his works having been printed between 1506 and 1650.

. Œuvres, edited in the Patrologia latina by Migne, vol. cxcvi.; W. Kaulich, “Die Lehren des Hugo und Richard von St. Victor” ( Abhandlungen der K. böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften . V. Folge, vol. xiii. (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 (Prague, 1864); P. C. F. Daunou, article in Histoire littéraire de la France, tome xiii. (Paris, 1869); G. Buonamici, Riccardo da S. Vittore (Alatri, 1899); DeWulf, Histoire de la philosophie medievale (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231.

RICHARDIA, a small genus of the nat. ord. Araceae, native in South Africa, to which the “arum lily” belongs. They are all greenhouse herbaceous plants of handsome appearance, with thick underground stems and large, more or less fleshy, long-stalked, arrow-shaped leaves and white or yellow flower spathes. They are readily propagated by division of the shoot, also by seed. Water should be given abundantly at all times, and the soil for potting should be rich and retentive. Potting is best effected in spring, and from the end of June to the end of August they should be plunged in a sunny spot out of doors. They will not withstand frost, and should be wintered in a warm greenhouse. They flower throughout the year.

RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE (1826–1876), English journalist, was born in Worcestershire on the 17th of February 1820, and was educated at Westminster School and Exeter College, Oxford. After taking his degree in 1841 he published, anonymously, Oxford Unmasked, a denunciation of abuses in the university. Between 1845 and 1848 he wrote several dramas and some poetry, and in the latter year became editor of a. weekly newspaper, the British Army Despatch. His temperament was strongly Imperialist; he opposed Cobden and the Manchester school of politicians, and in a volume entitled Britain Redeemed and Canada Preserved predicted, thirty years before the event, the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 1855 he was appointed the first editor of the London Daily Telegraph, and through the medium of that journal strongly urged the formation of volunteer rifle corps. The National and Constitutional Defence Association was established in 1858 to carry out the idea. Richards himself raised a regiment of a thousand working men in London, becoming major and subsequently colonel of the corps. In 187O he was appointed editor of the London Morning Advertiser, and retained this position till his death on the 12th of June 1876.

RICHARDS, HENRY BRINLEY (1819–1865), English pianist and composer, was born at Carmarthen, and educated at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where later he was a professor. He took much interest in Welsh music and in the Eisteddfod gatherings. He was a prolific composer, but is perhaps principally remembered for writing the song “God bless the Prince of Wales” (1862), which has been adopted as an English national anthem.

RICHARDS, WILLIAM TROST (1833–1905), American marine painter, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 14th of November 1833. He was a pupil of Paul Weber in his native city, and lived much in France, Italy and London. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and of the American Water Colour Society. Examples of his work a.re in the collections of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Penn.; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and the Schaube Gallery, Hamburg. He died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 8th of November 1905. His daughter (b. 1870), figure and landscape painter, was a pupil of John La Farge and Benjamin Constant.

RICHARDSON, GEORGE, English 18th-century architect and designer. The dates of birth and death of this distinguished contemporary and rival of the brothers Adam are not ascertained, but he is conjectured to have been born about 1736 and to have died in 1817. Richardson spent three years—from 1760 to 1763—travelling in Dalmatia and Istria, in the south of France and in Italy. During that period he imbibed the inspiration of a lifetime, and acquired the material for its practical application. He soon began to show remarkable skill in adapting classical ideals to the uses of his time, and in 1765 he won a premium offered by the Society of Arts for a design of a street in the classical manner. Richardson’s work is so closely allied to that of the brothers Adam that it is often difficult to distinguish between them, and if it possessed less freedom and variety, and bore to a smaller extent the impress of an original mind, it was in the main exceedingly admirable and satisfying. Richardson was an especially successful designer of ceilings and chimney pieces. He published in 1776 a Book of Ceilings in the Style of the Antique Grotesque. Many of its drawings are of exquisite taste. Nor is his fireplace work, as represented by his Collection of Chimneypieces Ornamented in the Style of the Etruscan, Greek and Roman Architecture (1781), less attractive. Richardson’s chimney pieces are still to be found in considerable numbers in town and country houses. They are mostly of marble, but examples in wood are not uncommon. He made extensive use of coloured marbles, and the effect is constantly that of the sumptuous balancing the austere. Like the Adams, Richardson often worked with composition enrichment’s, and his New Designs in Architecture (1792) contains many drawings of interior friezes and columns to be executed either in this medium or painted to suit the wall hangings. His versatility, was considerable, as the titles of his works, a dozen in number, suggest. For many years he exhibited at the Royal Academy as well as in the Galleries of the Society of Arts. Why such a man should have fallen into penury in his old age we have no means of ascertaining, but we know that his necessities were relieved by Nollekens.

His principal works in addition to those already mentioned were, in chronological order: Aedes Pembrochianae (1774); Iconology (2 vols.), with plates by Bartolozzi and other engravers (1778–1779); New Designs in Architecture (1792); Original Designs for Country Seats or Villas (1795); The New Vitruvius Britannicus, a sequel to Colin Campbell’s Vitrivius Britannicus, 2 vols. (1802); Ornaments in the Grecian, Roman and Etruscan Tastes (1816). He also published volumes dealing with vases and tripods, antique friezes and other architectural and decorative details.

 RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838–1886), American architect, was born in the parish of St James, Louisiana, on the 29th of September 1838, of a rich family, his mother being a granddaughter of the famous Dr Priestley, the English dissenting refugee and man of science. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1859, and going immediately to Paris to study architecture, entered the École des Beaux-Arts. The Civil War, which broke out in the United States while he was in the school, prevented his return to Louisiana, and stripped his family of their possessions, so that Richardson provided for his own support by working in the offices of practising architects in Paris, till the fall of 1865. Coming back, he established himself in New York, where he soon made his way into practice as an architect. In 1878 he moved to Boston, where he passed the remaining years of his life, designing there most of the work that made his reputation. He had married in 1867 Miss Julia Gorham Hayden of Boston; he died on the 27th of April 1886, not yet forty-eight years old.

Richardson’s career was short, and the number of his works was small indeed compared with the attention they attracted and the influence he left behind him. The most important and characteristic are: Trinity church and the so-called Brattle Square church, in Boston; the alterations in the State Capitol at Albany; the county buildings at Pittsburg; town halls at Albany, Springfield and North Easton; town libraries at Woburn, North Easton, Quincy, Burlington and Malden; Sever Hall and Austin Hall at Harvard University; the Chamber of Commerce at Cincinnati. Trinity church, the Pittsburg buildings and the Capitol at Albany were works of great importance, which have had a strong influence on men

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Declassified per Executive Order 13526, Section 3.3 NND Project Number: NND 63316. By: NWD Date: 2011 TOP SECRET – Sensitive :"I have the honor to report that, I received a visit this morning from M. Ho Chi-minh, 'President of the Republic of Viet-Nam', who confirmed the news published in the local press that the Fontainebleau negotiations between the Viet-Nam representatives and the French representatives have practically broken down and the Viet-Nam delegation will be returning to Indochina within the next few days....He said that he and his party aspired to Viet-Nam 'independence' in an 'Union Francaise'. He said that they would like to receive some 'help' from us, but did not specify what he meant by that.

 * "From the general fuzziness of his remarks, I gathered that he would like us to get into the game and he would be very pleased if he could use us in some way or other in his future negotiations with the French authorities.

 * "I expressed our interest in Indochina and the people of Indochina but made no commitments." [underlining added]

Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson, for one, was not altogether persuaded by Ho's representations. In December, 1946, he cabled a U.S. diplomat in Hanoi the following instructions:

 * "Assume you will see Ho in Hanoi and offer following summary our present thinking as guide.

 * " Least desirable eventuality would be establishment Communist-dominated, Moscow-oriented state Indochina in view DEPT, which most interested INFO strength non-communist elements Vietnam. Report fully, repeating or requesting DEPT repeat Paris....

 * "If Ho takes stand non-implementation promise by French of Cochinchina referendum relieves Vietnam responsibility compliance with agreements, you might if you consider advisable raise question whether he believes referendum after such

Rh

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 according to various versions of the legend, he either rebuilt a city on the site of Troy, or settled at Cyrene, or became the founder of Patavium.

ANTEQUERA (the ancient Anticaria), a town of southern Spain, in the province of Málaga; on the Bobadilla-Granada railway. Pop. (1900) 31,609. Antequera overlooks the fertile valley bounded on the S. by the Sierra de los Torcales, and on the N. by the river Guadalhorce. It occupies a commanding position, while the remains of its walls, and of a fine Moorish castle on a rock that overhangs the town, show how admirably its natural defences were supplemented by art. Besides several interesting churches and palaces, it contains a fine arch, erected in 1595 in honour of Philip II., and partly constructed of inscribed Roman masonry. In the eastern suburbs there is one of the largest grave-mounds in Spain, said to be of prehistoric date, and with subterranean chambers excavated to a depth of 65 ft. The Peña de los Enamorados, or “Lovers’ Peak,” is a conspicuous crag which owes its name to the romantic legend adapted by Robert Southey (1774–1843) in his Laila and Manuel. Woollen fabrics are manufactured, and the sugar industry established in 1890 employs several thousand hands; but the majority of the inhabitants are occupied by the trade in grain, fruit, wine and oil. Marble is quarried; and at El Torcal, 6 m. south, there is a very curious labyrinth of red marble rocks. Antequera was captured from the Moors in 1410, and became until 1492 one of the most important outposts of the Christian power in Spain.

ANTEROS, pope for some weeks at the end of the year 235. He died on the 3rd of January 236. His original epitaph was discovered in the Catacombs. ANTHELION (late Gr. , opposite the sun), the luminous ring or halo sometimes seen in Alpine or polar regions surrounding the shadow of the head of an observer cast upon a bank of cloud or mist. The halo diminishes in brightness from the centre outwards, and is probably due to the diffraction of light. Under favourable conditions four concentric rings may be seen round the shadow of the observer’s head, the outermost, which seldom appears, having an angular radius of 40°. ANTHEM, derived from the Gr. , through the Saxon antefn, a word which originally had the same meaning as (q.v.). It is now, however, generally restricted to a form of church music, particularly in the service of the Church of England, in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning and evening prayer, “in choirs and places where they sing.” It is just as usual in this place to have an ordinary hymn as an anthem, which is a more elaborate composition than the congregational hymns. Several anthems are included in the English coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Anthems may be written for solo voices only, for the full choir, or for both, and according to this distinction are called respectively Verse, Full, and Full with Verse. Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the motet of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches, both being written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin and development. The English school of musicians has from the first devoted its chief attention to this form, and scarcely a composer of any note can be named who has not written several good anthems. Tallis, Tye, Byrd, and Farrant in the 16th century; Orlando Gibbons, Blow, and Purcell in the 17th, and Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold in the 18th were famous composers of anthems, and in more recent times the names are too numerous to mention. ANTHEMION (from the Gr. , a flower), the conventional design of flower or leaf forms which was largely employed by the Greeks to decorate (1) the fronts of ante-fixae, (2) the upper portion of the stele or vertical tombstones, (3) the necking of the Ionic columns of the Erechtheum and its continuation as a decorative frieze on the walls of the same, and (4) the cymatium of a cornice. Though generally known as the honeysuckle ornament, from its resemblance to that flower, its origin will be found in the flower of the acanthus plant. ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who produced, under the patronage of Justinian ( 532), the original and daring plans for the church of St Sophia in Constantinople, which strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance. He was one of five brothers—the sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles—who were all more or less eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father’s profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital. It is related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno’s eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title  by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the ''Hist. de l’Acad. des Inscr.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his  (Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci''), 1839. In the course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point (1) all rays in whatever direction passing through another point, (2) a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola—the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix.

ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour of Dionysus, held annually for three days (11th–13th) in the month of Anthesterion (February–March). The object of the festival was to celebrate the maturing of the wine stored at the previous vintage, and the beginning of spring. On the first day, called Pithoigia (opening of the casks), libations were offered from the newly opened casks to the god of wine, all the household, including servants and slaves, joining in the festivities. The rooms and the drinking vessels in them were adorned with spring flowers, as were also the children over three years of age. The second day, named Choës (feast of beakers), was a time of merrymaking. The people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise of the mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off matches, the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly. Others poured libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On the part of the state this day was the occasion of a peculiarly solemn and secret ceremony in one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of the year was closed. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon basileus for the time, went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine god, in which she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called geraerae, chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on which the Pithoigia and Choës were celebrated were both regarded as  (nefasti) and  (“defiled”), necessitating expiatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up from the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect themselves from evil. But at least in private circles the festive character of the ceremonies predominated. The third day was named Chytri (feast of pots, from , a pot), a festival of the dead. Cooked pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of a

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Never was there a cleaner, brighter, more manly boy than Frank Allen, the hero of this series of boys' tales, and never was there a better crowd of lads to associate with than the students of the School. All boys will read these stories with deep interest. The rivalry between the towns along the river was of the keenest, and plots and counterplots to win the champions, at baseball, at football, at boat racing, at track athletics, and at ice hockey, were without number.

Any lad reading one volume of this series will surely want the others.

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH

Or The All Round Rivals of the School

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH ON THE DIAMOND

Or Winning Out by Pluck

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH ON THE GRIDIRON

Or The Struggle for the Silver Cup

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH ON THE ICE

Or Out for the Hockey Championship

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH IN TRACK ATHLETICS

Or A Long Run that Won

THE BOYS OF COLUMBIA HIGH IN WINTER SPORTS.

Or Stirring Doings on Skates and Iceboats

'''12mo. Illustrated. Handsomely bound in cloth, with cover design and wrappers in colors.'''


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These spirited tales convey in a realistic way the wonderful advances in land and sea locomotion. Stories like these are impressed upon the memory and their reading is productive only of good.

TOM SWIFT AND HIS MOTOR CYCLE Or Fun and Adventure on the Road

TOM SWIFT AND HIS MOTOR BOAT Or The Rivals of Lake Carlopa

TOM SWIFT AND HIS AIRSHIP Or The Stirring Cruise of the Red Cloud

TOM SWIFT AND HIS SUBMARINE BOAT Or Under the Ocean for Sunken Treasure

TOM SWIFT AND HIS ELECTRIC RUNABOUT Or The Speediest Car on the Road

TOM SWIFT AND HIS WIRELESS MESSAGE Or The Castaways of Earthquake Island

TOM SWIFT AMONG THE DIAMOND MAKERS Or The Secret of Phantom Mountain

TOM SWIFT IN THE CAVES OF ICE Or The Wreck of the Airship

TOM SWIFT AND HIS SKY RACER Or The Quickest Flight on Record

TOM SWIFT AND HIS ELECTRIC RIFLE Or Daring Adventures In Elephant Land

TOM SWIFT IN THE CITY OF GOLD Or Marvellous Adventures Underground

TOM SWIFT AND HIS AIR GLIDER Or Seeking the Platinum Treasure

TOM SWIFT IN CAPTIVITY Or A Daring Escape by Airship

TOM SWIFT AND HIS WIZARD CAMERA Or The Perils of Moving Picture Taking

TOM SWIFT AND HIS GREAT SEARCHLIGHT Or On the Border for Uncle Sam

TOM SWIFT AND HIS GIANT CANNON Or The Longest Shots on Record

TOM SWIFT AND HIS PHOTO TELEPHONE Or The Picture that Saved a Fortune

TOM SWIFT AND HIS AERIAL WARSHIP Or The Naval Terror of the Seas

TOM SWIFT AND HIS BIG TUNNEL Or The Hidden City of the Andes


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title: User:NotinREALITY


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Rh usual way by a straight sloping line reading 1.90 mm. in 1820 and 1.15 mm. in 1910. The corrected means smoothed by Hann's formula will be found plotted in figure 24.

This group of 5 Pinus silvestris sections was secured from logs at a little sawmill in the outskirts of Christiania. The logs cut in the neighborhood were in a large pile at the mill, and after the snow was brushed from them suitable ones were selected. Usually in such cases the largest and oldest were taken, but in this group the growth was exceptionally complacent. Accordingly, preference was given to those which showed variability in size of rings.

These sections were measured a month or two later. Cross-identification proved very unsatisfactory. Large variations were found in the 5 specimens. On this account it was felt that there might be several errors in this group which could perhaps have been removed by a larger number of trees for intercomparison. The centers of the 5 were respectively at 1848, 1824, 1797, 1807, and 1790. The average diameter was about 1 foot. On page 114 will be found the mean growth of these sections and the plot of the same will be found in figure 8. There seems no special change in growth with age, and the whole series was merely reduced to percentages by dividing each yearly value by 1.50 mm. These values, smoothed by Hann's formula, will be found plotted in figure 23.

These 12 sections, showing an average diameter of about 11 inches and an average age of 190 years, were obtained from the sawmill near Gefle, on the coast, 60 miles north of Stockholm. The mill, one of the largest in Sweden, was some 4 miles from the town, on the river coming


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10 on the pines of northern Arizona and the results all tabulated, when it occurred to the writer to compare the annual growth of Flagstaff trees directly with the 8 or 10 years of rainfall records taken at the United States Weather Bureau station recently established there. It was immediately seen that the accuracy with which tree-growth as shown in the rings may represent annual rainfall was far greater than anticipated. In a considerable number of cases, but especially in the dry climate groups, this has been found to be in the neighborhood of 70 per cent, which is raised substantially by applying a formula to allow for some degree of moisture conservation. At the present time, therefore, it is possible to lay a foundation for this study directly in the fact that the rings of trees form an approximate measure of the rainfall.

When the studies were carried to northern Europe an equal exactness in following the rainfall was not found, but a direct correlation was discovered between tree-growth and solar activity. Subsequent groups have been obtained from moist regions of the United States, and one is led to believe that this altered reaction is a question of precipitation and that it must be kept well in mind in any application of the methods hereafter described.

Since the beginning of this investigation, in 1901, assistance has been received from several sources which it is a pleasure to acknowledge at this time. Mr. T. A. Riordian, of Flagstaff, had 24 sections of the early Flagstaff group cut from the ends of logs and shipped to me. Mr. Willard P. Steel assisted in the measuring of the first 25 sections and a number of friends helped in the tabulation. Mr. C. H. Hinderer, of the United States Forest Service, at Prescott, Arizona, assisted in procuring the Prescott groups. Mr. H. S. Graves, Chief of the United States Forest Service, gave me several letters of introduction to foresters in Europe, by which I was greatly assisted in procuring the 9 European groups. I am glad to express my obligation to Dr. H. H. Jelstrup of Christiania, Professor Gunnar Schotte of Stockholm, Professor Dr. A. Schwappach of Eberswalde, and Professor A. Cieslar of Vienna, for especial aid in this connection. Assistance in completing the Vermont group was given by Mr. M. H. Douglass and others, and for aid in procuring the Oregon group I am glad to mention the excellent work of Mr. Robert H. Weitknecht, who was for a time connected with the United States Forest Service at Portland, Oregon. I am indebted to Mr. George A. Hume, of the Sanger Lumber Company, for important help in connection with the sequoia groups. In 1914 a grant of $200 was received from the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund for study upon the correlation between tree-growth and solar variation. In 1918 a fund of $260 was placed at my disposal by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. This was for the purpose of extending the sequoia ring-record from 2,200 years in length (the result of preceding collection) to 3,000 years. This material was collected in


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 Rh The general country rock is Kaibab limestone in horizontal layers forming the plateau, surmounted by lavas over extensive areas near the mountain. The bedrock is covered by a thin soil, largely formed in place. The soil over the limestones is porous, while that over the lavas has much clay and holds water. There is no swampy ground and therefore no conservation of moisture from year to year. Consequently variations in moisture-supply are quickly felt by the trees. The pine forest is remarkable for the absence of other kinds of vegetation. It covers all parts of the plateau from about 5,000 feet in elevation to about 9,000. At the lower edge of the pine forest a belt of cedars, smaller than the pines and round in shape and with dark-green, thick foliage, makes an attractive landscape.

Climate and seasonal conditions.—The climate follows naturally from the latitude and altitude and the distance from the ocean. In the winters there may be from 1 to 6 feet of snow on the ground at one time. The storms are of the characteristic temperate-zone cyclonic types, but on account of the altitude the preliminary south or east winds are rarely observed. Storms come from the Pacific coast and rain occurs about a day later than in southern California. Spring and autumn are the dry seasons, and the warmest time of year is usually in June, just before the summer rains begin. The summer rains occur in July and August and often come in "spells" that last a week or two, with thunderstorms in the afternoons or at night, followed by clear mornings. Unlike the winter storms, the summer rains are local and apt to be torrential in character, with heavy run-off.

Meteorological records in northern Arizona are necessarily meager, yet not so deficient as might be expected. The country was first settled in the "fifties," when gold was discovered in Arizona as well as in California, and lines of travel were established from Santa Fe westward across the plateau. The "blazings" on the pine trees marking the earlier roads are still to be distinguished. Soon after the opening of the country the government located military camps at various places, and from that time records of rainfall and temperature were kept. The record at Whipple Barracks, near Prescott, begun in 1867, has been continued at Prescott to the present time. It is the longest consecutive record in the pine forest and is therefore used below.

The extreme range in temperature observed in Flagstaff is from about 20° F. below zero to about 100° F. above. But the town is in a peculiarly sheltered position and exhibits much lower night extremes than the "mesas" 200 to 400 feet above it. I have observed a difference of 26° F. between the top and bottom of the hill west of town at sunrise on a winter morning. During the early years of the Lowell Observatory, which is located on the mesa 350 feet above the town, the lower minima were about 5° F. These figures show the conditions to which the trees are subjected.


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 14 The unobstructed topography of the plateau where the trees were collected is without doubt a very favorable feature. This leads to very similar conditions for the trees over many miles of country and doubtless greatly assisted in producing concordant tree-records. On the other hand, the San Francisco Peaks, 10 miles north of town, illustrate how meteorological data may vary in rugged localities. The west slopes of these mountains are exposed to the winter westerly storms; and have an immense snowfall. Springs abound and all favorable localities are taken up as ranches. East of the mountain, however, the land is dry and barren, and long distances intervene between watering-places.

In a very rugged country like that about Prescott similar differences between east and west mountain slopes must constantly occur. This is the reason of an early difficulty with the Prescott groups. Nearly 60 trees from various localities were measured before a group was found close enough to Prescott to be compared minutely with records of precipitation at that place.


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 {|
 * ||DOUGLASSPLATE 1
 * | A
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 1A.jpg
 * | B
 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 1B.jpg
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 * Climatic Cycles and Tree-Growth Plate 1B.jpg
 * }

A. Bottomless pits near Flagstaff, illustrating drainage through limestone.

B. Yellow pine forest of northern Arizona.


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24 process was recognized in 1911, the 19 sections of which samples had been preserved were compared and a complete cross-identification carried through. Thus the errors of identity in the former tabulation were found (published in 1914 ) and a complete new set of tables and averages made from the original measures. For a time it was thought that an error of one year might exist in the period of the great drought of 1820-23, but the various checks made upon identity lead easily to the belief that there are no errors of identity in this 500-year series.

Subgroups.—The trees of this group were divided into three subgroups consisting of (1) 6 trees from 3 miles south of Flagstaff; (2) 9 trees from 11 miles southwest of Flagstaff; (3) 10 trees from a point 1 mile west of the last subgroup. A comparison of the 3 subgroups clearly reveals the general character of the longer periods hereafter to be discussed and shows lesser variations to be common to all. Interesting differences, depending on the location in which the trees grew, have been mentioned.

First suggestion of cross-identification.—Other interesting facts came to light. It was especially noticeable that a given year of marked peculiarity could be identified in different trees with surprising ease. This is illustrated in plate 2, where shavings from 5 of the Flagstaff trees have been photographed; the photographs have been enlarged to such a scale that the distance from the large ring 1898 (indicated by the upper line of black crosses) to the small ring 1851 at the lower line. of crosses is equal in all cases. The other lines of crosses indicate the noticeably broad rings of 1868 and 1878. An examination of the photographs shows that a very characteristic feature is a group of narrow rings about the years 1879 to 1884. These can be identified in practically every tree and an examination of many stumps which were not measured showed that it was easy to pick them out wherever one chose. Striking verification of this was found in the case of a stump near town which had been cut about 20 years previously. By finding this group of rings, the writer was able to name the year when the tree was felled and the date was verified by the owner of the land. In the more recent work this same group shows conspicuously among Prescott trees, and in general 95 per cent of these trees have rings so characteristically marked that the identification of the same series of rings can be made with little doubt, whether at Flagstaff or at Prescott.


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The material upon which the discussion of climatic cycles and tree-growth is based has been derived from 230 trees collected in the 15 years from 1904 to 1918. The regions drawn upon comprise chiefly Arizona with its yellow pine, the Baltic drainage area of north Europe with its Scotch pine, and the high Sierras of California with their great sequoia. Two small collections come respectively from the northeast and northwest coast of the United States. The collections have been made in small, convenient groups as opportunity offered, to each of which a name has been given which will appear below.

The relative dimensions of the various groups may be expressed in terms of the number of measures of rings. In the first Flagstaff group there were about 10,000. In the second Flagstaff group of 1911 only a few hundred. The Prescott groups included about 4,000; the 9 European groups about 9,000. The Vermont group had between 2,500 and 3,000, and the Oregon group about the same. The first collection of sequoias in 1915 had about 25,000 measures and the collection in 1918 embraced about 22,000.

Throughout the whole study it was desired to get as long records as possible and old trees were therefore selected. In nearly every case this meant large trees also. Apart from this no special selection of trees was made at any time, save only in the Christiania group, in which so many of the logs showed a "complacent" habit, with long successions of equal rings rather large in size, that some effort was there made to find the logs which showed variations in ring-size. A complacent ring-record without doubt means that the environment of the trees was well adapted for its best development.

The plan of using tree-rings for the general purpose of a check on astronomical and meteorological phenomena was first formulated in 1901. The first measurements were made in January 1904, on a huge log in the yards of the Arizona Lumber and Timber Company at Flagstaff. This method of measuring was extremely inconvenient and the succeeding 5 sections were cut from logs and sent to town for more careful examination. Hence the exact location of these first 6 was never visited. The remaining 19 trees were selected in 1906 by myself in the forest while the logs were yet lying near their stumps, and I was able to mark on each section the points of the compass and otherwise describe the location. The measurements were completed in 1907 and published in the Monthly Weather Review of June 1909. They had not been subjected to cross-identification and, when the value of this 23


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 Dec. 10, 1833.]

, which is also Theophorus, to the Church of the, and our , that is in Philadelphia of Asia, that hath obtained mercy, and remaineth stedfast in godly concord, and exulteth continually in the Passion of our ; and hath in His Resurrection been richly furnished with all Mercy. Even this Church do I salute in the blood of, which is our everlasting and abiding joy; especially if it be in Unity with the Bishop and his Fellow-Presbyters and Deacons, appointed after the mind of ; whom He hath according to His own Will established in all confidence, by His.

I. This your Bishop, I well know, hath obtained his public Ministry not of himself, or by the means of men, neither out of vain-glory, but in the Love of the, and our. His moderation I do greatly admire; as he by silence doth more prevail, than others with their idle disputations; for he is exactly fitted to the commandments, even as a harp to its strings. Wherefore my soul esteemeth his mind toward most happy; knowing it to be perfect in all virtue; as also his unmoved and dispassionate temper, according to the moderation of the Living.

II. Do ye then, being children of light and truth, avoid division and corrupt doctrines; but where your shepherd is, thither follow ye as sheep. For there be many wolves, held worthy to be trusted, who captivate by corrupt pleasure those that are running a godly course; but in your Unity they shall have no place.

III. Abstain from the evil herbs, that dresseth not; forasmuch as they are not the  planting. I say not this because I have found you divided, but rather sifted


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 from evil. For all that are of, and , these are with the Bishop; and all that shall repent and turn to the Unity of the Church, these also shall be of , that they may live after the example of. Be not deceived, Brethren; whosoever followeth one that createth schism, he inheriteth not the kingdom of ; whosoever walketh by another man's opinion, he consenteth not to the Passion of.

IV. Endeavour therefore to use one and the same Eucharist; for there is but one Body of our ; and one Cup; that His Blood may make us one. There is but one Altar; also there is one Bishop, together with the Presbytery and Deacons, my fellow-servants; that so whatsoever ye do, ye may do all according to the will of.

V. My brethren, I abound in love toward you even to overflowing, and in my exceeding joy I fortify you; and yet not I, but ; for whom though I am in bonds, I have therefore the more fear, inasmuch as I am not yet made perfect. But your prayer to shall make me perfect; that I may obtain that portion with which I was in mercy blessed; flying for refuge, to the Gospel as the Blood of, and to the Apostles as to the Presbytery of the Church. Let us love the Prophets also, for that they have taught us, both to look with hope to the Gospel, and to await it; as they also believed in it and were saved, being in the Unity of, holy men, worthy to be loved and had in wonder; who have received testimony from , and have been reckoned in the Gospel of our common hope.

VI. Now should any one expound Judaism unto you, hearken not unto him; for it is better to hear Christianity from a man that hath circumcision, than Judaism from one that is uncircumcised. But if they speak, neither one of them, concerning, they are unto me but as monuments and sepulchres of the dead, whereon is nothing written but the names of men. Fly therefore from the evil arts and snares of the Prince of this world; lest at any time, being oppressed by his devices, ye grow weak in love. But join all of you together with an undivided heart. I thank my that I enjoy a good conscience toward you; and that no one can profess either privately or in public, that I have been burdensome to him in much or little; and I pray all, among whom I have spoken, not to entertain such profession as a testimony against me.


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This new series by the author of the "Bobbsey Twins" Books will be eagerly welcomed by the little folks from about five to ten years of age. Their eyes will fairly dance with delight at the lively doings of inquisitive little Bunny Brown and his cunning, trustful sister Sue.

BUNNY BROWN AND HIS SISTER SUE Bunny was a lively little boy, very inquisitive. When he did anything, Sue followed his leadership. They had many adventures, some comical in the extreme.

BUNNY BROWN AND HIS SISTER SUE ON GRANDPA'S FARM How the youngsters journeyed to the farm in an auto, and what good times followed, is realistically told.

BUNNY BROWN AND HIS SISTER SUE PLAYING CIRCUS First the children gave a little affair, but when they obtained an old army tent the show was truly grand.

BUNNY BROWN AND HIS SISTER SUE AT CAMP REST-A-WHILE The family go into camp on the edge of a beautiful lake, and Bunny and his sister have more good times and some adventures.

BUNNY BROWN AND HIS SISTER SUE AT AUNT LU'S CITY HOME The city proved a wonderful place to the little folks. They took in all the sights and helped a colored girl who had run away from home.


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 VII. For, though some would have deceived me according to the flesh, yet the spirit is not deceived, being of ; for it knoweth whence it cometh and whither it goeth, and reproveth all the secrets of the heart. I cried out while I tarried with you, spake with a loud voice; "Give heed to the Bishop, to the Presbytery, and the Deacons." Now some suspected, that I spake things, as knowing beforehand that among them was a spirit of division. But He is my witness. He for whom I am in bonds, that I knew it not from any living man; but the Spirit proclaimed, saying, "Keep your body as the Temple of ; love Unity; avoid divisions; be ye followers of, even as He is a follower of His ."

VIII. Wherefore I did my part, as a man fitted to the preserving of unity. For where is division and wrath, there dwelleth not. The therefore forgiveth all, when they repent, if in repentance they turn to godly Unity and the Council of the Bishop. I have faith in the grace of, that He will loose you from every bond; and I exhort you to do nothing with contention, but according to the instruction of. And this, I say; because I heard some affirm, that I have not faith in the Gospel, unless I find it written in the Records; and when I told them. It is so written; they answered, Nay, it doth not so appear. But my records are. My uncorrupted records are His cross and death and resurrection, and the faith which is by Him; in the which I desire to be justified through your prayers.

IX. The Priests indeed are good; but far more excellent is the High-Priest, who hath received charge of the Holy of Holies; who hath alone received charge of the hidden things of. He is the door of the, through which enter in Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the Prophets, and the Apostles, and the Church. All these things tend to godly unity; but the Gospel hath an especial gift, namely, the presence of our, with His Passion and Resurrection. For the beloved Prophets brought tidings of Him; but the Gospel is the fulfillment of Immortality. All things are good together, if ye have faith with love.

X. Now as I am told that, through your prayer, and the hearts ye bear in, the Church which is in Antioch, of


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 Syria, is in peace, it is fitting for you, as a Church of God, to elect a Deacon, who shall there exercise the office of God's ambassador; that so you may take part in their joy, when they are met together, and may glorify the name of. Blessed in is he, who shall be thought worthy of such a ministry; and ye also shall obtain glory. Now if ye be willing, it is not impossible to do this for the name of ; seeing that all the neighbouring Churches sent, some Bishops, some Priests and Deacons.

XI. Touching Philo, the Deacon from Cilicia, a man of good report, who serveth me even now in the word of, together with Rheus Agathopus, one of the elect, who followeth me from Syria, having taken leave of life; these also do bear testimony unto you. And I thank for your sakes, that ye received them, even as the  will receive you. But for those who shewed them dishonour, may they be redeemed through the grace of. The brethren who are in Troas salute you with all love; whence also I write unto you by the hand of Burrhus, who was sent with me by the Ephesians and Smyrnæans for respect's sake. Our will honour them, on whom they hope in body and soul, in faith, in love, in concord. Fare ye well in, our common Hope.


text: Tracts for the Times/Record X

title: Tracts for the Times/Record X


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 Dec. 11, 1833.]

Church was delivered over to the Apostles, and especially to James, the brother; who was surnamed the Just, by one consent, from the  time, even to our own. James was the name of many besides him; but this man was holy even from his mother's womb. He drank no wine, nor strong drink; neither did he eat any living thing; the razor came not on his head; he anointed not his body with oil, nor indulged in the luxury of the bath. He alone had leave to enter into the Holy place; his garment being not of woollen stuff, but of linen. So he used to go alone into the Temple, and was found continually kneeling on his knees, and praying for the forgiveness of the people; insomuch that his knees became hard, even as a camel's knees, because he was continually kneeling, worshipping, and praying for the forgiveness of the people. Wherefore, by reason of his exceeding righteousness, he was called Dicæus and Oblias; which mean, being interpreted, the Just Man, and the Defence of the People, as the prophets declare concerning him.

It came to pass that certain of the seven sects of the people enquired of him. How was the door. And he said, That this was the ; whence some believed that  was the. Now the sects, whereunto the aforementioned persons belonged, believed neither in the Resurrection, nor that should come hereafter to render to every man according to his works. But all who believe, believed through


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 James. So when many of the Rulers also believed, there arose a disturbance of the Jews, and Scribes, and Pharisees, saying; "There is danger, lest all the people look to as the ." And when they were come together, they said unto James; "We pray thee, stop this people; for they have been deceived with regard to, as if He indeed were the . We pray thee, therefore, persuade all people concerning , when they are come together on the day of the Passover. And this, we pray, because that all will be persuaded of thee; inasmuch as we and all the people bear witness to thee, that thou art a Just Man, and no respecter of persons. Do thou then persuade the multitude not to be deceived concerning ; for also we and all the people are readily persuaded of thee. This do therefore; stand upon the pinnacle of the Temple, that thou mayst be conspicuous from on high, and that thy words may be well heard by all the people. For by reason of the Passover all the tribes are assembled, together with the Gentiles also." So the aforementioned Scribes and Pharisees set James upon the pinnacle of the Temple, and cried unto him, and said; "Thou just man, of whom we ought all to be persuaded, the people is deceived and followeth after which was crucified; do thou therefore declare unto us, how  is the door." And he answered with a loud voice, and said; "Why ask ye me concerning, the Son of Man?—Behold, He sitteth on the right hand of Great Power, and He shall come hereafter upon the clouds of Heaven." And when many were fully convinced and believed on the testimony of James, and cried, Hosanna to the Son of David! Then came again those same Scribes and Pharisees, and said among themselves; "We have done ill, in that we have afforded such testimony to the name of Jesus. Come, let us go up, and cast him down, that the people may be afraid, and not believe his words." So they cried aloud, saying; "Oh! Oh! The Just One also hath been deceived!" And they fulfilled the word which is written in the book of Esaias; Let us away with the Just One; because he is displeasing unto us; wherefore they shall eat of the fruits of their deeds. Then went they up and cast down the Just One, and said one to another; "Let us stone James the Just." And they began to cast stones at him, because that after he was cast down, he died not, but turned and fell upon his knees, saying; "O, forgive them; they know


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 not what they do." But while they were thus casting stones at him, one of the Priests, of the sons of Rechab, the son of Rechabeim, who have the witness of Jeremy the prophet, cried out, saying; "Cease ye; what are ye doing? Behold this Just Man prayeth for you." And one of them, of the company of Fullers, took the board with which he was wont to press the clothes, and struck therewith the head of the Just One; and thus James bore witness to the truth, even to martyrdom. And they buried him in that place; and his monument doth still remain, hard by the Temple. This man became a true witness and martyr, both to Jews and Gentiles, that is the Christ.

And straightway Vespasian besieged the city of the Jews, and carried them away captive.

Hence we learn that even the holiest life will not shield good men from the envy and malice of those who hate their and ; so that we must depend upon  alone, not upon an arm of flesh. The world admires true Christians for a while, and makes much of them; and then on a sudden turns round, and persecutes them. But they will calmly go through evil report and good report, for the name and cause of ; and be surprised neither when flattered nor evil intreated by sinners. They will make use of the good opinion the world has of them, while it lasts; but will fear to shrink ever so little from a bold Christian profession, in order to preserve it to them.


text: Tracts for the Times/Record XI

title: Tracts for the Times/Record XI


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Author:James the Just

Traditionally attributed to James

 * James, part of the Bible
 * Protevangelion of James

Works about James

 * Account of the Martyrdom of James, by Eusebius of Caesarea
 * James, the brother of our Lord by Jerome

title: Author:James the Just